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THE 


CYCLOPADIA; 


OR, 


dntversal Dictionary 


OF 


ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE. 


VOL. XIV. 


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THE 


ee CL OPA DIA: 


OR, 


UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY 


OF 


Arts, Sciences, and Literature, 


BY 


ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc. 


WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF 


EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN. 


ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, 


BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. 


Sunes: acne 
IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. 
VOL. XIV. 


eR 


LONDON: 
Printed ror LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Parernoster-Row, 


F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL, 
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH, 
CADELL AND DAVIES, S.- BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY 
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN 
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, RK. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO., 
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING. 


1819. 


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CLOCLOPUE DT 2: 


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OR, A NEW 


UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY 


OF 


ARTS 


and SCIENCES. 


FE xv 


. is applied, in the Schools, in various 
fenfes. 

Sometimes it fignifies a thing’s not belonging to the ef- 
fence of another; in which fenfe the efficient caufe and 
the end, or fcope of a thing, are faid to be extrinfic, or 
extrinfic caufes. 

Sometimes it implies a thing not being contained within 
the capacity of another. In which fenfe thofe caufes are 
faid to be intrinfic, which introduce fomething into a fub- 
je&t from without: as when fire introduces heat, &c. 

‘Sometimes it denotes a thing added, or applied to another. 
Thus, accidents and adherencies are faid to be extrinfic to 
the fubjeét; and thus vifion is extrinfic to the object feen. 

“Extrinsic Argument, Service. See the fubftantives. 

EXTUBERANTIA, from extubero, to fwell out, in 
Surgery, tumours fituated under the fkin. 

EXUBERANCE, compounded of ex and uber, plen- 
tiful, of uber, udder, in Rhetoric, a redundancy. See Re- 
DUNDANCE, and PLreonasm. 

EXUCONTIANI, a branch of Arian heretics. 
Exovcontit. 

EXVERRA, in Antiquity, a kind of brufh ufed in 
cleanfing houfes, out of which a dead perfon had been 
carried. — 

EXULCERATIO, from exulcero, to caufe ulcers, in 
Surgery, an incipient ulceration ; an excoriation, - 

EXUMA, in Geography, one of the Bahama iflands, 
fituated on the eaft of the Great Bank, between Stocking 
ifles on the S.W. and Long ifle on the E. ; about 25 miles 
long and three broad. Although this ifland is almoit un- 
inhabited, it is one of the beft of the Bahamas, on account 
of the fertility of its foil, and the excellence of its anchor- 
ing ground, in the found to which it gives name. N. lat. 
24° 20'. W. long. 74° 30’, 

Vou. XIV. 


See 


Strahan and Prefton, 
New-fect Squares Londom, 


bie gs 8 


Exuma Sound, a large channel among the Bahama 
iflands, extending from N.W. to S.E., between Cat ifland 
or Guanabani to the eaft, and a range of {mall iflands and 
rocks to the weft and fouth-weit: the entrance is fouth of 
the ifland of Eleuthera. In this found the whole Britifh 
navy might ride in fafety. 

EXUMBILICATIO, from ex, out of, and umbilicus, 
the navel, in Surgery, a {welling in the fituation of the 
navel, 

EXUPERY, St. in Geography, a town of France, in 
the department of the Correze; fix miles S.E. of Uffel. 

EXUSTION, of ex, and uro, J burn, the a& of burn- 
ing with fire; ufed in fome operations by furgeons. See 
Burn. : 

EXUVIA, formed from exuere, to put off, to diveft, in 
Phyfiology, tranfient parts of certain animals, which they 
put off, or lay down, and affume new ones. 

Such, efpecially, are the fkins or floughs of ferpents, 
fhells of lobiters, and the like; which are annually changed, 
and renewed in the f{pring. 

The outer integument of the body, which in man and 
other large animals is fo durably fixed on the body, is in 
many of the animals of the reptile kind much more loofely 
fixed, and is changeable feveral times during the period of 
their lives. ‘The ferpent kind all fhift their fkins feveral 
times in their lives, and the water-newt has been lately ob- 
ferved to do the fame ; but no creature in the world docs 
it fo often as the caterpillar, almoft every fpecies of theie 
infe&s throwing off their old fkin once in ten or twelve days, 
or lefs ; and this in fuch amanner as is extreme ly worthy of 
an attentive obfervation. Malpighi obferved that the com- 
mon filk-worm changed its {kin four times during its conti- 
nuance in that ftate; the firit of thefe changes happening 
at eleven or twelve days from its appearance from the egg, 

and 


EYC 


and the others at the diftance of five or fix days each; and 
probably the reft of the caterpillar kind obferve nearly the 
fame periods. 

Neither is this change of the fin confined to the few 
creatures we have mentioned ; but among the whole infect 
clafs, the moft numerous of that of all animated beings we 
know, there is fcarcely one {pecies, every individual of which 
does not throw off its fin, once at leaft, before it arrives 
at its full growth. The term changing the {kin is fearcely 
expreflive enough for this operation in the caterpillar kinds; 
for the creature throws off the external covering of every 
the minuteft part and organ of its body, and the fkins they 
thus depofit havg fo much the appearance of a complete 
infe&t, that they are very often miftaken for fuch, prefenting 
us with every thing that we fee in the external appearance 
of the living animal. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol. i. part 1, 
ps 225: 

Exuvia, in Agriculture, the caft-off parts of animals or 
their coverings, and likewife the fhells and other marine 
produGions which are met with in the bowels of the earth,: 
when they have been depofited for a vaft length of time, 
probably from once living creatures. “lhefe are fometimes 
called Exrranrous Foffls, but more commonly Re- 
L1QuiA, which fee. They are of confiderable variety, and 
differ greatly in their appearances. All fubftances of this 
nature are capable of much ufe as manures, where they can 
be procured in {ufficient abundance, efpecially upon all the 
heavier and more ftiff defcriptions of foil, as they fupply 
the calcareous principle in fome degree, while they have 
the effet of rendering them more light and open. 

EY, in our Old Writers, the fame with infula, an ifland, 
from which comes eye?, a {mall ifland or iflet, vulgarly called 
eyght. Hence the names of places ending with ey denote 
them to-be iflands, as Sheppey, &c. 

EYACH, in Geography, a river of Germany, in Wur- 


temberg, which rifes about 4 miles S. of Ebingen, and runs. 


into the Neckar, three miles above Rothenburg. 
EYASIORD, a bay onthe N. coaft of Iceland. N.. 
lat. 65° sol. 
EYBACH, a town of Germany, in the territory of 
Nuremberg; five miles S. of Nuremberg. 


EYBELSTADT, a town of Germany, in the prin-. 


ipality of Wurzburg ;. three miles $.S.E. of Wurzburg. 
EYBENS,. a town of France, in the department of the 
Vere; three miles S. of Grenoble. 


EYBENSCHITZ, or Ewanics, a town of Moravia,. 


in the circle of Zuaym, formerly famous for an affemblage 
of very numerous religious fe&s. The Huffites and Lu- 


therans worfhipped in the fame church; the Calvinilts had: 


two churches; the Jews had a fynagogue; befides which 
there were Anabaptifts, Quakers, Holy Brethren of 
Switzerland, Photinians, &c. The inhabitants at prefent 
are chiefly Roman Catholics and Jews; 20 miles N.E. of 
Znaym. N. lat. 49° 8'. E. long. 16° 17’. 

EYBENSTOCH, or Eysensrapr, a town of Ger- 
many, in the circle of Erzgeburg; 20 miles S.S.W. of 
€hemnitz.. N. lat. 50° 25’. E. long. 12° 35'. 

EYCHENFLIES, a town of Germany, in the princi- 
pality of Wurzburg ;. 12 miles S. of Gemunden. 

EYCK, Huserr Van, in Biography, a painter, born 
at Maafeyk in 1366.. He is regarded as the founder of 
the Flemith {chool of painting, the Giotto of Flanders; and 
exhibited, for that early period of act, great genius and {kill. 
In concert with his brother Jehn, he was celebrated for 
many extraordinary and curious works, executed in oil, 
after the latter had made his difcovery of that mode of 
painting. 

% 


EY € 


He painted well alfo in diftemper, but gave that up after 
he adopted the other, One work of his, painted in con- 
conjunction with John, was preferved in a chapel of ‘the 
cathedral of Ghent. Sir Jofhua Reynolds faw it there, 
and fays of it, (fee his Journey to Flanders, ): “it repre- 
fents the adoration of the lamb taken from the Apocalypfez 
it contains a great number of figures in a hard manner, but 
there is great charaGer of truth and nature.in the heads, and 
the landfcape is well coloured.”” 

It is now among the fpoils of the French in. the gallery 
of the Louvre. While it was in Ghent, (at leaft for a time 
after being wrought, it was held in fuch eftimation as to 
be fhut up from public view, except on feltivals; and at 
other times was only fhewn to ambafladors or princes them- 
felves who defired to fee it. 

Philip I. of Spain withed to purchafe it; but that not 
being practicable, he employed Michael Coxis to copy 
it, who {pent two whole years about it, and received four 
thoufand florins for his labour from the king, who placed it 
in the Efcurial. This artift died in 1426; aged 60. 

Eyck, Joun Van, younger brother to Hubert, was born 
at Maafeyk in 1370, and fludied with his brother, though 
in the end he excelled him. ‘ 

‘To him the world is indebted for the firft ufe of oil im 
painting, which he difcovered in the year 14.0. 

Painters before this wrought their works in diftem- 
per, (fee Distemper,) and then to fecure them from the 
action of air and dampnefs, they were accuftomed to yarnifh 
them ; with what compofition it does not appear. WVafan 
(Part 2, page 213, ed. 1681,) relates that Giovanni di 
Bruggia (fo he calls him,) ‘“ had painted a pi€ture in the 
ufual way, and having varnifhed’ it, fet it to dry in the 
fun’s rays, as was cuftomary; but either from the wood 
being ill feafoned and ill put together, or from the extreme’ 
violence of the heat, the piéture was cracked and quite 
fpoiled.. He therefore deliberated how he fhould in future 
beft prevent accidents of this nature happening to his works, 
and endeavoured to make a varnifh which would dry in* 
the fhade, without the neceffity of expofing it to the fun. 

«¢ After many experiments, he found at latt that oil of lin- 
feed and of nuts, were more ficcative than any others he had’ 
tried. Thefe, when boiled with other ingredients, made 
the varnifh fo much wifhed for by him and other painters.. 
He afterwards difcovered that mixing thefe oils with his 
colours gave them a hardnefs, and in drying not only equal- 
led the water colour, but gave them more brilliancy and 
force: and that, without the neceffity of varnifhing aftere 
wards :. and he was furprifed to find alfo, that they united 
far better in oil than in water.”? 

The fame of his difcovery foon fpread over Flanders and 
into Italy, and when he grew old, but not till then, he im- 
parted his fecret to feveral painters, both Flemifh and. 
Italian. And.it muft be confeffed the art of painting is 
very highly indebted to him for this foundation of the- 
wonderful fuccefs with which fucceedingages have profited 
by this very ufeful difcovery. pemee 

As a painter he poflefled very good talents, confidering 
the early period of the art. He copied his heads generally 
from nature ; his figures are feldom well compofed or drawn... 
But his power of producing richnefs of politive colours is 
furprifing, and their durability no lefs fo. He paid great 
attention. evidently to nature,. but. faw her in an inferior” 
flyle. He laboured his pictures very highly, porkeiedy 
in the ornaments which he beftowed with a lavifh-hand, 
but with all the Gothic talte of the time and country in 
which. he lived. In the gallery of the Louvre is a 
picture of the §* Divine Being,” as he chofe to call it, re-. 

prefeated. 


. 


EYE 


prefented by an aged man with a long beard, crowned with 
the pope’s tiara, feated in a chair with golden dircles of 
Latin inferiptions round his head, but without the leaft 
dignity of eharaGer, or evident action or intention. It is the 
very bathos of the art. At the earl of Pembroke’s, at 
Wilton Houfe, is a fmall pi&ure which does him more 
credit. It reprefents the nativity of our Saviour, with the, 
adoration of the fhepherds, and the compolition confifts of 
four figures, befides the Saviour and four angels, and has in 
the back ground the anomaly of the angels at the fame 
time appearing to the fhepherds. It is in oil, and the 
colours are moft of them very pure, except thofe of the 
flefh. The garment of Jofeph is very rich, being glazed 
(fee Grazine, in Painsing,) thick with red lake, which 
is as frefh as if it were new. Almoft all the draperies are 
fo glazed with different colours, and are {ill very clear, 
except the virgia’s, which, inficad of maintaining its blue 
colour, is become a blackifh green. ‘There is a want of har- 
mony in the work, but it is more the effe& of bad arrange- 
ment. of the colours than the tones of them. The lory 
furrounding the heads of the virgin and child is of gold. 
We have been the more particular in flating thefe circum- 
ftances of this picture, becaufe our readers will naturally 
be curious to know how far the original inventor of oil 
painting fweeeeded in his procefs, and they will fee by 
this account that he went very far indeed, in what relates to 
the perfediion of the vehicle he ufed, which, if he had 
happily been able to employ as well as he underitood, the 
world would not have feen many better painters. He lived 
to practife his difcovery for 31 years, dying in 1441, at the 
advanced age of 71. F 

EYDY ENGLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, 
in Vifiapour; 14 miles S. of Galgala. 

EYE, in Anatomy and Phyficlogy, the organ of vifion. 
The eye-ball is the immediate agent in refracting the 
rays of light, and in colle&ting them into one point, fo as to 
form an image of the object from which they are refleéted. 
Fer this purpofe we find in it a feries of perfectly tranfparent 
parts, which execute the various refractions 3 a nervous pulp, 
on which the rays of light thus refra&ted make an impreffion 
to be conveyed to the fenforium by the optic nerve; and 
sertain membranous opayne coverings, containing the above- 
mentioned parts, and fupporting them in their relative fitua- 
tions. The vifual organ, fimple, when thus confidered, be- 
comes much more complicated, if we include in our de“ nition 
all the apparatus added for the purpofes of proteétion or 
affiftance. The mufcles which move the globe in various 
direétions, the eye-lids, which cover and protect it in front, 
and the parts which fecrete the tears, and convey them into 
the cavity of the noftril, are all fo intimately conne&ted in 
fitvation and function with the globe, that a regard to na- 
tural arrangement leads us to include them in the fame arti- 


cle; in which we hall confider, firft, the anatomy of the 


whole apparatus, and afterwards the phyfiology of vifion. 

The eyes are two in number, exactly fymmetrical, placed 
in two bony cavities, called orbits, which are fituated under 
the forehead, and feparated from each other by the nofe, 
The detailed defcription of the orbits will be found under 
the article Crantum. The figure of thete cavities is that 
of a pyratnid with four unequal fides, directed obliquely 
forwards, and outwards from the point to the bafe. The 
fize varies but little in different individuals, and is ufually 
independent of general flature. It exceeds confiderably 
that of the globe, which is fupported by much fat and other 
foft parts, fo that it can be moved with great quicknefs and 
facility in every direGtion. 

The globe of the eye is Situated in the anterior part of the 


EYE 


orbit, nearer to the internal than the external fide of the 
cavity, and is more or lefs prominent in different individuals. 
The bafe of the orbit being truncated obliquely, the eye 
projects beyond its edge on the external fide, while it appears 
more deeply buried towards the nofe. It is fupported in 
front by the moveable eye-lids; on the other fides by its 
mufcles, which, as well the nerves and blood-veffels of the 
organ, are enveloped ina foft fat, filling the reft of the orbit, 
and keeping the eye on a level with the face. In the ema- 
ciation confequent on age or difeafe, this fat is abforbed, 
the eye lofes its prominent fituation, and finks much deeper 
in the orbit ; hence the angular edges of the bony cavity 
are rendered more evident, and the charaéter of the face 
undergoes a marked alteration. 

The fize of the eye varies but little in different fubjeGis ; 
its apparent varieties depending in great meafure on the 
larger or fmaller opening formed by the eye-lids, It is 
{maller in the female than in the male, and proportionally 
larger in the infant than in the adult. The fexual and na- 
tional differences in the external proportions of the eye will 
be more minutely confidered in the explanation of the plates, . 
which follows the anatomical defcription. 

The figure of the eye reprefents two portions of diftin® 
fpheres, of different diameters, united towards the front. 
The feétion of the {maller {phere is tranfparent, and occu- 
pies about the anterior fifth of the globe, projeGting from the 
larger {phere, which is opaque. By this difpofition, the 
axis of the eye exceeds its tran{verfe diameter in a {mall ratio, 
ot which we fhall have occafion to {peak more minutely 
hereafter. 

The axes of the globe and the orbit are not the fame; 
that of the latter is directed obliquely outwards, fo that, if 
prolonged behind the apex of the pyramid, it would meet its 
fellow within the cranium: the axes of the two eyes are 
parallel, and point directly forwards. The ftrong cylindri- 
cal chord, made up of the optic nerve and its firm inveftmente, 
enters the orbit in the direction of tlie axis of the latter, and 
is attached towards the inner fide of the pofterior furface of 
the globe. 

The globe or ball of the eye is compofed of corcentric 
membranous coats or tunics, invefting tranfparent parts of 
different denfities, ufually called Aumours. The external 
covering, which gives the figure to the eye, is firm and 
thick, formed of two diitin@ portions ; the anterior, which 
is tranfparent, is called the cornea ; the pofterior, opaque and 
white, the /c/erotica. A certain portion of the front of the 
globe is covered by a membrane, which conneéts the bail to 
the lids, and is called the conjun@iva. The inner furface of 
the latter is lined by a thin opaque membrane, of delicate 
ftru€ture, covered on both fides by a dark coloured pigment, 
and called the choroides : this is plaited on the inner furface 
of its anterior part into projecting folds, the ciliary proceffes, 
and it is connected by its front edge with another membrane, 


. the iris, which floats tranfverfely at a fmall diftance from 


the cornea, and has a circular opening about its middle, 
termed the pupi/. The retina, a foft tranfparent expantion, 
commencing from the optic nerve, and nearly equalling the 
choroides in extent, lines the inner furface of that membrane. 
This embraces by its whole internal furfacé a pellucid body, 
occupying the greateft portion of the globe, and named the 
vitreous humour, In front of this, and partly imbedded in 
it, is placed the chry/lalline lens or humour, another tran{parent 
body, nearly {pherical in fhape, and of greater comparative 
denfity. The {pace left between the latter and the cornea, 
is divided partially by the iris, and filled with a clear watery 
fluid, named the agucous humour. The rays of light pafs 
through the tranfparent cornea, the aqueeus humour, the 

B2 openiag 


Biv ee 


opening in the iris or pupil; the chryftalline lens, and vitreous 
humour, undergoing various refractions in their paffage, and 
are finally colle&ted fo as to form an image on fome part of 
the concave furface of the retina, from which the impreffion 
is conveyed to the ferforium. 
The pee or membranes of the eye. — The /elerotic coat (die 
tffe haut, Germ. ) extends from the entrance of the optic 
nerve to the curnea, covering about four-fifths of tne globe, 
and truncated in front for the reception of the cornea. The 
external furface is covered behind and in the middle by the 
mufeles of the eye and the furrounding fat, and in front by 
the conjunstiva. The inner furface, connected with the 
choroid by a delicate cellular fubitance, by blood-veffels and 
nerves, is ufually tinged of a dufky colour by the pigment of 
that membrane ; an effe& produced after death by tranfuda- 
tion, fince the ftain is not vifible in an eye examined in its 
moft recent ftate. ‘his furface is pierced by numerous 
{mall lobes, ‘particularly about the entrance of the optic 
nerve, apd near the origin of the cornea, by which arteries 
enter dire@ly into the choroid coat; the openings are lefs 
numerous towards the middle, and give paflage to veins, 
and to many fmall nerves which run through the {clerotica 
obliquely, for two or three lines, and lie in fuperficial fur- 
rows ofits inner furface in their way to the ciliary circle and 
iris. he fclerotica prefents in front an aperture nearly 
circular, of which the tranfverfe is rather longer than the 
perpendicular diameter. The inner edge of this opening 
is bevelled off, and the outer paffes over the oppofite floping 
edge of the cornea, which is thus fet in the iclerotica. A 
{mall round opening, appearing on the infide as a circular 
{pot, pierced by numerous {mall holes, is placed nearly in 
the centre of the pofterior and thickeft portion of the tunic, 
and tranfmits the medullary part of the optic nerve. This 
is equi-diftant from the upper and lower parts, but nearer‘ to 
the inner or nafal, than to the outer or temporal fides of the 
globe. It grows gradually {maller from its commencement 
at the outer, to its termination on the inner furface of the 
{clerotica, the nerve diminifhing in diameter in the fame pro- 
portion in this part of its courfe. ; mut 
The {clerotica is of a white colour. It is nearly a line in 
thicknefs at the back of the globe, but becomes confiderably 
thinner at the front. Its thinneft part is near the infertion 
of the tendons of the re&ti, which is rather beyond the middle. 
Next to the cornea it becomes again flightly thicker. Its 
ftruGture is firm and denfe, confilting of itrata of fibres run- 
ning parallel to and decuffating each other in every direction, 
fo as to complete a {trong fibrous membrane, not feparable 
into layers, at leaft not in the adult, even after very long 
maceration. In the foetus it may be divided into two lamine 
throughout its whole extent, the union between them not 
being very firm. In this inftance the external layer appears 
diftin@, and totally independent of the fheath of the optic 
nerve. The thin internal layer is manifeftly continued from 
the fine membrane immediately invefting the nerve. The 
difpute, whether the firm fheath of the optic nerve derived 
from the dura mater expands as it reaches the bulb, and 
conftitutes the {clerotica, is a point of little moment. The 
_Aheath and the fclerotica are evidently united moft intimately, 
if the membrane is not continuous. Zinn defcribes the 
outer layer of the vagina of the optic nerve as colleéing, 
before it arrives at the fclerotica, into numerous denfe, fhin- 
ing, firm fibres, which are inferted into the pofterior, thick, 
prominent edge of that tunic, where it is pierced by the 
medullary part of the nerve. The inner layer, thicker than 
the external, pafles deeper between the nerve and the fcle- 
rotica, on the inner furface of which it gradually difappears. 
The difference between the fclerotica and the fheath of the 


nerve is marked by the fudden increafe of thicknefs in the 
former, by its white colour, and by its denfe ftru€ture, com. 
pofed of bres interlacing each other, the fheath of the 
nerve being thin, and of loofer texture. 

The brilliant white colour of that portion of the f{elerotica 
covered by the conjun@iva, has been attributed to a pecu- 
liar membrane, to which the name of tunica albuginea has 
been given; and it has been fuppofed that this coat was 
formed by the union of the tendons which terminate in front 
the four ftraight mufcles of the eye; but thefe tendons are 
not extended to the cornea, are not broad enough to unite 

y their edges, and are always diftinét from each other, and 
the intervals between them are of equal brightneis with the 
parts covered by the tendons. No fuch tunie in reality 
exilts ; the {clerotica fhining advantageoufly through the 


io 


tran{parent conjunctiva is the only caule of the brilliaacy 
and whitenels. _ <r 

The {clerotica is fupplied by veffels from the ciliary arte- 
ries and veins; they are few in number, and capillaries in 

ize. We can obierve in it no traces ofnerves, It is elattic, 

and capable of undergoing very confiderable extenfion, as 
obferved in hydrophthalmia. ‘The chief ufe of this tunic ap- 
pears to be that of defending the delicate parts it contains, 
giving the figure to the eye, offering an infertion for its 
mu(cles, and fupporting its veffels and nerves. 

In the foetus it is comparatively thin and feeble, its 
colour is not fo decided, and from its femi-tran{parency the 
colour of the choroid can be diftinguifhed throughit. It 
is more particularly behind that the fclerotica has a blueifh 
tint from this caufe ; it is lefs evident anteriorly, the mem- 
brane being rendered more opaque by the tendons of the 
different muicles. 

The cornea (horn-haut) is the tranfparent fubftance en- 
cafed in the opening left at the front of the felerotica ; it 
occupies, therefore, about the anterior fifth of theeye. Its 
form is not quite circular, the tranfverfe diameter being 
rather longer than the vertical. Its convexity is greater 
than that of the fclerotica, the cornea appearing as a feg- 
ment of a fmall {phere placed on the truncated plane a a 
larger. Anteriorly, it is covered by the conjunGiva, which 
at this part is very delicate, and adheres firmly to the cornea, 
giving it a fhining polifhed furface. They are eafily fepa- 
rable by long continued maceration. The polterior furface 
of the cornea is concave, and lined by the membrane of the 
aqueous humour, conttituting the anterior limit of the an- 
terior chamber of the eye. The circumference of the 
cornea, cut obliquely, flides under the edge of the {clerotica, 
floped in the contrary direction, fo that the two parts touch 
by a confiderable extent of oblique furfaces ; the fclerotica 
advancing on the cornea anteriorly, while the latter pafles 
under the f{clerotica in the oppofite dire€tion. ‘The confe- 
quence is, that the anterior circumference of the cornea is 
lefs than the pofterior: the chord of the fegment formed by 
the external convexity is defcribed by Petit as equal to five 
lines, that of the internal to five and a half. 

The cornea and fclerotica are united to each other fo inti- 
mately, that the former was for a long time regarded as a 
tranfparent continuation of the fclerotica; but the form, 
organization, and properties, as well as the difeafes of thefe 
tunics are fo different, that we have no hefitation in confider- 
ing them as diitin@. Further, by long continued-macera- 
tion, and then plunging the eye into boiling water, they 
come eafily apart in a pretty regular line, the conneétion by 
cellular tiflue being eutirely deftroyed. The line of fepara- 
tion is not equally marked in every animal, neither is the 


figure of the correfponding furfaces the fame as in-man; : 


in every inftance, however, the cornea and {clerotica are 


diftind, 


Byte 


diftin&, though the union differs in its manner and degree. 
The cornea poffeffes a middle thicknefs between thole of 
the anterior and pofterior portions of the {clerotica: in this 
réfpect it is nearly uniform throughout, except at the edge, 
where it is fitted into the openinz left in the {clerotica. 
Here its margin is accurately defined by a double groove, 
marking the union between it and the {clerotica. It is to 
this groove, diftinguifhable from tle bordering part of the 
{clerotica by its dark colour, that the anterior edge of the 
ciliary circle of the choroid coat firmly adheres. 

The cornea is compofed, of an indeterminate number of 

concentric laminz, connected by a fine tiffue, the cells of 
which are filled by a tranfparent fluid; to ufe the words of 
Zinn, “ areole aqua pellucidiflima femper funt ebriz.” 
The external layers are more eafily elevated than the inter- 
nal; they are often feparated by difeafes, an effufion of pus 
or blood taking place between them, or lymph being depo- 
fited fo as to deftroy the tranfparency of this membrane. 
The cornea has not, in its healthy ftate, any veflels carrying 
red blood, but is fupplicd by exhalants, which fecrete the 
fluid of which we have been fpeaking. No rerve has been 
traced into its fubftance. The pellncid fluid contained in 
this membrane does not exude in the living ftate, but is con- 
ttantly abforbed and renewed. After or a fhort time before 
_ @eath, it is fuppofed to oofe out gradually, and form that 
sobfcure film before the cornea which deftroys its tranfpa- 
rency. ‘This isnot vifible in fubje&ts who die fuddenly ; but 
where the difeafe has been of long continuance, the ob- 
Sfcurity of the cornea begins fometimes before death, the lofs 
of brilliancy being often regarded as one of its forerunning 
fymptoms. The aqueous humour does not pals through 
the cornea during life; after death it evidently does, the eye 
becoming flat and wrinkled; its tenfion may be foon re- 
ftored by immierfing it in water. Zinn believes that the ob- 
fcure’ pellicle, obferved on the cornea after death, confilts of 
Ahe conjunétiva in an opaque flate, fince it cannot be wathed 
off; but may be removed by careful diffection with the 
knife. The cornea is not fo elaftic as the f{clerotica, nor 
capable of undergoing equal extenfion; it will, however, 
recover its former dimenfions, after being ftretched, as is 
proved by an experiment of Mr. Home. It gives no mark 
of fenfibility when wounded, at lealt in its healthy {tate ; it 
may when in a {tate of inflammation, and its veffels at fuch 
time carry red blood. 

In the feetus it is rather more prominent than in the 
adult ; and is defcribed as being thicker, the interftices of 
the laminz being larger, and containing a greater quantity of 
fluid, fo as to diminifh the capacity of the anterior chamber, 
and to approach, by its concave furface, nearer to the iris. 
It can be reduced to half this thicknefs by compreffion. 
Thefe obfervations have been made by Zinn and Petit : the 
deficiency of aqueous humour and this particular condition 
of the cornea was fuppofed by the latter to be one caufe 
of the obfcure vifion of infants. It does not. lofe its 
brilliancy after death to fo great a degree as in the adult ; 

- which is attributed to its not allowing of tranfudation with 
equal facility. For the fame reafon it fearcely decreafes in 
volume under tlie fame circumitances.. The cornea has 
been fometimes obferved to be partly offified in old age ; 
the’ occurrence is, however, extremely rare. 

The choroides, or, perhaps more properly, the cho- 
rioides (gefafs-haut) forms the fecond coat of the eye, lying 
immediately under the fclerotica. It extends from the en- 
trance of the optic nerve to the circumference of the cornea. 
‘The external furface is every where conne&ted with the 
felerotica by a fine cellular tiffue, by numerous veflels paffing 
between thefe membranes, and by the ciliary nerves. This 


tiffue is more abundant in the fcetus than in the adult, 
and more particularly furrounds the lerger veficls aud nerves. 
It conneéts the two coats pretty clofely, but is fo delicate 
as to allow of their being eafily feparated from each other 
by impelling air between, the conneGtion being pref 
only by the veficls, which havea greater degree of firmnefs. 
It is more abundant near the cornea, and forms the bafis of 
the ciliary circle. The internal furface of the choroid is 
in clofe and accurate contaét with the retina at all points; 
but the two parts are not united by the medium of veffvis, 
or cellular tiffue. The pofterior part of the choroid prefents 
a fmall round hole, through which the medullary fibres of 
the optic nerve pafs. It was long fupyofed that the cho- 
roid coat was contitued at this {pot from the pia mater, 
or the thin membrane immediately invefting the optic nerve. 
More accurate examination, however, has proved that they 
are not continuous membranes. As the choroid approaches 
the entrance of the optic nerve it adheres more firmly to the 
inner furface of the fclerotica by means of the numerous 
ciliary arteries, and the cellular tiffue furroanding them. 
The pia mater of the optic nerve, after perforating with it 
the holes in the felerotica, is refle&ted on all fides, formi: g 
a {mall ring, and loft on the inner furface of that tunic. At 
this part the: choroid adheres to the pia mater very clofely 
by cellular tiffue, furrounding the rifing medullary papilla, 
from which the retina has its origin, by a circular and 
well defined margin. This is very evident by dividing the 
optic nerve longitudinally at its entrance into theeye. The 
choroid terminates in front by a wide aperture, nearly at 
the point of union between the cornea and f{elerotica. Jui 
before it ends we obferve it folded into the ciliary proceffes, 
and forming on the outer furface, by its altered ftruture 
and appearance, the ordiculus ciliaris, the anterior edge of 
which is intimately connected with the iris. 

The choroid is very delicate, thin, and eafily torn, It 
is of a reddifh brown colour on each furface. On the out- 
fide this colour is inherent in the ftru@ture of the membrane, 
and does not depend on the depofition of any colouring fub- 
{lance externally to its tiffue. In the perfeétly recent eye, 
the finger is fearcely ftained by wiping it, neither does it 
tinge water, if fuffered to remain in it for a few days. Af. ° 
ter that time the coloured tifue is foftened, aad parts with 
fome of the colouring matter. On the internal furface of 
the choroid this colour is more decided, and depends evi- 
dently on a dark kind of mucous fecretion, called pigmenium 
nigrum, included ina fine cellular tiffue, increafing in quan 
tity and intenfity as we approach the anterior margin, where 
it takes a blackifh tint. ‘Towards the entrance of the op- 
tic nerve the pigmentum is much thinner, the ftru@ure of 
the chore:d appearing through it. It feems to be a pe- 
culiar iecretion from the veflels of the membrane, occupy- 
ing both fides of the vafcular tiffue, but more particu- 
larly its inner furface. It is defcribed by Hunter as a 
‘ fub{tance approaching to the nature and appearance of a 
membrane lining the choroid coat; and fomewhat timilar 
to the rete mucofum- which lies under the cuticle of the 
human body ; there is alfo fome of the fame kind of fub- 
ftance diffufed through the cellular membrane, which unites 
the choroid with the {clerotic coat.” When it has been 
wafhed away by maceration, the inner furface appears vil- 
lous. The colouring matter is not altered fenfibly by heat, 
nor by any chemical tefts of whatever nature to which it 
has been fubjected: the colour is in fome cafes deepened as 
to intenfity, but never changes. 

The choroid is formed by almoft innumerable arterial and 
venous veilels, united by a fine cellular tiflue, into the form 
ofa membrane. On examining it from without, after care- 

fully 


1 Spe Gh OP 


fully removing the {clerotiea, we cbferve, firft, the flat ciliary 
nerves, lying externally to the veffels, running forwards on 
the convex furface.. Befides thefe nerves we can generally 
fee two veffels, rarely more, one an each fide; which 
having penetrated the fclerotica at its back part, run 
horizontally forwards, giving fcarcely any branches to 
the choroid, and divide at the ciliary circle. They are the 
Jong ciliary arteries, and are frequently filled with blood. 
Under thefe arteries and nerves are numerous veflels, about 
the middle of the choroid, arranged in a particular form, 
and called on this account vene voriicofe. There are ufually 
three venous trunks from which branches are thrown off on 
each fide, forming i;regular parallel arches, meeting each 
other in the intervals between the trunks, Ina recent eye 
thefe veffels are filled with blood, and are very apparent. 
By immerling the choroid in alcohol, they become of 
a white colour, and are then ftill more readily diftinguith- 
able from the other veffels) The intervals between thefe 
veins are occupied by the ramifications of the fhort pofterior 
ciliary arteries, appearing as dark-coloured threads lying 
under the arches. Thefe arteries pierce the {clerotic near 
‘the entrance of the optic nerve ; in the firft inftance they 
are on the external furface of the choroid; but as they ad- 
‘vance they dip under the branches of the venz vorticofe, 
and approach the inner furface of the membrane. Thefe 
numerous branches are given off at very acute angles, and 
are dire¢ted immediately forwards, forming an extremely 
fine net-work on the inner furface, fo that the angular 
mefhes are only vifible when confiderably magnified. ‘The 
difpofition ofits veffels gave rife to an opinion that the cho- 
roid was compofed of two layers, an external, formed by the 
veins, and an internal, by the arteries. The latter has been 
named tunica Ruyfchiana. his diftin@ion is now com- 
pletely rejeéted by the beft anatomifts, who agree in confider- 
ing the choroid as a fimple membrane: After long maceration 
it becomes almoft tranfparent ; and at this time the fingle- 
nefs of its ftruCture is {ufficiently evident: when held be- 
tween the eye and the light it appears as a net-work of 
veffels croffing in every direCtion, and not feparable from each 
other. Parts of it have been oecafionally found offified. 
At the diftance of a line or more from the cornea, the 
external furface of the choroid begins to be enveloped in a 
grey, foft, fhort, pulpy tiffue, of moderate thicknels, repre- 
fenting a circular belt, to which different names have been 
attached. It is ufually called the orbiculus ciliaris, or ciliary 
circle ; it is deferibed alfo under the names of ligamentum 
ciliare and plexus ciliaris: Zinn calls it annulus cellufofus ; 
Soemmerring, from its flru€ture made up ‘nervis ciliaribus, 
vafifque his intermixtis fanguiferis,’’? deferibes it under the 
term of annulus gangliformis. It is more than a line in 
breadth; its anterior part thicker and clofer in {ttu@ure 
‘than the pofterior: it adheres with fome little firmnefs to 
the felerotica at the groove obferved in the latter, clofe to 
its inner conneétion with the margin of the cornea. It 
may be eafily feparated by the finger, but is ftrong enough 
to refilt the impulfe of air driven between the choroid and 
{clerotic coats by the blow-pipe. Fontana has deferibed 
a triangular canal as running along the circle of this fpongy 
fubftance, intermediate to its conne¢tion with the fclerotica. 
Tt has been noticed fince by Soemmerring, and particularly by 
Murray, and is partly formed by the groove at the edges of 
the cornea and fclerotica. It is filled by an aqueous fluid. 
The ciliary circle is united more clofely with the choroid, 
and can fearcely be feparated from it without tearing the 
fatter. It isalways ofa whitith, or grey colour, very diltin@, 
therefore, from the dark-coloured choroid ; and not fo broad 
as the ciliary proceffes within, It receives in its fubitance 


the ciliary nerves and arteries in great abundance in their 
paflage to the iris. The ciliary circle marks the line of 
diftin@tion between the choroid and iris. 

The iris was for a long time defcribed as a direé&t continua- 
tion of the external layer of the choroid; and-the ciliary 
proceffes of the internal. The fimplicity of this membrane 
has neceffarily deftroyed that opinion ; and it appears that 
the iris is a diftinét membrane, both in its ftru¢ture and 
funétions, feparated from the choroid by the orbiculus 
ciliaris, in the anterior margin of the fubftance of which it 
feems partially encafed, the outer edge of this circle proje@- 
ing forwards beyond that of the iris, as may be feen after 
the cornea and {clerotica have been carefully removed. 

The inner furface of the front of the choroid forms the 
ciliary procefles, which are thin plaits difpofed in the 
manner of radii round the chryttalline lens, and lodged in 
correfponding depreflions of the, vitreous humoyr. “The 
ring made by-the union of thefe plicz, confidered asa whole, 
is called the corpus ciliare. On making a perpendicular 
fection of the eye from right to left behind the middle of 
the fphere, with an attention to difturb the connedtions of 
the feveral parts as little as poffible, we obferye, on looking 
into the anterior fection, through the pellucid vitreous hu- 
mour, a dark ring, refembling the difk of a radiated flower; 
furrounding the chryttalline eats It is two lines in breadth, 
and rather narrower on the nafal fide than on the temporal. 
Itisterminated pofteriorly by aferiated, undulating, accurately 
defined and black margin. Nearer to the chryftalline it 
prefents white ftreaks with black intervals placed alternately, 
fo that apparently two rings are formed, the poiterior and 
widelt of an uniform dark colour, the anterior compofed 
of white and black lines alternately. The white lines are 
the edges of the ciliary proceifes, and the black interftices 
the depreflions between them covered by pigmentum nigrum, — 
When the membrane is removed from thevitreous humour, 
efpecially if the eye is not recent, a great portion of the 
pigment is left on the furface of the latter, giving an impref- 
fion correfponding inverfely to the oppofite appearance of 
the procefles. In the eye of the new-bofn infant this is fill 
more remarkably the cafe. In the recent eye er the adult 
this dark yarnifh remains deeply fixed on the fubitance of 
the intervals of the procefles, and requires much wathing 
and maceration, in order completely to remove it. 

After a careful abfterfion of the pigment it is very 
evident that the corpus ciliare is a direct continuation of 
the choroid. It is of a grey colour, lighter towards the 
iris from the white colour of the ciliary circle on its outer 
fide, The corpus ciliare is concentric pofteriorly with the 
{clerotica; farther on it gradually quits it by the interpofi- 
tion of the ciliary circle, and turns inwards towards the lens, 
correfponding more to the convexity of the vitreous humour 
than to the concavity of the [clerotica. The projecting 
folds will now float freely from one fide to the other, when 
immerfed in water, being reftrained by no tranfverfe lateral 
connections. On a clofe examination of thefe parts we 
may obferve the ciliary procefies rifing from the inner 
furface of the choroid, about a line and a half from the iris, 
by two or more almott imperceptible ftriz ‘¢ lineole tenuif- 
fime,’’ which foon unite to form a fingle fold, increafing 
in depth the nearer it approaches the chrytftalline lens. The 
number of the ciliary procefles varies from fixty te eighty, — 
but is generally neareft the former of thefe numbers and 
fometimes below it. They are alternately longer and fhorter, 
Of the three edges formed by the triangular fold, the 
polterior is flightly denticulated, concave, and lodged in 
the oppofite groove of the vitreous humour; the anterior, 
conyex, is the bafe rilfing from the choroid, the internal, 

not 


1” 


EY i 


not a line in length, meafures the {paee between the great 
circumference of the iris and that of the chryftalline ; it is 
evidently denticulated. Of the three angles, the one 
correfponding to the chryftalline is rounded, paffing a little 
in front of the anterior part of the capfule, without, however, 
foriuing any connection with it. Zinn, who appears to 
have inveitigated this point with his ufual accuracy and 
minutenedfs of refearch, is decidedly of opinion that the ciliary 
proceilés are not adherent to the capfule of the lens; ‘non 
unica fibra, aut ullo vinculo capfule lentis adneCtuntur.” 
Haller believes that the ciliary proceffes fupport the chryf- 
talline lens ia its fituation, not by any immediate con- 
netion, but by the intervention of the vitreous humour, 
with which they certainly have a tolerably intimate con- 
neCtion. He agrees with Zion im not allowing them 
to be mufcular. The angle correfponding to the great 
margin of the iris is joined to it, and to the round 
edge of the ciliary circle, by veffels and cellular tiflue: 
at the line of usion feveral ftraight limes are feen going off 
on the potterior farface of the iris to the edge of the pupil. 
The potterior angle is much elongated, and terminates in the 
fine itrie we have mentioned on the inner furface of the 
choroid. The furface of the ciliary body, but more 
efpecially the intervals of the proceffes, is covered by a very 
dark mucus, much deeper in colour than that which lines 
the reft of the choroid: it is nearly black. The potterior 
edges of the procefles not being covered by it, appear of a 
light grey. When the pigment has been wafhed off, the 
furface of the corpus ciliare appears villous, like that of 
the choroid behind : it is generally rugous. The ftructure 
is made up wholly of veffels united by fine tiffue, as the reft 
of the choroid ; we do not believe them to poffefs any muf- 
cularity, or any power of motion. The arteries come from 
the fhort ciliaries, which, after having run parallel to each 
other on the internal furface of that membrane, pafs into 
each ciliary procefs to the number of twenty at leaft. They 
run in a ferpentine courfe along the fold, giving off numerous 
branches, which, by their multiplied divifions and frequent 
anaftomofes, form an extremely fine net-work. When they 


have arrived at the floating edge they turn in one towards ' 


another, and anaitomofe, forming concentric arches. The 
veins of the ciliary proceffes join the ven vorticofe of the 
choroid. 

The choroid in the foetus, at the time of birth, is well 
formed: it may be detached eafily from the fclerotica and 
cornea, leaving on the firft areddifh tint. Its onter furface is 
of the fame colour as in the adult : the pigmentum on the 
infide is black inftead of brown ; is tb fluid, and more 
ftrongly fixed. After it has been removed, the choroid re. 
tains a fenfibly red colour, derived from its very vafcular 
organization, and differing from that in the adult, under 
fimilar conditions. Towards the optic nerve, where the 
pigmentum is in fmaller quantity, the reddifh choroid is very 
apparent. ‘Che ciliary circle is not fo fully marked as 
in the adult, and adheres but weakly to the {clerotica. 
The ciliary proceffes are comparatively more developed, and 
are very diftin&t: they are ofa reddifh colour, but sot fo 
deep as the pofterior part of the choroid. 

The iris, (regenbogenhaut, oder blendung,) fo called 
from the variety of colours on its anterior furface, is a plane 
membranous ring, floating in the aqueous humour, fub- 
tending the fegmeut of the {phere, formed by the circum- 

nce of the cornea, and dividing the anterior from the 
pace chamber of the eye. It is perforated bya circu- 
ar opening, called the pupil, (lichtloeh, oder {eheloch, 
Semm. ) This aperture does not occupy the centre of the 
iris, butis rather nearer to the nafal than the temporal mar- 


gin of its great circumference ; hence the iris is broader, by 
about one-fixth, towards the temple. than ou the fide next 
the nofe. The diameter of the opening varies very confidera- 
bly, according to the quantity of light direéted on the retina. 
The anterior furface of the iris correfponds to the pofterior 
concayity of the cornea, feparated from it by a {pace called 
the anterior chamber, which contains by far the greateft 
portion of the aqueous humour. This furface is flat, and 
very differently coloured in different individuals. It is 
brijliant, and we can diftinguifh in it an external wider cir- 
cle of a light r, and an internal narrower ring of a darker, 
often of a different tint. On this furface alfo we fee a num- 
ber of ftriz, more or lefs ferpentine, or parallel, large or 
{mall, converging towards the leffer circle, on which the 
{trie are not fo numerous, or fo confpicuous. The diftinc- 
tion between them depends more on their colour than on 
any elevation above the furface; and they are more ferpen- 
tine in proportion as the pupil is dilated, and the iris con- 
trated. he pofterior furface of the iris is oppofite to the 
anterior convexity of the chryftalline, feparated from it by a 
narrow fpace, the pofterior chamber of the eye, filled by the 
leffer part of the aqueous humour. It is covered by a thick, 
dark coloured mucus, nearly black. Here alfo, when the 
colouring matter has been wafhed off, we obferve ftraight 
lines converging to the centre of the pupil, but very dif 
tin from thofe on the anterior furface. This furface was 
formerly known by the name of uvea. The great circum- 
ference of the iris is let into the thicknefs of the anterior 
edge of the ciliary circle, at the line where the cornea termi- 
nates internally. It may be fepsrated without any lacera- 
tion by the finger, or more eaiily ftill by maceration in 
water. 

Although the appearance of the two faces of the iris is 
very different, we cannot inthe human fubje@ make any divi- 
fion of it into two layers, though this is the cafe more or 
leis in other animals. It appears as a fimple membrane, 
made up of veffels, nerves, and membranous fibres: When 
examined with the affiftance of a magnifying power, the 
two circles on the anterior furface of the iris appear com- 
pofed of numerous fibres, converging from the circumference 
of the iris towards the pupil, and diftinguifhed from each 
other chiefly by theircolour. The longer ones are general- 
ly white ; the fhorter are finer, and of a darker colour. 
They are tortuous when the pupil is dilated, and nearly 
ftraight when it is contraGted. When they arrive at:the cir- 
cumference of the leffer circle, the larger of thefe bbres di- 
vide into two branches, feparating at-olwerfe ancles, andinclin-- 
ing towards fimilar branches with which they unite, to form 
an undulating or denticulated circular line, dividing the 
greater annulus from the {maller, From this margin there 
depart feveral delicate fibres, fimilar in their courfe to the 
larger ftrie, which converge as radii towards the pupil, and 
form the leffer ring of the iris, by which that opening is im- 


mediately furrounded. Haller, who minutely defcribes the 


appearance of the iris under the magnifying power, agrees in 
the principal features of his account with the one here 
riven. He fays that feveral of the radiated {trie are col- 
feated into flocculi, and that thefe united make a ferrated 
arch, convex towards the pupil, at the margin of the leffer 
circle, the flocculi being * varié in Garatalan quafdam in- 
trorfum euates difpofiti.”” This radiated ftruQure is-co- 
vered by a fine tranfparent inembrane, of which we fhall 
{peak below, as including the aqueous humour. When the 
pigment’ has been wafhed from the back of the iris, this 
{urface appears of a whitifh colour, and prefents a great 
number of rifing itraight lines, converging from the circum-+ 
ference to the pupil, appearing almoit as continuations of 
the 


iy Ye Es 


the ciliary proceffes. Thefe lines, totally different from the 
radiated and ferpentine ftriz on the anterior furface, become 
more prominent, forming a kind of plait when the iris is 
extended, fo as to augment its breadth. As they approach 
the pupil, they are gradually effaced, but with a highly 
magnifying power may be traced to the opening of the 
pupil. Nocirculsr fibres are in any cafe vifible. The re- 
gular difpofition here deferibed is not vilible to the naked 
eye: we can obferve irregular lines converging towards the 
pupil in the living fubje&, but cannot by any means difcern 
their exaét difpolition. After death they are {till lefs appa- 
rent. 

The long ciliary arteries are the chief fource from which 
the iris, derives its {upply of blood. Thefe veffels, two 
in number, one on the nafal, the other on the temporal fide 
of the eye, run between the choroid and fclerotic coats, 
till they arrive at the ciliary circle. Here they divide ufual- 
ly into two principal branches, going off at very obtufe 
angles, which advance to the circumference of the iris, 
where the two branches of one artery anaftomofe with thofe 
of the oppofite, fo asto form an arterial circle, correfpond- 
ing nearly to this cixcumference. From this arterial ring, 
augmented by the acceflion of the anterior ciliary arteries, 
are produced a great number of fmali branches, more or lefs 
parallel, or tortuous, directed towards the pupil, and ana{- 
tomofing freely by lateral communications. On arriving at 
the lefler ring of the iris, many of thefe bifurcate ; their 
branches anaftomofe, and produce another vafeular circle, 
correfponding to the circumference of the leffer ring of this 
membrane, from which other radiated veffels go to the mar- 
gin of the pupil. This circle, however, is by ho means fo 
regular as that round the circumference of the iris ; and 
many branches from the latter pals on, without joining it 
to the leffer ring, and to the pupil. With thefe arterial 
ramifications many veins are intermixed, which join, fome 
the vene vorticofz, others the veins accompanying the long, 
andthe anterior ciliary arteries. The ciliary nerves, which 
we have before defcribed as entering the ciliary circle, di- 
vide in that part into numerous fine threads, running to- 
wards the anterior furface of the iris, into which we can 
trace them but a very fhort way : they {con become fo con- 
founded with the fibres before mentioned, as to efcape all 
refearch, even by the affittance of the microfcope. 

The iris then appears as 4 membrane compofed principal- 
ly of arterial and venous branches and nerves, connected by 
memLranous tiffue. The fisres arife probably from the dif- 
pofition of the latter of thefe parts, and totally differ from 
thofe of a mufcular kind both in ftruéture and funétions. 
A fuppofed neceffity of afluming their mufcularity, in order 
to account for the motion of the iris, has alone given rife 
to that opinion, which is now rejeéted by the moit eminent 
phyfiologifls. Numerous membranous flocculiare deferib- 
ed by Zinn on the anterior furface of the iris, plainly dif- 
tin& from the veffels; they in fome meafure float in the 
aqueous humour in the intervals of the radiated fibres before 
deferibed, producing, in conjunétion with thefe two, innu- 
merable refraétions of the luminous rays. 

‘The various colours of the iris in the fame, and in differ- 
ent individuals, eflentially depend onthe pigment which covers 
the pofterior furface of the iris, which gives the prevailing 
fhade of the tint. Forif this is removed, the iris is nearly 
tranfparent. ‘The exaét nature or immediate caufe of thefe 
colours is unknown, Soemmerring obferves, that the lighter 
the colour of the pigmentum and of the iris, the more deli- 
cate are the coats of the eye, and the converfe holds equally 
good; the darkerthe eye, the fewer are the ciliary plice. 
The colour of the pigmentum correfponds in fome degree 


4 


with that of the hair and fkin. Inthe human fubjeG it is 
moft commonly dark. In many claffes of animals, there is 
a difference of colour in the:fame eye ; in the cow, or fheep, 
for inftance, there are, in the fame eye, certain portions of. 
a filvery white, and others of a fine green colour, the re- 
mainder being black. Inthe human fpecies we fee different 
fhades from nearly black to nearly white ; and we find 
thefe to correfpond in a ftriking manner with the co- 
lour of the fin and hair, if we trace it from the black iris, 
and fkin of the A'rican negro, through the different races 
of men, to the fair fin and light eyes of the northern Eu- 
ropean. We fometimes meet with perfons whofe fkin and 
hair are very white, and yet the iris is dark, which is a 
fign ofa dark pigmentum ; but if we examine more careful- 
ly, we fhall alfo find that the eye-lafhes are dark. The iris 
of one eye is often lighter in colour than that of the other, 
and fometimes only one-half of the iris is white. Whether 
this difference in the fame individual is owing to the pig- 
mentum being different in colour, is not, we believe, afcer- 
tained. The iris is totally white in the wall-eyed horfe. In 
the Albino, of whatever race, the iris is fomewhat white, 
but almoft pellucid, flightly tinged of a colour betweena pale - 
violet and red. The pupil is ofa full pink, or ratherred.. 
Thefe phenomena are caufed by the deficiency of the pig- 
ment, the tinge arifing from the numerous blood-veflels of 
the iris and choroid coat; and correfpond with the total 
want of colouring matter in the rete mucofum, For other 
peculiarities in the eye of the Albino, or Leucethiops, we 
refer the reader to the defcription of the firft plate illuftrat- 
ing the anatomy of theeye. In all cafes the colours of the 
iris, the ‘ ftupende colorum varietates’? are very much 
clearer when feen through the medium of the aqueous hu- 
mour, which evidently augments their intenfity ; when the 
cornea is removed, and the aqueous humour diflipated, they 
lofe much of their brilliancy. 
The iris poffeffes but little fenfibility in its healthy ftate ;. 

its motions are involuntary, and depend not on any direé&t 


excitation, but on the quantity of light falling on the re- 


tina; rays of light, fo direéted as to fall only on the iris, 
have no vifible effe& in altering its figure. It changes moft 
plainly and rapidly when the eye is brought fuddenly near 
to the flame of a candle, or removed from a light to a 
darker place. In the firft cafe the breadth of the iris is: 
increafed, and the pupil proportionally contracted ; in the 
fecond the converfe may be obferved. This alteration in 
the diameter of the pupil is conneéted in fome degree alfo 
with the clofenefs or diftance of the obje&t. The iris, in 
all its motions, appears to poffefs a peculiar rode of ation 
obferved in no other animal tiffue. Its dilatation diminifhes 
the pupil, and its contraction widens that opening. Here 
then the prefence of the ftimulus produces an elongation : - 
of its parts, and its abfence their contraétion, the inverfe 
of what happens in mufcular action. That the iris aé&ts 
fympathetically only, is further proved by its lofs of motion 
in paralytic affections of the retina, as in gutta ferena, the 
pupil being in thefe cafes widely dilated. ‘This affords 
another argumert to fhew that the contracted ftate of the 
iris is the itate of reft, and that this part moves only in» 
confequence of the aétion of light on the retina. Further, 
its motion ceafes at the moment of death, and cannot, like 
that of mufcular fibres, be renewed by the application of 
ftimuli. The very different diameters of the pupil in the 
dead fubject depend on the ftate of the iris at the inflant 
of diffolution, and conilitute a further argument againft 
its mufcularity. The motion of the iris has been aferibed 
to the fudden turgefcence or depletion of its veffels; the 
former condition increafing its breadth by making the fer- 
pentine 


EY &. 


pevtine veffels ftraight. But no fuch change can be ob- 
ferved in the tremulsus and delicate iris of the albino, which 
feems made up almoft wholly of veffels, and the motion of 
the iris continues unimpaired when the a¢tion of the heart 
is occafionally interrupted. Blumenbach believes the caufe 
of its motions to depend on its vita propria, or peculiar 
vital properties, as the iris, “tam quod ad fabricam et vivi- 
difimum in multis animalibus colorem, &c. quam quod ad 
motum, nulli plane in univerfo animali corpore analogum, 
tam multa habet fingularia, et propria.’’ 

In the infant, at birth the iris is covered at the pofterior 
furface by a very large quantity of dark pigment. In the 
foetus, before the end of the feventh month, the opening 
in the iris, the pupil, is occupied by an extremely delicate 
membrane continuous with its margin, called the mem- 
brana pupillaris, (lichtlochfhaut.) It is fupplied by many 
veffels derived from thofe of the iris; yet it differs from 
that membrane very materially in ftru€ture and appearance. 
The membrana pupillaris is extremely thin and tranfparent, 
while the correfponding edge of the iris is thick, and co- 
vered by a layer of the dark pigment. Soemmerring parti- 
cularly mentions it as an independent membrane. It gra- 
dually difappears before birth, at which time no vellige of 
it remains ; its particular ufe is unknown. It has occupied 
the pens of Albinus, Hunter, Haller, Waiter, Wrifberg, and 
Blumenbach. Wrifberg has given a ‘paper on the fubjec& 
in his “ Commentationes Medice,’’? Gott. 1800. 

The retina, (mark-haut,) deriving its name from the 
‘reticulated difpofition of its component parts, forms the 
third membranous inveftment of the eye, being fituated im- 
mediately between the choroid coat and vitreous humour. 
As it is connected direétly with the optic nerve, we fhall 
introduce here fome remarks on the latter. The optic 
nerve, after decuffating its fellow, with which it is moft in- 
timately connected, paffes into the orbit by the foramen 
opticum, covered by a firm fheath derived from the dura 
‘mater. It now aflumes a cylindrical form, and purfues 
rather a ferpentine courfe forwards and outwards, receiving 
in its paflage a {mall artery and vein. It foon after enters 
the globe of the eye, on the inner or nafal fide of its axis. 
As the nerve approaches the eye, the fafciculi of opaque 
pulpy fibres gradually diminifh in fize, and increafe in 
number by an irregular fub-divifion, till they terminate in 
the retina. Near the eye, where the fafciculi are moft 
numerous, the fubftance of the nerve has a confiderable 
degree of tranfparency, from the number of interftices 
‘between them, filled by a tranfparent jelly. At this part 
alfo we obferve in the middle of the fub{tance of the nerve 
finall veffels running in its axis, the central artery and vein 
of the retina. On arriving at the bulb, the fheath of the 
nerve becomes conne¢ted with the {clerotica in the manner 
already defcribed. he nerve contraéts, forming an irre- 
gular cone, the temporal fide diminifhing more than the 
nafal, fo that if divided vertically, the inner feétion of the 
cone would be the thickeft. ‘The convex end of the cone 
having traverfed the thicknefs of the fclerotic coat, meets 
‘with a thin concave layer of membrane, (/amina cribrofa,) 
intimately united with the inner edge of the opening in that 
tunic, and perforated by numerous foramina. hrough 
thefe the medullary fibres of the nerve are tranfmitted, 
there being a larger hole in the middle (porus opticus) 
for the central velfels. The convex end of the nerve, co- 
vered by this perforated membrane, projects towards the 
infide of the eye, and the medullary part of it forms within 
the membrane a conical white papilla, with a depreffion in 
the middle. This prominent difk may be diftinguifhed from 
within by its projecting beyond the level of the retina, and 

Vor. XIV. 


by the difference of its colour. From this circle the re- 
tina fpreads under the choroid as far as the commencement 
of the corpus ciliare. It has no conneétion with the cho- 
roid, being fimply in contact with it, and receiving no 
tinge from the pigmentum. The concave furface of the 
retina embraces clofely the vitreous humour, but has ap- 
parently no further union with it than what is derived froim 
the paflage of the central artery into that body. The .a- 
terior margin of the retina correfponds to the great cireum- 
ference of the corpus ciliare, the choroid beyond this line 
being in immediate contaét with the vitreous humour. The 
termination of the retina at this line has been doubted by 
many anatomilts, who maintain that it 1s continued over 
the vitreous humour to the edge of the chrytialline. They 
affert that a very delicate layer 1s continued from its apparent 
termination between the ciliary proceffes and vitreous hu-~ 
mour, to the edge of the chryftalline. In order to fee 
this part the choroid muft be carefully removed, and the eye 
immerfed in water, when the prolongation of the retina 
becomes evident. That a delicate membrane really adheres 
to the anterior part of the vitreous humour would thus 
feem clear, but whether it is a continuation of the retina 
admits of doubt. If the examination be made in a recent 
eye, the latter membrane terminates moift decidedly at the 
edge of the ciliary proceffes. Immertion of the eye in fpi- 
rits gives to the vitreous body an opaque and pallid fur- 
face, which may be miftaken for a continuation of the re- 
tina. But the retina ealily feparates from this apparent 
prolongation, and appears to end by a regular, acute, and 
well-defined margin, very different from what we fhould 
expect if the membrane had been lacerated. We believe 
its termination to be at the great circumference of the cor- 
pus ciliare, and confequently more than a line from the cir- 
cumference of the chryftalline lens. 

In ail other animals that have a corpus ciliare the retina 
terminates as we have defcribed. In birds it forms a pro- 
jeting roll at this part. In animals which have no ciliary 
proceffes the retina ends fuddenly towards the commence- 
ment of the iris, and it is manifeit that the anterior furface 
of the vitreous body retains no portion of it. It further 
appears that an initrument paffed into the eye, in the hu 
fubjeét, behind the ciliary proceffes, occafions acute p 
which is not the cafe if the wound be made anterior to their 
commencement. And we have no example in the animal 
body where the medullary part of a nerve is continued inte 
a membrane of no fenfibility, whofe only ufe could be that 
of fupporting the foft parts within it. 

The retina in the living fubje¢t is moft perfely tran{pa- 
rent ; it becomes-of a pale white foon after death. It pof- 
feffes fome thicknefs, but is fo foft as to be torn with flight 
force. It is formed eflentially by a medullary fubflance 
continued from the optic nerve. When examined atten- 
tively as it lies fpread over the vitreous humour, we ob- 
ferve in it many tranfparent lines, diftributed without any 
regular order, united by other tranfverfe lines, between 
which opaque areole are vifible. Thefe lines are probably 
the ramifications of veflels of the retina. For in addition 
to the medullary pulp, of which the rétina is compofed, 
this membrane prefents a vafcular and flamentous net-work, 
occupying its inner furface, made up by the central veflels, 
and a very fine tiffue fupporting them. On this net-work 
the medullary part refts, fo that the retina may be almoi 
defcribed as being compoféd of two layers. It is, however, 
impoffible to feparate them throughout, even by maceration. 
On the outer, or temporal fide of the membrane, abou 
two lines diftant from the entrance of the optic nerve, 
and ia the very axis of the eye, we obferve in the 


recent 


is 


EY E. 


recent organ a yellow fpot, of a deeper colour towards its 
centre, and of about a line in breadth. It is generally 
concealed by a fold of the membrane, for which reafon it 
efcaped for a long time the refearches of anatomitts, 
Soemmerring having been the firft who obferved and de- 
feribed it. The centre of this yellow fpot is perforated 
by a {mall hole. Thefe facts are beft feen by detaching 
the pofterior part of the {clerotic and choroid coats under 
water ; the eye fhould be as recent as poffible. <‘ In vero 
retine centro luculentiffime tum cernitur foraminulum 
plane rotundum cum limbo luteo, quod duo yaforum fangui- 
ferorum rami eleganti corona cingunt.’? The folds fur- 
rounding it are thus prevented, and the membrane con- 
tinuing tenfe, thefe appearances are fufficiently evident. 
They may alfo be advantageoufly feen through the tranf- 
parent vitreous humour in a fimple fe€tion of a recent eye. 
In this way, however, it is difficult to prevent the retina 
from falling iato folds. Another method of demonftrating 
it is, by removing the cornea, iris, and chryftallize. The 
retina then remains undifturbed, and the foramen, with its 
yellow zone, is plainly vifible in a {trong light. Mr. Home 
fays, that it is apparently a little below the pofterior end 
of the vifal radius. He obferves alfo, that in feparating 
the vitreous humour from the retina, there is a greater 
adhefion at this particular part. This fpot is pale in chil- 
dren, bright yellow in young perfons, and again pale in 
old age. It has been obferved that the intenfity of the 
colour is conneéted with the ftate of vifion: that it di- 
minifhes where that is obftruéted, and that the yellow {pot 
entirely difappears when vifion is loft. The plait which 
has been defcribed as extending from this {pot to the optic 
nerve we believe to be only accidental, and caufed by the 
adhefion of the vitreous humour, when the latter has been 
fomewhat difplaced in the examination. 

The foramen centrale, firft difcovered by Soemmerring in 
the human eye, has been fince demonftrated in the eyes of 
feveral quadrumana, where thefe organs are directed for- 
wards, and have their axes parallel to each other. 

The central artery gives its principal branches to the 
retina; a {mall trunk only enters the fubftance of the vi- 
treous body. We frequently find the larger of thefe 
branches filled with blood, and two of them furroundimg the 
eentral foramen “ inftar corone.’? The central veffels ex- 
hibit a very elegant appearance, when feen through the 
tranfparent lens and vitreous humour, on the furface of the 
retina. The central artery varies much in its origin, being 
derived fometimes from the trunk of the ophthalmic, at 
others from the internal long ciliary, or the inferior mufcu- 
lar. There are fometimes more than one arterial trunk, 
but the principal always runs on the axis of the optic 
nerve, and enters with it as before defcribed. The central 
vein ufually correfponds to the artery in its origin and 
courte. 

The retina is very completely formed in the full grown 
foetus. Its veffels are particularly numerous and apparent. 
The yellow {pot is not vifible in the faetus of nine or eight 
months; nor can it be obferved at all times even in the eye 
of the new-born infant. 

The humours of the eye—The humours of the eye are 
three in number; viz. the vi/reous, the chry/falline, and the 
aqueous, each poffefling a delicate tranfparent membranous 
inveftment peculiar toitfelf, The vitreous body (glafkorper) 
fo named from its refemblance to glafs, is compofed by the 
vitreous humour, properly fo called, and the membrana 
hyaloidea, which contains it. It is a foft tranfparent mafs, 
extending from the back of the eye to the chryttalline lens, 
*ccupying rather more thar three-fourths of the globe, and 

2 


pofleffing a {pherical figure, with a deprefiion in the middle 
of its anterior furface, in which a part of the chryftalline is 
lodged. Its furface is covered in the greateft part of its 
extent by the retina, with which it is connected only at its 
pofterior part, as before related. Beyond the termination 
of the retina it is covered by the ciliary body, and is marked 
by radiated grooves, into which the ciliary procefles are re- 
ceived. It is perfectly pellucid, offering, at firft fight, no 
diftin€tion of membrane, or humour. The membrana hya- 
loidea contains the vitreous humour, forming its external 
capfule. Numerous plates of membrane pafs from its 
inner furface, interfeGting each other, and thereby forming 
fmall cells of different figure and fize, in which the hu- 
mour is immediately held. Towards the commencement 
of the corpus ciliare this membrane divides into two layers, 
the internal of which, continuing to cover the vitreous 
humour, paffes behind the chryttalline, whilft the external 
goes on under the corpus ciliare to the circumference of the 
chryftalline, attaching itfelf to the anterior part of the cap- 
fule, in which the lens is contained. This layer is defcribed 
by Zinn under the name of the ‘ membranula, or zonula 
corone ciliaris;’?? which latter term denotes the radiat- 
ed circle on the front of the vitreous humour, marked by 
the pigment of the ciliary proceffes. This membrane has 
probably been miftaken for a continuation of the retina. 
Zinn does not believe it to be a continuation of the outer 
layer of the hyaloidea, which he afferts to be throughout a 
fimple membrane. Between it and the membrane immedi- 
ately invefting the vitreous humour there is formed a tri- 
angular, curvilinear cavity, the bafe of the triangle being 
formed by the capfule of the chryftalline. This canal is 
named from its firft difcoverer, F. Petit: it was called by 
him ‘le canal godronne,’”’ from its peculiar appearance. It 
is covered externally by the black radiated {triz of the ciliary 
procefles, and-here it correfponds to thofe proceffes. Hence 
we notice in it radiated fibres, equal in number to the ciliary 
proceffes, and in contaét with their pofterior edge. Thefe 
fibres are not fo long as the loofer membrane between, 
which correfponds to the hollows between the ciliary pro- 
cefles. ‘They bind it down confequently from fpace to 
f{pace, fo that when air is impelled into it, we fee this canal 
godronne alteraately elevated and deprefled. Being equal 
in breadth to the corpus ciliare, it muft be rather broader 
on the temporal than on the nafal fide. It has no commu- 
nication with the cavity of the chryftalline capfule. Little 
is known concerning the intimate ftru€ture of the membrana 
hyaloidea. It receives a few fimall ramifications from the 
central veffels of the retina, and fecretes, no doubt, the vi- 
treous humour. It is capable of undergoing a certain de- 
gree of extenfion without rupture. Boiling water, or con- 
centrated acids, aét but feebiy onit, producing only a flight 
contra¢tion. 

The humour may be obtained, from its containing mem- 
brane and cells, by preflure, or by making incifions into, and 
fufpending the vitreous body: when thus procured, its 
quantity is proportionate to the volume of the eye. Its 
weight, as afcertained by Petit, was 104 grains in an eyes 
ball which weighed 142 grains. It is fomewhat vifcous, 
and perfectly limpid. The fpecific gravity, as determined 
by Chenevix, is 10053. It it compofed of water, albumen, 
gelatine, and munate of foda; and is eafily mifcible with 
water, which, even when boiling, produces only a flight 
Opacity. 

The arteria centralis fends to the vitreous body a branch 
called the central artery of the vitreous humour: this paffes 
from behind forwards to the back of the chryftalline cap- 
fule, on which it is diftributed in a beautifully arborefcent 

Me. 


ny i 


form. <A few very fine branches from this veffel are fpread 
over the membrana _hyaloidea. 

The ftru€ture of the vitreous body may be moft advan- 
tageoufly examined in the feGtion of a frozeneye. We then 
obferve numerous icy flakes, feparated by membranous tepta 
ofthe moft delicate appearance. Thefe flakes are of dif- 
ferent lengths and breadths; they refemble, on the whole, 
wedges with the bafe backwards, and the fummit forwards; 
the convex part next the circumference of the vitreous 
body, and the thinneft directed towards the chryitalline: 
in other words, they appear as fegments of a circle, the 
centre of which would be in the lens. This ftru¢ture may 
be exhibited by means of acids, which render the membrane 
fomewhat opaque; and ftill better by immerfing the vitreous 
body in a folution of potafh, which a¢ts only on the mem- 
brane, and gives no degree of turbiduefs to the contained 
fiuid. The cellular fepta may be fhewn by allowing the 
fluid to efcape through a fimple incifion, and afterwards 
impelling air through the fame opening. | 

The chryflalling humour—fo called from its tran{parency, 
is alenticular body, fituated on the anterior furface of the 
vitreous humour, which is hollowed to receive it, and en- 
clofzd in a peculiar membrane, called its cap/ule. The 
chryttalline 1s placed at the diftance of about four-fifths 
from the pofterior end of the axis of the eye: but, as its 
a-is is the fame with that of the pupil, and the iris is one- 
fixth broader on the temporal than on the nafal fide, the 
centre of the chryftalline is rather on the inner fide of the 
axis of the eye, though in the fame horizontal plane with 
it. Its anterior furface is oppofite to the back of the iris, 
from which it is feparated by a {pace called the pofterior 
chamber of the cye, and containing a part of the aqueous 
humour. The circumference correfponds tu the canal of 
Petit, and to the ciliary proceffes, which project a little over 
its anterior furface into the aqueous humour. ‘The two fur- 
faces of the chryttalline are not of equal convexities, the 
potterior being the moft prominent. According to the ex- 
periments of Petit, the anterior convexity reprefents a feg- 
ment of a fphere, whofe diameter would vary from fix to 
nine lines; and the pofterior, of a {phere, the diameter of 
which would be fomewhere between four lines and a half and 
five and ahalf. Thefe forms of its fuperficies, however, are 
by no means coniftant, the difference of convexity being in 
fome inftances fearcely difcernible. he chryttalline varies 
much in figure, tranfparency, and confiftence, according to 
the age of the fubje¢t. It is firmer in old people, and very 
frequently acquires a yellow tinge. Inthe healthy adult the 
chryftalline is perfectly tranfparent, not of equal confiftence 
throughout, but gradually increafing in denfity to its centre. 
The exterior parts are thick and glutinous, and may be 
rubbed off by the fingers. Thole more deeply feated are 
folid, and appear, after immerfion in weak acids or alcohol, 
difpofed in the form of numerous concentric lamina, harder 
as we approach the centre. Each of thefe lamine is com- 

ofed of extremely fine parallel fibres lying in a direétion 

tom the circumference to the centre. When expofed to 
air after a fhort maceration or immerfion in alcohol, it fur- 
ther breaks into irregular triangular fegments, converging 
by their points to the centre of the lens, which again fubdi- 
vide into. fmaller portions. When immerfed in boiling 
water the foft external parts acquire a milky white colour, 
and a firmer confiftence. In this ftate it may be eajily re- 
moved, leaving a nucleus much more folid. of a pearl colour, 
fhining faintly, and not undergoing any further alterations 
by repeated immerfions. Alcohol produces fimilar effects, 
but not in fo fenfible a manner. Long continued macera- 


tion changes the chryftalline into a pulpy mafs, LExpofure 


to the air renders it dry, folid, and friable on the furface, 
the primitive form, and even tranfparency, being {till pre- 
ferved; in this ftate it may be kept for a long period. 
Seétions of the dried lens exbibit its Jaminated flruéture. 
Examined chemically, the’ chryttalline is found to confift 
of albumen and gelatine, with a very {mall quantity of 
water, and has not either any thing acid or alkaline in its 
compofition, 

It receives no red blood-veffels; we can trace no nerve 
even to its capfule ; nor does it poflefs any animal fenfibi- 
lity. Anatomifts have even doubted whether this body 
poflefs any vital properties. Leeuwenhoek has defcribed 
the fibres of the chryttalline, and indeed fometimes calls it a 
mufcle. Little can be drawn from fuch examination, when 
we confider the very great power of his microfcope, and 
the probably dry ftate of the chryftallines he examined. 
Dr. Young has given an apparently accurate defcription 
of numerous fibres, with interfecting tendons, in the chryf 
talline ofan ox. Thefe he believed to be mufcular, and to 
poffeis a power of increafing the {phericity of the part. This 
opinion he afterwards changed, as we fhall notice here- 
after. The late Mr. Hunter conceived that the chryftal- 
line could change its figure. He obferved the, remarkable 
fibrous lamine which furroand the more folid parts in the 
cuttle-fith, and concluded the ftru€ture to be analogous in 
other animals, where coagulation developes the fibrous 
ftru€ture. We are difpofed to admit of a change of figure 
in the lens, but the arguments for its mufcularity are not 
convincing, Though it may be feparated into {pherical 
lamin after death, we cannot infer that the pellucid, co- 
lourlefs, vifcid lens in the living eye is compofed of fibres 
and lamelle divided by regular fegments. The re-agents 
above mentioned totally alter its nature, rendering it 
opaque, and partially friable. The appearance of fibres is 
equally ftrong in the coagulated part of the blood, when im- 
merfed in the fame menitrua. But if we admit the radiated 
fibres of the feveral artificial lamine, the tranfparent na 
ture and refraétive powers of the lens are hardly recon- 
cileable with the idea of mufcular ac¢tion. The lens, in 
experiments made initantly after death, is not acted on by 
thofe ftimuli which fo evidently affeét mufcles under fimi- 
lar circumftances. No change of figure, no aétion of its 
comporent parts, can be feen on the application of electri- 
city. In fhort, if we confider the peculiar appearance of 
the recent lens, its perfect tranfparency in a healthy ftate, 
and its peculiar difeafes ; the want of cellular tiffue, of red 
blood-veffels, and nerves, the deficiency of fenfibility and 
contractility, animal, or organic, indeed, of all properties 
poffefled by the common mufcular fibre, we muft conclude 
that no fufficient proofs of mufcularity exift. A fuppofed 
neceflity for the prefence of mufcular fibres, in order to ac- 
count for certain fuppofed changes in the figure of the lens 
fubfervient to the accommodation of the eye to different 
diftances, has given rife to an opinion, hitherto unwarranted 
by anatomical inveftigation. 

The chryitalline is contained in a tranfparent membranous 
capfule, compofed of two portions; one of thefe is derived 
from the hyaloidea, inferted into the capfule on its anterior 
furface, beyond its greatelt circumference, and already de- 
{cribed under the name of membranula corone ciliaris. This 
is probably continued over the whole anterior furface, but 
cannot be demonftrated fo extenfively ; towards the cir- 
cumference it is manifeft by a tranfverle fection of the canal 
ef Petit. The hyaloidea is in clofe union with the pofterior 

art of the proper capfule, but may be feparated from it. 

he proper capfule, thus maintained in its fituation, forms 2 
complete bag, between which and the furface of the lene 

C2 we 


EY FE 


we find a fmall quantity of tranfparent aqueous fluid, more 
abundant on the arterior fide, and efcaping inftantly when 
the capfule is wounded, (aguula Morgagnit.) Its quantity 
is very {mall in the recent eye. Haller believes it to be 
produced by tranfudation from the lens; probably it is fe- 
ereted by the capfule, and prevents the adhefion of the op- 
pofed furtaces. The anterior part of the capfule is more 
elaftic than the pofterior. he latter, as it can be fepa- 
parated from the hyaloidea, is thinner and fofter, but {till 
thicker than that membrane. It contraéts and becomes 
Opaque by immerfion in boiling water: fimilar effets, but 
in a lefs degree, are produced by acids; it is not altered 
by alkalies; it becomes yellow by remaining in the air, 
The texture of the capfule is but little known. It is fup- 
plied by veffels from the central artery, which penetrates 
the vitreous humour. After a minute injection in the 
foetus, a {mall trunk can be perceived coming from this ar- 
tery, giving off numerous radiating branches on the pofterior 
furface of the capfule. Some of thefe have been even 
traced into the fubftance of the lens; but no fuch veffels 
can be feen in the adult. Veffels have been traced alfo 
croffing from the choroid proceffes to the circumference of 
the capfule. Some of thefe may be continued to the lens 
itfelf; but, if they exift»at all, they muft be extremely 
minute. 

The aqueous humour is a limpid tranfparent fluid, occupy- 
ing the curvilinear fpace between the chryttalline, the front 
of the corpus ciliare, and the cornea. ‘This cavity 1s di- 
vided by the iris into two unequal parts, communicating with 
each other by the opening of the pupil. The larger portion 
being between the iris and the cornea, the {maller between 
the iris and the lens ; the firft is called the anterior, and the 
laft the potterior chamber of the eye. Much pains have been 
taken, by freezing the eye, to afcertain the relative dimen- 
fions of thefe. The aqueous humoer weighs generally be- 
tween four and five grains; the exaét quantity in each 
chamber, and the dimenfions of thefe cavities, have been molt 
carefully afcertained by Petit ; and the refults of his invefti- 
gations are contained in the Memoires de l’Academie des 
Sciences. The very exiftence of a pofterior chamber has 
been doubted; but the moft accurate refearches fhew that 
there is always a {pace between the front of the lens and 
the pofterior furface of the iris, occupied by aqueous 
humor. : 

The aqueous humour refembles the fluid contained in the 
cells of the membrana hyaloidea in its compofition ; it has 
the fame fpecific gravity, and the fame proportions of 
albumen, gelatine, and water, and muriate of foda, ac- 
cording to the obfervations of Mr. Chenevix. It offers the 
fame phenomena when expofed to the aétion of fimilar 
chemical agents. ‘This humour is probably contained in a 
fine capfule, fomewhat fimilar to thofe belonging to the 
other humours. We can obferve at leaft an extremely fine 
membrane lining the pofterior furface of the cornea, re- 
fle&ted from its circumference to the anterior furface of the 
iris, and advancing over that membrane towards the open- 
ing of the pupil; to the aperture of which it cannot how- 
ever be traced. ‘This membrane may poffibly be continued 
through the pupil, and line the pofterior chamber. We 
fuppofe it to fecrete the aqueous humour. This may be 
furnifhed perhaps by the arteries of the iris, or ciliary pro- 
ceffes. It is very rapidly renewed after wounds in the 
cornea. , 

Mufeles of the globe.—The globe of the eye is fituated 
towards the front of the orbit, fupported by a cufhion of 
foft and yielding fat, and receiving the infertion of various 
mufcles, which execute its rapid and varied motions, Thefe 


arife from the bony orbit ; five coming from the polterior 
part, at the apex of the cone, and one near the front edge. 
They follow different directions towards oppolite parts of 
the eye-ball; azd are named from their direétion, or ap- 
parent a¢tion, the four ftraight, and two oblique mufcles ; 
or the elevator, depreflor, asductor, adductor, great and 
{mall rotators of the eye. The four recti are clofely con- 
need at their poflerior attachment, fo as to form part of 
the fides of a hollow cone, of which the bafe is the bulb of 
the eye, and the form nearly the fame as that of the orbit. 
In this {pace are contained, befides fat, the ciliary arteries,, 
the ciliary nerves, and lenticular ganglion, and the large optic 
nerve. Thefe four mufcles, arifing by {mall tendinous ends, 
become prefently flefhy and of increafed fize, which dimi- 
nifhes as they arrive at the middle of the bulb, the mufcles. 
terminating in flattendons. In the latter part of their courfe 
they are clofely invefted by a cellular fheath, which conneéts 
them with the anterior part of the orbit, and is continued on. 
each fide, conneéting the tendons in fome meafure, and 
paffing forwards between the fclerotica and conjunétiva.. 
The tendons of the re€ti proceed beyond the middle of the 
bulb, which is flightly hollowed externally for their recep- 
tion, and are attached, at about equal diftances from the 
cornea, on four oppofite fides. Thefe tendons are no where 
im conta€t with each other, not even at their termination, 
which is their broadeft part ; and are fo clofely united with 
the {clerotica, as not to be feparated from it without mani-~ 
feft laceration. Mr. Home, and Mr. Pierce Smith affert, in 
the Philofophical Tranfactions, that the tendons not only 
pafs to the anterior part of the {clerotica, but are continued 
in one united fheet over the cornea. This very ancient 
opinion, produced as a new and important difcovery, has 
long fince been overturned by the moft eminent anatomitts, 
and fcarcely requires difcuffion here. Neither would the 
reprefentation, if well founded, affift us in explaining the 
phenomena of vifion, or the motions of the eye. The 
tendons are inferted very confiderably beyond the tranfverfe 
vertical diameter of the globe, gaining thereby an extent of 
power, which they could not poffefs if attached behind that 
line. The conftruction is plainly fubfervient to the motions 
of the globe ; any further ufe is perhaps problematical. 

The redus fuperior, aitollens of Albinus, is attached pofte- 
riorly, between the levator palpebre fuperioris and the 
foramen opticum, by fhort tendinous fibres; it pafles 
nearly horizontally, above the optic nerve, and, turning over 
the bulb, is attached to the anterior part of the fclerotica, 
about 4th of an inch from the edge of the cornea, It 
covers, anteriorly, the globe of the eye and the tendon of 
the fuperior oblique; pofteriorly, the optic nerve, the 
ophthalmic artery, and the nafal branch of the ophthalmic 
nerve. Above it, lies the levator palpebra fuperioris. 

The redus inferior, depreffor of Albinus, refembles the 
preceding in form, but is {maller in bulk, fituated on the 
lower part of the orbit. It is attached behind by a tendon 
common to it with the abduétor and addu€tor; a tendon 
fixed to the fphenoidal bone near the fella turcica, and 
paffing through the foramen lacerum orbitale; it divides 
into three portions, one for each of thefe muicles. The 
rectus inferior paffes horizontally forwards, and is united to 
the f{clerotica oppofite to the infertion of the rectus fuperior, 
It correfponds below to the floor of the orbit ; above it are 
the optic nerve at fome diftance, and in the interval the 
nerve of the third pair. 

The redus externus, abduor, Alb. has a greater length of 
mufeular belly than any of the four, which it otherwife 
much refembles. It has two attachments pofteriorly ; one 
to the tendon before mentioned, the other, ati to 

6 ae 


EqY #: 


that of the reftus fuperior, is derived from a ligamentous 
band croffing obliquely the upper part of the foramen lace- 
rum. Between thefe attachments a fiffure is left for the 
paflage of the nerve of the third pair, of the fixth pair, and 
of the nafal branch of the ophthalmic. The mufcle itfelf 
proceeds obliquely to the outer fide of the globe, and is 
united to the anterior part of the fclerotica, at about the 
fame diftance from the cornea as the two preceding mufcles, 
Onits outer fide are the furface of the orbit, and the lachry- 
mal gland; on the inner the optic nerve, the nerve of the 
fixth pair, and the ophthalmic ganglion. 

The reéfus internus, adduGor, Alb. lies on the inner fide of 
the orbit. It is attached behind to the common tendon, and 
to the inner fide of the foramen opticum, as far as the origin 
of the re@tus fuperior. It paffes, in a ftraight courfe, to 
the inner fide of the globe, and terminates in a manner 
analogous to the reft. It is the fhorteft, and the thickeft of 
the four reti mufcles ; the former circumftance arifing from 
the relative form and pofition of the orbit and the eye- 
ball. ; 

OF the two oblique mufcles, one arifes from the bottom 
of the orbit as the reéti, the other from its anterior, and 
internal part. The firft of thefe, the obliguus fuperior, or 
trochlearis, is attached pofteriorly to the internal and upper 
part of the orbit, about two lines from the foramen opti- 
cum, by fhort tendinous fibres. The mufeular portion is 
{mall and fomewhat rounded, and paffes towards thie internal 
angular procefs, where it terminates in a delicate tendon, 
which paffles through a cartilaginous pulley fixed to the 
upper fide of the orbit. This pulley is formed by a cartila- 
ginous plate, with its edges turned upwards and attached 
to the orbit, fo as to form a complete tube, fituated 
obliquely, of about a quarter of an inch in length. The 
pulley is bound to the orbit by ligamentous fibres at both 
its ends, and efpecially in front. Soemmerring has defcribed a 
* ligamentum lunatum ex arcuatis fibris tendineis {plenden- 
tibus compofitum,” pafling between the edge of the orbit 
and the pulley, and preventing it from being drawn back- 
wards in the a¢tions of the mulcles of the eye. This canal 
is lined by a fynovial membrane, which continues to 
inveft the tendon of the obliquus fuperior, after it leaves 
the trochlea to its infertion in the globe. The tendon is 
reflected at an acute angle, and defcending a little back- 
wards and outwards, paffles under the re€tus fuperior, and 
terminates below it on the outer, pofterior, and upper 
furface of the fclerotica, about half way between the optic 
nerve and the edge of the cornea. It correfponds, in the 
firft part of its courfe, to the orbit within, the optic nerve 
without, the reétus fuperior above, and reétus internus 
below ; in the fecond its tendon lies between the conjunc- 
tiva, the reGius fuperior, and the eye-ball. 

The obliquus inferior is fixed by a {mall tendon to the in- 
terior edge of the orbit, rather below and on the outer fide 
of the opening of the duétus nafalis. It pafles obliquely 
vutwards and backwards, between the reétus inferior and the 
orbit, and turning upwards, between the globe and the 
rectus externus, is attached by a tendinous expanfion to the 
felerotica at the fuperior part of its outer fide, behind the 
infertion of the obliquus fuperior. 

The immediate actions of the re@i mufcles are’ fimply 
thofe of direéting the axis of the eye towards different 
points. According to their attachments they will elevate 
or deprefs the pupil, turn it towards the nofe or the temple. 
By the differently combined aétions of thefe mufcles, the 
eye may be moved in any of the intermediate angles. By 
the fucceflion of fuch actions it may be moved rapidly round 
in the orbit. In all thefe cafes the action of one mufcle is 


moderated by itsoppofite. The motions of rotationinwards 
and outwards, motions in which the eye does not move 
from its place, but only on its axis, are executed, the firft 
by the fuperior, the lait by the inferior oblique. By the 
united ation of the fix we are enabled to preferve the eye 
in the fame relative pofitios with regard to the object, 
whether it be at motion, or at re(t; and whether the head is 
fixed er moving in any direétion, fo as to alter its pofition 
with refpeét to the objet; in fhort we can by their means 
dire& the eye to any point, and keep it fixed there under 
any change of the fituation of either. To ufe the expreffive 
words of Mr. Hunter, “ the objeét becomes as it were the 
centre of motion or fixed point, commanding the dire@tion 
of the actions of the eye, as the north demands the direction 
of the needle, let the box in which it is placed be moved in 
what direétion it may.”? From the two eyes being always 
thrown on the fame objeéts, and the wiil not being able to 
change the direétion of one of them only, for inftance to 
deprefs the left while the right is elevated, they are always 
feen to correfpond in their motions, which are executed in 
the two eyes by the oppofite mufcles. If the eyes are di- 
rected to the right for example, it will be inftantly feen that 
the rectus internus of the left eye, and the rectus externus of 
the right will be principally employed. The will extends 
only to the moving both the eyes at the fame inflant; we 
have no power over either feparately. 

The itraight muicles move the eye from objeé& to obje&, 
and keep its point of vifion fixed upon any particular one, 
be it moving or at reft, while the head remains a fixed point, 
while it moves progreflively with the eyes in following a 
moving objeét, and even infome cafes where the head and 
the obje& are moving in oppofite directions. They pro- 
duce the circular movement when the head is at reft ; and 
when the eye is to become fixed, the head performs the cir- 
cular movement. By thefe means the object, the axis of 
the eye, and the point of fenfation, are all preferved in the 
fame itraight line. But there are fome movements of the 
whole head, of which the eye is a part in which the itraight 
mufcles alone are not fufficient to effe& this, and where the 
oblique mufcles are efpecially called into aétion. ‘ Thus, 
when we look at an obje&, and at the fame time move our 
head to either fhoulder, it is moving in the arch of a circle, 
whofe centre is the neck. When the head is moved to- 
wards the right fhoulder, the fuperior oblique mufcle of the 
right fide aéts, and keeps the right eye fixed on the obje@ ; 
and a fimilar effe&t is produced on the left eye by the action 
of its inferior oblique mufcle: when the head moves in a 
contrary direction, the other oblique mufcles produce the 
fame effe@. As this motion of the head feldom takes place 
uncombined with its other motions, fome of the ftraight 
and oblique mufeles will be employed at the faine time, ac- 
cording as the motions are more or lefs compounded.”? 

It has not been clearly determined whether thefe mufcles 
can alter the figure of the eye, nor in what direGion the 
change would be produced, although confiderable labour 
and ingenuity have been beftowed on the fubje&. Mr. 
Home advances, that an increafed curvature of the cornea, 
an elongation of the axis of vifion, and a motion of the 
chryftalline lens; all which changes he fuppofes to have 
taken place in the adjuftment of the eye to view objects at 
different diftances, depend in great meafure on the contrac- 
tion of the four itraight mufcles. Compreffion of the eye 
will force the aqueous humour againft the centre of the 
cornea, while the glébe is at the fame time fteadied, fo 
that the radius of the curvature of the cornea will be ren- 
dered fhorter, and, its diftance from the retina increafed. 
When the recent eye of an adult was diftended by air — 

blown 


EGvaeE: 


blown through an opening made in the optic nerve, the axis 
of vilion was elongated from 17-20ths of an inch to 174. 
Mr. Home {uppofes that in this cafe preffure is made in the 
mott unfavourable way for producing the greateft elongation 
in the axis of vifion, and that a lateral preffure from with- 
out would be more effectual ; this preflure he believes to be 
made by the reéti-mufcles. That the eye-ball does not re- 
cede in the orbit, under thefe circumftances, he concludes 
to be fufficiently proved by its not having done fo in his nu- 
™merous experiments. It is not demonitrated, however, 
that any action of the reéti, or at lealt any powerful ation, 
took place in any of thefe experiments. Dr. Hofack, who 
believes in the elongation of the axis by mufcular aétion, 
{uppofes the four fecti to make the compreffion, and the 
oblique mufcles to keep the eye inits proper dire¢tion and 
fituation. To us it 1s yet problematical, whether any 
change is produced in the axis of the eye by the action of 
its mufcles. How far fuch changes could contribute to the 
adjuftment of the eye to diftances, will be more properly 
confidered hereafter. 

The great mobility of the eye has rendered this organ 
well fuited to exprefs many of our wants, to affilt, in fome 
degree, our geftures, or our voice, and to fupply their place 
when their aétion fails. The part performed by the eye, 
in exprefling the different paffions, the f{pirit which it gives 
to the other features, are intere{ting fubjects, on which our 
limits will not allow us to enlarge. 

The courfe of the optic nerve in the orbit, and its ter- 
mination in the retina, are defcribed in our account of that 
membrane. The other nerves of the orbit will be deferibed 
under the article Nerve. Some particulars concerning 
them will be found in the explanation of the plates repre- 
fenting the anatomy of the eye. ‘The arteries are derived 
principally from the ophthalmic, of which a defcription will 
be found under the article Artery. The veins of the 
globe of the eye join the vena ophthalmica cerebralis, which 
opens into the cavernous finus. The veins of the choroid 
and iris, as named by Walter, are an inferior, fhort, and an 
anterior long ciliary joining the infra-orbital vein ; an inter- 
nal ciliary, a fuperior ciliary, a pofterior and fome long 
ciliary veins, joining the trunk of the ophthalmic. Thefe 
veins return the blood carried to the eye by the ciliary 
arteries. They arife by very minute ramifications from the 
iris and the ciliary procefles, run for a fhort way in trunks, 
and perforate the f{clerotica in different parts, in a manner 
analogous to that of the ciliary arteries, but more particu- 
larly at its pofterior furface. The vene vorticofe of the 
choroid, having collected into trunks, follow the fame 
courfe. The vena centralis retine collects its branches 
from the antenor termination of the retina into three or 
four trunks, which unite into a fingle one, entering the 
eptic nerve in company with the central artery. ‘The reader 
will find a minute and moft complete defcription of the 
veins of the eye, in J. G. Walteri epiftola de venis oculi. 
Berolimi, 1778, 4to. 

The eye-brow, eye-lids, and lacrymal apparatus.—Confi- 
derable proteétion is afforded to the eye by the edge of the 
orbit, but its anterior furface is further guarded by feveral 
adventitious organs. ‘Thefe parts, to which Haller has 
given the name of “ tutamina oculi,’? confift of the eye- 
brow, the eye-lids, and the parts deftined to fecrete and 
remove the tears. 

The cye-brow is an arched eminence, covered with hair, 
placed at the bafe of the forehead, above-the upper eye-lid, 
extending from the root of the nofe to the temple. It 
differs very much in its length, breadth, and thicknefs, in 
aifferent individuals, and is generally very ftrongly marked 


inold age. The eye-brow, at its commencement on the 
nafal fide of the orbit, is at different diftances from its fel- 
low on the other fide; fometimes the two arches meet at 
the root of the nofe, at others there is an interval of more 
than half an inch. It defcribes but a flight curve, the 
convexity of which is turned upwards, and terminates at 
the temple by a pointed end. The eye-brow is formed by 
a thick doubling of the fkin covered by hairs, by cellular 
tiffue and fat, by a trong mufcle, and by bone. It has a 
plentiful fupply of blood-veffels and nerves. The fuper- 
ciliary ridge of the frontal bone contributes very effentially 
tothe prominence of the eye brow, cauling great variety in 
this re{peét in different perfons. ; 

The orbicularis palpebrarum, and the frontalis mufcles, 
fend many of their fibres into the fubftance of the brow, 
which are very clofely intermixed with the fibres of another 
mufcle, called from its office the corrugator /upercilii. Thiw 
mufcle is fhort, made up of numerous mufcular fibres, oc- 
cupying the fuperior and internal part of the bafe of the 
orbit. It is attached by fmall tendinous fibres, divided 
into two or three portions, to the protuberance above the 
nofe on the frontal bone ; it pafles, making a flight curve, 
over the internal half of the orbitar arch, and terminaces 
by uniting its fibres with thofe of the orbicularis and fron- 
talis, by which it is wholly concealed. It is feparated 
from the frontal bone by the veflels and nerves coming from 
the orbit. 

The eye-brows are covered by hairs of different 
lengths, which vary much in number, in colour, and ir 
length, in different individuals. They are more numerous 
towards the nofe, and coarfer, ‘Vheir colour is generally 
the fame with that of the hair of the head. They are 
generally thicker in brown than in fair perfons, The 
hairs are difpofed obliquely, pointing outwards, and ftand- 
ing off from the fkin ; the inferior hairs are turned obliquely 
upwards, the fuper.or obliquely downwards, fo as to de- 
cuffate by their points, and form an angular projecting line 
in the middle of the brow. They’ are commonly, but er« 
roneoufly, figured as horizontal. When the eye-brows 
meet, the hairs next the nofe moft commonly point up- 
wards. Eagh hair forms a curve according to its place, and 
is not ftraight. It commences by a bulb in the fkin, be- 
comes fine, gradually {wells in the middle, and terminates’ 
in an extremely fine point. 

The eye-brow is fufceptible of various motions, and 
forms, by its prominent fituation and mobility, a very 
principal feature in the expreffion of different paflions. It 
will be elevated by the action of the occipito-frontalis, and 
confiderably lowered by the orbicularis palpebrarum. The 
corrugator fupercilii, having its fixed point near the root 
of the nofe, will by its aétion contract and wrinkle the fkin 
of the brow perpendicularly, drawing the whole towards 
the nofe, producing what is called a frown, When we re~ 
gard a diftant object, or one which reflects but little light, 
we elevate the eye-brow ; we lower and contraét it on the 
contrary, when the object is near, or very bright, or the 
fenfibility of the eye from any caufe, too great. Thus it 
protects the organ from the impreffion of too vivid a light, 
and guards it in fome meafure from foreign bodies. 

The eye-lids are two moveable bodies, placed in front of 
the eye-ball, and occupying the whole opening of the bony 
orbit, which determines their extent ; they are diftinguifhed - 
into upper and lower. The upper lid, the largeft and 
moft moveable, when lowered, covers the principal part of 
the eye, defcending much below its tranfverfe diameter, 
‘infra aquatorem oculi defcendens ;”? the under lid rifing 
but a fmall way to meet it. On the convex anterior furface 


ae ak Je 


of each we obferve a few wrinkles following the curve of 
the lid, varying in number according to the pofition of the 
part. When the eye is open there is always one large fold 
of the fkin in each eye-lid: this is more particularly marked 
in the upper, in confequence of the levator palpebra draw- 
ing it under the edge of the orbit. The wrinkles are 
effaced when the eye-lids are clofed in fleep, fo that they 
exhibit an uniformly f{mooth furface. The fkin of the 
upper lid is continuous above with that of the brow; the 
fkin of the lower with the cheek; the only line of diftinc- 
tion is the edge of the orbit, and the depreffion within the 
margin. The pofterior furface of the eye-lids is concave, 
{mooth, in contaé& with the globe, and always moift. The 
edge of each lid is ftraight for about one-fourth of an inch 
next the nofe, where it correfponds to the caruncula lacry- 
malis. In the reft of its extent it is flightly concave, cor- 
refponding to the projeétion of the eye-ball, and of con- 
fiderable thicknefs, which diminifhes towards the temple. 
The anterior margin of this edge is angular, and fupports 
ranks of fine hairs, called eye-lafhes; the pofterior is be- 
velled off, fo as to form with the globe, when the eye is 
fhut, a triangular canal, narrow towards the temple, and 
gradually increafing in fize towards the nofe. It is_parti- 
cularly large at the angle, where the ftraight and concave 
portions of the eye-lid meet, which is marked by a pro- 
jecting papilla, perforated by the punétum lacrymale. 
From this point outwards, we obferve alfo, between the 
two margins, a line of {mall holes, the openings of fe- 
baceous glands. The two lids are united at each end, 
forming two angles, or canthi, of which the nafal or in- 
ternal is a little rounded off, and called the great angle ; 
the temporal or external is acute, and termed the lefler 
angle. The difference is produced by the alteration in the 
outline of the lid above-mentioned, and by the difpofition 
of the tendon of the orbicularis mufcle. The opening 
between the lids in different perfons varies a little in its 
tranfverfe diameter, which is meafured by the two angles. 
The perpendicular diameter, depending on the a@ion of 
mufcles, is conftantly changing, and determined by the de- 
gree of their contraction, We believe it is to the greater or 
lefs tranfverfe, and vertical diameters of the opening of the 
eye-lids in various individuals, and not to any great va- 
riation in the bulk of the globe, that the apparent fize of 
the eye is principally owing. The apparent difference in 
the volume of large, or {mall eyes, is certainly greater 
than can be attributed to a difference in the globe, which 
we know to vary but inconfiderably. 

The eye-lids are compofed of many different tiffues, dif- 

ofed in layers, one beneath the other, over a broad carti- 
age, which gives the figure to the whole. The curtain 
formed by thefe is not fuiliciently thick to prevent {trong 
lights from affeCting the eye. Beginning from the anterior 
furface, we find fucceffively a fine fkin, a mufcle, a fibrous 
_ expantion, and a plate of cartilage, on the pofterior fide of 
which are febaceous glands covered by a mucous membrane. 
In the upper lid there is a fecond mufcle between the ante- 
rior furface of the cartilage and the fibrous layer. As the 
cartilage fupports the reft, we fhall commence with it. 

In the fubitance of the oppofed margins of the eye lids we 
find thin pieces of cartilage, named the farfi, extending 
through nearly the whole length of the lids.” Thefe differ 
in form and fize. The tarfus of the upper lid is broad in 
the middle, narrowing gradually at each end, refembling the 
fegment of a circle, the arc of which is towards the margin 
of the orbit, and the chord oppofite the lower eye-lid. It 
is much larger than the lower, which is of nearly uniform 
breadth throughout, correfponding to the external figure of 


the inferior lid. The convex anterior furface of each cor- 
refponds to the mufcle, the pofterior is lined by a membrane 
between which and the cartilage are glands. The connected 
edge of each, thin, in the upper lid convex, in the lower 
nearly ftraight, gives attachment to fome ligamentous fibres. 
The ciliary or oppofite margin is thick, covered only by the 
conjunctiva ; its particular figure has been already deferibed 
as contributing to form the triangular canal between the 
clofed lids. The outer extremity of each is fine aed pointed, 
the nafal or internal is rounded, and of greater thicknefs. 
The tarfi are thin and flexible, fibro-cartilaginous in ftruGure, 
of a yellow colour. As the folid part of the eye-lids, they 
favour their gliding over the furface of the globe of the eye, 
keeping them equally extended in every movement. When 
the upper lid is elevated, its tarfus pafles in fome degree 
under the edge of the orbit, keeping the furface next the 
globe uniformly fmooth, while the fkin forms a deep fold 
in front, the tarfus retreating from it partly as it glides far 
back over the globe. The broad ligaments of the tarfi are 
fibrous produétions, extending from the edge of the orbit to 
the oppofite margins of thefe cartilages. They are very 
evident, and of confiderable thicknefs next the orbits, where 
they appear to be continuous with its periofteum. As 
they recede thence, they diminifh very much in thick- 
nefs, a few fibres only remaining, which are attached to the 
tarfi, the intervals being completed by cellular tiffue. They 
are pierced in many places to give paflage to veflels and 
nerves. ‘This fibrous layer is generally moit diftin€& towards 
the temporal fide of the eye-lids, where it is more evidently 
attached to the tarli, the fibres decuflating each other be- 
tween the leffer angle of the eye-lids and the oppofite angle 
of the orbit, fo as to forma tolerably firm band, conne@ing 
them together, fimilar in fome meafure to the tendon of theor- 
bicularis on the nafal fide. In the upper lid, the ligamentous 
bands lie between the orbicularis and levator ; in the lower, 
between the firft of thefe mufcles and the membrane lining 
the lid. They fearcely deferve the name of tarfal ligaments, 
but they form a tendinous arch round the orbit, the contents 
of which they affiit in protecting. The tarfus of the upper 
lid, when elevated, pafles behind its ligament. 

The mufcles of the eye.lids are two in number; viz. one 
common to both, the orbicu/aris palpebrarum, another be- 
longing to the upper eye-lid only, the /ewaror palpebre fu- 


perioris 


This laft mufele is thin, long, and flat, placed in the upper 
part of the orbit, from the kottom of which it arifes, in 
front of the foramen opticum, immediately before the origin 
of the rectus fuperior. It is tendinous at this point, and 
foon becomes flefhy, paffes forwards, making a gentle curve 
over the convexity of the globe, {preading as it, proceeds. 
Oppofite the globe of the eye it forms gradually a thin ten- 
dinous expanfion, which turns downwards, and is attached 
partly to the fuperior margin of the tarfus, partly to its 
ligament on the temporal fide, by means of which it is con- 
nected with the outer angle of the orbit, the remainder of 
the tendinous fibres paffing down in front of the tarfus to its 
ciliary edge. In this latter part of its courfe, it is clofely 
connected with the orbicularis in front, adhering by cel- 
lular tiflue to the tarfus on its pofterior furface. The upper 
lid, from its mufcle terminating in a broad diverging apo- 
neurofis, fpread over the front of the tarfus, is further 
{trengthened than the lower, which has only its ligament to 
protect the lower part. 

If we now examine the two lids, fuppofing them clofed, 
we find their temporal fide efpecially defended by a fbrous 
expanfion, fupplying the place of the bony orbit, which, by 
the obliquity of its bale, leaves the eye mere expofed on 

that 


EY £. 


that part ; we find their nafal fide with but little of this 
fibrous covering, which was lefs neceflary, as the ball is 
defended by the projection of the nofe; we obferve, more- 
over, the upper lid forti-ed by an additional fbrous layer, 
formed by the tendon of its levator mufcle, a conitruGtion 
the more required here, as it executes almoft alone the mo- 
tion by which the lids are clofed, and is more dire¢tly in the 
way of external injuries. 

Externally to the parts we have hitherto defcribed is a 
thin, broad, oval mufcle, formed of concentric fibres, with 
a line of divifion in the middle, correfponding to the open- 
ing of the eye-lids, placed in front of the opening of the 
bale of the orbit, occupying a great portion of the upper 
part of the face, and named orbicularis palpebrarum. Its 
fibres on the nafal fide have atriple origin: ene above, from 
the nafal procefs of the fuperior maxillary and the orbital 
procefs of the frontal bones; another, below, from the an- 
terior edge of the lacrymal groove and the neighbouring part 
of the bale of the orbit ; a third, between thefe two, to the 
two edges and front of a fmall tendon, which paffes tranf- 
verfely from the nafal procefs of the maxillary bone to the 
internal commiffure of the eye-lids, where it divides, and 
becomes conneéted with each tarfus. The tendon in its 
paflage croffes over an aponeurofis which proteéts the lacry- 
mal groove, and adheres intimately to it; from this aponeu- 
rofis alfo a few mufcular fibres are derived. ‘The fibres 
arifing from the two firft of thefe points pafs outwards in 
oppolite curves above and below the orbit, and join each 
other at its temporal angle, after having formed round the 
lids an oval plane of fome breadth, and well defined ; a few 
fcattered fibres are intermixed with thofe of the corrugator 
and frontalis above, others are loft in the cellular tiflue and 
fat of the cheek below, or fometimes join fome of the 
mufcles of the face. On the temporal fide of the orbit the 
orbicularis is very thin, it 1s much ftronger towards the nofe. 
The fibres which are derived from the tendon of the mufcle 
are {pread over each eye-lid, following the fame direction as 
the preceding, with which they are continuous, and uniting 
at the external fide of the temporal commiflure. Thefe fibres 
are generally paler than the others, and we fometimes can 
obferve them meeting in a tendinous line at the leffer angle. 
Clofe to the edge of the lids we find a ftronger bundle of 
fibres, following nearly a ftraight courfe, to which the name 
of ciliaris has been given-- "The orbicularis is connected with 
the integuments in front by cellular tiflue. It covers the 
corrugator fupercilii, the margin of the bafe of the orbit, 
and fome mufcles of the face. It is feparated from the 
membrane lining the lids by the ligaments above defcribed, 
and in the upper by the tendon of its levator. 

The febaceous glands of the eye-lids, known under the 
name of the Meibomian glands, are lodged in grooves hol- 
lowed on the polterior furface of the tarfal cartilages. They 
confift of numerous clufters of follicles, ranged fide by fide, 
reprefenting yellow lines, the direétion of which is vertical, 
or tranfverfe to the length of the cartilage. Thefe lines are 
more numerous in the upper lid, where we may count be- 
tween 30 and 40; in the lower they do not exceed the 
loweft of thefe numbers. They vary fomewhat in breadth, 
and much in length, efpecially in the upper lid, in a manner 
correfponding to the breadth of the tarfus; there are often 
irregular fhort lines between the longer ones. ‘They are not 
fo long in the lower, its cartilage being much narrower. 
Thefe lines are generally parallel ; fome of them may be 

‘ ftraight, others tortuous, feparated by intervals unequal in 
breadth. ‘T'wo of the lines often unite to form one, fome 
with their angle of union turned towards the ciliary edge, 
ethers meeting in an arch convex towards the connected edge 


of the tarfus. The follicles which form them are excced- 
ingly numerous, difpofed in bunches; they communicate 
with each other, and open near the pofterior edge of the 
tar{us by a row of minute holes, Bbefore-mentionsay Thefe 
follicles fecrete an urCtuous fluid, which hardens after deathy 
and may be prefled through the holes in a folid form, re- 
fembling little worms. 

The parts we have defcribed are covered anteriorly by the 

fkin, and on the pefterior furface by a membrane continuous 
with it, called conjunétiva. The fkin invefting the eye-lids 
is much thinner than that of the brow or cheek, and becomes 
more and more fenfible as it approaches the ciliary margin 
of the tarfus. A loofe cellular tiffue, in which we never 
find any fat, but frequently an effufion of ferous fluid, lies 
between the fkin, and the orbicularis behind it. — 
: As the fkin arrives at the anterior margin of the eye-lid, 
it is perforated by numerous holes, from which the cilia, or 
eye lafbes, are produced. Thefe hairs form two or more 
rows, are more numerous, and longer in the upper lid; they 
are more numerous and longer allio in the middle of each, 
than at the extremities, and we find only a very few fine hairs 
between the pun¢tum lacrymale and the nafal angle. Each 
hair is curved in its dire€tion ; beginning from a bulb, it is 
at firft very fine, {wells in the middle, and terminates in a 
conical extenuated point. In the upper lid they are firtt 
dire@ted downwards, turning up towards the point; in the 
under the direGtion is inverfe. They differ in colour in 
different perfons, but are generally, though not always, of 
the colour of the reft of the hair. 

At the line formed by the eye-lathes, the fkin becomes 
changed in appearance and itructure, and we obferve con- 
tinued from it 2 mucous membrane, called, from its office, 
the conjun@iva, which, after invefting the pofterior furface 
of the tarfi, is reflected over the Fiat of the eye-ball. 
Tracing it from the edge of the upper lid, we find it firit 
perforated by the mouths of the Meibomian glands, dipping 
into the canal of which the punétum lacrymale is the open- 
ing, and {pread over the lid a fhort way beyond the convex 
edge of the tarfus, Abandoning the lid, it turns over the 
globe, two-thirds of which 1t covers, below is refle&ted again 
to be extended over the lower lid to the ciliary margin. 
From this difpofition the conjunétiva prefents two iurfaces, 
one connected with the parts it covers, the other expofed. 
The latter is fmooth, and conftantly moiftened by fecreted 
fluids. The former is united to the lids and the globe by 
cellular tiffue. On the eye-lids it adheres clofely to the 
tarfi, more loofely to the fibrous membrane, to the orbicu- 
laris below, and to the tendinous expanfion of the levator 
above. In quitting the lids to inveft the globe, it forms a 
loofe circular fold which correfponds behind to the fat in 
the orbit, and which, extending further in the upper lid, is 
lodged during its elevation in a fmall angular {pace left for 
it in the fat behind the margin of the orbit. By this means, 
tran{verfe folds in the conjunétiva, fuch as we have remarked 
in the fkin, are prevented when the upper eye-lid is raifed. 
On the globe of the eye the conjunétiva adheres but loofely 
to the {clerotica, giving to it a fmooth and gliftening afpeét. 
On the cornea it adheres very clofely, and is very thin. In 
this courfe the conjunctiva forms at the internal angle of the 
eye a femi-lunar fold, concave outwards, fomething like the 
third eye-lid in birds. This fold, which appears larger 
when the eye is turned towards the nofe, difappears when it 
is turned far towards the temple. The conjunétiva may be 
confidered as a mucous membrane, from the general charaéter 
of its ftruéture: it has not, however, a villous furface, 
neither is the fluid which it fecretes of much confiftence, 
in fome particular inflammations of this membrane it becomes 

thick 


Te es 


thick and yellow, Although defcribed under the fingle 
epithet of conjunétiva, and obvioufly a fingle and continuous 
membrane, its organization difiers very confiderably at dif- 
ferent parts. Anatomitts call that portion which lines the 
lids, conjundina palpebrarum ; and that which covers the 
globe, conjundiva oculi. The former contains very nume- 
rous red veffels, vifible in its natural ftate, and o¢eafionin 
the membrane to aflume a general rednels when injedted: 
The latter has very few apparent blood-veffels, and its 
whitenefs conflitutes the white of the eye. But this part 
under inflammation becomes entirely covered with veflels 
carrying red: blood, ‘That portion of the membrane cover- 
ing the cornea 1s again very different trom what is connected 
to the felerotica, being completely tranfparent, ‘That the 
conjunctiva is aétually continued over the cornea cannot, 
however, be doubted. Yor, although the latter part is in- 
fenfible, its anterior furface is endowed with the fame ex- 
guifite feeling as the reft of the conjunétiva. In amphibia, 
which fhed their epidermis at certain feafons, this membrane 
comes off from the front of the eye with the reft of the 
cuticle; the fame fact may be obferved in {kinning an eel, 
end in the zemni, or mus typhlus of Pallas it is covered with 
fine hairs. It is very fenfible, and irritated by apparently 
flight caufes, The eye-lids are fupplied with veflels and 
nerves in great abundance from the neighbouring trunks. 
Such is the ftruéture of the eye-lids. ‘Their ufe appears 
to be that of covering the oe during fleep, of protecting 
jt from accidental violence, of excluding the light when of- 
fenfive, and of keeping the furface of the eye conftantly 
moilt, by {preading a fluid, the fources of which we have 
vet to deferibe, uniformly over its furface, Thefe purpofes 
are fully provided for by their organization and difpofition, 
and executed by the mufcles which enter into their ftructure, 
The cartilages, in fome meafure fupported by ligaments, 
referve an uniformly imooth furface ; the febaceous glands 
eerete an unctuous fubilance, which prevents the adherence 
vf the lids in fleep, or when brought into contact by the 
rapid and frequently repeated action of winking ; which, in 
conjunétion with the cilia, prevent infects, duit, orany {mall 
bodies from injuring the furface of the globe ; the conjunc- 
tiva prefents two moiltened polifhed furfaces, which eafily 
jide over each other, and it favours, by the loofenefs of its 
attachment, the motions of thelids, With regard to thefe 
Jaft, when the eye is opened after fleep, the lower lid dees 
not alter its fituation, the opening is made by the upper 
lid afcending by the attion of its levator mufcle under the 
edge of the orbit, where there is fpace to receive it filled 
only by loofe fat and cellular tiffue, If the opening of the 
eye-lids fucceeds a clofure of them, effected by the aétion 
of the orbicularia, this mufcle, by its relaxation, concurs in 
producing their feparation. ‘This will appear evident if we 
confider that the clofure of the eye is produced very differ. 
ently in the different flats of fleeping or waking. Inthe 
firft cafe the meeting of the lids is paffive, owing to the re- 
Taxation of the levator mufele, and the falling down of the 
epee lid; an effeét analogons to what is feen in a paralyfis 
of that mufcle, where the eye cannot be opened without 
external aid. Inthe lalt the clofure of the lids is active, 
produced by a contraction of the curved fibres of the 
orbicularis, which by this aGtion approach nearer to a itraight 
line. In the lait cafe alfo, the particular motion of the 
eye-lids, called winking, is aaied: in a great degree by the 
relaxation of the levator, and its alternate contraction, We 
believe this motion to be defigned to keep the furface of the 
eornea clean and moift, fit to tranimit the rays of light ; 
but it is alfo neceflary by the difpafition of the feveral parts ; 
. Vor. XIV. 


the levator not being able to remain in a flate of permanent 
contraction, fince it is a voluntary mufcle, is of neceffity 
relaxed at intervals, and caufes the motion, of winking, 
which is further aflifted perhaps by a flight ation of the 
orbicularis. Further, in clofing the eye-lids when awake, the 
orbicularis acts with lefs or greater energy. When we 
with to defend the eye from a vivid light, it contracts ftrongly 
in company with the corrugator fupercilfi, and colleéts the 
integuments of the forehead and cheeks in numerous folds 
to bury ag it were the eye more deeply. The orbicularis 
and Jevator are then to acertain point antagonilts, one oper- 
ing, the other clofing the eye-lids ; in fome cafes their actions 
are combined. 

Lacrymal apparatus.—The parts which remain yet to be 
deferibed, and which have been included under the general 
name of the lacrymal apparatus of the eye, are the lacry- 
mal gland and caruncle, the lacrymal points and ducts, the 
lacrymal fac, and the common canal leading into the nofe. 
In animals that live in air, the anterior furface of the eye 
would foon become dry, and be rendered foul by duft, or the 
numerous {mall bodies floating in the atmofphere, were it 
not conftantly bathed by a limpid fluid. A part of this we 
believe to be furnifhed by the conjunctiva; but its more 
abundant fource is from the facryma/ gland. It is ulually 
known by the name of the ¢ears. 

The lacrymal gland is fituated at the fuperior, anterior, 
or extegnal part of the orbit, -It is fomewhat flattened, 
nearly an inch in length, and half an inch in breadth. It 
is divided partially into two lobes, of which the internal 
and upper is the {malleft. From its flattened form we fhali 
confider it as having two furfaces. The upper convex fide 
correfponds to an oppofite depreffion in the bony orbit ; 
the concave inferior furface to the globe of the eye, and to 
the fuperior and external re¢ti mufcles, with which it is con- 
neéted by cellular tiffue. Of its two extremities, the internal, 
or that turned towards the nofe, is thin and narrow; the 
external and inferior end is broader, and of greater thick- 
nefs, There isa {mall ligament, firft defcribed and figured 
by Soemmerring, paffing from the exteraal and pofterior part 
of the Jacrymal foffa underneath the gland, which it re- 
tains in its fituation, The lacrymal gland is formed by 
many {mall lobes united by cellular tiffue, the veffels and 
nerves being lodged in. the intervals. Thefe little lobes are 
themfelves made up of {mall granules, inte the fubftance of 
which the veffels penetrate. It is fupplied with arteries 
from the lacrymal branch of the ophthalmic; with nerves 
from the lacrymal branch of the nerve of the fifth pair, 
The excretory ducts of this gland are very apparent in the 
larger animals; in man they are not fo readily perceived, 
Their number is generally feven ; they pafs out from the 
anterior edge of the gland, defcend in the fubftance of the 
upper lid between the ligament and the conjunctiva, on the 
furface of the lait of which they open on the temporal fide 
about $th of an inch above the convex edge of the tarfus. 
The dus have no communication with each other, 

The caruncula lacrymalis is a tmall reddith body fituated 
between the internal angle of the eye-lids, and oppofite fur. 
face of the globe of the eye. It is oblong and conical in 
form, its fummit correfponding ta the eye-lids. It differs 
much in colour, froma pale pink toa full red in different 
individuals. It is compofed of a number of mucous folli- 
cles, united by cellular tifflue, and covered by the con. 
junctiva. On minute examination we may find very fine 
hairs growing from its furface. It appears to fecrete a mus 
cous fluid, and perhaps from its fituation may alli the 
paflage of the tears into the lacrymal punéta. 

Oa 


EYE. 


On the outfide of the caruncle, at the angle where the 
curved and ftraight portions of the eye-lids meet, there is a 
{mall papilla in the margin of each lid perforated by a {mall 
hole which is always open, called the pundum lacrymale. 
There is a {mall interval between them and the openings of 
the moft internal of the Meibomian glands, nor are they 
placed exaétly in the fame row with them. The punéta 
are always more vifible in the living than in the dead fub- 
je&. They are not immediately oppofite to each other, but 
when the lids are clofed the inferior paffes up a little on the 
outfide of the fuperior ; they are both direéted a little back- 
wards. 

The puna lacrymalia form the openings of two fhort 
tubes, named the /acrymal dués, and diftinguifhed by the 
epithets fuperior and inferior, from their fituations in the 
two lids. Thefe canals are formed in the fubftance of 
the lids, and are neareft‘to their pofterior furface: they are 
larger than the area of the puncta, and the fuperior is ra- 
ther longer than the inferior. Their direction is nearly in- 
verfe ; the fuperior canal afcends for a fhort fpace, turns 
Inwards at an acute angle, and defcends obliquely ; the in- 
ferior firft paffes downwards, makes alfo an acute angle, 
and then goes obliquely upwards. The dire€tion of the 
fuperior canal maft vary as the lid is elevated or deprefled : 
the change, however, ean never be very confiderable, as the 
lid defcribes but a {mall {pace at the internal angle in any 
of its motions. The canals gradually approach each other, 
following the margin of the lids, and feparated by the ca- 
runcle; at the internal angle they unite to form a common 
du@, which is continued fora very little way behind the 
tendon of the orbicularis, before it opens into the lacrymal 
fac, fomewhat above the tendon. Sometimes thefe canals 
are feparated throughout by a thin partition, and open in 
the fac by two diftin& mouths; generally, however, this 
intervening membrane is not continued to the opening into 
the fac. The lacrymal canals are lined by a fine membrane 
continued from the conjunctiva. 

The Jacrymal fac is a membranous bag, lodged ina groove 
formed by the os unguis, and the nafal procefs of the fu- 
perior maxillary bone. It is of an oval form below, anda 
little flattened tranfverfely. It is covered on its anterior 
furface by a fibrous membrane attaclied to the circumference 
of the lacrymal groove, ftrongly connected with the ten- 
don, and with the mufcular fibres of the orbicularis. — On 
its external fide are the caruncle and the conjunétiva, and 
anterior to thefe the orbicularis and the fkin. The inner 
fide is clofely adherent to the lacrymal groove. The upper 
end of the fac is clofed, rounded, and extendsa little way 
above the tendon of the orbiculatis. The lower end termi- 
nates by a contracted portion, which opens into the nafal 
du&. On the external fuperior part of its interior furface 
we remark the openings of the lacrymal canals. The fac 
is formed by a mucous membraue continuous with the con- 
jun@tiva, and the membrane lining the nottrils, the latter of 
which it much refembles. It is invefted, where not lodged 
in the bone, by the fibrous membrane above-mentioned. 

The inferior end of the lacrymal fac is contracted by a 
circular fold of the membrane, through which it communi- 
cates with a pretty large tube, called the rafal dud, or dudus 
ad nafum, which opens below the inferior turbinated bone 
in the noftril. It is enclofed ina bony canal, formed by the 
union of the bones which furround the lacrymal fac, and at 
the lower end by the inferior turbinated bone. The du& 
is not quite half an inch in length; it is often contracted 
about its middle. Its dire€tion is from above obliquely 
downwards, and a little outwards and forwards, deferibing 


a gentle curve with the convexity infront, It opens in the 
inferior meatus narium by an oblique flit in the pituitary 
membrane, which is often fo loofe as to form a valve over 
the aperture. The area of the opening is never fo large as 
that of the du@, but it differs much in fize, fo thatin fome 
individuals an inftrument has been paffed into it from the an- 
terior opening of the noftrils. The membrane of the nafal 
du& is fimilar to that of the fac: we can obferve mucous 
crypte here and there on its furface. It adheres to the 
fibrous membrane lining the bony canal. 

We include, under the appellation “ears, the whole fluid 
poured out on the furface of the conjunctiva ; and produced 
in part by that membrane, but chiefly by the lacrymal 
gland. Superficial obfervation would lead a perfon to con- 
clude that its ordinary quantity is {mall, and only fuflicient, 
by lubricating the parts, to facilitate their motions. For 
we notice no actual fluid in the eye, and obferve merely a 
moilt {tate of the conjunétiva. When, however, the paflages 
which carry off the tears into the nofe are obitructed, aud 
the fluids which ordinarily defcend into the noftril, where 
they are evaporated by the conftant current of air through 
that cavity, flow over the cheek, we find that the natural 
quantity of the tears is very confiderable. As the con- 
junGtiva belongs to the clafs of mucous membranes; its fe= 
cretion has the properties which belong to thofe of fim- 
larly organized parts. This, when freed by evaporation: 
from the more aqueous portion of the tears, forms the in= 
cruftations obfervable about the eye-lids after fleep; and: 
would conftantly agglutinate their margins at that period, 
were they not defended from its action by the unétuous 
matter of the Meibomian glands, Hence, when the latter- 
parts do not furnifh this greafy fubftance, or when the eon- 
jundtiva, in a difeafed itate, pours out an increafed quan- 
tity of mucous fluid, the ciliary margins become adherent 
ina very difagreeable manner during fleep. The fecretion of 
the lacrymal gland is aqueous, but contains mueh faline mat-- 
ter. The chemift difcovers in it common falt, phofphate 
of lime, phofphate of foda, and foda in an apparently 
uncombined ftate. Indeed the bitterith faline tafte of the 
fluid produced in weeping is a cireumftance of common no- 
toriety. It appears probable, that the conjunétiva is the 
ordinary fource of the lacrymal fluid, which conftantly 
lubricates the globe and lids: but when any irritation affects 
the organ, as when a foreign body, a particle of duft, &c. 
is lodged within the lids, a large quantity of fluid is fud- 
denly poured out from the lacrymal gland, and often wathes- 
off the offending fubftance. The faline nature of this fhuid 
actually produces a degree of rednefs in the conjundtivay 
which the natural mucilaginous fecretion of that membrane 
does not occafion ; and this difference indicates a diverfity 
in the nature of the flaid. The tears furnifhed in fuch a. 
cafe are much more copious than the lacrymal paffages can, 
convey into the nofe; and they @nfequently overflow the 
lids. A fimilar increafed fecretion from the lacrymal gland, 
taking place under various mental afleétions, conftitutes < 
weeping. ‘he lacrymal fluid is fpread uniformly over the 
anterior furface of the eye-ball, by the alternate lowering 
and elevation of the fuperior lid, an a@tion fo rapid, that 
although conftantly repeated at {mall intervals, it appears 
not to impede the functions of the organ. Thefe motions 
caufe it to flow towards the nafal angle, along the triangular 
canal formed by the pofterior edges of thelids. ‘The feba- 
ceous matter of the Meibomian glands probably prevents 
it from overflowing their margins. It is direéted towards 
the internal angle, when the eye is clofed, by the form of 
this canal increafing in fize towards the nofe; and by the 

: OR 


EYE. 


action of the orbicularis, which has its fixed point at the 
fame part; when the eye is open, by the inclination of the 
lower lid, as the external angle is then higher than the in- 
ternal. ‘The puncéta lacrymalia take up the tears by a pe- 
culiar vital a¢tion, and not by capillary attraG@tion. From 
thefe canals the fluid paffes into the lacrymal fac, and thence 
into the noftrils, 

The parts above defcribed are very fully developed at the 
time of birth; correfponding in this refpect with the almoft 
perfect ftate of the globe itfelf at that period. The eye 
refembles another organ of fenfe, the ear, in the forward- 
nefs of its evolution, and.in the early period after birth, in 
which its funétions are called into exercife. They are both 
ajalogous in this point of view to the organ of touch. 
The mutual affiftance which they afford each other, in cor- 
re¢ting erroneous ideas formed from the feparate ufe of ei- 
ther, is much favoured by this early and contemporaneous 
completion of their ftructure. 

A knowledge of the forms, proportions, denfities, the 
refraGtive and difperfive powers of the humours, as well as 
the radii of their feveral curvatures, is effential to under- 
ftanding rightly the phyfiology of the organs. Our limits will 
not allow us to detail the numerous experiments which have 
been inftituted to determine thefe points. The following 
admeaturements and calculations are drawn from thofe given 
by Petit, Mafkelyne, Comparetti, Young, Wollafton, and 
Cavallo ; to all of whom the reader, who wifhes for minute 
information, is particularly referred. 


The axis of the human eye, meafured from the anterior 
-furface of the corneato the foramen opticum, is about .98 
-of an inch: of this, the cornea occupies about .o4; the 

aqueous humour .11; the chryttalline .17; and the vi- 
treous .66. 

The diameter of the eye, meafured internally, from the 

ppofite furfaces of the retina, is about .go. 


The vertical chord of the cornea is about .47, and the 
horizontal .49. The radins of its anterior convexity .35 3 
its verfed fine .11; its diftance from the anterior furface of 
_the chryftalline .13. 

The radius of the {phericity of the inner furface of the 
fclerotica .46. 

The aperture of the pupil at a mean .14. 

The radius of the anteriox convexity of the chryttalline 
~ 343 of the pofterior .22. 


. The refractive and difperfive powers of the aqueous and 

_vitreous humours are ver nearly, if not exactly, the fame as 
thofe of water; thofe af the chryttalline are, for its whole 
fuiitance, as 14 to 13. 

__ By calculating from the preceding data the progrefs of 
rays, fuppofed to radiate from an object about to inches 
diftant, it is found that they will be collected into foci, 
nearly on the furface of the retina: from the different re- 
frangibility of the rays, perhaps not in exact focal points, 
but the circle of i wihod is fo minute, as hardly to be 
worth confidering in.the phyfiology of the organ. 


The axis of the eye is in a line drawn in the axis of the 
cornea. Yrom the excentricity of the pupil, and chryf- 
‘talline lens, with regard to the cornea, their axes are not 
in the fame line with that of the latter; and the vifual 
‘axis is found to be one twentieth of an inch further 
‘from the optic nerve’ than the point oppofite the centre of 
‘the pupil; and about 16 hundredths of an inch on the 
“outlide of the centre of the nerve, 


Defcription of the Plates in which the Anatomy of the Eyeis 
reprefented, 
Prarte I. 

The figures in this plate reprefent the external parts of 
the eye in different pofitions, and exhibit the principal va- 
rieties depending -on fex or nation, as well as the ap- 
pearances of the clofed eye-lids during fleep. 

Fig. 1.—The figures in the upper line exhibit the left 
eye of an adult male in a front and fide view. We begin 
with the firft. 

abc, the eye-brow, or fupercilium ; a, its end next the 
nofe ; c, that towards the temple. : 

+ d *, the upper eye-lid, or palpebra; +, the part which 
has but little motion; d, the fold which difappears when 
the eye-lids are clofed; the depth of it may be feen in 
Plate IV. fig. § ;*, the edge fringed with the eye-lafhes or 
cilia. 

e*rm, the opening of the eye-lids. 

efghi, the internal, or larger canthus of the eye; 
e, the caruncula lacrymalis; f, the femi-lunar fold of the 
conjun&tiva; g 4, a depreffion round the caruucle (“ lacus 
lactymalis’’) ; i, the fituation of the hgament of the pal- 
pebra crofling the lacrymal fac. 

£7, an horizontal line, fhewing how much the internal 
canthus is inferior to the external. ? 

mnop gq, the lower eye-lid; ma, its margin ; m, the in- 
ternal edge or labium perforated by the opentags of the 
febaceous glands; n, the external edge, from wiich the 
lower cilia or eye-lathes arife ; g, a fuperficial fold, cblerved 
when the eye is opened. 

r, the external or leffer canthus of the eye. 

stu v w, the iris fhining through the tranfparent cor- 
nea; sf, the narrower part next the nole ; w, the wider 
part towards the tempie ; ¢ v, the inner, or leffer circle of 
the iris; s w, the outer, orlarger circle; u, the pupil. 

In the fide view, we oblerve fome points not difiinguifh- 
able when the organ is viewed in front. We fhall explain 
the letters only wheu affixed to different parts trom thofe in 
the former figure. 

defgh, the upper eye-lid; ¢, the fold; 7 gs the 
breadth of its margin; g 4, the upper eye-lafhes, decreafing 
in number, length, thicknefs, and curvature, as they ap- 
proach the external canthus, 

i &, the cornea; i, its convexity; &, its circumfer- 
ence. 

7, the iris, which can be feen in the fide view, by the 
alteration in the direétion of the rays in pafling through the 
aqueous humour. The iris would not be feen if the eye 
was viewed in the fame manner under water ; the cornea 
alone would appear. 

Fig. 2.—The figures in the fecond line reprefent the fe- 
male eye, feen in the fame circumftances as the male eye in 
the line above. The differences between them are {uffi- 
ciently evident to merit attention. ‘The male eye exceeds 
the female in the relative fize of the eye-ball, in the thick- 
nefs of the parts which are connected with it, as well as in 
many other leffer variations of form, all of which are marked 
with great effe& in the beautiful fpecimens of ancient feulp- 
ture. In the male, the {kin of the eye-lids is harfh and 
rough, with a degree of rednefs not obfervable in the fe- 
male, where it is more delicate and {mooth, paler, and ap- 
parently humid. Viewed generally, the promixent,, full. 
orbed eye of the male has a bolder charaGter than the ob- 
long, depreffed, and gentle eye of the female. ‘Thedkin 
ef the brow is thicker, and has a greater projeCtion ;. the 

2 i eye-brow 


2? Ww 


err Ri 


eye-brow itfelf is broader, thicker, and formed of hairs of 

reater Jength, and coarfenefs, not lying fo clofe to the 
fan as they do inthe female. Inthe male, the upper lid 
is more elevated, fo as to appear {maller; the fold is there- 
fore larger, and nearer the eye-brow. The opening between 
the eye-lids is wider and rounder, the angle at the corners 
is greater, and the margin of each is broader. The eye- 
Jafhes are thicker, and not fo fine. The differences we have 
been noticing are not equally evident in all eyes, but are fuffi- 
ciently ftriking where this feature has its e,quifite diftinétive 
form corre@tly marked. 

Fig. 3—Thefe two figures reprefent the eye of the 
male adult negro. In the firft: 

a bc, the eye-brow, formed of fhort, fcattered hairs. 

de tg the upper eye-lid, full, puffed, and broad; ¢, a 
fuperficial ; f, the deeper fold. 

ghkp, the opening of the eye-lids, rather oblong; 4, 
the internal angle, which appears uarrow from the thicknefs 
of the lids ; 7, the caruncle, which, for the fame reafon, ap- 
pears deeper ; * the lunated fold. 

&lmn op, the lower eye-lid, comparatively broad ; /, the 
outer edge of the margin of the lic, fomewhat rounded ; 
m, the orifices of the febaceous glands, appearing as white 
points ; p the external canthus. 

In the fide view of the fame eye we obferve further differ- 
ences. 

+, part of the forehead. 

efghi, the upper lid; g, its thicknefs; i, the eye- 
lafhes, more curved than in the European. 

£ to 0, the lower lid; /, its outer edge, rounded; 7, the 
lafhes, as much curved as the upper. 

p> the outer canthus. 

%*, the root of the nofe. From this it appears how nearly 
the eyes are on a level with its edge, differing much ta this 
refpect from the European. 

In reviewing the principal differences between the eyes of 
the Negro and European, we obferve, that in the former 
the eye-brow is thin, and projeéts but little over the eye lid, 
fo as to throw but little fhade on the eye; the hairs are not 
woolly, but nearly as ftraight as in the European. The 
eye-lids are thicker, and denfer in their texture, and tumid, 
fo as to give the eye the appearance of being buried more 
deeply inthe fkin of the face. Hence many rays, which 
would fall on the globe at {mall or acute angles, are avert- 
ed from it ; and the light can affect the eye but little when 
the lids are clofed. The lower lid 1s broader and more 
moveable, covering a greater portion of the eye. The 
opening of the lids is narro er; their margins are tumid, 
and the outer edge rounded. The eye-lathes are more 
curved, and thicker ; and are fo extremely fine and black, 
as to exclude many rays of light. The conjunctiva is not 
fo white, and the fold at the inner canthus is broader. ‘The 
cornea appears fmaller, and not fo convex ; the bulb itfelf 
larger. The almoft uniformly dark colour of the iris is fo 
intenfe, that, when viewed at a little diftance, we can 
fcarcely diftinguifh it from the pupil, the whole appearing 
as a dark fpot. This much diminifhes its brightnefs. The 
preceding faéts lead us to conclude that the eye of the Ne- 

ro can bear more light, and is better fuited toan African 

Y> than that of the European, who enjoys, perhaps, a 
larger field of vilion, from the direction of his orbits. The 
differences are not equally obfervable in all individuals of the 
two races. 

Fig. 4.—The left eye of a young white negrefs (Leuce- 
thiopiffa, or Albinefs) is here reprefented. The character of 
the female eye is ftrongly marked : thefe figures ; which 


however differ remarkably from the preceding ones of the 
male fubject, as well as from thofe of the European female, 
The eye-brow is foft, of a yellowifh or pale white colour, and 
ftraight, with the hairs fcattered. The lids are puffed, and pof- 
fefs rather the colour of chalk than of flefh; and the flcin is- 
{caly inftead of being f{mooth. The upper lid appears 
comparatively very narrow. ‘The opening of the eye-lids 
is narrow, particularly when the light is at all trong, 
The eye-lafhes are delicate and much curved, efpecially 
in the lower lid, where they are exceffively clofe; they 
are of a pale white. The caruncle is not fo red ; 
the cornea more convex. The iris, formed of thin, 
delicate, reticulated fibres, appears of a pinkifh white co- 
lour, and fo tranfparent, that between the fibres we can fee 
the rofe colour of the bottom of the eye ; in other words it 
fhines through the iris. The iris itfelf isin an almoft con- 
{tant ftate of tremulous motion. 

Fig. 5.—The eye of an adult female, drawn in a ftate of 
tranquil fleep. 

abc, &c. the eye-brow; ode f, the upper eye-lid, 
fmooth and ftretched the eye-lathes, decuffating each 
other. 

/} i, a line drawn horizontally, fhewing the external can- 
thus to be the lowett. 

£/, the fituation of the iris, or rather of the cornea, pro- 
jecting under the lid. 

mno, cutaneous veins, fhining through the delicate 
ficin. 

g> the fold of the lower lid. 

In the fide view of the fame eye, a, &c. denote part 
of the forehead; 4, the root of the nofe; c, the eye- 
brow ; d to g, the upper lid; &, the middle part, which 
is folded when the eye-lids are opened. The projection 
of the cornea is evident in this view. The other letters 
point out the fame parts as in the former figure. 

In the ftate of quiet fleep the eye-lids are gently clofed ;. 
the upper one fmooth and unwrinkled, defcends lower on 
the outer than on the inner fide, and hangs as it were 
obliquely. The caufe of this difference is in the ftru€ture 
of the two angles; the upper lid having but little motion 
at the inner angle, on account of the tendon of the orbicu- 
laris rufcle, while it defcends freely at the external canthus. 
The bulb of the eye is fomewhat turned upwards, as we 
may obferve in drowfy perfons; fo that when the eye is 
fhut, the cornea, with the greateft part of the globe, is 
covered by the upper lid alone. This fituation of the eye-- 
ball is very manifeft in children when afleep ; the cornea in 
them fhiving through the thin eye-lid, appearing 2s a dark 
{pot, and its convexity being vilible when viewed from the 
fide. The lower lid generally retains its fold. The differ- 
ence in the angular form of the two canthi is ftill obvious. 
The eye-lathes decuflate each other ; and, if the eye be na- 
turally prominent, the cutaneous veins are feen feattered 
over the upper lid. 


> 8? 


Prare II. 


The figures in this plate illuftrate the ftru€ture of the 
eye-lids and of the lacrymal apparatus. . 
Fig. 1.—Exhibits the orbicularis mufcle of the left eye in 

the adult. 
ab, the opening of the eye-lids clofed; c, the tendon, 
which joins the eye-lids at the internal canthus, and is fixed 
into the nafal procefs of the fuperior maxillary bone; d, 
mu({cular fibres attached to the bones ; ¢, f, fibres intermixed 
with thofe of the corrugator fupercilii and frontalis; g, 
delicate bundles of fibres covering the upper lid; 4, fibres 
; covering 


EB YE 


covering the lower lid, joining the preceding at the outer 
angle; 4, ftronger fibres attached to the bone, and the 
tendon ; i, fibres pafling towards the nofe ; /, m, thin Hbres 
towards the temple ; m, 2, {trips of mufcle going over the 
cheek ; 0, 0, fcattered fibres at the very outer a p> p> 
clofe fibres immediately furrounding the edge of the eye- 
lids, called by Albinus “ mufculus ciliaris,’? 

fig. 2.—The eye-lids opened widely, and the margins 
turned out a little, 

a, the eye-brow; 4, the fold of the upper lid; c, the 
openings remaining after having pulled out the eye-lathes ; 
d, the punétum lacrymale ; ¢, the upper edge of the inter- 
nal canthus; f, the orifices of the febaceous glands ; g, the 
union of the two eye-lids, externally ; 4, the caruncle ; 4, 
the femi-lunar fold of the conjunétiva; 4, the fold of the lower 
lid; /, the openings after having pulled out the eye-lathes ; 
m, the punétum lacrymale ; x, the lower erus of the inner 
canthus ; a, the mouths of the febaeeous duéts. The marks 
left by the cilia are far more numerous in the upper than 
in the under eye-lid, as well as larger. The openings of the 
febaceous glands are placed in a curved line, and rather nearer 
to the inner edges of the tarfi, The puncta lacrymalia, or 
openings of lacrymal ducts, are much larger, and placed in a 
fmall papilla. 

Figs. 3, and 4.—A long and fhort hair taken from the 
eye-brow, magnified to four times their natural fizes; a, 
the bulb, buried in the fkin, which becomes thinner at 4 ; 
and is continued fwelling, cylindrical, and curved, c ; and ter- 
minates in a fine point d. 

Figs. 5, and 6.—Two hairs trom the eye-lafhes, magni- 
fied. They begin alfo.in a fmall bulb, @; diminifh in 
fize confiderably at &; become gradually thicker, c; are 
thickeft about their middle, d; again decreafe in a conical 
form, ¢; and end in avery fine point, f. Thefe figures 

oint out the differences in the fhape of the hairs of the eye- 
pee and the lathes, or cilia. 

Fig. 7.—The eye-lids of the right eye, moderately 
open, feen from behind, with the lacrymal gland turned a 
little forwards, covered at its anterior point by the conjunc- 
tiva, 

a, a portion of the orbicularis palpebrarum, on its inner fur- 
face; 4, the chink between the lids; c, the lacrymal gland, on 
its lower fide ; d, its divifion into two principal lobes; e, its 
“excretory duéts ; f, the openings of thefe duéts in the con- 
janctiva; g, the conjun¢tiva, lining the internal furface of the 
eye-lids ; the part which appears folded has been turned off 
‘from the bulb ; 4, the febaceous glands of the upper hd, 
fhining through the conjunétiva; , the fuperior punétum 
lacrymale ; 4, the glands of the lower eye-lid; /, its punétum 
lacrymale, or mouth of the lacrymal Mar m, the carun- 
enla; 2, the femi-lunar fold of the conjunctiva. This is 
drawn back a little by the other folds of the membrane ; its 
natural fituation would be at /. { 

Fig. 8 —The internal or pofterior fnrface of the eye lids, 
to thew the ftruéture of the febaceous glands, ‘The figure 
is magnified to twice its natural fize, which may be feen by 
comparing it with the preceding one. 

a, the orbicularis palpebrarum ; 4, the opening of the 
eye-lids, through which the cilia of the upper lid are dif- 
cernible; ¢, the levator palpebre fuperioris ;_f, the openings 
of the excretory duéts of the lacrymal gland; s, the con- 
jundtiva; 4, the febaceous glands fhining through it; 7, the 
portion of the conjunétiva refleGted, and the glands expofed ; 
&, the openings of thefe glands; /, the febaceous glands of 
the lower lid wholly expofed, fo as to fhew their difpofition 
in rows made up of {mall bunches united with each other. 


Fig. 9.—This may be confidered as the reverfed appeare 


ance of fig.2. The true relative fituation of the lacry- 
mal gland, and of the lacrymal duéts, is particularly pointed 
out. 

ab,cd, the upper and lower lacrymal cemals as con- 
tained in the eye-lids ; a, a, the openings or punta lacry- 
malia; 4, 4, the blind pouches formed by each; c c, the 
continuation of the canals ; d, d, their openings in the lacry- 
mal fac; e fg, the lacrymal fac; ¢, the blind finus at its 
upper end ; g, its termination below inthe nafal part of the 
lacrymal canal; 4 i, the termination of the du@ in the 
noftril. 

Fig. 10.—The lacrymal dué& on the left fide, viewed from 
the fide next the nofe, to give an idea of its diretion, 
breadth, and of the opening in the noftril. It will be feen to 
be much wider on this, the internal, than on the anterior fide, - 

ab,the palpebral portion ; c d, the lacrymal fac; ¢ f; 
the nafal portion ; f, the natural appearance of its opening 
in the nofe, not difturbed by the introduction of any inftru- 
ment. 

Fig. 11.—The lacrymal canal laid open, and halved, to 
fhew its internal capacity, its thicknefs, and its ftruéture. 

abc d, asinthe preceding figure; d, a doubling, or 
fold of the internal men\brane, which marks the end of the 
lacrymal fac; ef g, thd nafal portion of the duct; fia 
fold in the inner membrane, fometimes obfervable ; 4, mu- 
cous follicles, or crypte, which may be feen fcattered up 
and down the membrane, efpecially after a fuccefsful in- 


jection. 


Prate III. 


The figures of this plate exhibit the mufcles of the globe, 
and the nerves belonging to them; together with the more 
intimate ftructure ef the globe itfelf. 

fig. 1.—The mufcles of the bulb of the left eye; with 
the levator of the upper lid,-in their relative: fituation to 
each other, and to the bony orbit in which they lie. 

I 2 3, the out-line of the left orbit; 1 3, the internal ; 
1 2, the external fide; 3 2, the inferior margin; 4, the 
cartilaginous pulley for the tendon of the obliquus fuperior ; 
5, the bulb of the eye; 6 7, the optic nerve; 6, the part 
which lies on the fella turcica ; 7, the part which enters the 
orbit. 

a—e, the levator palpebre fuperioris ; a, its pofterior 
tendinous extremity, adhering to the dura mater at the upper 
margin of the foramen opticum ; 4, its conneGtion with the 
rectus fuperior; c d, its mufcular part; ¢, its anterior 
tendinous end at the margin of the upper lid. 

fg, the reétus fuperior, almoft wholly covered by the 
levator palpebrz. 

hi k, the re€tus externus; /, the anterior attachment 
of the obliquus inferior; m, the reétus inferior; n 0, rectus 
internus ; p—s, obliquus fuperior; g r, its flefhy fibres, 
arifing partly from the tendon, p; partly from the orbit ; 
and terminating in the tendon, ss, which pafles through 
the pulley 4, and {preads over the bulb. 

Fig. 2.—The fame parts; the levator palpebra, reGtus 
and obliquus fuperior, optic nerve, and globe of the eye 
having been removed. 

a bc, the re&tus internus; d e .f, re€tus inferior ; 
g 4 i rectus externus : itis {plit at its pofterior tendinous end, 
g, to allow of the paflage of nerves; 4 / m, the obliquus 
luferior ; &, its attachment to the periofteum of the fuperior 
maxillary bone. 

Fig. 3.—The trunks of all the nerves belonging to the 
eye, in their relations to the cranium, the orbit, the mufcles, 
and the other parts of this organ. As this figure, exclu- 
fively of the nerves and lacrymal gland, is prtailily the 

wi 


EY £. 


with fiz. 1, the letters of reference to the mufcles are 
entirely omitted, to prevent obfcurity. 

2, the optic nerve; its final diftribution will be feen 
helow ; 3, the third nerve of the brain or motor oculi; 4, 
the fourth nerve, or trochlearis; 5, the nfth nerve; A the 
coutraéted portion next the brain, which {wells confiderably 
at B; C, the firlt branch of the fifth entering the orbit; D, 
the fecond branch which paffes through the foramen 
yotundum G; E, the third branch, which enters the 
foramen ovale F I. 

The rrft branch of the fifth, after giving off a flament, 
a, which joins the fourth, divides into the ramus frontalis 
fei, and the nervus lacrymalis, 4. ‘The ramus frontalis 
fends a {mall twig, c, to the neighbourhood of the trochlea ; 
another, d, which’ joms the nervus infra trochlearis, 
The proper frontal branch, e, is f{tretched over the levator 
palpebra fuperioris, without fending any twig to it, aud is 
diftributed over the forehead 4 4 ; i:—é, the lacrymal nerve, 
‘the branchesof which feparating and re-uniting, may be divided 
inco two principal parts, an internal, /, and an external, m. 
The inner branch, communicating with the external, 2 0, 
goes towards the lacryma! gland, in which it is partly 
diftributed, a few filaments running on in conjunction with 
-fome from the external branch r, to the orbicularis, and 
fkin of the upper lid, ss. The external branch is fcattered 
in the fubftance of the lacrymal gland, and communicates by 
different filaments with the inner branch, ws with the 
third branch of the fifth, vp; and is tnally loft on the 
upper lid; y, a fmall twig which enters the orbit from the 
facial verve. 

6 6 6, the fixth nerve of the brain, 
fifth, as far as D, entering the orbit with it. 
buted on the reétus externus. 

Fig. 4.—This figure exhibits more particularly the diftri- 
bution of the third nerve, and the ftruéture of the lenticular, 
or ophthalmic ganglion. It correfponds with figs. 1, and 
3, the fourth, and moft of the branches of the fifth are re- 
moved. The levator palpebrea and reétus fuperior are 
turned a little afide. 

A A, the rectus fuperior turned off, fo as to exhibit a 

art of its lower furface; B B, the levator palpebre in the 
pik fituation, 

3 a, &c. the third nerye. At its very entrance into the 
orbit, a {mall branch, 2, is feen going off, which is joined 
by a finall filament from the firft branch of the fifth, u, and 
then divides into a branch for the levator palpebra, d, and 
another, ¢, for the rectus fuperior ; e, the greater branch, 
_ pailes under the optic nerve on the outer fide of the latter. It 

_divides into an inner twig for the rectus internus ; a middle 

one, fs for the. reétus inferior; and an inferior, g, 
which again {ubdiyides a fhort but rather thick portion, 
A, joming the ophthalmic ganglion, and a longer, and 
thinner, 74, pafling to the obliquus inferior. From the 
ephthalmic ganglion two fafciculi of the ciliary nerves 
proceed. The {maller and fuperior fafciculus {plits into 
three tlaments, é, 4, £, which purfue a ferpentine courfe 
near that of the optie nerve, dividing into fix or more 
unegual portions, /, 1,1; three of thefe may be feen enter- 
ing the fclerotica, The inferior fafciculus, rather the 
largeft, generally divides into fix tlaments, two only of 
which, m, m, are here apparent. 

5, the ffth nerve ; 2, the frft branch of this nerve ; four 
‘of its twigs are cut off; e correfponds to a in fig. 33 p 

“to 43g to e3 r to £3 s, a ‘fth twig from this nerve, 


a 
Ge 


It is covered by the 
It is diftri- 


_dividing, into a nafal-twig, ¢, which is cut off, into another, _ 


My communicating with that twig of the third which goes 


to the rectus fuperior; and inta a fmall filament which 
joins the ophthalmic ganglion. 

6w, the fixth nerve, or abduor, paffing to the reCtus 
externus at ww. 

The remaining figures reprefent minutely the ftru€ture of 
the globe of the eye. 

Fig. 5.—The anterior half of the left eye, after the 
organs had been divided perpendicularly ; the other half 
forms fig..6; a, the cut furface of the fclerotica, of nearly 
uniform thicknefs all round; 2, the dark-coloured fubftance 
between the {clerotica and choroidea; c, the tunica cho- 
roidea, appearing in folds from being cut; it is really 
{pread uniformly {mooth over the retina; d, the pigmentum 
nigrum, between the choroidea and retina; ee ff, the retina; 
ee, its cut margin, folded and turned in; ff, its anterior 
termination, feen more diftintly in figs. 7, 9,10; fg h, the 
ciliary body, fhining through the remains of the vitreous 
humour. From the great quantity of pigment covering it, 
its folds can be feen diftin&tly only towards the margin of 
the chryftalline lens. It is manifeftly not covered by the 
retina ; 4, the {pace between the ciliary proceffes and the 
lens, fhewn by zz in fig. 7; ik/, the chryttalline lens, 
included in its capfule, feen through part ef the vitreous 
humour ; i &, the iris, broadeft at the outer fide; /, the 

upil. 

Fig.6.—The pofterior half of the preceding fetion ; 
abed, asin the foregoing figure ; e—#, the retina, on its 
inner furface; the margin e f much wrinkled ; /, the round 
fpot, fhewing the entrance of the optic nerve; ¢ 4i, branches 
of the central artery, and vein of the retina, filled with 
blood; 4,1, two branches, which furround in a circle the 
foramen centrale, or centre of the retina; 4, edged by a 
yellow ring, concealed in this view by the folds of the 
retina, 

Fig. 7.—The lower half of the eye-ball divided hori- 
zontally, or at right-angles to the fection exhibited in the 
two preceding figures. Its axis lies between the points 3, @. 

a—d6, the {clerotica; 4, its thinneft part, under the 
tendons of the reCti mufcles; c¢, its middle portion, thicker; 
d, its thickeft part, united with the fheath of the optic 
nerve ; 6, an hemifpherical rifing in the fclerotica, pierced 
by holes, through which the medulla of the optic nerve 
paffes, to be expanded in the retina; o—r, the iris; s, its 
pofterior furface, covered by pigmentum nigrum ; ww w, the 
retina; w, its anterior margin, or termination; qw, its in- 
ternal furface, feen through the vitreous humour; 1 2—8, 
the optic nerve divided; 45, the fheath of the nerve, con- 
fitting of two lamiaz ; 8, marks of the central veffels of the 
retina perforating the optic nerve. ‘The nerve diminifhes 
very much in fize at 6. 

Fig. 8.—The pofterior furface of the retina of the 
left eye, drawn from behind; the true centre of the retina 
falling exaétly in the middle of the figure. 

a, the retina fpread over the vitreous humour, fo placed 
as to fuit the pofition of fy. 5; 4, the foramen centrale; 
c, the yellow ring furroundmg it; def, the place where 
the optic nerve perforates the fclerotica, the fituation of 
the central yeflels of the retina, improperly fo called; g; 4, i, 
three principal branches of thefe veffels, filled with blood. 

Fig.g—A view of the retina and vitreous body, with 
the lens, feen from the front; it is the reverfe of the 
preceding figure, exhibiting the anterior limits of the retina, 
the {pace between it and the lens, the anterior furface of the 
latter, and the foramen centrale, feea through the chryttal- 
line and vitreous bodies. : 

ab, the retina; 446, its termination in front; ¢$, the 
corona ciliaris, formed by the membrana hyaloidea round 

the 


iY 


the edge of the lens, correfponding to the ciliary procefles; 
cede, thelens; d, the foramen centrale; ¢,e, veflels of the 
yetina. 

Fig. 10.—The outer furface of the retina in the left eye; 
@a, its anterior margin ; 4, its central foramen; 4, i, blood- 
veffels furrounding the latter; cd, the optic nerve, deprived 
of its inveltments; ef, the corona ciliaris, not covered by 
the retina; ef, the diftance of the ciliary body from the 
dens; g, remains of pigmentum nigrum; £/, the lens; 4, 
the part projecting above the corona ciliaris. 

Fig. 11e—The choroid coat of the left eye with the 
veflels injeGted ; {een on the fide towards the nofe. 

ab, the optic nerve ; c—f, the remaining part of the f{cle- 
rotica 3; g—w, the tunica choroidea; ghim, the annulus 
gangliformis ; m, the internal long ciliary artery; n, the 
internal long ciliary veins 0, the internal long ciliary nerve; 
psp» the long and fhort arteries of the choroid; g,q, the 
cillary nerves; r, a trunk of the vena vorticofa fuperior; 
s, a trunk of the vena vorticofa inferior ; ¢, another of the 
fame; g 4, the margin which marks its feparation from 
the iris. 

fig. 12.—The anterior furface of the choroid, and 
iris of the left eye, being a front view of the preceding 
figure. 

abc, tunica choroides; 4c, the annulus; d—=s; the iris ; 
dh, the margin conneéted with the choroides; de, the 
outer or larger ring; ¢f, the inner or leffer ring of the 
iris; g, the pupil; df, the narrow fide of the iris next the 
nofe; g/, the broader fide towards the temple; 7, a, ciliary 
nerves, forming plexufes on the annulus; 7, the external 
long ciliary artery ; s, the internal long ciliary artery. 

fig. 13.—A view of the chryftalline lens of a child newly 
born, fhewing its rounded form.. 

Fig. 14.—The lens of a child of fix years old, increafed 
fn circumference, not in thicknefs. 

Fig, 15,—A fide view of the lens of an adult. The dif- 
ference between the anterior and pofterior fegments is lefs 
than in either of the preceding.. 


Prare IV. 


. Mig.1.—A fegment of the choroides and iris-of a new- 
born child, feen on its internal furface, magnified twenty- 
five times. The velflels are filled with injection. 

a, the true fize of this fegment ; —g, the part belonging 
to the iris; dc, the margin of the pupil; fg, the margin 
next to the circumference of the cornea; 4—e, part of the 
lefler ring of the iris; 4, 4, trunks of blood-veffels fupplying 
this net-work ; d—g, part of the greater or outer ring. 
The difference in the diftribution of the veflels on’ thefe 
parts is’ very evident ; i,4,/, three larger arteries arifing 
from the circle formed. by the long ciliary veflels round 
the iris; m—s, a fegment of the corpus ciliare; 
n,0,p, three entire plice or folds; m, g» two fegments of 
‘folds; ¢v, the projecting margin of the fold, which dips 
into a correfponding depreffion in the vitreous body ; w cw, 
a deeper part of the margin, where the plice join each other; 
rsx y, a ftriated part of the choroides between the ciliary 
body or procefles, and the anterior margin of the retina, 
feen in Plate II. fig. 5 ; xy v1, part of the choroid cor- 
refponding-to the retina; xy, that oppofite the termination 
otf the retina; 2—8, trunks of the ven vorticofe. 

Wig. 2.—The anterior part of. the choroides, with the 
iris, and membrana pupillaris, in a foetus of feven months, 
magnified quadruply, and the veflels filled with injeGion, 

A, the true fize of this fegment.; a 4, the proper choroid 
of the bulb; ¢, the annulus gangliformis; cd, the iris; de, 
the membrana pupillaris, its veflels continuous with thofe of 


the iris; _f, the long internal ciliary artery ; g, the long ex- 
ternal artery. Thefe arteries, by their divifions, form a ring 
round the iris ; 15, five venous vortices in the choroid. 

Tig. 3.—The pofterior part of the chryftalline lens, en- 
clofed in its capfule, froma foetus of feven months, with the 
veflels injected, magnitied to four times its natural fize. 

A, the true fize of the lens; 4, a blood-veffel from the 
central artery of the retina, which has pafled through the 
middle of the vitreous humour, and is {cattered over the cap- 
fule. 

Figs. 4.and 5.—Views of the left eye, after a plane per- 
pendicular feétion pafling antero-pofteriorly through the 
orbit, and the parts it contains, dividing them into two 
equal portions, an internal and external, the former of 
which is here reprefented. Every part is feen in its natural 
fituation, nothing having been dilturbed or removed. ‘The 
explanations are given in the following plate, where the 
figure is magnified to three times its natural diameter, in 
order to avoid confufion, and exprefs the obje&s more dif. 
tintly. In fig. 4. the eye is fhut; im fg. 5. ic is open. 
Some parts alfo which were exhibited in fy. 4. having been 
removed, othersare brought into view in jig. 5. In fig. 5. 
we obferve the fold of the upper lid, and the cart age 
paffing under the fold back into the orbit. The retina and 
lens being removed, the choroid is brought into view, with 
its ciliary procefles, venz’ vorticofe, and long internal ci- 
liary artery. It fhews alfo the fituation of the central ar-- 
tery of the retina. 


Pirate V. 


A magnified outline of fig. 4. of the preceding plate. 
As this isa moft important view, the references are given 
very fully. The words ‘ cut furface of” fhould be under- 
{tood throughout :. they are omitted to avoid -the- tedious 
repetition of the fame phrafe. j 

A—Q, the bony orbit; A—H, the upper plate of the: 
orbit ; A B, the fmooth furface towards theeye; CC GH, 
the convex furface, uneven, correfpording to the brain; - 
ADEF, the frontal part of the os frontis;.C CG, the 
orbital part of the os frontis; E E, the medullary cells of 
the frontal part; F, the left frontal finus; F F, the me- 
dullary cells of the orbital part; G, the future between : 
the frontal and {phenoidal bones; G BH, a part of the 
upper or leffer ala of the {phenoidal bone, which forms the 
upper part of the canal for the optic nerve ; Q—M, the in- 
ferior plate of the orbit; II, the fuperior maxilla; K L, 
the orbital fiffure occupied by tendinous fibres, fat, veffels, 
and nerves; M, part of the leffer ala of the {phenoidal 
bone, forming the lower part of the foramen opticum ; L, 
the periofteum ; BHM, the canal inthe ala minor of the 
{phenoidal bone for the optic nerve, or foramen opticum ; 
N, the periofteum of the frontal bone ; O, a continuation of 
the periofteum towards the upper lid, forming.a kind of 
ligamentous arch, the ligament of the fuperior tarfus ; P, 
the periofteum of the fuperior maxilla; Q, a continuation 
of this periofteum, towards the lower lid, in the form of 
an arch, the ligament of the inferior tarfus; ++, the 
axis of the orbit; R—V, the dura mater; R, the exter- 
nal, S, the internal Jayer; TU V, the place where the 
dura mater is united partly with the periofteum of the orbit 
T, partly with the fheath of the optic nerve U, partly 
with the origin of the levator palpebre 1, and the rectus 
fuperior 43 W—Z, the forehead ; W, the thicknefs of 
the fkin of the forehead ;.X, the fat between the ‘kin and 
the frontalis; Y, the frontalis; Z, the fat bétween the 
frontalis and the periofteum of the frontal bone. 

a~d, the brow, or fupercilium, .a, corrugator fuperi- 

7 Clik 5 > 


rte, 


ellii ; 4, mouth of the frontal vein ; ¢, mouth of the fron- 
tal artery ; d, hairs of the eye-brow; e—w, the upper 
eye-lid; ¢, fkin; f, fat between the {kin and orbicularis, 
gradually eg ages towards the eye 3 > orbicularis pal- 
pebrarum ; 4, fat beneath the orbicularis, terminating in a 
thin edge below ; i, the tendon of the levator palpebre: 
fuperioris ; 4, cellular tiffue between it and the conjunctiva ; 
J, the cartilage of the upper lid; m, marks of the febaceous 
follicles; rrs#, conjunctiva of the upper lid; rr, where 
it invefts the cartilaze and febaceous glands ; rs, where it 
is conneGted with the tendon by cellular tiffue; rst, 
«where it becomes reflected on itfelf ; st, where it is fpread 
cover the globe of the eye; yr 24 s, the fuperior burfa, 
or fold of :the-conjunétiva ; 4e, the fpace between the two 
layers, reprefented by the black line, as the two furfaces 
are in contatt; opg, the margin of the upper lid; g, the 
part where the {kin of the face becomes inflected, and con- 
‘tinued into conjunGtiva; u, the cilia or eye-lafhes of the 
upper lid; 2, the opening of the coronary artery of the 
upper lid. ; , 
a—q, the lower eye-lid; a, fkin; 6, fat beneath it; c, 


-orbicularis; d, fat under the orbicularis; g¢ e, cartilage of 


the lower lid; fg 4, margin of the lower lid ; h,a groove 
‘between the two edges; y, triangular hollow left be- 
‘tween the edges of the eye-lids, and the eye-ball, 
when fhut ; 4—n, conjunctiva of the lower lid, difpofed as 
in the upper; y, /, the inferior burfa of the conjunétiva ; /, 
‘lower eye-lath ; g, a quadrangular {pace between the cilia 
and the margins.of the eye-lids. 

1—tr1, mufcles of the eye; I 2 3, levator palpebray fu- 
perioris; 4 5 6, rectus oculi fuperior ; 7 8 9, rectus inferior ; 
10, the tendon of the obliquus fuperior ; 11, the flefhy part 
of the obliquus inferior. 

12—r8, the optic nerve, curved, fomewhat like an italic 
Ss 12.13, the fheath of the optic nerve ; 12, its internal, 
‘13, Its external layer ; 14, the thin membrane immediately 
invefting it; 15, the fibres of the nerve cut and expofed ; 
16, part of the nerve as it paffes the bony canal, appearing 
compreffed from above below ; 18, the contracted extremi- 
ty of the nerve in the felerotica; 19, the principal trunk of 
the ophthalmic artery ; 20, the principal trunk of the 
ophthalmic vein; 21, fome brarches of the nerve of the 
fifth pair. 

22—43, the bulb of the eye; 22 22, the axis of the 
‘bulb; 23, the greateft tranfverfe diameter of the bulb; 
24 —26, thecornea ; 25 2626, the fpace between the cor- 
nea and lens, divided into the anterior chamber, 25 ; and 
the pofterior chamber, 26 26; 247%, and 24r, 2 double 
groove between the cornea and {cleretica; 27—29, the 
{clerotica; 27, its anterior limit, with the double groove, 
-to which the annulus of the choroid is firmly fixed, 32; 
28, the thinnelt part of the fclerotica; 30, the pigmentum 
nigrum between the f{clerotica and choroideas 31—37, tu- 
nica choroidea ; 32 33, the annulus gangliformis; 34, 35, 
ciliary proceffes ; 34 39 39, part of the choroid not cover- 
ed by retina, and which is generally of greater brightnefs 
than the reft; 36 37, the iris ; 36, the margin by which it 
adheres to the annulus and ciliary procefles; 37 26, the 
margin of the pupil; 38, pigmentum nigrum between the 
choroides and retina; 39 40 41, the retina, Its anterior 
termination pointed out by the line 39 46 39; 4o—46, 

. the chryftalline lens; 43 42, the long diameters; 44 45, 
the fhort diameter; 42-—44, its anterior convexity 3 42 45 
43, its pofterior convexity ; 46 26, the capfule ot the 
lens; 34, 42, the diftance of the lens from the ciliary 
body. 

Fe this autline the forms and proportions of the feveral 


parts are preferved with the moft ferupulous exa@nefs, fo 
that any calculations made from it will be founded cor- 
rectly, 

Phyfiology of the eye,—To eftimate corre&tly the powera 
of the eye requires an acquaintance with the nature of 
light, and with the laws by which it is regulated ; an exaét 
knowledge of the organ ; and of the forms, proporttons, 
denfities, refractive and difperfive powers of the tranfparent 
parts, as well as of the radii of their curvatures. Since 
many of thefe points are hitherto but imperfeétly elucidated, 
we cannot expect to determine the funétions of the eye ac. 
curately in all their detail. Generally, indeed, in inveftis 
gating this delicate organ, the mathematicians have been 
deficient in correét anatomical knowledge; while anato. 
miits have been unacquainted with the feience and with the 
method of calculating accurately the refults of their obfer- 
vatious. 

Experiment and calculation prove that the huninous rays 
proceeding from any objeét to the eye undergo certain 
changes in their paflage through the tranfparent parts of 
the organ; that thefe changes ultimately colleét the rays, 
proceeding from the feveral points of the ebjeét, into oppo. 
fite correfponding focal, or nearly focal points on the reti- 
na ; and that the impreffion thus produced caufes the pera 
ception of the obje&, A fimple but interetting experiment 
will prove the point, Let an eye, from which the back of 
the iclerotica and choroid have been earefully removed, and 
thei place fupplied by oiled paper, or by the membrane 
which Lines the fhell of an egg, be placed in aroom with a 
fingle candle, with the cornea towards the luminous objeét, 
The image of the candle will be reprefented on the paper, 
diminifhed i fize and inverted. Vithout attempting ta 
calculate precifely the refraétion or difperfion of the rays in 
the different parts, we {hall trace them from the anterior 
furface of the cornea to their colleétion into foei on the 
retina, giving the change of direétion in general terms, 

The pencils of rays radiating from any objet, when they 
arrive at the furface of the cornea, form cones, the points of 
which are at the objeét, and the bafes an the cornea, Thofe 
which impinge on the opaque fclerotica are reflected, and 
have no concern in the produétion of vition: and thofe 
which, falling very obliquely, make a very confiderable 
angle with the cornea, are alfo refleted without penetrating 
inte the aqueous humour, ‘The rays, which fall within sn 
angle of about 48 degrees, pafs through this membrane, un- 
dergoing a certain refragtion, by which they are brought 
nearer to the line of the axis of the cornea; and, if 


produced, would converge into a focal point beyond the 


bottom ofthe eye. From the cornea the rays pais into the 
aqueous humour, They are divided by the difperfive 
powers of this fluid, fo that, if continued in the fame mes 
dium, they would uot only converge beyond the back of the 
eye, but on account of the aberration caufed by their dif. 
ferent refrangibility, would produce a confufed and coloured 
image. 

The rays colle&ted by the cornea pafs through the pupil, 
Thofe which come in an unfavourable direction are either 
reflected by the iris, or abforbed by the pigmentum on its 
polterior furface. The pupil admits only thole rays which are 
the neareit to tke axis of vifion, They then meet with tha 
chryttalline, which, by its refractive pgwers, colleéts them, 
and brings them into foci, after pafling through the lefa 
refractive medium of the vitreous humour an the concave 
furface of the retina, 

They do not impart a correct perception of the body 
which reflects them, unlefs they fall on the retina preeifel 
in the order in which they are detached from that oxip 

* 


EY 1. 


To produce this effe@, it is neceffary that all the rays, which 
proceed from any one point, fhould be colleéted in one 
point of the retina; and that all the points of union thus 
formed fhould be difpofed in the fame manner asin’ the body, 
of which they form an image. 

The cone of rays which proceeds from any luminous 
point to the cornea forms another cone, the apex of which 
falls onthe retina. ‘Thefe two cones have their axes almoft 
ina ftraight line. That which is perpendicular to the mid- 
dle of the chryitalline proceeds dire€tly to the bottom of 
the eye; that which comes from above falls inferiorly ; 
that on the left proceeds to the right, and fo on with re- 
f{pe& to the others: thus an inverted image is formed on 
the retina. 

Among the obvious advantages derived from the actual 
difpofition of the feveral parts of the eye, we may remark, 
* that the furface of the cornea only, if it had been more 
convex, could not‘have colleéted the lateral rays of a direct 
pencil to a perfect focus, without a different curvature near 
itsedges; and ther the oblique pencils would have been 
fubjeGted toa greater aberration, nor could have been made 
to converge on any focus on the retina. A fecond refrac- 
tion performs both thefe offices much more completely, and 
has alfo the advantage of admitting a greater quantity of 
light. 

ehe iris, by altering the diameter of the pupil, in the man- 
ner we have already noticed, will influence immediately the 
quantity of light admitted into the eye. If one eye is 
clofed, and we continue to look at the fame objeé, the pupil 
of the open eye dilates evidently, and contraéts again, as 
the other is opened, to its farmer diameter. The iris alfo 
intercepts fuch rays as would fallon parts incapable of re- 
fracting them regularly, or fuch as are directed fo obliquely 
on the cornea as to be too much refracted, admitting only 
the {maller pencil which enters the eye more in the direGtion 
of its axis. This reafoning applies, however, but partially, 
and only in cafes where the opening of the pupil is circular, 
and where the confufion which would arife from the aberra- 
tion of the extreme lateral rays may poffioly be prevented : 
it wiil not hold good where the opening is very much ex- 
tended, oblong, vertical, and, in fome circumftances, almott 
linear, as in the cat. The excentricity of the pupil men- 
tioned in the defcription of the iris can only fo far in- 
fluence the pencils of rays as to make them fall on the an- 
terior vertex of the chryttalline, with which it correfponds : 
the axes of the pupil, and the lens, do not correfpond with 
that of the cornea. From obferving that the pupil changes, 
when objeéts are brought nearer to or removed farther from 
the eye, phyfiologifts have fancied that alterations in its dia- 
meter are the principal means of adjufting the organ to dif- 
ferent diftances. But it has appeared from careful experi- 
ments that this contraétion and dilatation are irregular and 
_limited ; that by bringing the object nearer to the eye, 


within a certain diftance, the pupil not only ceafes to con-. 


tract, but becomes again dilated ; and, that beyond a few 
yards diftance, it alfo ceafes to dilate. In viewing the fun, 
inftead of dilating according to the diftance, it contracts 
mott clofely, obeying the quantity and intenfity of the light, 
rather than the diflauce of the object. In viewing a lels 
-lumizous ébjeé, the pupil dilates, when it is more dif- 
tant, a greater.quantity of light being neceflary to pro- 
dtice a clear impreflion; as the object is brought nearer, 
we require a Icfs degree of light, and the iris contraéts to 
exclude what is fuperfuous Thus far the iris may be ule- 
ful in accommodating the eye to different diftances ; it may 
ed the quantity of light, but it cannot alter the di- 

on. In quiefcent vifion, the pupil preferves its diame- 


Vou. XIV. 


ter with fteadinefs, when the proportion of tight neceffary to 
be admitted is once determined. By its contraétion, when a 
nearer objet is viewed, it leflens the confufion which would 
arife, in feb eyes as cannot accommodate themfelves fufit- 
ciently by powers hereafter to be examined, from the mag- 
nituce of the imperfeét focal points on the retina. 

Some infzétion of the rays may hare place in paffing the 
edge of the pupil; but its great mobility, the wix 
the openiag, and its very {mall diftance from the chryf 
prevent any apparent confufion. Where from any caufe 
the opening is very narrow, and the iris has but little 
motion, a confufion may certainly take place from this 
caufe. 

The alterations of the pupitaccommodate the eye to v: 
ous flates of difeafe, by regulating the quastity of light. 
When a great number of rays would eccafion p2in in.an 
inflamed organ, the contraétion of the eperture excludes 
the light; while a proportionate enlargement of the pupil 
provides againit the inconveniences of diminifhed fenfibility, 
by admitting the greateft quantity of rays. 

As the chryttalline lens diminifhes in denfity gradually in 
every direGtion, approaching the vitreous humour on one fide, 
and the aqueous on the other, Mr. Ramfden fuppofes that 
its refractive power muft be the fame with that of the two 
contiguous fubftances. Its principal ufe appeared to him 
to be that of correcting the aberration arifing from the 
{pherical figure of the cornea, where the principal part of 
the refraction takes place. From the conftitution of the 
chryftalline he inferred, that it will refraét the rays of light 
without refle¢iing any of them ; fo that, although we have 
two furfaces of the aqueous, two of the chryitalline, and 
two of the vitreous humour, we have only one reflected 
image, and that being from the front of the cornea, there 
can be no furface to refle& it back, and dilute the image 
on the retina. If the furfaces of the chryttalline had been 
abrupt, there muft have been a refle@ion at each, and an 
apparent hazinefs would have interfered with the diftin® 
view of every luminous object. The {maller deafity of the 
lateral parts will not only correét the aberration of the 
{pherical furface of the cornea, but will canfe alfo the focus 
of each oblique pencil of rays to fall either accurately, or 
very nearly fo, on the concave furface of the retina, through- 
out its extent. Had the refra@tive power been uniform 
throughout the whole fubitance of the lens, it might have 
collected the lateral rays of a dire& pencil nearly as well, 
bat it would have been lefs adapted to the oblique pencils 
of rays. Alfo, the gradual! increafe of denfity in approach- 
ing the centre makes the chryftalline equivalent to a much 
more refractive fubltance of equal magaitude. 

The principal ufe of the vitreous humour appears to be 
that of giving a ready paflage to the rays of light, as they 
are converging into foci on the retina, and of keeping at 
the fame time the furface of the latter uniformly {pherical. 
It would allow a change of figure in the eye, or in the lens, 
or even a change of place in the latter, fuppofing there 
were powers in the living organ adequate to the purpofe. 

Some have conceived that the retina is not equally fenfible 
in all parts, and that a certain portion only, near the axis of 
the eye, is capable of conveying diftin@ impreffions of 
minute obje&ts. Comparetti fays that diltinct vifion is 
effeéted only in the optic axis, which is moved mott rapidly 
over every point of the object ; and that what is feen appa- 
rently out of the axis is caufed by the direétion of the firit 
impreffion in the axis. We believe, however, that the 
limits of diftin vifion are far more extenfive. Dr. Young, 
{peaking of his own eye, fays, that the vifual axis being 
fixed in any direGtion, he can fee at the fame time a lumi- 

: nous 


Pry 


I YE; 


nous objeé&t placed at confiderable difeances from it; the 
angle, however, differs. Upwards it extends to 50 degrees, 
inwards to 6c, downwards to 70, and outwards to 99 
degrees. Thefe internal limits of the field of view nearly 
correfpond with the external limits tormed by the different 
parts of the face, when the eye is directed forwards and 
fomewhat downwards, which 1s its moft natural pofition ; 
and both are well calculated for enabling ws to perceive the 
moft readily fuch objects as are the molt likely to concern 
us. The extent of the retina is every way greater than the 
limits of the field of view. The whole extent of perfect 
vifion is little more than ten degrees; or, more ftrictly 
fpeaking, the imperfection begins within a degree or two 
of the vifual axis, and at the diftance of five or fix degrees 
becomes nearly flationary, until, at a flill greater diftance, 
vifion is wholly extinguifhed. ‘The imperfection may be 
owing partly to the unavoidable aberration of oblique rays, 
but principally to the infenfibility of the retina ; for, if the 
image of the fun itfelf be received on a part of the retina 
remote from the axis, the impreffion will not be fufficiently 
flrong to form a permanent {pectrum, although an object 
of very moderate brightnefs will produce this effect, when 
diftinéily viewed. The motion of the eye has a range of 
about 55 degrees in every direction, fo that the field of 
perfe& vifion, in fucceflion, is by this motion extended to 
110 degrees. 
It appears from fome experiments of Haldat’s, made by 
roducing an artificial ftrabifmus, that the opinion, which 
janes the pofition in which an image can be feen diftinéily 
to a point at the bottom of the eye, is by no means recon- 
cileable with aGtual obfervation. For, in an artificial ftrabil- 
mus, one of the impreflions falling on a part without the 
vifual axis, ought not to produce any perception of the 
objet; this we know not to be the cafe. From this fat alone 
we may conclude that the place of the image is not necefla- 
rily confined to the axis, but that many points of the furface 
ef the retina are capable of conveying an impreffion of it. 
As the angle is increafed, the perfection of the image may 
be leffened ; but we do not lofe the perception of it until 
its pofition is fuch, that none of the rays proceeding from 
it directly can be brought to converge on the potterior 
hemifphere of the globe. This would appear to conform 
alfo with our ideas of the nfe of the extent of the retina, for 
which, if the field of vifion was fo extremely limited, we 
could affign no reafon, The points of it, at a diftance from 
the axis, may be lefs favourably difpofed, but are not per- 
haps lefs fufceptible of being aflefted. “ The whole of the 
retina is of fuch a form as to receive the moft perfect image 
on every part of its furface, that the {tate of each refraéted 
pencil will admit ; and the varying denfity of the chryital- 
line renders that flate more capable of delineating fuch a 
picture than any other ima le contrivance could have 
done.”? To illuftrate this, Dr. Young has given an ex- 
cellent diagram, reprefenting tke7fucceflive images of a 
diftant obje@ filing the whole extent of view, as they 
would be formed by the fucceffive refraGions of the dif- 
ferent furfaces. In oppofition to the obfervations given 
above refpe€ting the decreafing fenfibility of the retina 
semarked by Dr. Young, it has been obferved by others, that, 
on comparing the impreffions produced by rays parallel to 
the optic ax:s with thofe by rays much inclined to this axis, 
they have appeared to differ in intenfity only in a degree 
correfponding to the diminution in the extent of the opening 
of the pupil, produced by the obliquity of its plane to the 
luminous rays, and by the obliquity of the rays themfelves 
to the refraGting fubftances through which they pafs. At 
the moil, the difference of the clearnefs of the impreflion 


is not fuch as it would be, if it depended on a diminution 
of the fenfibility of the retina, proportionate to its diftance 
from the optic axis. Notwith{tanding the influence of the 
caufes juit mentioned, the light of a candle pafliag into 
both eyes, when their axes are artificially inclined, fo 
that the images make angles of 15 to 25 degrees with the 
optic axis, fuffers no apparent diminution of brightnefs.. 
This faé& certainly gives-to the field of diftin& vifion a 
more confiderable extent than that ufually affigned it. 
The point of the retina, which correfponds to the optic axis, 
may poffibly be the place of mot perfe& vifion ; not becaufe 
it is endowed with a greater fenfibility than other parts of 
the retina, but from its being in the exa@t focus of the re- 
fractive powers of the eye, and the only point where the 
image can be imprefled with every perfeétion. 

In confidering the fenfibility of the retina, the effets of 
the pigmentum muft not be overlooked. In the kuman 
fubjet the pigment varies in colour ; but is always more or 
lefs dark. In animals, where the pigmentum is more than 
of one colour in the fame eye, the lighter portion is always- 
placed at the bottom of the eye, including the entrance of 
the optic nerve in its fweep; the colour varies in different 
animals, but has always a brilliant furface. Probably the 
light has.a greater effect on the retina, in eyes which have 
a white pigmentum, than in fuch as poflefs a dark one. 
Hence all animals fee more or lefs diftinétly in the dark, ac- 
cording as their lucid tapetum approaches nearer to a white 
or black colour. Man, in whom it is dark, fees very im- 
perfectly in a light where a cat, or dog, would perceive 
objects with tolerable clearnefs. We may obferve, that 
when either of the latter look at us in the dark, the whole 
pupil is enlarged and illuminated ; but in a full light there 
is no fuch appearance. Here there mutt be a reflection of 
light from the bottom of the eye to produce the effeét ; 
and the reflected light is always of the bat colour with the 
tapetum. Thofe individuals of our fpecies who have a 
light pigmentum, fee much better with lefs light tian 
thofe who have it dark. Inthe Albino, where the colour- 
ing matter is exceedingly thin, or wholly deficient, the 
common day-light is far too powerful to admit of difting& 
vifion. When he attempts to examine the qualities of an 
object with precifion, the eye-brows are knit, and the eye- 
lids kept almoft fhut. In the twilight he can fee more 
plainly, as the luminous rays are then not too intenfe for 
the very fenfible retina. The ferret is deftined, from its 
mode of life, to fee in dark places ; and its pigmentum is 
naturally white, 

The rays which pafs through the tranfparent retina are 
difpofed of according to the refleGting powers of the pig- 
mentum. In man, who requires diftinét vifion in a mo- 
derate light, rather than the power of feeing where light 
is almoft wholly wanting, the pigmentum is dark, and the 
rays are abforbed, and entirely loft; therefore, in fuch eyes, 
it can add nothing to acutenefs of vifion, and a confiderable 
quantity of light is required to produce an adequate im- 
preffion on the retina. The rays are then loft in the pig- 
mentum, and the accuracy of the image is no way impeded. 
In animals, who require a great acutenefs of fight, the rays, 
reflected from a light and brilliant furface, again imprefs 
the retina, and increafe the power of vifion. ‘The iterval 
of time is too fhort, and the diftance between the points 
they may firike in their double paflage too minute, to occa- 
fion any indiltinétnefs of the image. y 

Diftin& vifion requires that the obje& fhould be fixed, 
and not allowed to move over the furface of the retina. 
To accomplifh this obje&t, the mufcies of the globe are 
employed in the manner above defcribed. We-believe the 

3 impreflion 


' 


n 


EY E; 


impreffion made on the retina by the lumindus rays to be 
in fome degree permanent, and the more fo as the light is 
ftronger. The duration may vary probably from 1oodth 
of a feeond to nearly a fecond. Hence the well-known 
phenomenon of the circle of light in revolving a lighted 
Hick. If the object is painfully bright, the fenfation is 
more permanent, and vanifhes at laft gradually. 

It is very difficult to afcertain the proportions of the eye 
fo exaétly as to determine with certainty the magnitude 
of the image on the retina, as the iituation, curvature, 
and conititution of the lens.will make a very material dif- 
ference in the refult. It is proportionate to the magnitude 
and diftance of the objeé&, and is meafured by the angle 
which each end of the object makes with the retina. The 
more remote therefore the objeét, the fmaller the image, 
a8 it is included in a {fmaller angle: when the diftance is fo 
great as to put an end to diitin& vilion, we fuppofe the 
angle on the retina to be too acute to convey any precife 
idea of the fize of the objet. By alcertaining the leatl 
poffible obje& that the eye is capable of difcerning, we 
may thus form fome conjeéture as to the fmalleft poffible 
image. The power varies no doubt in different individuals, 
and has been varioufly eftimated. ‘Ihe eye of almott all 
perfons can perceive diftinétly two points fubtending an 
augle of a minute; in fome perfons it ean diftinguifh the 
difference of obje@s fubtending an angle of 20 feconds. A 
fingle objet, if bright, and at the proper diftance for dif- 
tinct vifion, (about eight inches, ) may be difcerned, though 
not fubtending an angle of two feconds and an half. Haller 
fays even lefs than this. Jn the feétion of a gilded filver 


thread, the gold may be diftinguifhed from the filver, when ~ 


not exceeding yy5~4755,dth of a line in thicknefs. Ac- 
cording to the rule above-mentioned, the image of dif- 
tinction in this cafe muft form on the retina a point almoft 
incalculably fmall, and yet fuch is the fenfibility of the 
latter, that the difference of the objects is scoatels deter- 
minable. This far exceeds the common opinions concern- 
ing the powers of the eye in difcerning minute objects. 
Experimeut has flewn that there exilts in the retina an 
infenfible {pot, about an inch in diameter; if the image 
falls on this, no perception is produced, Two pieces of 
white paper are fixed on a wall fomewhat darkened, about 
level with the eyes, two feet diltant from each other, the 
left eye is then thut, and the right eye directed upon the 
left objet; if the obferver moves flowly backwards, the 
object, although four inches in diameter, will difappear at 
the diftance of nine or ten feet. The experiment may be 
made more fimply with the two thumbs, er two candles. 
The latter are as, fay at ten inches from each other; at 
a diflance of 16 feet, if the eye is directed to a point four 
feet to the right or left of the middle of the {pace between 
them, they are loft in a confufed {pot of light; but any 
inclination of the eye brings one or other of them into the 


‘field of view. The objeé is fuppofed to vanifh, or become . 


obicure, when it falls directly on the {pot occupied by the 
entrance of the optic nerve. Different experimenters have 
varied in their eftimate of the diameter of the infenfible 
{pot, from the fortieth part of an inch, to a seventh part 
of the diameter of the Bulb ; the firlt we believe to be too 
fmall, the daft certainly too great. Since the difcovery of 
the central foramen in the retina, a que{tion has been ftarted, 
whether the want of the retina at this {pot does not account 
more fatisfaétorily for the vanifhing of the obje&, than any 
fuppofed infenfibility at the entrance of the optic nerve? 
The anfwer is, that the fituation of this foramen in the 
retina does not correfpond with the part oppofed to the 
objeét, when rendered inyifible ; and chat the entrance of 


the optic nerve ag found to be precifely in the part oppofed- 
The orifice itfelf is placed juft at the end of the vifual axis, 
and muit, we fhould conceive, have fome material office at- 
tached to it, and have a confiderable effe€t on vifion. The 
faturation of the yellow ring around it appears by obferva- 
tion to be conneéted with the acutenefs of the organ. Mr. 
Home fays, ‘it is probably too {mall to produce any defe& 
in vifion :” that it produces no defect we readily admit, 
but that it is too {mall to influence vifion, 1s not, we think, 
at all probable. Its ufe has not been as yet afcertained. 
Blumenbach advances the following conjecture on this point. 
Man, and fuch animals as have the two eyes placed with 
the axis parallel, thereby gain the advantage of feeing ob- 
jects with both eyes at once, and therefore more acutely. 
But at the fame time they are expofed to this inconvenience, 
that in a ftrong light both eyes become dazzled at onceg 
and this happens fo much the fooner, becaufe the light falls 
on the correfponding principal focufes of both eyes at 
once. ‘This inconvenience ieems to be obviated by the 
foramen centrale ; fince that part which forms the princi- 


. pal focus of the eye opens in a dazzling light, fo as to form 


a kind of {mall pupil, through which the concentrated rays 
pafs, and fall on the pigmentum beneath. 

Since the images are pictured inverted on the retina, 
many difputes have arifen as to the caufe of our perceiving 
the objects ereét. If it be allowed that we judge of the 
fituation of each luminous point by the direction of the 
rays it tranfmits, it follows, that we muft fee bodies as we 
really do fee them, in their proper pofition. The opinion 
that we really fee objects reverfed, and correct the fenfation 
by experience and jucgment, derived from the other fenfes, 
is liable to very numerous objections. The chick juit 
hatched knows where to direct its bill; and perfons born 
blind, who have fuddenly gained their fight, fee objeéts in 
their proper pofition. We do not fee the picture on the 
retina, but the object itfelf in the dire@tion of each of the 
rays which conveys to us the fenfation, or, to fpeak more 
correétly, in the direétion of the axis of that pyramid, 
which a pencil of divergent rays forms in proceeding from 
any point of an object to the eye. Berkeley explains the 
f{uppofed difficulty in another way ; he does not allow that 
we can eftimate the fituation of parts or objeéts by the 
decuffation and direction of the rays of light, as the mind 
neither perceives the interfections of the radious pencils, 
nor purfues the impulfes they give in right lines: without 
perceiving them it cannot form a judgment, and it cannot 
perceive them without a confciouinefs of fuch perception. 
The fituation of vifible obje&ts muit be entirely relative, 
and depend on the place which they occupy with regard to 
each other. And as all vifible objects are inverted at the 
fame initant, each will be in the fame relative fituation on 
the retina as it isin aQyally. Thus the terms of above and 
below are arbitrary expreffions, by which it is agreed to 
call upper, what correlponds to the heavens, and lower, 
what correfponds to the earth. Now it is evident, that at 
the bottom of the eye the fituation of thefe is inverted, 
the earth is above, and the heavens below. We call that 
the lower end of an obje& which-is neareft the ground; 
and the image of a man’s feet, being in conta& with the 
image of the earth on the retina, we naturally infer thet 
they are in contaét with the actual earth; the head being 
more remote from the earth, we {uppofe that it is higher. 
The confufion has arifen from mixing the ideas derived 
from the different fenfations of fight and tonch. You fay, 
(to ufe the words of Dr. Berkeley,) the picture of the 
man is inverted, and yet the appearance is ere&t. I aik 
you what mean you by eee of the man, or, which 

2 is 


BY! Et 


isthe fame thing, the vifible man’s being inverted? You 
tell me, it is inverted becaufe the heels are uppermoft, and 
the head undermoft. Explain me this: you fay, that by 
the head being undermoft, you mean that it is neareft to 
the earth; and by the heels being uppermoft, that they 
are fartheft from the earth. I afk again, what earth you 
mean? You cannot mean the earth that is painted on the 
eye, orthe vifible earth; for the picture of the head is 
fartheft from the pi€ture of the earth, and the picture of 
the feet neareft to the piture of the earth ; and accord- 
ingly the vifible head is fartheft from the vifible earth, 
and the viftble feet neareft to it. Ut remains therefore that 
you mean the tangible earth, and fo determine the fituation 
of vifible things with refpe&t to tangible things, which is 
abfurd, and perfetly unintelligible. The two diftin@ pro- 
vinees of fight and touch fhould be confidered apart, and as 
if their objets had no intercourfe, no manner of relation 
to one another, in point ef diftance or pofition. 

Two diltin& images are painted, one upon each eye, and 
yet we only perceive a fingle object. Many very different 
explanations have been given of this phenomenon; the moft 
fatisfactory is, that in the two eyes there are correfponding 
parts of the retin which are probably fufceptible of the 
fame impreflion in equal degree, and convey it to the fenfo- 
rium in that equal degree: hence, as long as fimilar points 
of the images fall upon the correfponding points of the re- 
tine, the perception of the fame object is fingle. Itis dou. 
ble for the fame reafon whenever the difpofition of the vi- 
fual axes is deranged. Every objeét which produces two 
diftinG images on the retinz is neceflarily placed at the point 
of interfeCtion of the optical, or vifual axes, and is painted 
confequently on correfponding points of the retine. By 
an artificial preffure on one of the eyes we may fo dif- 
place its vifual axis, or point of moft perfeé vifion, that the 
two Images fhall not fall on thole parts of the retine of the 
two eyes ufually impreffed fmultaneoufly ; a double image 
is the confequence. The optical axes are fo nearly parallel 
to each other, that they naturally meet at a great diftance: 
but, in order to preferve the fimplicity of the perception, 
when we look at an obje@ brought nearer to us, we make 
them converge towards it by means of the external mufeles 
of the eye, which is further adjufted to the decreafing dif- 
tance by fome other of its powers, fo as to convey a fingle 
and diftiné&t image of the objeét. This opinion is con- 
firmed by fome obfervations of Mr. Home’s on double 
vilion as the confequence of a want of correfpondence, 
produced by fome change in the refraéting media of one of 
the eyes, or elfe by a want of fimilar aGtions in the mufcles 
of both eyes refpeétively. The former takes place after the 
chryttalline lens has been extracted, and the convex lens made 
ufe of to produce the requifite focal adjuftment is not pro- 
perly placed. Yet, when objeéts are in rapid motion, or 
when brought very much nearer to the eye than the point of 
diftin& vifion, may not the impreffions be made on points not 
exatly fymmetrical, or in the vifual axis, without producing 
double vifion? It appears from experiments that it is not 
abfolutely neceflary that objects fhould fall on the vifual 
axis in order to produce fingle vifion, but that there are many 
points at different diftances from the axis on which, if the 
images fall, they will appear but as one. In the tranverfe 
plane the optical axes muft be much inclined (about 15 
degrees), in order to produce a double image ; in the ver- 
tical, a very flight inclination is fufficient to caufe it. It is 
inferred from thefe experiments, that the limits of the field 
of fingle vifion, or of the area of the points of correfpondence, 
will form an ellipfe, of which the long axis correfponds to 
the tranfverfe axis of the globe, and the fhort to the verti 


cal axis: the firft of thefe is about three lines and a 
half in length, the laft fearcely one. It has been a matter 
of doubt, how far the judgment is concerned in the per- 
ception of the fingle image. Obje&ts appear fingle, it is 
faid, although there is a double image, becaufe the touch 
which correéts the impreffion produced by vifion teaches us 
that the fame objeG&t we fee double is aétually fingle. Ex- 
perience and cuftom have fo well eftablifhed our judgment, 
formed from thefe two fenfations, that we cannot derange 
it by the will. An argument againit this is, that in cafes 
where perfons born blind have obtained their fight, the ob- 
ject is at once feen fingle. 

As double vifion is produced by a moderate derange- 
ment of the optic axes, fquinting is produded by a much 
greater derangement. It does not follow that the fquinting 
perfon fees every obje& double, for the apparent improper 
direGtion of the eye may be owing to the unufual fituation 
of the parts of the eye, fo that the image may yet fall 
en correfponding parts of the retine. The more probable 
explanation is, that the object is not feen by both eyes ; but 
that one eye, more or lefs perfeét, is direCted to the object ; 
while the other, which in fuch cafes isimperfect,is drawnafide 
by habit, in order that its operation may not difturb the im- 
prefiion received by the other eye. The greater ftrength, 
fhortnefs, and ftraightnefs of the reétus internus mufcle, may 
be the reafon that the deviation 1s made towards the nofe. 
Squinting takes place in three different circumftances ; when 
one eye has only an indiftin® vifion; where both eyes are 
capable of feeing objects, but the one is lefs perfect than the 
other; and where the mufcles of one eye have, from practice, 
as in the cafe of frequently looking through telefcopes, ac- 
quired a power of moving it independently of the other. 

The fuperiority of vifion with one eye over that with two 
has been the fubje&t of many difcuflions. It is commonly 
fuppofed that the firft produces the moft diltiné& per- 
ception; the opinion, however, is not correét. If we 
place a fheet of white paper directly before the eyes, and 
bring any opaque body, a book for inftance, before the right 
eye, fo that half the paper is concealed from it, while the 
whole is vifible to the left; on regarding the furface 
alternately with one, or both eyes, we may obferve diftin@tly 
that the part vifible to both eyes is brighter and clearer 
than that which is vifible only to the left: the firft is 
of its ufual whitenefs, the laft is obf{cured by a flight fhade. 
The fuperiority of telefcopes with two eye glaffes, over 
thofe with one, is univerfally acknowledged. In vifion, with 
two eyes, therefore, we believe the impreflion to be ftronger, 
the fenfation more vivid, and the perception clearer; not 
doubly fo as the impreffion is, becaufe we can with difficulty 
diftinguifh coincident fimilar impreflions. Ifwe look at any 
obje& through fluids of two different colours placed one 
before each eye, the obje& will appear of the colour refult- 
ing from the mechanical mixture of the two employed. If 
the colours were yellow and red, the perception would be 
as from orange, &c.3 proving that a double impreffion 
produces in this cafe a compound or mixed fenfation, from 
which a fimple perception arifes. “There are many other 
phenomena attendant on the feparate vifion of different 
objects producing different combinations of them, which 
our limits will not allow us to difcufs. The reader 
will find this fubje&t very amply confidered by Dr. 
Haldat in the Journal de Phyfique, t. 63, and illuftrated 
by numerous apparently accurate experiments. The con- 
clufion to be drawn from them is, that in many cireumftances 
vifion with both eyes will produce a fimple perception, an 
apparent combination of objeéts varying in colour and form 
when they are viewed ieparately by each eye, And that 

4 objects 


By Vos 


ebje&s are not increafed in their apparent dimenfions. when 
feen wita both eyes, although their brightnefs is rendered 
more intenfe under the fame circumftances. 

The image of the obje& is fuppofed to be painted on the 
retina, free from any prifmatic colours produced by the dif- 
ferent refrangibility of the rays, which might render it con- 
fufed. The tranipareat parts of the eye are fo difpofed as 
to correét the aberration of the vifual rays, and to prevent 
their final difperfion. Thefe effects are principally effected 
by the curvatures and conttitution of the chryttalline already 
infifted on, which produce the fame effet that in an achro- 
matic obje@ glafs we obtain in a lefs perfect manner, by 
proportioning the radii of curvature of different lenfes. In 
the eye it has been generally fuppofed that the correétion is 
perfect, the regular diminution of the dentity of the chryt{tal- 
line, redreffing the errors caufed by the cornea and aqueous 
humour. The perfe€tion of the achromatic powers of the 
eye has been called in queftion by many able men, efpecially 
in confequence of experiments related by Mafkelyne, 
Comparetti, and Dr. Young. Dr. Maflkelyne, by calculat- 
ing the refra€tions of the mean, moft, and leaft refrangible 
rays at the feveral humours of the eye, inferred a diffufion 
of the rays, proceeding from a point in an object, at their 
falling on the retina. The circle of diffipation, however, 
would be too fmall to occafion any confufion ; and he fhews 
that the picture of objects on the retina is relatively, if not 
abfolutely, perfect, and fitted for every ufeful purpofe. 

The experiments and obfervations of Comparetti are inge- 
nious ; he fuppofes that the chryttalline leus cannot, under 
all circumftances, correé the difperfion of the rays, although 
he conceives it to be fufceptible of certain alterations of 
pofition direéted folely to that purpofe. His experiments 
are too numerous, and complicated to be introduced here in 
any fhape. He proves, perhaps, a flicht imperfection, under 
certain circumitances. Dr. Young does not think that the 
ftructure of the chryftalline, or any other provifion, has the 
effet of rendering the eye perfeily achromatic. He adduces 
the colour bordering the image of an objeét-feen indiftin@ly ; 
the colours perceived on viewing an object through {mall 
openings, fuch as thofe of his optometer; and the follow- 
ing experiment mentioned by Dr. Wollatton. He looks 
through a prifm at a fmall lucid point, which of courfe 
becomes a linear fpeGtrum. But the eye cannot fo adapt 
itfelf as to make the whole fpeCtrum appear a line ; for if 
the focus be adapted to collet the red rays to a point, the 
blue will be too much refraéted, and expand into a furface ; 
and the reverfe will appear if the eye be adapted to the blue 
rays; fo that in either cafe the line will be feen as a 
triangular {pace. He concludes alfo by another experiment, 
that the red rays, from a point of twelve inches diftance, are 
as much refracted as white or yellow light, at eleven. The 
inference is, that the eye is not capable of uniting at the 
fame point all the elementary colours of light. Thefe 
obfervations have been examined with much ingenuity by 
Haldat, who draws from them arguments highly in favour 
of the achromatic powers of the eye. The flight appearances 
of the decompofition of light at the edges of minute bodies 
are not owing to any inequality in the refractive powers of 
the eye on the different rays ; but to the attraction which 
thefe bodies have for the luminous rays, which {trike on 
their furfaces, after being reflected from the plane on which 
thefe {mall bodies are placed. When placed on a black 
wall, or table, no reflection takes place, and no colours are 
vifible at their edges. It is evident, that if differently 
coloured rays are unequally refracted by the eye. {pots 
of different colours fhould produce penumbre of unequal 
extents, proportionate to the refrangibility of the rays they 


may refle&t. But circular pieces of card, equal in fize, and 
about a line and a half in diameter, painted red, yellow, 
blue, green, viewed on black, or white walls, at equal dif- 
tances, and at the fame time, offer penumbrz of equal extents. 
The colour obferved on viewing objects through the optome- 
ter is caufed by the luminous rays, by which we perceive 
them, being neceffarily ated on by the narrow opening 
through which they pals; and no further decompofition of the 
light takes place than can be readily accounted for by prin- 
ciples well eftablithed in optics. If this were not the cafe, 
why fhould the eye be fuppofed to decompofe rays which 
come through narrow apertures, and not thofe which arrive 
without any external obftacle to theirnatural radiation. In 
bodies feen indiflinétly, the rays which glance on their mar- 
gins are decompofed ; and this difperfion, not vifible at a dif- 
tance from the mixture with the undecompounded rays which 
are in the greateft number, is plainly feen when the object 
is brought clofe, becaufe they arrive at the retina almoft 
without any intermixture. The colours, therefore, feen 
at the edges of fuch bodies, do not arife from any fup- 
pofed imperfection in the refractive powers of the eye, 
when the object is brought clofe to it. In order to draw a 
conclufion that the humours of the eye are not achromatic, 
luminous rays fhould be brought to bear on them, fuch as 
they are when radiating from a luminous body, and without 
undergoing any decompofition in their paflage from caufes 
external to the eye; it fhould then be preved that they 
undergo a decompoStion in pafling through the kumours, 
and that this difperfion cannot be corrected. In the cafe 
of the prifm, the feparated rays may appear to be refracted 
unequally, becaufe the fpeCtrum is not linear in its whole 
extent. But on account of this very extent, they arrive at 
the tranfparent cornea with different inclinations, in unequal 
proportions, aud impinge on a refraéting medium, the curva- 
ture and denfity of which are uneqnal: we cannot therefore 
expect an equal refraGiion. ‘The eyeis capable ot preferving 
the natural mixture of the elemenzary rays which arrive at its 
furface; its not having the power of recompoiing thofe rays, 
which artificial external caufes have diffipated, is not fufficient 
to induce us to conclude that its achromatic powers are not 
perfe&t. The perfe&tion of the achromacy of the eye is 
further proved, by there being no diminution whatever in 
the diftinéinefs of the image, when, by an artificial dilatation 
of the pupil, by means of belladonna, the anterior furface of 
the chryitalline is almoft wholly expofed. Again, when 
the greateft poffible inclination has been given to the raySy 
no colour is perceptible. 

The luminous rays, which arrive at the eye from an ob- 
ject at fome little diftance, will unite into a focus at a cer- 
tain diftance behind the chryftalline lens. Rays, which 
pafs from an object clofer to the eye, as they diver 
confiderably, will unite into a focal point at a greater 
tance behind the chrytftalline, and indiftin vilion woulc 
the neceflary confequence, if the eye had not the power either 
of elongating its axis, or fhortening its focal diftance; fo tha 
in thefe very oppofite conditions the rays fhould converge 
equally into a point on the retina, This power of adjult- 
ment to diftance is one of the moft important to the per- 
fetion of the organ, and has excited the attention of every 
writer on the mechanifm of vifion; all allowing that fome 
change muft be produced, but few agreeing as to its na- 
ture or mode. The fubje& has been particularly agitated in 
this country, and has called forth many excellent obferva- 
tions on the mechanifm of vilion, which, if they have 
not finally proved the means by which the accommodation 
is brought about, have, at leaft, proved the fallacy of 
moft of the theories adopted to account for it, To us, 


- 
t. 


EY, Ey 


Dr. Young’s opinion, of the change of the focal dittance 
b;~fome alteration in figure of the chryftalline, appears the 
mott fatisfactory, and fupported by the mott decilive proofs t 
the manner in which this alteration is effected, is a point 
not perhaps as yet demonftrated, however conclufive the ar- 
guments may be in favour of fuch alteration actually 
occurring, There isa certain point at different diflances 
in different perfens, from which luminous rays, pafling 
to the eye, will be brought to a focal point on the 
retina, without any apparent exertion of any part of the 
organ. This is called the point of perfect indolent vifion. 
In perfons who are near-fighted, or in whom this point is 
pretty clofe to the eye, owing to the too great refractive 
powers of the organ, the rays from objects at a moderate 
diftance are brought toa focus at a point anterio: to the 
furface of the retina. In fuch cafes the divergence of the 
rays is increafed, by means of a concave lens, and a confu- 
fion of the image is prevented. In thofe who are long 
fighted, where this point is at a greater diftance, the rays 
from near objeéts cannot be brought to focal points foon 
enough to imprefs a diftinct image, and the defect depends 
on caufes the converfe of thofe which produce the myopic 
or near-fighted eye. It is remedied by a convex lens, 
We poflefs, however, in the perfect eye, the power of fee- 
ing diftinétly objects much nearer to the eye than this 
fuppofed point of diftinG vifion; and this exilts in very 
different degrees in different individuals, It is equally true, 
onthe other fide, that we cannot, by any volition, accom- 
modate the eye to view objeéts at a diltance greater than 
that of indolent vifion, a circumftance eafily experienced by 
any one. Jn the year 1793 Dr. Young made fome obferva- 
tions on the ftruCture of the eye, and its provifions for ad- 
juftment, among which are accounts of the theories of adjuit- 
ment, propofed by various earlier writers. Of thefe we 
fhall fay nothing, as a reference to the anatomical defcrip- 
tion of the eye, and other remarks already detailed, would 
at once refute the greater part ofthem. It was the opinion 
of Dr. Young that rays of light, pafling from objects at a 
{mall diftance, could only be brought to foci on the retina 
by a nearer approach of the chryitalline to a {pberical form: 
this change, he believed, was effeGted by the mufcularity of 
the lens. In the following year, fome obfervations of John 
Hunter on this fubje& were publifhed by Mr. Home, 
from which it appears, that he had for many years enter- 
tained a notion, that the chryttalline humour was enabled, by 
its own internal ations, to adjuftitfelf, fo as to adapt the 
eye to different diftances. Mr. Hunter had inftituted fome 
experiments, but died before he had made fufficient progrefs 
to draw any conclufion. Inthe fame year, Dr. Hofack, in 
a paper ofvifion, controverts Dr. Young’s deductions with 
regard to the mufcularity of the lens, and attributes the ef- 
fects produced in adjuftment to the aGious of the mufcles. 
He aflumes, as the neceffary confequence of contraétion in 
thefe mufcles, that the axis of the eye will be elongated, 
and the elattic cornea rendered more convex ; both which 
circumftances would tend to preferve diftinétnefs of vifion 
with regard to near obje&ts. In order to prove that the eye 
is capable of having its focal adjuftment confiderably varied 
by external preffure, he applied the common {peculum to 
his own eye, and by increaling the preffure of it confider- 
ably, was enabled to fee objects diftinGly, though placed 
much nearer than the natural focal diftance. ‘The means, 
here made ufe of to afcertain the fact do not appear to us 
very accurate. In the Croonian lecture for 1795, Mr. 
Home relates a feries of experiments and obfervations made 
by himfelf and Mr. Ramfden, from which he concludes, 
that the eye has a power of adjufting itfelf to different dif 


tances, when deprived of the chryftalline lens; and that, 
therefore, the fuppofed fibrous, and laminated ftru€ture of 
that lens, is not mtended to alter its ferm, but to prevent 
refletionsin the paflage of the rays through the furfaces of 
media of different denfities, and to corre&t fpherical aberra- 
tions ; that the cornea is elaftic, capable of being elongated 
;{,th of its diameter ; that the tendons of the fiat ftraight 
mufcles terminate in forming a lamina of the cornea; and, 
that in changing the focus of the eye from feeing with pa- 
rallel rays to a near diftance, there is a vilible alteration pro- 
duced in the figure of the cornea, rendering it more convex ; 
and when the eye is again adapted to parallel rays, the alte- 
ration by which the cornea is brought back to its former 
{late is equally vifible. The exertion required to adjuft 
the-eye to near diftances, and the eafe with which it is 
adapted to remote objects, proves that the firft wasa pofi- 
tive action, and the feconda relief. The defec& of elafticity 
in the cornea, inferred to arife from age, is applied to explain 
the changes of vifion which take place in advanced life. By 
fome further experiments Mr. Ramfden and Mr. Home were 
induced to abandon the opinion that the adjuftment is pro- 
duced folely by the alteration’ of the convexity of the cornea, 
which might probably be fufficient when the lens was re- 
moved, but not when the eye is entire. Mr. Home aflumes 
that the action of the ftraight mufcles will clongate alfo the 
axis of the eye, and produce an effe€ upon the chryftalline 
lens, and ciliary procefles, pufhing them forward in propor- 
tion as the corsea is ftretched. Granting thefe two laft 
changes, Mr. Ramfden computed that the increafe of the 
curvature of the cornea may be capable of producing one- 
third of the effeet, and that the change of place of the lens, 
and elongation of the axis of vilion, foticietly account for 
the other two-thirds of the quantity of adjuflment neceflary 
to make up the whole. We mutt here obferve, that it is not 
yet demonilrated that the aétions of the ftraight mufeles can 
produce the effe& afcribed to them. They have been fup- 
pofed by others to flatten the eye, and fhorten its axis, 
upon arguments equally plaufible. We believe they have 
but little effet, except that of direGting the axis of the eye 
to the objeét, and doubt if they can exert any preflure on 
the globe. Neither is it afcertained what effeét fuch pref. 
fure would have in elongating the axis, pufhing forwards the 
lens, or increafing the curvature of the cornea. ‘The opinion 
that the chryftalline lens is moved forward by the action of 
the ciliary proceffes, is equally gratuitous. In the yea 
1800 was publifhed an excellent paper by Dr. Young, on 
the mechanifm of the eye, in which he examines, with great 
acutenefs and accuracy, the different opinions on this fub- 
ject. It is impoffible to give an abftra& of his obfervations 
in the compals of this article; we muft refer the reader to 
the paper itfelf, for the detail of all the proofs by which 
he endeayours to eftablifh his opinion of au alteration in the 
figure of the chryftalline, and give here only the general 
conclufions drawn from his inveftigations. “¢ The arguments 
in favour of an increafe of the convexity of the chryiftaliine 
lens are of two kinds; fome of them are negative, derived 
from the impoffibility of imagining any other mode of per- 
forming the accommodation, without exceeding the limits 
of the aGtual dimenfions of the eye, and trom the examina- 
tion of the eye inits different ftates by feveral tefts, capable 
of deteGing any other changes if they had exifted: forex- 
ample, by the application of water to the cornea, which 
completely removes the effects of its convexity, without im- 
pairing the power of altering the focus, and by holding the 
eye, when turned inwatds, in fuch a manner as to render 
any material alteration of its length utterly impoffible. 
Other arguments are deduced from pofitive evidence of the 
change 


¥ 


! ee i 2p 


change of form of the chryftalline, furnifhed by the parti- 
cular effeéts of refraction and aberration, which are obfer- 
vable in the different {tates of the eye ; effects which furnilh 
a direét preof that the figure of the lens mutt vary 5 its fur- 
faces, which are nearly fpherical, in the quicfcent form 
of the lens, afluminga different determinable curvature, 
when it is called into exertion. The objeétions which have 
been made to this conclufion are founded only on the ap- 
pearance ofa flight alteration of focal length in an eye from 
which the chryftalline had been extracted; but the fact is 
neither fufficiently afcertained, nor was the apparent change 
at all confiderable : and even if it were proved that an eye 
without the lene is capable of a certain {mall alteration, it 
would by no means follow that it could undergo a change, 
five times, or ten times as great.’ 

The means whereby ye are enabled, by fight, to deter- 
mine the diftance, maguitude, and fituation of objects have 
not been fufficiently explained to allow us to fpezk with 
confidence. It is acknowledged that the eftimate we make 
of the diftance of objects confiderably remote, is rather an 
act of judgment grounded on experience than of fenfe. 
When we perceive a great number of intermediate objects, 
which we have experienced to take up a confiderable {pace, 
we conclude that the object we fee beyond them is at a 
great diflance. When an objeét appears faint and fmall, 
which at a near diltance we have experienced to make a 
ftrong and large appearance, we conclude it alfo to be far off. 
Tt is f{uppofed by fome that when an object is fo near that 
the interval between the eyes bears any fenfible proportion 
to it, the two optic axes meeting at the object, make a fen- 
fible angle, by means of which, according as it is greater or 
{maller, the objet is perceived to be nearer or further off. 
This does not depend on judgment formed from experience, 
but refults from a fuppofed neceffary conneétion between 
the idea of an obtufe angle and a near diftance, and an acute 
angle and a farther diftance. There is another way men- 
tioned by others, by which we are faid to perceive diftances 
when we look only with oneeye. And that is, the greater 
or lefs divergency of the rays which fall on the eye, that 
point being judged neareft which is feen by the mott di- 
verging rays, the apparent diftance increaling as the di- 
vergency of the rays decreafes, until the diftance is {o great 
that the rays which fall on the eye are to fenfe parallel. 
This mode of judging is not derived from experience, but 
from the difference of angular impreflions made by diverging 
and nearly parallel rays; it being a certain neceilary truth, 
that the nearer the direct rays falling on the eye approach 
to parallelifm, the farther off is their point of interfe¢tion, or 
the vifible point from which they flow. Such are the com- 
Mion opinions concerning our perceiving diftances by fight. 
Thofe which make no allowance for the interference of 
detent formed by experience, appear to us inadmiffible. 

ith qll the advantages derived from experience, our judg- 


ment of diflances is {ill imperfe&t, owing to the deceptions - 


arifing from the apparent magnitude compared with the real, 
from the uncertainty attending the intentity of the colours, 
the appearance of the minute parts of the object, and its 
relative fituation with regard to others. Thefe are the prin- 
cipal means of direGting our judgment, and if they be im- 
perfect, or any of them deficient, an error in judgment will 
be the probable confequence. If we judged of diftance by 
magnitude only, we fhould be led into numerous errors; it 
is by confidermg the other qualities of the object, and its 
fituation with regard to others, that we are led to forma 
correct judgment as to its real diftance. We know that a 
man equal to us in fize, appears {mallera hundred yards off, 
and fmaller {till at five hundred, Here, being certain of the 


real fize, we can make ufe of it with tolerable accuracy in 
determining the diftance. We are deceived, when unac- 
quainted with the real magnitude, we draw conclufions from 
the apparent only. We know by experience that objects 
become paler, and more indiftin@, in proportion as they are 
remote. We know by a number of objets being interpofed 
betaveen ourfelves and the objeé& to which we particularly 
direct our attention, that the latter is at a certain diftance. 
Hence diftances at fea appear much fhorter than on land. It 
is only by combining the different fenfations, and the judg- 
ments arifing from them, that we can form an opinion any- 
wife correct. It is equally neceffary to have a recolleGion 
of the diftance of an object, when forming a judzment of its 
fize. It is poflible that we may judge of magnitude by the 
vifual angle, or by the fize of the image on the retina. But 
we mutt take into the account the conneétion between the 
magnitude or extenfion of the vilible obje¢t, and the fize as 
afcertained by the touch; the confufion or diftinétnefs of 
the image ; the faintnefs or intenfity of the rays, and their 
diveétion ; the figure, number, and fituation of objeéts ; and 
other circumftances that have been obferved to attend 
greater or fmaller tangible magnitudes. Experience is 
equally required to aid our judgment ef magnitude as of 
diftance. By fight we can diftinguifh the quantity, the co- 
Tour, and the direGtion of the luminous rays which ftrike our 
eye: it is yet a matter of doubt how far the fight alone can 
convey ideas of magnitude or diftance. When judging from 
vifible appearances only, we are liable to many deceptions, 
which are extremely interefting, as they illuftrate the theo- 
ries of our different fenfations ; and there are many other 
circumftances, conneéted with the theory of vifion, which 
will be better confidered under the different heads of phyfi- 
cal optics. 

The phenomenon of accidental colours, or ocular {peétra, 
obferved long fince by Buffon, who gave an account of it in 
the Memoirs of the Academy of Paris, has fince been con- 
fidered at length by Dr. R. Darwin, and by many other 
writers, When a perfon, after looking long and attentively 
at a fmall bright obje&, removes his eyes, or clofes them, 
an image is full vifible to him, refembling in form that which 
he was attending to, but of a colour oppofite to the firft, 
that is, of fuch a colour as would be produced by with- 
drawing the firft from white light. Thus if a perfon look 
ftedfaftly, and for a confiderable time, at a {mall red fquare 
painted upon white paper, he will at laft obferve a kind of 
green-coloured border furround the red fquare. If he now 
turn his eyes to fome other part of the paper, he will fee an 
imaginary {quare of a delicate green, bordering upon blue, 
and correfponding exaétly in point of fize with the red 
{quare. his imaginary fquare continues vilible for fome 
time, and indeed does not difappear till the eye has viewed 
fucceflively a number of new objects. To this imaginary 
image the name of accidental colour was given by Buffon, 
and ocular fpeétrum by Dr. Darwin. If the obje& be yel- 
low, the fpeétrum is blue ; if green, red ; if blue, yellow ; 
if white, black ; and if black, the accidental colour is white, 
We may therefore fay, generally, that the reverfe fpectra 
are fimilar to a colour formed by a combination of all the 
primitive colours, except that with which the eye has been 
fatigued in making the experiment. The theory deduced 
from this remark is ingenious, and has much probability. 
The afligned reafon of the oppofite appearance is, that the 
portion of the retina that is affefted has loft a part of its 
{enfibility to the light of that colour with which it has been 
imprefled, and is more ftrongly affe&ed by the other con- 
ftituent parts of the white light ; fo that if we then regard 
a colour which admits in its compofition that which has 

fatigued 


Ex Er. 


fatigued the eye, the latter will ceafe to be vifible. Dr. 
Darwin divides ocular fpectra into four kinds: 1ft, fuch as 
are owing to a lefs fenfibility of a defined part of the retina, 
or fpe€tra, from defe& of fenfibility ; 2dly, fuch as are ow- 
jng to a greater fenfibility of a defined part of the retina, or 
f{pectra, from excefs of fenfibility ; 3dly, fuch as refemble 
their obje& in colour as well as in form, or direé&t ocular 
fpectra; and 4thly, fuch as are of a colour contrary to that 
of their obje&, or reverfe ocular fpeétra. He believes the 
retina to be in an ative ftate during the exiftence of thefe. 
In the firft cafe, the retina is not fo eafily excited into aێtion 
by lefs irritation, after having been lately fubjected to a 
greater. Inthe fecond, the retina is more eafily excited 
into action by greater irritation, after having been lately fub- 
jected to lefs. In the third, a quantity of ftimulus, fome- 
what greater than natural, excites the retina into fpa{modic 
action, which ceafes ina few feconds, or which ceafes and 
recurs alternately. In'the laft, the retina having been ex- 
cited into aétion much greater than natural, falls into oppo- 
fite {pafmodie aétion, or into various fucceffive fpafmodic 
aétions, or into a fixed {pafmodic adtion, which continues for 
fome days, or a temporary paralyfis is produced, the effects 
mentioned being fucceflively proportionate to the increafed 
timulus. He adds many mifcellaneous remarks on the fub- 
je&t in quettion, which tend further to illuftrate the pheno- 
mena by the contralt of the fenfations. Dr. Young thinks 
that the phenomena of the dire@t {petra may be better un- 
derftood from the analogy of coloured fhadows. There are 
many inftances related of an imperfeétion in the fight refpeét- 
ing colours, fome individuals being only able to tell black 
from white; others miftaking orange for green ; others to 
whom full greens and full reds appeared alike, while yellows 
and dark blues were nicely diftingnifhed. This has been 
afcribed to an infenfibility of the retina to particular colours. 
There are many other imperfections of fight which are not 
introduced here, as not immediately conne¢ted with the 
theory of vifion. 

The reader is referred for further information to a mott 
excellent catalogue of authors in the fecond volume of Dr. 
Young’s Natural Philofophy. The lift of references is too 
Jong to be introduced here, and is too complete to permit us 
to curtail it. The authors we have been principally indebted 
to are Zinn, Haller, Hunter, Soemmerring, Cuvier, Home, 
and, more particularly Young; to fome papers by Petit in 
the Memoirs of the French Academy, and to fome papers 
in the Gottingen Commentaries, by Wrifberg and Blumen- 
bach. Zinn’s defcription of the eye, with the fupplement 
of Wrifberg ; Soemmerring’s moft exquifite plates and his 
explanations, with Haller’s rich collection of facts and refer- 
ences to authors in the fifth volume of his Elementa Phyfio- 
logiz, are particularly worth confulting. Portal, in_his 
Tableau Chronologique d’ Anatomie, &c. tom. vi. has given 
along and very full deferiptive catalogue of authors who 
have written on the fubjeé of the eye, which contains much 
information. 

The comparative ftruture and enatomy of the eye are very 
curious; the fituation, number, conformation, &c. of this 
organ in different animals, being finely and wonderfully 
adapted to their different circumftances, occafious, and 
manners of living. 

In maw, and fome other creatures, an ingenious author 
obferves, the eye is placed chiefly to look forward; but 
withal is fo ordered as to take in nearly the hemifphere be- 
fore it. In birds, (See Birps) and fome other creatures, 
the eyes are fo feated as to take in near a whole {phere, that 
they may the better feek their food andefcape danger. In 
others they are feated fo as to fee behind them, or on each 


fide, whereby to fee the encmy purfuing them; thus, in 
hares and conies, the eyes are very protuberant, and placed 
fo much towards the fide of the head, that their two eyes 
take in nearly a whole {phere ; whereas in dogs that purfue 
them, the eyes are fet more forward in the head, to look 
that way more than backward. 

Generally, the head is contrived to turn this and that way 
chiefly for the oceafions of the eyes ; and generally the eyes 
themfelves are moveable upwards, downwards, backwards, 
and fidewife, for the more commodious reception of the 
vifual rays. Where nature deviates from thefe methods, 
fhe always makes ule of very artful expedients to anfwer 
the fame end. 

Thus, in fome creatures, the eyes are fet out at a diftance 
from the head, to be moved here and there, the one this 
way, and the other that ; asin fails, particularly, whofe eyes 
are contained in their four protuberances, like atramentous 
fpots fitted to the ends of their horns, or rather to the ends 
of thofe black filaments or optic nerves fheathed in the 
horn. Power, Exper. Phil. Obf. 31. 

And in other creatures, ‘whofe eyes or head are without 
motion, and in divers infects, that defeét is fometimes made 
up by their having more eyes than two; as in {piders, 
which having no neck, and confequently the head being 
immoveable, the defeét is fupplied by the fituation and mul- 
tiplicity of their eyes; fome having four, fome fix, and 
others eight, all placed in the fore-front of their head, 
which is round like a locket of diamonds. The reafon 
Dr. Power gives, is, that being to live by catching fo 
nimble and fhy a prey as flies, they ought to fee every way, 
and fo take them fer faltum, without any motion of the 
head to difcover them. 

Again, men, and moft quadrupeds, are found to have 
feveral mufcles belonging to their eyes, by help whereof 
they can turn them any way, and fo obvert the organ of 
fenfe to the obje€&t. But nature not having given that mo- 
bility to the eyes of flies, fhe in recompence furnifhes them 
with a multitude of little protuberant parts, finely ranged 
upon the convex of their large bulging eyes ; fo that by 
means of thefe numerous little ftuds numberlefs rays of 
light are deflected from objets placed on either hand, above 
or beneath the level of the eye, and conveniently thrown 
upon that organ, to cender the objeéts they come from 
vifible to the animal; and by the help of a good microfcope, 
and a clear fight, fome hundreds of thefe fittle round pro- 
tuberances may be difcovered, curioufly ranged on the con- 
vexity of a fingle eye of an ordinary fleth-fly. 

So fcorpions are found to have above a hundred eyes ; and 
Swammerdam has obferved no lefs than two thoufand in the 
little infe& called ephemeron. 

In other creatures the like deficiency is fupplied by hav- 
ing their eyes nearly two protuberant hemifpheres, each con- 
filting of a prodigious number of other little fegments of a 
fphere. : 

‘ The eyes of a cameleon, Dr. Goddard obferves, refemble 
a lens, or convex-glafs, fet in a verfatile globular focket, 
which ke turns backward and forward without ftirring the 
head, and ordinarily the one a contrary way to the other. 

Laitly, the mole, which the ancients, Ariftotle, Pliny, 
Alb. Magnus, &c. fuppofed to have no eyes at all, is now 
found to furnifh a notable in{tance of the diverfity of the 
apparatus of vifion ; for that animal living altogether under 
ground, fight would generally be ufelefs to it, and fo tender 
a part as the eye troublefome. Jt has therefore eyes, but 
thofe fo exceedingly fmall, and withal fituated fo far in the 
head, and covered fo ftrongly over with hair, that they 
cannot ordinarily be of fervice or diflervice to it. Yet to_ 

guide 


—— oe 


“ 


EY E. 


guide and fecure it a little when it chances to be above- 
ground, Borrichius, Blafius, Schneidner, Dr. Derham, and 
others, obferve that it can protend, or put them forth be- 
yond the fkin, and again draw them back at pleafure, fome- 
what after the manner of fnails. 

In the eyes of noéturnal animals is a part not yet men- 
tioned, viz. a fort of tapetum at the bottom of the eye 
which gives a kind of radiation on the pupil, enabling them 
to fee and catch their prey in the dark. Thus, Dr. Willis, 
 Flujus ufus eft oculi pupillam quafi jubare infito illumi- 
nare—quare in fele plurimum illuftris elt ; at homini avibus 
& pifcibus deeft.”” De Anima Brutor. 

He adds, that in fome perfons the iris has a faculty alfo 
of darting out light ; and inftances in a man of a hot head 
who, after a plentiful drinking of generous wine, could fee 
to read in the darkeit night. Ibid. 

The like Pliny tells us of Tib. Cefar, that upon his firft 
waking in the night he could fee every thing for a little 
while as if in broad day-light. (Nat. Hitt. lib. xi. cap. 37.) 
and Dr. Briggs gives a parallel inftance of a gentleman in 
Bedfordfhire. Ophthal. cap. v. § 12. 

Frogs, befides the parts of the eye which they have in 
common with men, and moft quadrupeds, have a peculiar 
membrane or cartilage, which is not commonly perceived, 
wherewith they can at pleafure cover the eye without too 
much hindering the fight; becaufe the membrane is both 
tranfparent and ftrong, fo that it may pafs for a kind of 
moveable cornea, or occafional fafeguard to the eye. A 
like membrane is alfo found in many birds, as alfo in the 
crocodile, 

Naturalifts relate wonders of the fharpnefs and accuracy 
of the eyes of fome animals, as the eagle, &c. beyond thofe 
of men. 

Yet do thofe of men feem improveable to a furprifing 
degree. Mr. Boyle inftances in a major of a regiment of 
king Charles I. who being afterwards forced abroad, ven- 
tured at Madrid to do his king a piece of fervice of an ex- 
traordinary nature and confequence; which being there 
judged very irregular, he was committed to an uncommon 

rifon or rather dungeon, having no window belonging to 
it, only a hole in the wall, at which the keeper put in 
provilions, and prefently clofed it again on the outfide, but 
not perhaps very exactly. For fome weeks this gentleman 
continued utterly in the dark, very difconfolate ; but after- 
wards began to think he faw fome little glimmering of light ; 
and this ane time to time increafed fo, that he could not 
only difcover the parts of his bed, and other fuch large 
objects, but at length, amidft this deep obfeurity, could 
perceive the mice that frequented his chamber to eat the 
erumbs of bread which fell upon the ground, and difcern 
their motions very well. 

The author juft mentioned, in his Obfervations on Vi- 


‘tiated Sight, gives us fome uncommon phenomena that 


regard the eyes. He furnifhes feveral inftances of nyéta- 
jopies, or people whofe eyes in the day-time were quite 
dark, or at leaft fo dim that they could hardly difcern their 
way; who yet, foon after fun-fet, and during twilight, 
faw very clearly. 

Eve, drtificial, is the refemblance of a natural’ eye, 
formed either for the purpofe of fupplying the appearance 
of an eye ina perfon who wants one of thole natural organs; 
or for the purpofe of illuftrating the con{truétion, together 
with certain defe&ts, of the natural eye, deferibed in the 
next article.—The latter part of an artificial eye isa little 
machine which exhibits the principal parts, and the princi- 
pal offices of a natural eye. 

» From the defcription of the camera cbfcura, and from 


Vor, XIV. 


the anatomical defcription of the eye, it plainly appears 
that the latter is a moft excellent camera obfcura, having all 
the neceffary properties of it, toa mott admirable nicety. 
It is a globular dark reom, with one aperture for the admif. 
fion of light, with a lens and other media fit to form a pic- 
ture of external obje€ts on the hind part of its cavity, which 
is lined with a membrane called the retina. It has likewife 
all the neceffary adjuftments within certain limits; fuch as 
the power of adapting itfelf to the view of near as well as 
of diftant objeéts, the power of admitting more or lefs 
light, according to circumftances, and fo on. (See Vi- 
ston and Sicut.) If the eye of an animal, efpecially 
of a large fize, as that of an ox, be taken out foon 
after the death of the animal, and the fkin, fat, &c. be care- 
fuliy feraped off from the back of it, until a thin femi-tranf- 
parent pellicle remains, which is the retina, the eye fo pre- 
pared may then be ufed asa little camera obfeura; ox. if 
it be turned towards any objets, the figures of thofe obje@s 
will be feen depicted on the thin membrane juft mentioned, 
fo that the obferver being placed behind the prepared eye, 
may fee that picture very difltinéily. J 

In old perfons the humours grow thicker, and the parts 
lefs pliable, hence their eyes lofe in great meafure the power 
of adjufting themfelves. But, independent of old age, the 
eyes of certain perions can be adjufted for viewing diftant 
objects eafier than for near objects, and vice verfa. When 
the eye is defe@tive, and in conlequence of its fize or of other 
peculiar conformation, parallel rays form their foci before 
they arrive at the retina; then the perfon, who is poffeffed 
of iuch eyes, will be able to fee near objeéts only ; and 
{uch pertons are faid to be near-fighted, or myopes. When 
the eye is flatter than ordinary, then the foci of rays pro- 
ceeding from pretty near objeéts, are formed beyond the 
retina ; and fuch perfons as are poffeffed of eyes thus formed, 
are faid to be long-fighted, or prefbyte ; for they can only 
adjuit their eyes for viewing objects fituated beyond a cer- 
tain diftance ; the latter is generally the cafe with perfons 
advanced in age. 

Thefe imperfe€tions may in great meafure be correéted by 
the ufe of proper glaffes or fpeétacles; for fince in near-fighted 
perfons the rays of light converge to a focus before their ar- 
rival at the retina, a concave lens, placed before the eye, 
will remedy that imperfection, becaufe a concave lens dimi- 
nifhes the convergency of the rays of light, and, of courfe, 
will prolong the pencil fo as to enable it to converge exaGly 
on the retina. And for thofe who can fee diitant objeGs 
only with diftin@ion, that is, in whofe eyes the rays of light 


do not converge foon enough, convex lenfes, which increafe 
the convergency of the rays, will remedy the imperfection. 

Now the artificial eye we are treating of, ferves to illuf- 
trate the above-mentioned defeéts, together with the coer- 
rections by means of lenfes. In its moit improved tate of 
conftruéction, it alfo ferves to exhibit imitations of the prins 
cipal parts of the humaiy eye. 

The artificial eye is formed principally of glafs, and its 
parts are kept together by a brafs cell; but the thape and 
formation ot fuch a machise is, in fome meature, varied by 
almoit every workman. The part which re prefents the clobe 
of the eye, and its humours, is fixed ina focket, where it 
may be moved in any direction. The fore-part of the 
focket forms a fcreen to prevent the concurrence of fup 
fluous light ; but it has a hole in its middle, which is 
painted round fo as to repreient nearly ahuman eve. If this 
artificial eye be turned towards objeéts that are at a mode- 
rate diitance, their piture will appear very diitine?, but in- 
verted, upon the back part of the machine, where the rough 
furface of the glafs performs the office of the retina. The 


Te 


2 YF. 


parts of this artificial eye may be examined in the following 
manner: unfcrew the focket which confines the ball of the 
eye and its parts; then the outermoft coat reprefents the 
{clerotica, the more protuberant part of which is the cor- 
nea. Next to this there is a plano-convex glafs lens to re- 
prefent the firft chamber of theaqueoushumour, under which 
there is a perforatéd flat piece of tortoife-fhell to reprefent 
the iris with the pupil, and under this there is another 
plano-convex lens which reprefents the fecond chamber of 
the aqueous humour. On removing the fecond coat, which 
reprefents the choroides, a {mall double and unequally con- 
vex lens will be found which reprefents the chryftalline hu- 
mour, and under this is a large piece of glafs which oc- 
cupies the remaining {pace of the machine, and reprefents 
the vitreous humour. The back part of the laft mentioned 
piece of glafs is made rough, fo that the pictures of ob- 
jects may be formed upon it, as upon the retina of a real 
eye. 

In order to reprefent the nature of vifion in long-fighted 
perfons, the ufual plano-convex lens, which reprefents the 
firft chamber of the aqueous humour in front of the artificial 
eye, muft be removed, and another fimilar lens, but lefs cone 
vex, mult be placed inftead of it. With this alteration, if the 
artificial eye be turned towards the fame objeéts, which before 
the alteration were reprefented dittinétly on the back of the 
machine, they will now form an indiltin& image upon the fame 
place, becaufe now the rays converge to a place more diftant 
than the back of the artificial eye. But if in this ftate 
a proper convex {petacle lens be placed before it, the image 
on the back of the artificial eye will be rendered perfect, 
which fhews the ufe of that kind of fpectacles to long- 
fighted perfons. In order to reprefent the imperfetion of 
fhort-fighted eyes, the plano-convex lens, reprefenting the 
firft chamber of the aqueous humour, muft be more convex 
than the original one. In this cafe then the focus of rays 
will fall fhort of the retina, in confequence of which an 
imperfect image of objects will be formed on the back of the 
artificial eye; but by placing a proper concave {pedtacle lens 
before it, the above-mentioned image may be rendered perfect. 
And this fhews the ufe of concave lenfes to fhort-lighted 
perfons, 

A fimpler conftrudtion of an artificial eye confifts of a 
globular brafs box, having a {mall rough glafs on its back, 
and a convex lens in front. This convex lens is fet in a brafs 
focket, which may be {crewed farther into, or farther out of 
the brafs box ; by which means the picture of obje&s on 
the rough glafs may be rendered imperfe& either by fcrew- 
ing the focket with the lens farther out, which imitates 
the fhort-fighted eye, or farther in, which fhews the imperfec- 
tion of long-fighted people; and the image may be rendered 
perfectly diitin@ by placing a concave f{pectacle lens in the 
firft cafe, or a convex one in the latter cafe, before the 
artificial eye. 

Eve, drtifcial, in Surgery. When fuppuratien takes place 
in the eye, the matter at length makes its way through the 
cornea, and efcapes together with the aqueous, and fome of 
the yitreous, humour; the tranfparent cornea is_in part 
deftroyed, while the reft continues in a ftate of opacity ; 
the pupil becomes clofed, the iris is adherent to the cornea, 
and the whole eye-ball fhrivels up in a greater or lefs degree. 
A total lofs of vifion, and great deformity of the counte- 
nance, are the evils neceffarily arifing fromall this mifchief. 
The firft of thefe confequences is quite incurable; the 
fecond may be obviated by the ufe of an artificial eye. 

Artificial eyes are concave little plates, adapted to the 
anterior half of the eye. Upon the middle of their front, 
convex, white furface, the tranfparent cornea, the pupil, and 


the iris, are imitated in the beft poffible manner, - When 
they are applied, what remains of the natural eye-ball lies in 
their pofterior excavated furface, They may be made 
either of glafs or enamel, Though fuch as are made of 
glafs anfwer tolerably well, yet they are apt to break, The 
enamel ones are not {ubjeét to this objection, and, as we -fhall 
hereafter explain more fully, their back edges may be made 
with the file better than glafs ones, for-lying conveniently 
in the orbit, In the choice of artificial eyes, for every kind 
of cafe, the furgeon fhould take care, that the contrivance 
refembles the natural healthy eye as much as poflible, in 
regard to the colour of the iris, the greater or lefler convexity 
of the cornea, the greater or leffer projection of the whole 
eye-ball from the orbit, and the more or lefs confiderable 
breadth of the globe of the eye between the external and 
internal canthius. 


Artificial eyes are conftru@ed of various fhapes and 
depths, Some are made of a long oval form, and thefe are 
found the moft eligible for perfons, whofe eye-lids have a 
long fiffure between them. Other artificial eyes are of a 
rounder fhape, and are proper in cafes, in-which the inter- 
{pace between the two eye-lids is fhort. Deep concave 
platesare to be chofen for patients, whoie eyes make a con- 
fiderable proje€tion forward; but flat ones are to be pre- 
ferred when the eyes are naturally fmall and deeply fituated 
in the fockets. Deep plates are alfo to be employed, when 
only a {mall part of the eye-ball is left ; but flat ones, when 
a contiderable portion remains. A principal obje& always 
confifts in endeavouring to render the refemblance between 
the artificial and natural eye, as complete as poflible, fo that 
the artifice may not be difcovered. 


When what remains of an eye, which has been deftroyed 
by fuppuration or difeafe, is of middling fize, the artificial 
eye can be applied with the greateft convenience, There is 
now fufficient room, confequently, no painful preffure is 
excited, and the inftrument does not lie too deeply in the 
orbit. Belides, the remaining part of the natural eye, 
which always retains fome degree of motion, and lies in the 


hollow of the artificial one, communicates to the latter a_ 


certain motion ; fo that, in this cafe, the deception becomes 
more difficult to dete& than in any other examples. 


When what remains of the natural eye is too fmall, or 
large, it does not enter into the hollow of the artificial one, 
and, confequently, the latter lies quite immoveable under 
the eye-lids, and the patient has the appearance of f{quinting 
in a much greater degree, than in the foregoing cafe. When 
the remaining portion of the natural eye has loft fo little of 
its original fize, that there is not room enough for an 
artificial one, an opening may be made into the eye-ball, a 
part of the vitreous’ humour let out, and thus fufficient room 
made for the artificial eye. ‘This operation is free from 
pain and danger; but, it occafionally happens, that the. 
vitreous humour colleéts again in its original quantity, fo 
as to deftroy the {pace for the artificial eye, and render 4 
repetition of the puncture proper. 

When, from any caufe, the whole of the eye-ball has been: 
quite deftroyed, as, for inftance, when it has been ex- 
tirpated on account of fome cancerous affe&tion, the ufe of 
an artificial eye is hardly admiffible. For although the 
orbit, in this cafe, ufually becomes more or lefs filled u 
with flefh, which would ferve as a fupport to an artifici 
eye, yet the eye-lids generally lofe their natural power of 
motion, and fhrink up to the edges of the orbit, fo as not: 
to be capable of covering the artificial eye. Perhaps, how-: 
ever, this kind of contraétion of the eye-lids might be pre- 
vented, by filling the infide of thefe parts with lint, imme-. 

2 diately 


EY £. 


diately after extirpating the eye, and keeping them approx- 
imated with ftrips of adhefive platter. 

The application and removal of an artificial eye are fo 
eafy, that the patient commonly foon acquires the art of put- 
ting it on and taking it off himfelf. The edge of the upper 
eye-lid is to be taken hold of with the thumb and index fin- 
ge of one hand, and drawn a little outward fromthe eye- 

all, while the artificial eye, which is to be previoufly 
moittened, mutt be pushed under the eye-lid with the other 
hand. This can be accomplifhed with moft eafe when the 
little corner of the artificial eye is firft puthed under the eye- 
lid. It then lies tranfverfely, and pufhesthe upper eye-lid 
fo high, that the lower edve of the artificial eye is fituated 
higher than the upper margin of the lower eye-lid. The 
lower cye-lid is now to be drawn a little outward with the 
finger, while the artificial eye is allowed to glide downward 
behind the part. 
When the artificial eye is to be taken off, it is only necef. 
fary to draw the edge of the lower eye-lid a little outward 

‘with one of the fingers, and to introduce the blunt end of 

a needle under the lower margin of the artificial eye, which 

is now to be fomewhat raifed and prefled outward. When 

this is done, it immediately flips out of the orbit. 
The front furface of what remains of the natural eye is 

often uneven, forming a prominence in one place, and a 

' depreffion in another ; confcquently the glafs eye fits clofer 
onfome parts than on others, and creates fuch painful fen- 
fations as oblige the patient to remove it. This inconve- 
mience may be obviated by taking off fome of the 
border of the artificial eye at the parts which fit too 
clofe, and make too much preffure, by means of a file, 

When the whole circumference of the eye fmarts after the 

‘application of the glafs one, the plate employed is probably 

too deep, and the whole circumference of its edge makes 

too flrong preffure. In this cireumftance a flat plate muft 

‘be applied. When, notwithitanding this plan, the eye 
continues painful, there is reafon for apprehending that 
the organ is in anirritable ftate. In this inftance, the bett 
way is to take off the inftrument again, and bathe the eye 
well with cold water, or fore atfiringent collyrium. After 
“a time, the eye-ball generally becomes capable of bearing 
the preffure of the artificial eye, without any unceaii- 
‘nefs. However, fome patients are fo irritable, that they 
ean never wear an artificial eye without fuffering pain, 
and fuch perfons ought to be advifed to give up the intention 
altogether, 

It is obvious, that, in every example in which the eye 
“has been deftroyed by fuppuration, no idea fhould ever be 
entertained of ufing an artificial eye, before all inflammation 
and tendernefs of the organ have been quite removed. Alfo, 
‘the ufe of thg artificial eye muft always be difcontinued, 
whenever an inflammation is brought on by any accidental 

 caufes. 

Perfons fhould be recommended always to keep by them 

“More than one artificial eye of the fame kind, in cafe one 
fhould ever happen to be loft. It is alfo advifeable to take 
offthe artificial eye once every day, and cleanfe it, and par- 

‘ticularly the orbit, from all kinds of dirt, mucus, &c. 

_ Want of attention of this kind is frequextly the caufe of fuch 

_inflammations, as compel the patient to difcontinue the ufe of 
‘an artificial eye for a confiderable time. See Richter’s An- 

> fahgsgroade der Wundarzneykunit ; Band 3. 

_ Eys, Cancer, and Extirpation of. Tt becomes indifpen- 
fably neceflary to remove the eye-ball in feveral kinds of 

‘ cafes, as, for inftance, when the organ protrudes from the 

“orbit, and cannot be reduced. The operation is alfo requi- 

Site for fome ulcerated ftaphylomas, and for every kind of 


cafe in which the coats and humours of the eye are fo dif- 
eafed, as not to admit of being reftored to a natural ftate, 
and in which the affeétion, if left to itfelf, would be likely 
to be communicated to the orbit. i 

Cancer of the eye, however, is the chief diforder, which 
creates a neceflity for the performance of the opera- 
tron 

The eye may beeome affeGted with cancer in three differ- 
ent manners. Sometimes the globe of the eye acquires an 
irregular kaotty fhape, and enlarges to the fize of an apple. 
The fight is gradually deltroyed, the blood-veffels in the 
white of the eye are varicofe, and the whole of the mternal 
and external ftruéture of the organ is fo altered, that the 
part looks like a piece of flefh, and no veltizes of the origi- 
nal organization are any longer perceptible. Sometimes, a 
{mall remaining portion of the tranfparant cornea is exter 
nally obfervable ; and, in certain cafes, a little aperture may 
ftill be feen within, through which the remainder of the vi- 
treous humour and choroid coat is difecoverable. Some- 
times a feetid fluid is difcharged from the difeafed organ, an 
ulcerated opening into the part having occurred. Occafion- 
ally, no ulceration whatever can be noticed, and the eye- 
ball refembles a firm piece of flefh. ‘The patient commonly 
experiences at firft burning pains in the eye, which, how- 
ever, are not in an infupportable degree ; but, at laft, they 
become of a violent darting nature, and fhoot all over one-half 
ofthe head. The caufes of this diftemper are- involved in 
corfiderable obfcurity. A German furgeon, named Vogel, 
mentions, that the difeafe is fometimes brought on by the 
fmall-pox. The foregoing form of cancer of the eye is the 
principal, and mot frequent one. 

Sometimes excrefeences make their appearance upon the 
front furface of the eye, and moft frequently upon the tranf- 
parent cornea. Such tumours often admit of being eradi- 
eated with the knife, ligature, or cavitic. In certain in- 
ftances, however, they always grow again after the employ- 
ment of thefe means, and become larger, more malignant, 
and even cancerous. At length, they ‘change into a fun- 
gous growth, which is extremely painful, covers all the an- 
terior part of the eye, and renders the operation of removing 
this organ abfolutely neceffary. Such 1s the fecoud form 
in which cancer of the eye prefents itfelf. 

On feveral occafions ulcers are produced upon the fore- 
part of the eye, and although a great many of them may 
be cured by the ufe of external and internal remedies, they 
are often exceedingly obftinate, dettroy vifion, and acquire 
fo malignant a flate, that they may very well be called 
cancerous. This is the third fpecies of cancer, which 
makes the extirpation of the eye requiiite. 

With regard to the treatment of every cancerous kind of 
difeafe, affecting the eye, we have a choice of three dil 
ent methods. We either plainly difcover fome particular 
determinate caufe, and employ meafures calculated for its 


“removal ; or the malignant character of the fymptoms leads 


us tohave recourfe to the remedies ufually preferibed for 
carcinomatous difeafes; or elfe, when both thefe plans fail, 
we proceed to put in practice the extirpation of the ey 
What is commonly called a cancer of the eye does not feem 
to be nearly fo malignant as the fame fort of difeafe in the 
breaft ; for the operation almoit always accomplifhes a radi- 
cal cure, as long as the diftemper is confined to the globe 
of the eye, and the eye-lids, cellular fabttance, and bones of 
the orbit continue unaffe&ed. The knowledge of this cir- 
cumitance fhould lead us to undertake the operation in good 
time, and-we can the more readily make up our mind to 
perform it, fince the power of feeing is, in all thefe cafes, 
irrecorerably loft. When the patient fuffers violent 

F 2 head. 


e. 


EY £. 


head-achs, and pains in other parts of the body, 
when his glands in different fituations are in an indu- 
rated flate, when the eye-ball has burft, and it difcharges a 
feetid matter, and when the eye-lids are red, fwollen, and 
painful, the event of the operation muft be confidered, as at 
leaft very doubtful. 

In the performance of the operation there are two im- 
portant circumttances, to which attention ought to be paid. 
The firft is to remove every particle of the difeafe, and 
Jeave none of the affected parts behind. ‘The fecond is to 
avoid doing any injury to the periofteum and bones of the 
orbit, The periofteum, in this fituation, lies fo near the 
dura mater, that the confequences of any mifchief done 
to the firft membrane, may eafily extend to the latt ; 
aid the bones of the orbit are in moft places fo thin, that 
they cannot be pierced, or broken; without a rifle of in- 
juring the brain, which is fituated immediately behind them, 
It is on this account that fome furgical writers have recom- 
mended, for the performance of this operation, inflruments 
which have no points. A man, endued with a very mode- 
rate fhare of dexterity, however, may certainly ufe a point- 
ed knife forthe purpofe both with fafety and advantage. 

In order to be able to feparate the eye-lids far enough 
from each other, it is fometimes recommended, in the firft 
inftance, to make an incifion through them at their external 
commiffure. An afliftant is to raife the upper eye-lid as 
much as poffible towards the fore-head. Some authors alfo 
advife us to introduce through the eye-ball a ligature, with 
which the part may be drawn to one fide, or the other, 
during the operation. We cannot conceive, however, that 
there can be any real occafion for this painful proceeding, 
nor for the employment of any kind of hook, with a fimilar 
intention, fince any operator poflefling common adroitnefs 
may eafily fucceed in drawing the globe of the eye forward 
with his fingers, as foon as it is detached, from its connec- 
tions within the orbit. 

In this operation, furgeons have fometimes made ufe of a 
{calpel curved fideways, and a pair of {ciflars of a fimilar 
fhape, with which inftruments it has been fuppofed that 
the parts behind the globe of the eye can be more conve- 
niently cut, than with any ftraight ones. But many of 
the beft operators prefer a ftraight inftrument, and find no 
inconveniences attending its ufe. 

The furgeon fhould firit divide the conjuné&iva conneéting 
the eye-lids with the eye-ball, and this ought to be done 
both above and below. Then the nerves and mufcles of the 
eye are to be cut on all fides of the organ; a part of the 
operation fometimes effected with crooked fciffars, though, 
as we have already obferved, it may be as well done with a 
common ftraight fcalpel. When a ligature is introduced 
through the front of the eye ball, or when a hook is ufed, 
the furgeon, by fuch means, is always to draw the globe of 
the eye in that direction which will give moft room on the 
fide where the parts are to be cut. But we confider the 
employment of a ligature, or hook, for the purpofe of 
pulling the globe of the eye in this manner, quite unnecef- 
fary, and therefore improper. 

Richter takes notice, that as the enlarged eye for the 
mott part lies clofe to the cheek, and it is frequently very 
difficult to make an incifion into the orbit, between the eye- 
ball and lower eye-lid, the operation may often be more 
eafity accomplifhed by firlt feparating the upper eye-lid from 
the difeafed organ; then cutting from above downwards 
more deeply into the orbit, fo as to divide the mufcles 
above and at the fides of the eye; and, laftly, detaching 
the eye-ball from itsconneétion with the lower eye-lid. 
‘This mode of operating is, according to Richter, the more 


eafy, becaufe the globe of the eye can always be more 
readily inclined downwards, fo as to make room aboye, than 
it can be pufhed in the dire&tion upward for the purpofe of 
making room below. Until the optic nerve has been divided, 
the operator muft avoid drawing the eye-ball too forcibly 
forward, 

As foon as the eye has been completely detached, all the 
infide of the orbit fhould be very carefully examined with 
the finger, and whatever indurated parts are difcoyered 
ought to be diligently removed. 

In certain inftances, it is proper and prudent to cut 
away one, or both eye-lids, when affected with cancerous 
difeafe. Surgical writers alfo feem univerfally to agree 
about the propriety of always removing the lacrymal 
gland, as it is particularly apt to be the fource of fuch 
fungous excrefcences as are to be apprehended after the 
operation, 

Let the parts, however, be taken away with the utmoft 
flaill and caution, ftill the event of the operation is invaria~ 
bly to be regarded as extremely doubtful, when the adja- 
cent parts participate in the difeafe with the eye-ball, 

The bleeding is feldom of any importance, generall 
{topping as foon as the orbit is filled with foft lint. The 


inflammatory fymptoms and fever are alfo feldom fo violent - 


as to require any antiphlogiftic means, except a low diet, 
and keeping the bowels well open. 

During the fuppuration, the orbit becomes filled with 
healthy granulations, and the procefs of cicatrization muft 
be regulated by the fame principles, which are obferved in 
the treatment of common wounds. 

When the cure is complete, an artificial eye can feldom 
be worn, on account of the manner in which both the 


eye-lids fhrink, and contraé&, to the upper and lower margin * 


of the orbit. It is true, an attempt may be made to pre- 
vent fuch contraétion of the eye-lids, by ufing a bandage 
and {trips of {ticking plafter to keep thefe parts together, 
after the orbit is filled with lint. However, notwithftanding 
our be{t endeavours, it muft be confefled, that an artificial 
eye can feldom be made ule of after the operation. 

Sometimes the granulations, which form in the orbit, 
are flabby and indolent, in which circumftance fome mild 
aftringent fhould be applied, as for inftance, lapis calamina- 
ris, pulvis myrrhz, alumen uftum, &c. In fome examples, 
the granulations acquire a fungous and malignant nature, 
in which event they fhould either be cut away with a 
{calpel,, or deftroyed with cauftic. Sometimes the fungus 
is continually reproduced, and at length occafions death. 
In fome cafes, as late as half a year, or even later, after the 
cure has appeared perfeét, a fungous excrefcence has 
arifen, and proved fatal. Occafionally head-achs, vomit- 
ing, convulfions, &c. followed by death, come on a few 
days, or weeks, after the operation. It is faid, that in 
cafes of this kind the cancerous diftermper has been dif- 
covered to have fpread to the brain, along the optic nerve, 
and to have excited induration and ulceration in that 
vifcus. 

When a fungous malignant excrefcence occurs on the 
cornea, there is no occafion to extirpate the whole eye. 
It is quite fufficient to cut off the anterior portion of the 
organ; for the bafe of the fungus feldom extends beyond 
the edge of the cornea. The operation may be effe&ted by 
making a puncture into the eye with a lancet, a little way 
behind the margin of the cornea, and then enlarging the 
wound all round by means of a pair of feiflars. 

Though the bafis of the excrefcence does not often extend 
into the white of the eye, yet, it is obfervable, that the 
coats of this organ, for a greater or lefs extent around the 

roet 


EY £. 


reot of the fungus, are preternaturally thick and {wollen, 
Hence, as foon as the operation is finifhed, we fhould at- 
tentively examine, whether the coats of the eye, in the 
place where the incifion has been made, are in a natural 
flate, and fhould any part not feem to be fo, it ought to be 
cut away. 

Eye, Contufions of the. See OPHTHALMIA. 

Eve, Difea/es of the, are an ophthalmia, or inflammation 
of the eyes; the gutta ferena, or amaurofis; a fuffufion, 
or cataract ; an e€tropium ; a glaucoma; an amblyopia, or 
obfcurity of fight, including the myopia, the prefbytopia, 
the nytalopia, and the amaurofis ; the {trabifmus, or fquint- 
ing ; an unguis pannus, or pterygium of the membrane of 
the eye ; the albugo, leucoma, or {pot in the eye; a fugilla- 
tion of the eye; anepiphora, or rheum in the eyes; a tri- 
chiafis ; and the fiftula lachrymalis. See each defcribed 
under its peculiar denomination, See Warner's Deferip- 
tion of the human Eye, &c. with its principal Dileafes, 
&c. 2d edit. 1775. 

Eve, Falling out of the. See Protarsus oculi. 

Eyes, Running of the, in Infants. See Invant. 

Eyes, Scarification of the. Sec SCARIFICATION, 

Eve, Wounds of the. See Wounps. 

Eve of Birds. See Anatomy of Birvs. 

Eve of Fifhes. See Fisu. 

Eves of Flies. Every naturalift has cbferved, that the 
eyes of flies are of a reticulated texture ; and each reticulated 
eye of this kind is truly an affemblage of multitudes, often 
of many thoufands, of {mall but perfect eyes. The reti- 
culated eyes of flies are large, not only in proportion to the 
fize of the creature, but abfolutely, and in themfelves ; but 
the feveral fmall eyes of which they are compofed are re- 
markably minute in comparifon of thofe of the butterfly 
clafs, 

Many of the butterfly clafs have in each of their reticu- 
lated eyes many thoufand fmall eyes; but the fly clafs 
greatly exceed them in number of thefe, as many of the 
eyes of thefe are three times as large as thofe of the butter- 
flies; and befides, that each finaller eye is vaftly more mi- 
nute than the {mall eyes of the butterflies. 

Mr. Hook computed 14,000 hemifpheres in the two eyes 
of a drone; Mr. Lewenhoeck reckoned 6236 in a filk- 
worm’s two eyes in its fly-ftate; 3181 in each eye of a 
beetle ; and 8000 in the two eyes of a common fly. The 
pearl-eyes of the dragon-fly appear with a common reading- 
glafs like fhagreen ; and Mr. Lewenhoeck reckons in each 
eye of this infect 12,544 lenfes, placed in an hexangular 
penton, each lens having fix others round it. He alfo ob- 

erved in the centre of each lens a minute tranfparent fpot, 
brighter than the reft, fuppofed to be the pupil, furrounded 
with three circles, and in appearance feven times lefs than 
the diameter of the whole lens. Mr. Puget counted £7,325 
in the eye of a butterfly, which Malpighi concludes to be 
diftin& and feparate eyes. The abbé Catalan, and others, 
have fince fhewn, that all the eminences difcoverable in the 
cornea of infects have the neceflary parts, and perform the 
offices of an eye. Lewenhoeck tiated the bundles of 
optic nerves which ferve thefe {mail lenfes; and Reaumur 
Pree et thefe fupply the place of all that is wanting 
behind the lenfes, for the organization of an eye complete 
for vifion, Baker’s Micr. 1743, p. 228. Reaumur, Hiit. 
Inf. vol. i. p. 261, &c. See Enromotocy. 

Eves of Poe in the Manege, &c. Thefe fhould be 
bright, lively, full of fire, pretty large, and full; but not 
too big, gogling, or ftaring out of the head: they fhould 
alfo be refolute, bold, and brifk. A horfe to appear well, 


fhould look on his objeét fixedly, with a kind of difdam, 
and not turn his eyes another way. 

In the eye of a horfe are difcovered his inclination, health, 
and indifpofition. When the eyes are funk, or the eye- 
brows are too much raifed up, and asit were {welled, itis a 
fign of vicioufnefsand ill nature. When the pits above the 
eyes are extremely hollow, it is for the moit part a certain 
fign of old age: this, however, does not hold of horfes 
got by an old ftallion; for thefe have them very deep at the 
age of four or five years, as alfo their eye-lids and eye- 
brows wrinkled and hollow. 

Two things are chiefly to be confidered in the eye of a 
horfe, viz. the chryftalline part, and the bottom or ground, 
The chryttalline, or moft tranfparent part, fhould, for 
clearnefs, refemble a piece of rock-cryltal, otherwife the 
eye cannot be good. When this part is reddifh it is a fign 
that the eye is inflamed, or elfe, as forme pretend, influenced 
by the moon. When it is of the colour of a withered or 
dead leaf upon the lower part, and troubled on the upper, 
it infallibly fhews that the horfe is lunatic, which diftemper 
contivues no longer than while the humour actually poffeffes 


the eye. 
As to the ground or bottom of the eye, which is pro- 
perly its pupil or apple, it fhould be large and fall, and 


ought to be carefully infpeGed, that there be no dragon, as 
it is called, on it. hisis.a white {pot orfpeck, which at 
firit appears no bigger than a grain of millet, but grows 
to fuch a bignefs as to cover the whole apple of the eye: it 
is incurable, never failing to make a horte blind in the eye 
where it is found. If the whole bottom of the eye be 
white, or of a tranfparent greenifh white, it isa bad in- 
dication, though perhaps the horfe is not as yet quite 
blind : however, it ought to be obferved, that if you view 
a horfe’s eyes when oppofite to a white wall, the reflection 
of it will make their apples appear whitifh, fometimes in- 
clining to green, though they be really good. When this 
is perceived, you may try whether his eyes have the fame ap- 
pearance in another place. 

In cafe you perceive above the bottom of the eye, as it 
were, two grains of chimney-foot fixed thereto, it isa fign 
the chryftalline is tranfparent ; and if, befides this, the faid 
bottom be without a {pot er whitenefs, then you may infer 
that the eye is found. 

You ought alfo to examine whether an eye which is trou- 
bled and very brown be lefs than the other ; for if it be, it 
is irrecoverably lott. 

All eyes which are {mall, narrow, and have long pupils, 
run a greater 1ifk of lofing the fight than any others. See 
Buinpyess. 

The difeafes of the eyes in horfes proceed either from a 
defluxion, or from fome external hurt. In the former cafe 
the eyes are watery, hot, red, and fwollen, the diftemper 
advancing by degrees; in the latter the malady comes 
fpeedily to a height, and the fkin on the outfide of the eye 
is peeled off. 

If the diitemper take its rife from a rheum or defluxion, it 
is to be confidered whether it proceeds from the eye itfelf, or 
from another aggrieved part: in the latter cafe, the redre fing 
of the part will fet the eye free; in the former, itis proper 
to cool the horfe’s blood with an ounce of {fal pruncllx, 
mingled every day with his bran; and when it leffens his ap- 
petite, to change it for liver of antimony till he recovers 
his ftomach. 

For fore eyes, where a {kin is growing over them, the 
following receipt is recommended: to the white of an egg 


add a little fine powdered falt; then fet this on the fire 
till 


r YE. 


till it be reduced to a powder, This, mixed with a little 
honey, is to be put into the horfe’s eye with a feather. 
Tf it is found infufficient to eat off the fkin, the powder 
alone mutt be blown into the eye with a qu ll. 

In cafe of a blow on the eye, take honey, and having 
added a fmall quantity of powder of ginger, put it into 
the horfe’s eye; or elfe take hog’s lard, with the oil of rofes 
and elder, of each an equal quantity ; then, having melted 
them together, anoint the eye therewith. 

Some horfes have naturally tender weeping eyes, which 
void a fharp eating humour; thefe are eafily cured, by 
wafhing or bathing them every morning or evening with 
prandy. See Horse. ere 

We fay alfo, “a horfe unfhod ef one eye,’”? which is a 
yallying expreffion, importing that he is blind of an eye. 

Eve of the Branch of a Bridle, is the uppermott part of 
the branch which is flat, witha hole in it, for joining the 
branch to the hea¢-ftall, and for keeping the curb fait. 

Eve of a Bean, isa black {peck or mark in the cavity 
of the corner teeth, which is formed there about the age 
of five and a half, and continues till feven or eight ; and it 
is from hence that we ufually fay, fuch a horfe marks {till, 
and fuch a one has no mark. 

Eyvx-Flaps, thofe pieces of leather which cover the eyes 
of coach horfes. 

Eve, Altitude of the. See Avrirupe. 

Eve, in Architedure, is ufed for any round window 
made in a pediment, an attic, the reins of a vault, or the 
like. 

Eyes, Bullock's, Ocil de beuf, denotes a little fky-light 
in the covering or roof, intended to illumine a granary, 
or the like. 

The fame term is applied to the little tlutherns ina dome ; 
asin that of St. Peter’s at Rome, whieh has forty-eight in 
three rows. See LuTHERN. 

Eye of a Dome, denotes an aperture at the top of the 
dome; as that of the Pantheon at Rome, or of St. Paul’s 
at London. It is ufually covered with a Tantern. See 
Dome. 

Eve of the Volute, is the centre ot the volute, or that 
point wherein the helix or {piral whereof it is formed 
commences ; or it is the little circle in the middle of the 
wolute, wherein are found the thirteen centres for de- 
fcribing the circumvolutions thereof. - 

Eye, in Gardening, a term which in the management 
of fruit-trees fignifies the {mall bud or fhoot which is to be 
inferted into anothestree. See Bup and Buppinec. 

It alfo fignifies the fmall pointed knot to which the leaves 
adhere, and from which the fhoots {pring forth. The eye 
ef a pear denotes the extremity cppolite to its ftalk. 

_ Eye, in Geography, a town of Norway; 36 miles S. of 
Bergen. 

Eye, a market and borough town of Suffolk, England ; 
is fituated in the hundred of Hartifmere, at the diftance of 
20 miles from Ipfwich, and 90 from London. It is feated 
in a valley, and is almoft furrounded by a brook, which 
gives name to the place. Asa borough it was firit incor- 
porated by king John, from whofe charter, and fome that 
have been fubfequently granted, it derived feveral pri- 
‘vileges, but many of thefe have latterly been difcontinued. 
The borough did not return members to parliament tll 
the thirteenth year of the reign of queen Elizabeth, fince 
which period it has fent two. The right of eleétion is 
yefted in the free burgefles, corporation, and thofe inha- 
bitants who pay ‘ fcot and Jot :”” a number amounting to 


’ 


about 200. The éarl of Cornwallis is patron, or pro- . 


prietor of the borouch, and thereby has the power of 
controlling the elections. Ia the reign of king William 
I. a priory for Benedi€tine monks was founded here, 
and in the time of king Edward III. an hofpital for 
lepers. The ftreets are moftly narrow, The church isa 
large, handfome building. In the year 1801 the town 
confifled ef 300 houfes, and contained 1734 inhabitants. 
There is a weekly market on Saturdays, and aw annual 
fair, It has a fmull manufacture of bone-lace; and fome 
of the inhabitants are occupied in {pinuing. Kirby’s 
Suffolk Traveller. 

Eys, a river of Scotland, which rifes in the north-weft 
part of Berwickfhire, and falis into the North fea, at 
Eyemouth. 

Eye is alfo ufed among Jezwellers for the luftre and 
brilliance of pearls and precious ftones, more ufually called 
the water. . 

Eyer, among Naturalifs, is fometimes alfo ufed for a 
hole or aperture: whence it is that the firlt of the larger 
inteftines is called cecum, or the blind gut, as having no eye 
or perforation. For a like reafon the chemilts call a clofe 
veflel, ufed in diitillation, a blind head. 

Eye, in Per/pedive. See PERSPECTIVE. 

Eye, in Printing, is fometimes ufed for the thicknefs of 
the types and charaéters ufedin printing ; or, more ftridily, 
it is the graving in relievo on the top of the latter; other- 
wife called its face. 

It is the eye or face that makes the impreffion ; the reft, 
which they call the body, ferving only to fuitainit. 

The eye of the cis the little aperture at the head of that 
charaGter, which diftinguifhes it from the «. See E. 

Eye, in a Ship. The hole wherein the ring of the 
anchor is put into the fhank is called the ‘ eye of the 
anchor ;”? and the compafs or ring which is left of the 
ftrop to which any block is feized, is called the “ eye of 
the ftrop.” 

Eye of a Stay, is that part of a ftay which is formed 
into a fort of collar to go round the maft-head. 

Eve-Bolt, is a long bar of iron with an eye in one end 
of it, formed to be driven into the decks or fides of a fip 
for divers purpofes, as to hook tackles, or faften ropes to, 
as oceafion requires. 

Eve-/et-Hole. See Sart. 

Eves of a Ship, a name frequently given to thofe parts 
which lie near the haufe holes, particularly in the lower 
apartments within the veffel. 

Evye-Bright, in Botany. See EupHRasia. 

Evye-Brows. See Eye, in Anatomy. 

Eye-Brows, wounded. See Wounps. 

Evr-Brow, in Archite@ure. See Firvet. 

Eys-Glafs, in our Double Microfeopes, is ufually a lens 
convex on both fides; but Euftachia Divini long fince in- 
vented a microfcope of this kind, the power of which he 
places very greatly above that of the common fort ; and 
this principally depending on the eye-glafs, which was 
double, contilting of two plano-convex glaffes, fo placed 
as to touch one another in the middle of their convex 
furface. This inftrument is fpoken of with great credit 
by Fabri in his Optics, and is faid to have this peculiar 
excellence, that it {hews all the objeéts flat, and not crooked, 
and takes in a large area, though it magnifies extremely 
much. Phil. Tranf. No. 4o. 

Eye-Gla/s, in Tek/copes, is the lens nextthe eye; and 
if the telefcope confift of more than two lenfes, all but 
that next the objet are called eye-glafles. 5 

Eve-lids, Encyjled tumours of, in Surgery. Encyfted tu- 

mo} 


urs 


BY 8 


mours frequently form on the eye-lids: indeed, this is fo 
much the cafe, that fome furgical writers affert that fuch 
{wellings are more often found fituated on thofe parts than 
any where elfe in the body. ; ; 

We fhall not fiop to refute the opinion which has occa- 
fionally ftarted up, that the frequency of encyfted tumours 
on the eye lids arifes from the great number of febaceous 
glands exiiting in thefe parts, which glands have been fup- 
pofed to {well and enlatge from fome caufe or another. 
Scarpa points out, that the glands of Meibomius are only 
fitnated at the edges of the eye-lids, and that encyfted tu- 
mours are not more common on this part of the eye-lids than 
on others. 

Scarpa remarks, that an encyfted tumour of the eye-lids, 
in its early ftate, doesnot exceed a millet-feed or a fmall pea 
in fize, and that it is long before a {welling of this kind be- 
comes as large as a bean or filbert. ‘The tumour is in gene- 
ral unattended with pain ; but fome uneatinefs is experienced 
as foon as the difeafe has acquired fuch magnitude that the 
free motion of the eye-lid, a partial depreflion of it, anda 
decree of preffure on the eye-ball, are produced. 

Scarpa expreffes a conviction, founded on the obfervation 
ef numerous cafes, that thefe tumours are, from their firft 
origin, moft commonly nearer to the internal membrane of 
the eye-lids than to the integuments, their bafes being fo 
fuperficially fituated on the inner furface of the eye-lids, 
that, when fuch furface is turned outwards, the {wellings 
feem quite denuded, and look tran{parent through the deli- 
cate lining of the palpebre. 

Various applications have been tried, with a view of dif- 
perfing encyfted tumours of the eye-lids; as, for in{tance, 
collyria, containing the aqua ammonia in a very diluted fiate, 
refolvent gums, mercurial frictions, &c. Scarpa oblerves, 
however, that he has found fo little fuccefs attend the ufe 
of thefe remedies, that, he is convinced, the only effectual 
mode of cure, particularly when the tumour is of long ftand- 
ing, confifts in having recourfe to extirpation. 

A furgeon, who adopts Scarpa’s opinion, naturally de- 
cides, that the beft way of removing encylted tumours of 
the eye-lids is, generally {peaking, to extra& them through 
an incifion made on the infide of the eye-lid. The reafons 
urged by Scarpa, in favour of this praétice, are, that the 
wound need only be a very fuperficial one, the cyit may be 
eafily feparated from the furrounding parts, the place readily 
heals, and no {ear is left to denote either that there has been 
any difeafe or operation. 

Scarpa allows, however, that there is one cafe in which 
this plan of operating fhould not be chofen, When the 
encyfted tumour is fo fituated upon either eye-lid that the 
part cannot be fufficiently turned infide-out, to bring into 
view the bafe of the fwelling, and to enable the furgeon to 
cut away the whole of it, the cut fhould be made from 
without. ; 

When the encyfted tumour is on the upper eye-lid, the 
patient being feated with his head firmly fupported, an af- 
fiftant is to turn out the upper eye-lid, and prefs in fuch a 
manner as will make the tumour projeé as much as peflible. 
The furgeon is next-to divide, with a lancet, or convex- 
edged fcalpel, the- delicate membrane {pread over the tu- 
mour. Hes to obferve to make the mcifion in the direction 
of the edge of the eye-lid, and of fufficient fize to allow the 
_ tumour to projeét and be taken out with eafe. The {welling 
» may now be taken hold of with a pair of forceps, ora tenta- 
culum, and detached from all its connections with the knife, 
or, as fome may prefer; witha pair of fciflars. The eye-lid 
is then to be put into its natural pofition again, and kept wet 
with linen dipped in the faturnine lotion, 


iB 


The operation on the lower eye-lid is net materially dif- 
ferent from the one already defcribed. 

When an encyfted tumour is to be removed from the eyes 
lid of a child, Scarpa advifes the child to be laid ona table, 
with the head raifed on a pillow, and the hands and feet 
firmly held by affittants. 

In quadrupeds the lower palpebra is moveable, and is the 
{maller ; in birds, on the contrary, the lower is moveabie, 
and tke greater. 

Animals that have hard eyes, as lobflers, and the gene- 
rality of filhes, have no palpebre, fuch eyes being fufficiently 
fecured without. 

In the generality of brutes there is a kind cf a third eye- 
lid, which is drawn like a curtain, to wipe off the humidity 
which might incommode the eyes ; it is called the nictitat- 
ing membrane. 

The monkey is almoft the only one that wants it, as 
being furnifhed, like a man, with hands to wipe the eye on 
occation. 

Evye-lids, Wounded. See Wounps. 

Eve, Bulls, in Afironomy, a ttar of the firft magnitude, 
in the conitellation Taurus, by the Arabs called Alde- 
baran. 

Eye, Cat’s, Oculus cati, in Natural Hiftory, a precious 
ftone, called alfo /un’s eye, oculus folis, and taken by Dr, 
Woodward for the afterias of the ancients. See Car’s- 
eye. 

Eve, Crab’s, Oculus cancrorum. See Crabs-eyes. 

Eve, Goat’s, Oculus caprinus, is when there is a white 
{peck on the pupil of the eye, asis feen in the eyes of goats. 
Phyficians call it egias. 

Eye, Golden, in Ornithology. See Duck. 

Eye, Hare’s, Oculus leporinus, in Surgery, a difeafe arifing 
from a contraction of the upper eye-lid, which prevents its. 
being able to cover its part of the eye, fo that the patient 
is obliged to fleep with the eye half open, after the manner 
of hares. 

Phyficians call it Jagophthalmia, a Greek word fignifying 
the fame thing, being compounded of Aawya:, hare, and 
oP Sarr roc, eye. 

EYEABLE, in Rural Economy, is 2 provincial term 
ufed to denote the fine appearance of colleétions of fheep 
and neat cattle. 

EYEMOUTH, in Geography, a {mall fifhing town in 
the fhire of Berwick, having a good harbour for {mall craft 
at the mouth of the river Eye. In the reign of Elizabeth 
the French took poffetiion of it for the queen mother, and 
fortified it, as being a convenient port for landing fupplies. 
But queen Elizabeth fupporting the caufe of the reformers, 
the French were foon obliged to quit the country. A con- 
fiderable herring fifhery occupies the inhabitants. In 179% 
fix buffes only were employed, but there is abundance of 
room for numbers more, as the coaft abounds with various 
kinds of fifth. In 1756 the harbour was improved by the 
erection of a new pier on the wettern fide, and ia 1770 ane 
other on the eaftern fide-was added ;._ fince which the trade 
has inereafed, and much corn and meal are annually expoited. 
It has two annual fairs in June and October, and is fituared 
nine miles north by weit of Berwick, and 349 miles from 
London. Sir John Sinclair’s Stat. Acc. of Scotland. 

EYERDORTP, a town of Germany, ‘in the priacipality 
of Wurzburg; five miles $.S.W. of Kiffingen. 

EYERHEIM, a town of Germany, in the principality 
of Wurzburg; feven miles E.S.E. of Schweinfurt. 

EYERtLANDT, an ifland at the entrance into the 
Zuyder fea from the German ocean, N. of the Texel, about 
2 miles in length, and half a mile wide; joined to the 


ifland 


EYN 
ifland of Texel by a bank of fand, and overflowed only at 


high water. 

EYESS, in Falconry. See Eyriz and Farcon. 

EYETON, or Ayton, in Geography, a town of Scot- 
land, in Berwickfhire, feated on the river Eye; feven miles 
N. of Berwick-upon-Tweed. 

EYFERDING. See Errerpine. 

EYGUEL, a river of France, which runs into the Sarre; 
five miles N.E of Sarre Alb. 

EYGUIE'RES, a town of France, in the department 
of the Bouches, or Mouths of the Rhone, and chief place 
of a canton, in the diftri€ of Tarafcon ; 16 miles E.S.E. 
of Tarafcon; the place contains 2925, and the canton 
7320 inhabitants, in feven communes and a territorial extent 
of 245 kiliometres. 

EYGURANDE, a town of France, in the department 
of Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié of 
Uffel; the place contains 991, and the canton 4667 inhabit- 
ants, ona territory of 180 kiliometres, in 10 communes. 

EYKENHOUTS Douster, in Conchology, the name 
of Venus macaffarica, in Leer’s Catal. 

EYLA, in Geography, a river of Saxony, which runs 
into the Wichra, two miles N. of Borna, in the margravi- 
ate of Meiffen.—Alfo, a town of Sicily, in the valley of 
Mazara; 25 miles E.S.E. of Palermo. 

EYLAND, a river of Brandenburg, which runs into the 
Oder; two miles S. of Frankfort. 

EYLANDEN, one of the fmaller Japanefe iflands. 
N. lat. 34° 45! E. long. 139° ro’. 

EYLAU, Drurscu, a town of Pruffia, in the province 
of Oberland; 42 miles E.N.E. of Culm. N. lat. 53° 30!. 
E. long. 19° 24'. 

Eyvau, Preufit/ch, a town of Pruffia, in the province 
of Natangen; 20 miles S. of Konigfberg ; famous for a 
bloody battle fought near it in February 1807, between 
the French and the Ruffians. N. lat. 54° 20’. E. long. 
20° 42', ; 

EYLES’s Istanp, a {mall ifland in the Mergui Archi- 
pelago, near the fouth coaft of Sullivan’s ifland. N. lat. 
to” 46! 

EYLL, a river of France, which runs into the Roer, 
near Juliers 

EYME, a town of Germany, in the principality of Ca- 
lenberg ; 16 miles E. of Hameln, 

EYMET, a town of France, in the department of the 
Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of 
Bergerac; 12 miles S. of Bergerac. he place contains 
1332, aud the canton 5402 whabitants, in 14 communes, 
ona territory of 1224 kihometres. 

EYMOUTIERS, a town of France, in the department 
of Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- 
tri of Limoges; 18 miles N. of Limoges. The place 
contains 1521, and the canton 13,159 inhabitants, in 16 
communes, on a territory of 370 kiliometres. This town 
earries on a confiderable trade in dkins, leather, and rags. — 
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Dordogne; 
15 miles N. of Perigueux. 

EYNDHOVEN, a town cf Brabant, fituated on the 
Dommel; 25 miles W. of Venlo. 

EYNON, ariver of Wales, which runs into the Dovic, 
about three miles below Machynlleth. 

EYNSHAM, a village of England, in the, county of 
Oxford, fix miles N.W. of Oxford, famous for a monaitery 
founded here by Athelmer, or Aylmer, earl of Cornwall and 
Devon, before the year 1005 3 and alfo for a council held 
here by king Ethelred, at which the archbifhops and bifhops 
of the realm attended, and many acts, ecclefiattical and civil, 


EY S$ 


any paffed. The number of inhabitants in 1801 was 
1166. 

EYPEL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin- 

ratz 3; three miles $.S.E. of Trautenau. 

EYPOLTAN, a town of Auitria, on the north fide of 
the Danube; five miles N. of Vienna. 

EY RAGUES, a town of France, in the department of 
the Mouths of the Rhone; eight miles E.N.E. of Tarafcon. 

EYRE, a town of North Carolina; 48 miles W. of 
Halifax. 

Eyrf, or /ré,a mountain of Africa, between Fezzan 
and Cafhna, 

i _Evre, or Eire, in Law, fignifies the court of juftices 
itinerant. 

The word feems formed of the old French, irre, iter, 
way, track. 

Hence juftices in eyre are thofe whom BraGton calls ju/fi- 
ciarii ttinerantes. See Justices in Eyre. 

Eyre of the Foreft, is otherwife called juflice-feat, which — 
by the ancient cuftoms was to be held every three years by 
the juftices of the foreft, journeying up and down for that 
purpofe. See Justrices. — 

EYRECOURT, in Geography, a poft town of the 
county of Galway, Ireland; 72 Ivith miles weft from 
Dublin, and about 34 eaft from Galway. 

EYRIE, or Ayriz, among Fa/coners, the neft where 
hawks fit and hatch, and feed their young. 

Hence a young hawk, newly taken from the nett, is called 
an eyefs. 

EYRON, in Geography. See Erron. 

EYSACH, a river of the Tyrolefe, which runs into the 
Adige, near Bolzano. 

EYSDALE, or Espace, a fmall ifland near the weft 
coaft of Scotland, celebrated for its quarries of excellent 
flate; feven miles S.E. from Mull. N. lat. 56° 18! 
W. long. 5188. 

EYSENBERG, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; 20 
miles S.S.W. of Brandenburg. 

EYSL, a town of Germany, in the principality of 
Anfpach; four miles N. of Thalmeffing. 

EYSTATHES, in Botany, wsaSn:, firm and flable, in 
allufion to the hard and durable nature of the wood. > 
Loureir. Cochinch. 234. Clafs and order, Ogandria Mono- 
gynia. Nat. Ord, Sapindi, Juff. ? 

Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, concave 
leaves. Cor. Petals five, ovate, fpreading, the fize of the 
calyx. Stam. Filaments eight, awl-fhaped, erect, inferted 
into the receptacle; anthers ereét, ovate, of two cells, 
Pif, Germen fuperior, roundifh, hairy; ftyle thread-thaped, 
nearly as long as the ttamens; ftigma obtufe, notched, 
Peric. Berry globofe, flefhy, of one cell. Seeds four, 
ovate, comprefled, 

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves, inferior. 
ovate. Berry of one cell, with four feeds. 

E. fylvefiris. Lour. 235. Native ot the lufty mountains 
of Cochinchina. A large tree, whofe wood is reddifh, 
even, firm, of an ample fize, fit for the purpofes of 
building. Branches {preading. Leaves alternate, ovate- 
oblong, pointed, entire, fmooth, veiny. Yowers white, 
in nearly fimple oblong clufters, about ‘the ends of the 
branches. Berry fmooth, with a hard fkin, pulpy in- 
ternally, of a middling fize, not eatable. = 

Such is Loureiro’s account. We know no defcribed 
treé to which his defcription is applicable. The number 
of feeds which he attributes to this genus, four inflead of 
three, renders its natural order doubtful. 

EYSTENEY, called alfo Ezfon-Ne/t, in Geography, isa 

7 remarkable 


Petals five, 


EZE 


rematkable head-land in Suffolk, formerly accounted the moft 
eaitern point of the ifland, whence it received its Saxon, or 
rather Britifh, denomination. But fince the latitudes and 
longitudes of places have been more accurately afcertained 
by modern difcoveries, the ftatement has becn found 
erroneous ; part of the Norfolk coaft having a more cafterly 
bearing. This point was the EEOXH, or Lxtenfio Promon- 
zorium of the Roman geographer Ptolemy. ‘ And to put 
it out of doubt,” fays Camden in his Britannia, that it 
is the fame we call Eafton, it is to be obferved, that Lyf 
teney fignifies the fame in Britifh, as Efoxn in Greck, or 
Extenfio in Latin. Though the name in our language 
may be with as much probability derived from its ealtern 
fituation.”? (Vol. ii. Gough’s Edit. p. 76.) The pro- 
bability, however, is in favour of the Britith derivation. 
Dften or Ey/fen, m Celtic, means to extend, and Ay, prominent ; 
hence Eyitenhy, or Eyfteney, will fignify the extended pro- 
teétion, or bold promontory. Horfley places it at Gunfleet, 
in the county of Effex. 

EYTJOU-HOTUN, a town of Corea; 380 miles 
E. of Peking. 

EYWANOUITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of 
Olmutz; 16 miles S. W. of Olmutz. 

EZA, a town of France, in the department of the 
Maritime Alps; 4 miles E. of Nice. 

EZAGEN, a town of Africa, in Fez; 60 miles S. of 
Tetuan, 

EZAWEN, a town of Africa, in the country of Sahara; 
yo miles N. W. of Tombuétoo. 

EZDOUD, a town of Syria, on the fite of the ancient 
Azotus, or Afhdod, famous at prefent for its fcorpions. 
‘This town, which was once fo powerful under the Philiftines, 
affords no proofs of its ancient importance. ‘Three leagues 
from Ezdoud is the village of El-Majdal, where they {pin 
the fineft cottons in Paleftine, which, however, are very 
coarfe. 

EZEKIEL, in Scripture Biography, one of the infpired 
prophets, whofe prediétions are recorded in the Old Tefta- 
ment. He was the fon of Buzi of the houfe of Aaron, and 
one of the captives carried by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon 
with Jeconiah or Jehoiachin. The era at which he com- 
mences his prophecies was the fifth year of Jehoiachin’s 
captivity, or the fifth of Zedekiah, or the 593d year B. C. 
Jeremiah was his contemporary, and prophefied at the fame 
time in Judea. Ezekiel, after his captivity, inhabited fome 
place on the river Chebar, which flows into the Euphrates 
about 200 miles northward of Babylon; and this was the 
{cene of his predi&tions, though he was occafionally con- 
veyed in vifion to Jerufalem ; and his prophecies were con- 
tinued for about 22 years. ‘the events of his life, after his 
advancement to the prophetic office, are interwoven with 
the detail which he himfelf has given of his prediétions ; and 
the mamer of its termination is no where afcertained. LEpi- 
phanius, indeed, if he be the author of the life of this pro- 
phet that is afcribed to him, informs us, that he was put to 
death by the prince or commander of the Jews in the place 
of his exile; becaufe he was addi¢ied to idolatry, and could 
not bear the reproaches of the prophet. But on this ac- 
count, which is intermixed with many fables, we can, place 
no reliance. The fubjeGts of Ezekiel’s prophecies, con- 
tained in the canonical book of the Old Teftament, 

aring his name, are the dreadful calamities, foon after in- 
fli&ted upon Judza and Jerufalem, on account of the idola- 
try, impiety, and profligacy of their inhabitants; the di- 
vine 5 ele that would be executed on the falfe prophets 
and proplicteffes, who deluded and hardened the Jews in 
their rebellion againft God; the punifhments which fhowld 

Vou. XIV. 


E25 


befal che Ammonites, Edomites, and Philiftines, for their 
hatred of the Jews, and for infuleing over them in their dif- 
trefs ; the deftrudtion of Tyre, which he places in the 26th 
year of the captivity of Jehoiachin, and alfo the congucf of 
Egypt in the fucceeding year, by Nebuchadnezzar; the fu- 
ture reftoration of Ifrael and Judah from their feveral difper- 
fions, upon their repentance and reformation ; and their ulti. 
mately happy ftate after the advent and under the govern- 
ment of the Meffiah. The prediGtions of Ezekiel are dif- 
tributed by Jofephus, and various other writers, into two 
books, or parts; the firft of which extends to the clofe of 
the 39th chapter; and the fecond, in which a new, more 
elevated, and joyful fcene is exhibited, begins with the goth 
chapter, and is comprehended in the laft nine chapters. Gro- 
tius {peaks in high terms of this prophet, obferving, § that 
he had great erudition and genius ; fo that fetting afide 
his gift of prophecy, which is incomparable, he may de- 
ferve to be compared with Homer, oa account of his beau- 
tiful conceptions, his illuftrious comparifons, and bis ex- 
tenfive knowledge of various matters, particularly of ar- 
chitecture.”” Bifhop Lowth, in his z1ft leéture on the fa- 
cred poetry of the Hebrews, gives us an admirable defcrip- 
tion of the peculiar and difcriminating charaéteriflics of this 
prophet. ‘ Ezekiel,” fays he, “is much inferior to Je- 
remiah in elegance ; but is equal even to. Iiziah in fub- 
lnnity, though their ftyle of compofition is very different. 
For he is bold, vehemerxt, tragtcal, wholly intent ‘on exagge- 
ration ; in his fentiments elevated, warm, bitter, indignant ; 
in his images fertile, magnificent, harfh, and fometimes al- 
moft deformed ; in his di¢tion grand, mighty, auttere, rouzh, 
and fometimes uncultivated, abounding in repetitions, not 
for the fake of ornament or gracefulnefs, but through in- 
dignation and violence. Whatever fubje@t he undertakes 
to treat of, he purfues it diligently, he remains entirely 
fixed on it, and rarely deviates from his purpofe ; fo that 
his reader is {carcely ever unable to difcern the fenfe and 
conneétion of his matter. Perhaps he is excelled in other 
refpects by moft of the prophets; but none ia the whole 
compafs of writers has ever equalled him in the manner of 
writing, for which he feems to have been fingularly qualified 
by nature, in force, impetuality, weight, and grandeur. His 
dition is fufficiently perfpicuous; almof all his ebfeurity 
lics in his matter: his vifions are particularly obicure ; and 


yet, asin Hofea, Amos, and Zechariah, they are iaterpreted 
by a narration, which is plain and altogether hiftorical. The 
greater part of Ezekiel, and what lies in the middle of his 
book, is poetical, whether we regard the matter or the di@tion: 
but heis for the moit part fo rude and void of compofition 
in his fentences, that I am often doubtful what to determine 
in this refpect.””? In another place the fame learned prelate 
remarks, that Ezekiel fhould perhaps beoftener ciafled among 
the orators than the poets ; and he thinks that, with refpe& 
to ftyle, we may juitly aflizn to Ezckiel the fame rank among 
the-Hebrews that A&fchylus holds among the Greeks, Vhe 
mott learned and elaborate commentary upon this prophet 
was written by two Spanifh Jefuits, Pradus and Villalpandus, 
in three volumes folio, of which Dr. William Lowth has 
availed himfelf in his valuable continuation of Bifhop Pa- 
trick’s commentary on the Old Teitament. The lateit and 
belt verfion of Ezekiel is that of the late learned bifhop New- 
come, in 1788, in 4to. with a preface and notes, which Bibli- 
cal {cholars will perufe with advantage. Prideaux’s Conn. 
vol. i. ; Loowth’s Comm. Pref.: and Preface to Newcome’s 
Com. 

Egexren’s reed, or red, a {eriptare meafure, computed 
by late writers te amount te 1 Engliih foot 11 inches + of 
an inch, 


a EZRA, 


EZRA. 


EZRA, or Ezpras, in Biography, a Jewifh prieit, 
autMor of the book that bears his name, and compiler of 
the Canon of the O. T., was a defcendant of Seraiah, 
the high prieft, who was put to death by Nebuchad- 
nezzar at the capture of Jerufalem, in the year 587 B. C. 
and flourifhed about the year 458 B.C. He was probably 
born in the land of captivity, and acquired the refpect and 
confidence of his countrymen by his diftinguifhed learnirg, 
acquaintance with the fcriptures, and zeal: for the religion 
of hie fathers. Inthe beginning of the 7th year of Ar- 
taxerxes Longimanus, or 458 B.C., Ezra received his 
eommifiion to return to Jerufalem, with as many of his 
nation as chofe to accompany him, for the purpofe of re- 
{toring and {ettling the ftate, and reforming the church 
of the Jews, and of regulating and governing both accord- 
ing to their own laws. ‘The extraordinary powers with 
which Ezra was invefted feem to have been conferred upon 
him by the influence of Efther, who was at this time in 
high favour at the Perfian court. At the commencement 
of his journey he appointed a faft, with a view of recom- 
mending himfelf and his affociates to the divine protection, 
and arrnved at Jerusalem on the 1{t day of the 8th month, 
having {pent 4 whole months in the journey from Ba- 
bylon thither. Having delivered up to the temple the 
rich offerings which had been made to it by the king, the 
nobles, and the Jews who remained in Babylon, and having 
comniunicated his commifiion to the king’s lieutenants and 
governors throughout Syria and Paleftine, he made no de- 
Tay in the execution of it; and difficult and arduous as it 
was, he perfevered during an interval of 13 years, till Ne- 
hemiah arrived with a new commiffion from the Perfian 
court, to co-operate with him. From the advancement of 
Efther to the high dignity of queen in the court of Perfia, 
and the proteGiion and patronage’ thus afforded him, Ezra 
derived an encouragement to go on. with the work of 
reforming and fettling the Jewifh church and ‘tate in Jeru- 
falem, which he had undertaken. 

We fhall here obferve that the date of the commiffion 
granted to Ezra in the 7th year of Artaxerxes furnifhes 
the commencement of the 70 weeks of the famous pro- 
phecy, delivered in the oth chapter of Daniel, concerning 
the advent of the Meffiah, that thefe 70 weeks are weeks 
of years, and that the whole number amounts to 490 years, 
at the end of which the- period marked in the prophecy 
expired ; after which the Jews were no longer to be the 
peculiar people of God, nor Jerufalem his holy city, be- 
caufe then the economy which he had eftablifhed among 
them was to ceafe, and the worfhip which he had ap- 
pointed at Jerufalem was to be wholly abolifhed. All 
this was accomplifhed at the death of Chrift. Accord- 
ugly, the end ot thefe weeks being fixed at the death of 
Chrift, we may eafily calculate their commencement. The 
death of Chrift, as moft learned men agree, took place in 
the year of the Julian period 4746, and in the Jewifh 
month Nifan, when the Jewifh paflover was always cele- 
brated ; and, therefore, 1f we reckon 490 years backward, 
this will lead us up to the month Nifan, in the year of 
the Julian period 4256, which were the year and the 
month in which Ezra had his commiffion from Arta- 
xerxes, for his return to Jerufalem, in order to reftore the 
church and ftate of the Jews. According to this inter- 
pretation of the prophecy, the words * to reitore and re- 
build Jerufalem’’? cannot be underftood in a literal fenfe. 
If this be the cafe, they mult be underftood of that re- 
building of Jerufalem, which was accomplifhed by virtue 
of the decree of Cyrus, in the firft year of his reign, 536 
years B, C.; but from this era to the death of Chritt 


were 568 years; and, therefore, if the faid 490 years be 
computed from thence, they will expire many years before 
the cutting off or the coming of the Meffiah, both of which 
events ought to fall within the compafs of them according 
to the words of the prophecy. But to return from this 
digreffion. 

One of the firft objeéts of Ezra’s attention, after he had 
appointed judges and magiftrates, was to induce the Jews 
to diffolve the marriages, which had been contraéted by 
many of them in direét contradiétion to the law of Mofes, 
with wives from the families of their idolatrous neighbours, 
During the ‘continuance of his government he feduloufly 
employed himfelf in reftoring the difcipline and rites of 
the Jewifh church, and the worfhip of the temple, accord- 
ing to the form in which it had exifted before the captivity. 
But we mutt not omit to mention a very important meafure 
which engaged the attention of Ezra, and to which he 
devoted his fkill and induftry ; and this was the correétion 
and revifion of the books of the facred writings. What 
he did in this refpeét towards forming a complete canon of 
the feriptures, has been already ftated at large under the 
article Binte. Although Ezra’s commiffion was fuper- 
feded by that of Nehemiah, in the 2oth year of Arta- 
xegxes Longimanus, he continued, in concurrence with 
the new governor, to perfeé the reformation which he had 
begun. When he had completed his revifion of the fcrip- 
tures, and had them written out in the Chaldzan charaGer, 
he made preparation for publicly reading the law of Mofes 
to the people at Jerufalem. The day appointed for this 
purpofe was the firlt day of the feaft of trumpets, when 
the commencement of the new year was joyfully cele- 
brated. Having afcended a feaffold, which had been 
erected in the moft convenient part of the city, and being 
attended by 13 of the principal elders of the people, he 
began to read the law out of the Hebrew text, and fome 
of the Levites, previoufly inftru&ted and appointed for 
this purpofe, rendered it into Chaldee, which was then 
the vulgar language of the people; and he proceeded thus, 
day after day, during this feftival, and alfo that of taberna- 
cles, tilk the whole law was finifhed. Nehemiah and Ezra, 
at the clofe of this folemn bufinefs, by which the minds of 
the people had been much impreffed, proclaimed a faft, in 
order to give them an opportunity, and alfo incitement, for 
a public and folemn confeffion of their fins, and for enter- 
ing into engagements of future obedience to the laws 
which had been explained to them. 

The fubfequent events of Ezra’s life are not recorded, 
Jofephus fays that he died at Jerufalem; but other Jews 
affirm that he returned to Perfia, and died there, in the 
120th year of his age. Many fables have been related con- 
cerning him in the writings of the Talmudifts, and they 
have been borrowed by the Mahometens; but they are not 
deferving of recital. Several of them may be found in 
Herbelot’s “ Bibliotheque Orientale,’? under the articles 
Ozain, and Ben Seraiah. 

The book of Ezra was written by him, partly in He- 
brew, and partly in Chaldee, viz. from the 8th verfe of 
the 4th chapter to the 27th verfe of the 7th chapter; and 
contains the hiftory of the Jews from the time of Ar- 
taxerxes’s, or, as others fay, Cyrus’s, edi& for their return, 
to the twentieth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, It 
fpecifies the number of Jews whe returned, and Cyrus’s 
proclamation for re-building the temple, the obftruétion it 
met with, and the finifhing thereof in the reigt' of Danus. 
It is canonical, and allowed as fuch both by the church and 
the fynagogue, 

The books of Ezra, called in the Englifh verfion, © the 


4 Firk 


EZ R A. 


Firft and Second Books of Efdras,’’ though held by fome, 
particularly the Greeks, for canonical, are thrown by the 
Englifh church into the number of apocryphal books, being 
only extant in Greek. Thefe have been defervedly rejected 
from the canon as {purious productions, confilting of com- 
bined extracts from the genwine book of Ezra, rabbinical 
fables, and the dreams of fome Chriftian vifionary. The 
Jews aferibe to Evra the book of Nehemiah, but this 


opinion is contradi&ted by Nehemiah’s own declaration at- 
the beginning of it, and by his always {peaking of himfeif 
in the firft perfon, Some have alfo conjectured that Ezra 

was the author of the book of Ether, which fee; and 

many have, with greater probability, attributed to him the 

compilation of the two books of Chronicles; and others 

have faid that he was the writer of the two books of Kings. 

Prideaux’s Com, vol. ii. Du Pin. 


F. 


Y The fixth letter of the alphabet, and the fourth con- 
9 fonant. 


The letter F may be either confidered abfolutely, and in 
itfelf, or with regard to the particular languages where it 
is found. In the firft view, F is generally placed by gram- 
marians among the femi-vowels, and diltinguifhed in the 
enumeration of the alphabet by a name beginning with a 
vowel ; though it has fo far the nature of a mute that it is 
eafily pronounced before a liquid in the fame fyllable. Joh. 
Conrad. Amman (in his Differtatio de Loquela) divides 
the confonants into fingle and double, and the fingle into 
hiffing and explofive. “Among thofe called hiffing, there 
are fome pronounced by the application of the upper teeth 
to the lower lip ; and thefe are the F and ps. ‘The reafon 
why fome account the F a femi-vowel, and Amman places 
it among the hiffers, is, that one may pronounce a little 
found without any other motion of the organs than what is 
neceffary to the pronunciation of the F. 

In Englifh its found is invariable, being formed by com- 
preffion of the lips, or a junction of the upper teeth with 
the under lip, and a forcible breath. 

This letter is derived to us from the Romans, by whom it 
was borrowed from the Molians, whe, having no rough 
breathing, invented this character, or rather borrowed it from 
the oriental tongues; among the olians it is called digamma, 
or double gamma, as refembling two I’s, (gammas,) one 
over the other. The Latins ufed this great F inftead of wv. 
Hence the A®olians, and the Latins after them, write Foie; 
for owos, vinum, and Frowepe for tospay uelperes and «Fwy 
for cis, evum. (See Letter E.) The afpirate, fays the 
ingenious writer, cited under that article, inftead of vanifhing 

on the principle there ftated, was changed into a labial 
letter, w, v, J, ford. The digamma, however, did not 
always originate in a guttural, but fometimes in confonants 
allied to our w or y. The digamma, fays the fame author, 
did not belong, as Dr. Bentley and others fuppofed, to the 
Holic dialeé&t only, but to all the dialects of Greece in 
their more ancient mode of pronunciation ; and he obferves, 
in oppofition to the opinion of the learned, who fay that 
the digamma at fy/? prevailed, and was afterwards fucceeded 
by the afpirate, that the gutturals at firit prevailed, which 
were foftened into mere alpirates, and that thefe were again 
changed for a more eafy and agrecable letter, which being 
fimply a labial, was diveriilied by different people into 9, zw, 
vw, ?, orf. In contradiction to this very plaulible theory, 


it may be alleged, that the dizamma is to be found only in 
Homer, the moft ancient writer of Greece, while the 
afpirate occurs in all the more recent authors. T'o this ob- 
jection it is replied, that the ufe of the afpirate obtained in 
the written language, and was, therefore, leis fufceptible 
of corruption: on the other hand, that of the digamma 
prevailed in pronunciation, which was more liable to change, 
and to deviate from the original terms. Homer, we may 
naturally fuppofe, adopted the firft in compofiug and writing 
his poems, and the laft in reciting them to the people. 
The written form, we may prefume, was at firft ufed but 
little, but prevailed by degrees, while the peculiarities of 
pronunciation in their turn began to decline. The language, 
as written by Homer, at length became fafhionable in the 
converfation of polifhed people ; and the afpirate being thus 
triumphant in the daily converfe of learned men, would of 
courfe in their writings triumph over oral and temporary 
corruptions. The prefervation of the afpirate in the writ- 
ten poems of Homer, while the digamma was ufed in recit- 
ing them, is a proof that Homer did actually ufe a written 
language, and that his works were preferved by a written 
language ; otherwife the afpirate would have been loft, and 
the digamma alone would have prevailed iu all the Greek 
authors who followed. If an editor of Homer in modern 
days would infert the digamma, he would corrupt the ori- 
ginal orthography of Homer, and fubftitate, in the room 
of the original charaéters, the corruption of pronuacia- 
tion. 

Mr. Jones further obferves, that the change of a guttu- 
ral into an afpirate, or into a long vowel, or into a labial 
letter, called the digamma, is not peculiar to any one 
language, but is founded in the ftructure of the organs of 
{peech ; and inftances of it prevail in all tongues, both 
ancient and modern. We may further add, that the dis 
gamma feems in its origin to have been no other than the 
Greek ©, which being made at three itrokes, degenerated at 
length into the figure F. For the letter @ being cam. 
pounded of an omicren with a perpendicular drawn throughs 
it, if that perpendicular be made firft, and the O at two 
ilrokes afterwards, wiz, firft the upper, then the under party 
it may happen, efpecially in writing fait, that the two 
parts fhall not join; and even initead of two arches of 
circles, hafte and conveniency may naturally enough make’ 
two ikraight lines. : : 

What contirms this tranfmutation of the @ iato F, ig 

G2 that 


F 


that on the medals of Philip, and the kings of Syria, in the 
words EFMIMANOYE and GIAAAEA@OY, the phi is fre- 
quently feen in the form jutt mentioned ; z.é@. it has no 
circle or omicron; but acrofs the middle of the perpendi- 
cular is a kind of right line, formed only of two dots, the 
one on the right fide, and the other on the left, reprefent- 
ing a crofs +. Such appears to be the origin of the letter 
F, which of confequence is no other than a corruption of 
the Greek ©; and accordingly, on the medals of the 
Falifci, the F is ordinarily put in lieu of the Greek © : but 
it matt be added, that though the Greek and Latin letter 
were thus the fame thing, yet the found was much fofter 
among the Latins than among the Greeks, as was long ago 
obferved by 'Terentianus. wthy 

The Roiaans for fome time ufed an inverted F 4, in lieu 
ofa V confonant, which had no peculiar figure in their 
alphabet : thus, in infcriptions we meet with TERMI. 

A WIT, Digl, &c. According to Lipfius, in his Com- 
ment on the Annals of Tacitus, lib: xi. Covarruvias and 
Daufquius, this inverted digamma jJ was firit introduced 
by the emperor Claudius. See Tacit. An. lib. xi. cap. 4. 
and Suet. in Vit. Claud. cap. 41. : 

It may be added, that the pronunciation of the F is al- 
moft the fame with that of the V, as will be evident by 
attending tothe manner of pronouncing the following words : 
Favour, Vanity, Felicity, Vice, foment, Pogue, &e. 
The French particularly, in borrowing words from other 
languages, ehally turn the final v into an f, as chetif of 
cattivo, neuf of novus, nef of nawis, &c. ; 

In- the latter Roman writers we find the Latin F and 
Greek © ph frequently confounded ; as in Falanx for Pha- 
lanx, Filofophia for Philofophia, &c. which abufe is ftill 
retained by many French writers, who write Filofophie, 
Filippe, Epifane, &c. and even fometimes by the Englifh 
as in fantafy, fltre, &c. 

F, in the Calendar, is the fixth dominical letter. 

F, in the Civil Law. Two ff's joined together fignify 
the Pande&s: fee the reafon of this under Panpecrt. 

F, in our Ancient Cufloms, was a ftigma or brand. 

He that fhall malicioufly ftrike any perfon with a weapon 
in church or church-yard, or draw any weapon there with 
an intent to ftrike, fhall have one of his ears cut off. and 
if he have no ears he fhall be marked on the cheek with a 
hot iron having the letter F, whereby he may be known 
for a fray-maker, or fighter. 

F, or Fa, in Mu/fic, denotes the bafs-clef, being placed 
on the fourth line upwards. 

Indeed the charaéter or fign by which the f and c clefs 
are marked, bear no refemblance to thofe letters. Mr. 
Malcolm thinks it were as well if we ufed the letters them- 
felves ; but cuftom has carried it otherwife. The ordinary 
chara&ter of the F or bafs-clef is 3 which Kepler takes a 
great deal of pains to deduce by corruption from the letter 
F itfelf. 

F, in the /talian Mujic, is often ufed inftead of forte. 

¥F, implies fortifimo, very ftvong, or loud. 

F, in Medical Preferiptions, ftands for fiat, let it be done, 
as F. §. 4. denotes as much as fat fecundum artem. 

F, among fuch as give us the numeral value of letters, 
Signifies 40, according to the verfe 


« Sexta quaterdenos gerit que diftat ab alpha.” 
And when a dah was added over it ¥, fignified 40,000. 


F, on the French Goins, is the mark of the town of 
Angers: 


‘in a flat but fertile country. 


FAD 
Fa, in Solmifation, is always the fourth found of each. 


hexachord, as 4, re, ide : 

F, Fa, Ur, in the icale of Guido, is the note which 
occupies the fourth line in the bafs, on which the clef is 
placed: fa implies the fourth in the natural hexachord of C, 
and the wé the firft note of the molle hexachord. 

Fa Feinr, in Old Mufic, implied F x; and any note not 
in the regular hexachords, whether flat or fharp, was faid 
to be a feigned or fictitious note. 

Fa Ficrum, Latin, or Fa Finto, Ital. in Old Mujfical 
Language, implied F %. See Fa Feint. 

FAABORG, in Geography, a fea-port town of Den- 
mark. on the fouth coaft of the ifland of Funen, fituated 
Its harbour is not good $ 
it principally trades in provifions, N. lat. 55° 6!. E. long. 
10° 16. 

FAAS, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad; § miles 
S. of Amednagur. 

FABA, in Botany, from ¢eye, to eat, the common or 
broad bean. Jufi. 360. Tourn. t.2i2.  Juffieu feparates 
this as a genus from Vicia chiefly on account of the verti- 
cal, not lateral, infertion of the feeds, whofe fear or Ai/um 
is terminal. ‘There are feveral fpecies, and their ftout ereét 
habit, fo different from that of Vicia, countenances the 
meafure. Even Gertner however, fo critical in differences 
in fruit, has not adverted to this, and the general opinion 
is in favour of J.inneus who combines the two. See 
Victa. + 

Fasa Bengalenfis, in the Materia Medica, a roundill: 
compreffed fubftance, about an inch in diameter, brought 
from Bengal, and thought to be a vitiated fruit of the 
myrobalans kind. Itisa very good aftringent, and has been 
fuccefsfully preferibed in fluxes and hemorrhages. 

Fasa St. [gnatii. See StryYcHNOS. 

Fasa Purgatrix, the fruit of a {pecies.of ricinus. See 
Patma Chrifli and Casror-otl 

FABACIUM, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs a. 
fort of food then in ufe, which was a kind of cake made of 
bean-meal. 

FABAGO, in Botany, fee Zycoruyttum. The name 
alludes to the thicknefs and fhape of the leaves, refembling 
the feed-lobes of a bean. 

FABALIS Lapis, in Natural Hiflory, a ftone men 
tioned by many ancient authors of repute as found in the 
river Nile, of the fhape of the common bean, and of ablack 
colour. They fay it had the virtue of curing dzemoniace, 
and that dogs durft not bark if it was laid before them. 
Thefe, and many other like virtues, are attributed to this 
ftone, to the great difgrace of the fober authors who relate 
them. The ftone feems to have been of thofe extraneous: 
foflils which Dr. Hill has ftyled ichthyperia, from their 
having been formerly parts of the bony palates of fthes. 
which feed on the fhell-ffth kinds; and other authors fili- 
quaftri, from their refembling the pod of the lupine or 
bean. 

FABARIA, in Boteay, a name given by fome authors to. 
the telephium or orpine, and by which it 1s in fome places. 
called in the fhops. 

Fasartx Calende, among the Romans, the calends of 
June, fo called becaufe the beans being then firft mpe, fome 
7 them were offered to. the goddefs Carna, the wife of 

anus. 

FABARIS, in Ancient Geography, Farfa, a river of 
Italy, called by Ovid Farfarus, which had its fource at a 
{mall diftance to the eait of Carpefia, at a place now called 
«Capo Farfa,” and purfuing a welterly-courfe, difcharged 
itfelf into the Tiber. 

FABA. 


FAB 
FABATARIUM, among the ancients, fignifies, ac- 


cording to fome, a large veffel in which beans were kept ; 
others will have it to have been a kind of difh or plate into 
which bean-pulfe was put and offered to the houthold gods. 

FABER, Henry, in Biography, publifhed an elementary 
traét on mufic, (ad Muficam Praticam Introductio, mulhus, ) 
1571, in which the feale in the harmonic or Guidonian 
hand is better arranged than in any other book of the 
kind that we have feen, by placing a clef at the top of the 
three middle fingers, as beacons or land-marks, and making 
each finger the reprefentative of a tetrachord. See plate, 
Hittory of Mufic, vol. ii. p. 95. 

Faser, Garcory, publiihed at Bafil, in 1552, “*Mufices 
PraGtice Erotematum,” in two books, o€tavo, containing 
230 pages; which, when they were written, could have been 
but of {mall ufe to aftudent without the colloquial com- 
mentary of a matter: its only value, indeed, now is, that 
it contains compofitions of Julquin, Brumel, Okenheim, and 
other muficians of that time. 

Fanrr, Jaconus STAPULENS#S, or JAMES LEFEVRE, 
born at Etaples in the Boulonnois, and who flourifhed about 
the beginnirg of the 16th century, was an able mathema- 
tician, and one of the few writers on mufic which France 
could boaft of at that early period. He was educated at 
Paris, and with a view to further improvement, he tra- 
yelled through various parts of the world, that he might 
have an opportunity of converfing withthe learned. On 
his return to France, he declared open war againft the 
Scholaftic philofopky, and attempted to introduce gennine 
Ariftotelianifm, as well as to difleminate a tafte for mathe- 
matical learning. Befides feveral theological works, he 
wrote commentaries upon the dialeétics, phyfics, politics, 
and economics of Ariftotle. Of thefe commentaries one of 
his conteraporaries fays, ‘* Faber has rendered the Peripa- 
tetic doétrine fo clear, that we have no longer any occafi n 
for Ammonius, Simplicius, or Philoponus.’? Another feys, 
*-Vaber was the firft amoug the French, as Cicero among 
the Romans, who united philofophy and eloquence.”? The 
boldnefs with which he oppofed the corruption of philo- 
fophy brought upon him a fupicion of herely, and the per- 
fecution of the doétors of the Sorbonne; bat he found a 
fecure afylum in the court of Margaret, queen of Navarre, 
where he is faid to have lived to the age of 100 years ; “and 
where he died while veering between Proteftant and Catholic. 
His chief works were theological, but his name is preferved 
by Proteftants as a mufical writer, and author of an elementary 
treatife on the art, (Mufica Libris Quatuor Demonttrata, ) 
under the title of “Jacobi. Fabri Stapulenfis Elementa 
Muficalia, ad Clorifimum Virum Nicolaum de Haqueville, 
&c.”? Paris 1496 and1552. Zarlino mentions him by the 
title of TI Stapulenfe.”? He is faid by Bayle to have died 
at Nirac (where the king of Navarre held his court in 1537) 
at near 100. Bayle, who {ays nothing of his mufical work, 
has been very aignielon his polemics, calls him a bit of a 
man, “c’etoit un petit bout d’homme,” with a perturbed 
dpirit, who attacked his friend Erafmus in an unhandfome 
Manner; in which controverfy he loft. reputation, and 
proved himfelf to be neither Catholic nor Protettant. 

His mufical demonftrations, in a {mall 4to. of only 44 
leaves, begins by a lift of the Greek founders and ‘writers 
on the {cience, and the wonted wonders of its effects ; fol- 
a a by an eloge on his matters, Labinius and Turbi- 

nus. 

He gives a lift of all the ancient writers on mufic, Greek 
and Roman, from Ariftoxenus to Boethius, but appears to 
have read none of them, except Boethius, whofe treatife he 


FAS 


feems merely to have abridged. Salinas fays that he under= 
ftood other parts of mathematics better than mufic. His 
tract is folely confined to harmonics, and was admired in his 
own time, becaufe he had no rivals; but fo frequently has 
the fubjeét of harmonics been treated fince by mathemati- 
claps of a fuperior order, that this is only valuable for its 
age and fcarcity. He takes notice of the Senatus Con- 
{ultum againft Timotheus, but he has given us no copy of 
it, nor does he mention any other notation nfed by the 
Romans, iu the time of Boethius, than that of the Greeks. 
There are feven or eight muficians and mufical writers re- 
corded by Walker in his mutfical diétionary of the name of 
Faber, and Lefevre, but as neither mufic nor precepts of 
any ufe are come down to us from their labours, we fhall 
let them go gently down the ftream of oblivion, without 
endeavouring to check their courfe, or applying to the ha- 
mane focie.y. 

Fazer, Joun, was born at Hailbron, on the Necker, 
about the year 1500 ; the circumftances of his early life have 
not come down to us, but we find him belonging to the 
Dominican order, and a doétor in theology at Cologne ; 
after which he went to refide at Augfburgh, where he ac- 
quired confiderable reputation as a preacher and writer 
againft the Proteftant doftrines. His writings are chiefly 
polemical, among which is “Fructus quibus dignofcuntur 
Heretici,” a work highly regarded by the Catholics of his 
own day on account of the facts, or perhaps fables, which 
it details concerning Luther. He wrote alfo in the Germaa 
language “ An illuitration of the Prophecy of Joel,” anda 
collection of prayers compiled from the fcriptures and the 
works of St. Auguftin. Moreri. 

Fazer, Joun, furnamed from his own principal work, 
6¢Malleus Hereticorum,’? was born at Leutkirchen, a 
town of Suabia, towards the end of the 15th century: he 
was zealoufly attached to the caufe in which he had been 
educated, and was admitted to the degree of doctor in theo- 
logy. In1518 he was appointed by the bifhop of Con- 
flance his official, and in the following year his vicar-ge- 
neral, and in that charaéter he was appointed to examine 
the tenets of Zuingle and his fellow retormers in Switzer- 
land. In this bufinefs his zeal outitript all fenfe of mode- 
ration and propriety, and he exclaimed at one of the 
debates in which he was engaged “that the world might 
very well live in peace withont the gofpel.’? This was in 
reply to thofe who contended that the fcriptures were the 
only rule of faith and good condv@. The reformers car- 
ried their point, an edict was iffued favourable to their opi- 
nions, again{t which Faber had the temerity to enter his pro- 
teft. He was next appointed confeflor to Ferdinand, who 
at that time was king of the Romans, and afterwards emperor, 
who fent him as envoy to the court of Henry VIII. of Eng- 
land. In the year 1531 he was advanced to the bifhopric of 
Vienna as a reward for his zeal and exertions in the Catholic 
caufe. To this inftance of promotion Erafmus alluded 
when he faid “that Luther, notwithitanding his poverty, 
found means to enrich, his enemies.’”? He died in the year 
1542, leaving behind works which were publifhed at dif- 
ferent times, but which after his death were colleéted in 
three volumes folio. .Moreri. 

Faper, Basi, another learned German born in the 
year 1520 at Sorau, in Lower Lufatia. he pafled through 
many degrees of church preferment, end died at Erfurt in 
1576. He pubitfhed works fufficient for two volumes folio, 
but his moft celebrated piece was “ Theiaurus Evuditionis 
Schola!hex,’? which has gone through many editions, aug 
mented and improved by the labours of the learned. +e 

bel 


FAB 


bet édition is that of the Hague in 1735, in two vols. 
Moreri. 

Faber, Honoratus, was born in the year 1626, ata 

eriod when the {cholaftic philofophy declined. He was pro- 
effor of mathematics and philofophy at Lyons, and wrote 
upon philofophy, logic, and phytics. He implicitly followed 
neither the Scholaftics nor the Ariltotelians, but borrowed 
light from modern philofophers, particularly the Cartefians. 
His innovations, however, brougaot him under a ftrong fuf- 
picion of herefy, and produced littlezeffeét. 

Fazer, Pirrre-JEan, a phyfician of the faculty of 
Montpellier, and the author of numerous works relative to 
medicine, furgery, and chemittry, publifhed chiefly between 
the years 1624 and 1626, at Touloufe. Little ‘more is 
known refpecting him, than that he practifed his profef- 
fion at Cattelnaudary, in Languedoc, with great reputation ; 
fo that he was frequently fent for to the cities of that pro- 
vince, efpecially to Touloufe. The titles of his treatifes 
will be found enumerated by Eloy. In one of thefe, “ In- 
fignes Curationes Variorum Morborum, Tolofe, 1627,” 
he informs us that he fucceeded in guriog a rich and noble 
young lady of an hyfterical difeafe, mixed with occafional 
attacks of epilepfy, and that fhe married him in reward of 
his fervices. Eloy Dié&. Hitt. 

Several phy‘icians of the name of Faber, of lefs note, are 
mentioned by Mangetus and Eloy ; one of whom, named 
Albert, after having praCifed his profeffion at Lubeek 
about the year 1641, aud fubfequently at Hamburgh, be- 
came phytician to Charles IL., to whom he dedicated his 
only work, written in Englifh A Latin tranflation of this 
work is extant, under the title of ‘* Practica recenfitio de 
Auro potabili médicinali, ejufque virtute,’? printed at 
Francfort in 1678. He furvived his royal matter but one 
year, having died in 1686. : 

Faser, in Ichthyology, the Englith Doree, a {pecies of 
Zeus ; which fee—Alfo, a fpecies of Chetedon ; which fee. 

FABIAN, Rosert, in Biography, an Englifh hiftorian, 
bora in London in the rsth century, and brought up to 
active bofinefs. In the purfuits of commerce he was fo 
dittinguiflted as to be chofen fheriff of the city in 1493. His 

leifure ours were devoted to literature, and particularly to 
the ftudy of hiftory. He employed himfelf in compiling a 
chronicle, which was printed after his death, entitled * A 
Concordance of Stories.’ It is divided into feven parts, of 
which fix refer wholly to the hiltory of England previoufly 
to William the Conqueror; the feventh brings the 
Englifh and French hiftories down to the reign of Henry 
VII. He is copious in the affairs of London, m which the 
work is chiefly valuable, and on that account it is called by 
Stow “a painful labour, to the great honour of the city 
and the whole realm.’? ‘To each of his books are prefixed 
a metrical prologue and other pieces in verfe, which led 
bifhop Tanner to ftyle him, “ pocta haud infelicis ingenii.”’ 
His chronicle was priated in the year 1516, four years aiter 
the author’s death. Biog. Brit. 

FABIANE, in Geography, a river of Louitiana, which 
runs into the Miffiffippi. N. lat. 39° 31’. W. long. 


Ital 
3 FABIANS, Fasut, in Antiguity, a part of the Luperci. 
Thofe priefts confilted of two colleges, the firit of which 
was called the Fabii, andthe fecond the Quintilii, from their 
refpeétive chiefs. The Fabii weve for Romulus, and the 
Quintilii for Remus. 

FABIANUS, Paryrivs, in Biography, an intelligent 
naturalift, who hived in the reign of Tiberius, and wrote a 
treatife “ On Animals.”? Pliny calls him  natuiz rerum 


FASB 


peritiffimus.” He is alfo mentioned by Seneca and othe, 
writers. Le Clerc, Hitt. de la Med. » 

T'antanus, pope, was a native of Rome, to the bifhopric 
of which he fucceeded in the year 236. He prefided in that 
high {tation till the year 250, when he fell a martyr to the 
Decian perfecution. He is charaéterized by St. Cyprian as 
“an excellent man, the glory of whofe death had anfwered 
the purity, holinefs, and integrity of his life.” According 
to Tillemont, and others, a great part of Gaul was indebted 
to Fabianus for its knowledge of Chriftianity, which was 
taught by the bifhops that he trained up and fent out in 
miffions for the propagation of religion. Moreri. 

FABIO, SrGnor, in the year 1770 was leader of the 
opera band at Naples; a mufician who knew and performed 
his bufinefs admirably. As his name or his merit can be 
little known in England, he would not perhaps have been 
recorded here but to relate a circumltance which did him 
honour, in our opinion, at Naples, but which in England 
would have degraded him to the rank of a ticket-porter. 
Having been invited to dine with a gentleman who loved 
mufic, we obferved that he was fo obliging and fo humble 
as to bring with him his violin. It is very common in the 
great cities of Italy to fee performers of the firft eminence 
carry their own inftruments throvgh the {treets. This 
feems a trivial cireumftance to mention, yet it itrongly marks 
the difference of manners and characters in two countries 
not very remote from each other. In Ttaly, the leader of 
the firft opera in the world carries the inftrument of his fame 
and fortune about him, with as much pride asa foldier does 
his fword or mufquet; while, in England, the indignities 
he would receive from the populace would foon imprefs his 
mind with fhame for himfelf and fear for his inftrument. 

FABIUS, Maximus Q. an eminent Roman commander, 
whofe hiftory and deeds are incorporated with that part of 
his country’s annals which are devoted to the period in which 
he flourifhed. He was matter of the horfe to the dictator 
Papirius, who, jealous of the fuperiority of an inferior offi- 
cer, fought revenge in the death of Fabius; but having 
efcaped, he was himfelf made conful five times, and ren- 
dered his country very fignal fervices. In the year Bz. 
304, he ferved the important office of cenfor, and reformed 
an abufe introduced by Appius Claudius, who, to obtain 
influence in elections, had diftributed a great number of 
freedmen, and perfons of the meanett condition, among the 
country tribes. Thefe Fabius incorporated into four tribes, 
and thus nearly deftroyed their influence. On this account 
he received the appellation of *¢ Maximus,” which was 
made hereditary in his family. The victories which he ob- 
tained were very numerous, and many of them of the utmotft 
importance to the welfare of Rome ; for that over the Gauls 
and Samnites he obtained a triumph. He afterwards gave 
a fignal proof of the love which he bore his country, by op- 
pofing the elevation of his fon Fabius Gurges to the con- 
fulate, becaufe he deemed lim to be inadequate to the 
office, from habits of intemperance. Gurges was, however, 
chofen; and, marching againft the Samnites, underwent a 
fevere defeat. The father immediately went out as lieute- 
naut to his fon, and by his valour refcued him, aad obtained 
a fignal victory over the enemy. Farther fuecefles crowned 
their exertions, for which Gurges, as coniul, was decreed a 
triumph. The joyful parent followed the triumphal caren 
horfeback, and was hailed by the citizens as their great 
champion and deliverer. This was the conclufion of bis 
military exploits. He was again nominated dictator in the 
year B.C. 287. : 

Faxivs, Maxinvs, Q. furnamed the Cun&ator, on ac- 

count 


FAB 


eount of his great prudence in war, was either the grandfon 
or great grandfon of the former, and attained the honour of 
the confulfhip for the firit time in the year B.C, 233, when 
he obtained a triumph for a victory over the Ligurians. In 
his youth he had difplayed very moderate talents ; the meek- 
nefs of his difpofiticn, and the gravity of his manners were 
imputed to want ot character; it was, however, afterwards 
difcovered that he had been diligently laying up ftores of 
civil and military knowledge. When he was conful the 
fecond time he had to contend with the great Hannibal, 
and to his flill, and well-timed caution, the fafety of the 
ftate was owing. His plan was to hazard nothing, but to 
hover round the enemy, watching his motions, cutting off 
his fupplies, and perpetually haraffing him with {mall de- 
tachments, while he himfelf, with the main body, remained 
in pots of fafety. This condu&, though the bet that 
could be adopted, was very difpleafiag to the Romaus, who 
recalled him to the city, and refufed to ratify a convention 
for the mutual exchange and ranfom of prifoners, which he 
had made with Hannibal. To enable him to make good 
his engagements, he ordered his own lands to be fold, and 
thus railed a fufficient fum of money to anfwer the pur- 
pote. 

On departing from the army, he gave orders to Minucius, 
his matter of the horfe, not to rifk a battle ; but, regardlels 
of the command, he attacked the enemy, gained fome ad- 
vantages, and was raifed to an equal rank with Fabius. In 
a fhort time he was attacked by Hannibal, and would have 
been entirely cut off butfor the prompt affiftance of Fabius. 
¢ On this occafion,”’ fays the hiftorian, “ whatever honour 
Minucius might lofe as a general, he recovered as a man. 
At the head of his foldiers he returned thanks to Fabius for 
his deliverance, called him father, and refigned moit willingly 
his authority into the hands of the dictator.?? Fabius em- 
braced him as his friend, and continued him in the poft of 
matter of the horfe. When his dictatorfhip expired, he left 
his example. and advice to the conful P. Aimilius, who, not 
being able to reftrain the rafhnefs of his colleague, Varrag 
fuftained a defeat at the fatal battle of Canne. /Emilius, 
when at the point of death, requefted a friend to acquaint 
Fabius that he had never ceafed to follow his countel, and 
was innocent of the misfortune. This difaiter juitified the 
caution of Fabius, and gave him a juit and bigh pre-emi- 
nence in the ftate. In the fubfequent years of warfare he 
_was thrice made conful; but his moft confiderable aGtion 
was the recovery of T'arentum, which had been bafely given 
up to Hannibal. His fuccefs here was fullied by a1 indif- 
criminate flaughter of the defenders, and by great feverity 
towards the inhabitants, who were fold for flaves, after they 
had been {ripped of their wealth. While Fabius was col- 
lecting with great care all the gold and filver for the public 
treafury, he was regardlefs of the admirable {fpecimens of the 
fine arts which abounded in that Grecian colony ; and be- 
ing afked what fhould be done with them, he replied, « Let 
us leave to the Tarentines their angry gods.” Fabius lived to 
an old age, and was much difconcerted at the fuccels which 
attended the meafures of Scipio againit Hannibal, though 
he did not live to witnefs the triumphant clofe of the war. 
His fon who had been conful died before him, for whom he 
himfelf pronounced a funeral oration. By Ennius, Fabius is 


defcribed as 


«© Unus qui nobis cun@tando reftituit rem.?? 


And by Cicero he is reprefented as not lefs ufeful in the 
toga than at the head of the army. Univer. Hitt. 
ABlUS, in Geography, one of the military towathips in 


-converling together, 


FAB 


Onondago, New York 3 in which is a poft-office, and con- 
taining 844 inhabitants. 

FABLE, a tale or feigned narration, defigned cither to 
inftrnét or divert; or, as Monf. de la Motte defines it, an 
initruétion difguifed under the allegory of an aétion. 

Fable feems to be the moft ancient way of teaching: the 
principal difference between the eloquence of the ancients 
and that of the moderns confifts, according to Pere Boffu, 
in this, that our manner of {peaking is fimple and proper, 
and theirs fwll of myfteries and allegories: with them the 
truth was ufually difguifed under thofe ingenious inventions, 
called, by way of excellence, ofa, fabulz, fables 5 that is, 
words, as intimating that there was the jame difference be- 
tween thefe fabulous difcourfes of the learned and the com. 
mon language of the people, as between the words of men 
and the voices of beatts. 

At firft fables were only employed in {peaking of the Di- 
vine Nature, as then conceived ; whence the ancient theology 
was all fable. The Divine attributes were feparated, as it 
were, into fo many perfons, and all the economy of the 
Godhead laid down in the feigned relations and aétions 
thereof ; either becaufe the human mind could not conceive 
fo much power and aétion in a fingle and indivifible being 3 
or, perhaps, becaufe they thought fuch things too great and 
high for the knowledge of the vulgar; aud as they could 
not well fpeak of the operations ot this Almighty Caufe 


without {peaking likewife of its effe@s, natural philofophy, 


and at length human sature, and morality itfelf, came thus 
to be veiled under the fame fabulous allegoric expreffion ; 
and hence was the origin of poetry, and particularly of epic 
poetry. 

The critics, <fter Aphthonius and Theon, reckon three 
kinds of fables, rational, moral, and mixed. 

Fasxes, Rational, are called alfo parables : thefe are re- 
lations of things fuppofed to have been faid and done by 
men, and which might poflibly have been faid and done, 
though in reality they were not. Such in the facred writ- 
ings, are thofe of the ten virgins, of Dives and Lazarus, the 
prodigal fon, &c. Of thefe rational fables we have likewife 
about a dozen in Phedrus. See Parasre. 

Fasres, Moral, called alfo apologues, are thofe wherein 
not ouly beaits, but trees, and other inanimate fubitances, 
are introduced as a€tors and fpeakers. Thefe are alfo called 
fEfopic fables ; not that A®fop was their inventor, for they 
were in ufe long before him, viz. in the times of Homerand 
Hefioc, but becaufe he excelled in them. Such was Jo« 
tham’s fable of the trees, the moit ancient of any that are 
now extant. See ApoLoGcue. 

The rational differs from the moral fable in this, that 
the former, though it be feigned, might, be true ; but the 
latter is impoflible, as it is impoflible for brutes or {tocks to 
fpeak. 

Fasrets, Mixed, are thofe compofed of both forts, ra- 
tional and moral, or wherein men and brutes are introduced 
Of thefe we have a fine inftance in 
Juftin. lib. xxiii. cap. 4. niade by a petty king to alarm the 
ancient Gauls again{t the Maffilians, who, arriving out of 
Afia into Spain, charmed with the place, begged leave of 
the inhabitants to build a city. . To this effet: A bitch 
big with young begged of a fhepherd a place to lay her 
whelps in; which when fhe had obtained, the farther begged 
for leave to rear them there. At length the whelps being 
now grown up, depending on the itrength of her own fa- 
mily, the claimed the property of the place. So the Mafli- 
lians, who are now only itraugers, will hereafter pretend ta 


be maflers of this country. 
As 


FABLE. 


As to the laws of fable, the principal are, rft. That to 
every fable there be ‘ome interpretation annexed, to fhew 
the moral fenfe or defign thereof. ‘This interpretation, if 
it be placed after the fable, is called exipvbiov, or af ‘abulatio ; 
if before it, mpopvbsov, prefabulatio. 2. That the narration 
be clear, probable, fhort, and pleafant. To preferve this 

robability the manners mult be exprefled and clofely 
kext to, as in poetry. See Prosasiriry and Man- 
NERS. 

M. dela Motte has fome fine remarks.on the fubje& of 
fables, at the beginning of his ‘ Fables Nouvelles, dediées 
au Roi, 1719.” A fable, according to this polite writer, 
is a little epic poem, differing in nothing from the great one 
but in extent: and that in being lefs confined as to the choice 
.of its perfons, it may take in all forts at pleafure, as gods, 
men, beatts, or genii, or even, if occafion be, create perfons 5 
é.e. perfonify virtues, vices, rivers, trees, &c. ‘Thus, M. 
de la Motte very happily introduces virtue, talent, and re- 
putation as perfons making a voyage together. See Epo- 
poeta and PersoniryineG. 

That author fuggetts two reafons why fables have pleafed 
in all ages and places. he firlt is, that felf-love is {pared 
in the inftru@tion. ‘The fecond, that the mind is exercifed 
by the allegory. Men do not love direct precepts; too 
proud to condefcend to thofe philofophers who feem to 
command what they teach, they require to be inftructed in 
_a more humble manner; they would never amend, if they 
thought that to amend were to obey ; add, that there is a 
fort of a&tivity in the mind which mutt be humoured ; it 
pleafes itfelf in a penetration which difeovers more than is 
fhewn ; and in apprehending what is hid under a veil, fancies 
itfelf in fome méafure the author of it. The fable mutt al- 
ways imply or convey fome truth; in other works, delight 
alone may fuffice, but the fable mutt inflruct. Its effence is 
to be a fymbol, and of confequence to fisnify fomewhat more 
than is expreffed by the latter. ‘This truth fhould for the 
generality be a moral one ; anda feries of fictions conceived 
and compofed in this view would form a treatife of morality 
preferable to any more direét and methodical treatife: ac- 
cordingly, Socrates, we are told, had a defign to compofe a 
courfe of morality in this way. This truth fhould be con- 
cealed under the allegory, and, in ftri€tnefs, it ought not to 
be explained either at the beginning or end. 

The truth or idea intended fhould arife in the réader’s 
shind froni the fable itfelf. However, for the conveniency 
of the lefs difcerning readers, it may bea good way to point 
out the truth or moral in precifer terms. To have the moral 
at the end of the fable feems much better than at the begin- 
ning ; the mind is apt to be forcftalled in the latter cafe ; I 
carry the key along with me, fo that there is no room to 
&xercife my mind in finding any thing myfelf. 

The image, M. de la Motte obferves, muft be juft, and 
exprefs the thing intended diteétly, and without any 
€quivoque: it mut be one; 7. ¢. all the parts muft be 
vifibly acceffary to one ptineipal énd; and it mult be na- 
tural ; i. c. founded on nature, or at leat on opinion. 

The writers of fables are not many. If there wete any 
before Aifop, who lived in the time of Solon, about the 
fifty-fecond Olympiad, his foccefs has quite effaced their 
memory; and even occafioned all the good things of 
that kind to be aferibed to him. His life, as written by 
Plavudes, is itfelf a thorough fable. It muft be owned 
to be very happily imagined to make the inventor of 
fables a flave, and his m fter a philofopher: the flave 
has his mafter’s pride aud ill-humotr to deal with through- 
out. His leffons were all contained iv the fables them- 

6 


felves, and the rcaders were left the pleafure of difcovering’ 
them. 

It is generally allowed among the learned, that though 
the matter and invention of the fables be A®fop’s, the 
turn and expreffion are not. The Greek is of Planudes ; 
and bad Greek it is, in the judgment of F. Vavaffor, De 
Ludica Di&. Some authors will have Socrates the author 
of the fables of AXfop; others attribute them to Solo- 
mon, and others to Homer. See Aisop. 

Phadrus was a flave too, and a freed-man of Augutftus 5 
but he had the advantage over AZfop in education: he is 
only a fabulilt, as he tranflatés and copies. Though his 
fables be generally fhort, yet he is prolix compared with 
his author. His flyle, however, is always florid, his de- 
{criptions concife, and his epithets fuitable : he frequently 
adds graces never dreamed of by the inventor, and every- 
where enriches the fimplicity of AZfop in the moft deli- 
cate manner. ; 

Pilpay, another fabultft, governed Hindooftan a long time 
under a powerful emperor; but he was not the lefs a 
flave, for the prime minifters of fuch princes are always 
more fo than the meaneft fubjeéts. Pilpay comprized all 
his politics in his fables; and accordingly his work long 
continued the book of ftate, or the dileiplnde of Hindooftan. . 
It was tranflated into Perfian and Arabic, and fince into 
the modern languages. His fables, M. de la Motte ob- 
ferves, are rather famous than good; but he is the in- 
yentor, and the merit of invention will always com- 
penfate for many faults. His fables are often wild and 
artlefs: and the collection is a fort of romantic affemblage 
of men and gen, compofed in its kind like Cyrus or 
Orlando, where the adventures are continually thwarting 
and clafhing with each other. 

We fay nothing of the fables of Gabrias, or Babrias, 
Avienus, who lived towards the end of the fourth cen- 
tury under the empire of Gratian, Abftemius, &c. 

Among the moderns, the moft celebrated writers are Meff. 
de la Fontaine and De la Motte: the firit of whom has picked 
out all the beft things in AEfop, Phedrus, and Pilpay, and 
giving them anew in French, with a delicacy and fimplicity 
peculiar to himfelf: aud which, in the judgment of his 
countrymen, fets him even above Phadrus. 

The latter, rather than content himfelf with what De la 
Fontaine had left, chofe to be an inventor. He has fue- 
ceeded. His fables are many of them very happy, though 
fome think them too full of thonght and reafoning. His 
verfification is infinitely mote correct than that of La 
Fontaine, and tore fuitable to the fubjeét than that of Le 
Noble. 

We have likewife fome fables much efteemed of Mr. Gay 
and Mr. Moore. 

Fase is alfo ufed for the plot of an epic or dramatic 
poem, or the action which makes the fubjeét of fuch a poem 
or romance. See Porm, Daama, Eric, and Action. 

The fable, according to Ariftotle, is the principal part, 
and as it were the foul of a poem. It muft’be confidered as 
the firft foundation of the compofition, or the principle 
which gives life avd motion to all the parts. In this fenfe 
the fable is defined, ‘*a difcourfe invented with art, to 
form the manners by inftruétions difguifed under the allegory 
of an a@tion.”” The fable is perfeét or imperfe@, as the 
action which it relates is more or lefs fo. For the requifite 
qualifications of this a&tion, fee Action. 

The fable of every poem, according to Ariftotle’s divifion, 
is either fimple or implex. It is called fimple when there 
isno change of fortune in it; ad implex, when the for- 

tune 


FABLE. 


tune of the chief actor vhanges fram bad to good, or from 
good to bad. The latter isthought to be the malt perfe& ; 
probably becaufe it is more proper to ftir up the paflions of 
the reader, and to furprife him with a greater variety of ac- 
cidents. The implex fable is, therefore, of twa kinds, 
In the firft the chief acter makes his way through a long 
feries of dangers and difficulties, till he arrives at honour and 
profperity, as we fee in the tlory of Ulyfes, In the fecond, 
the chief aétor in the poem talls from fome eminence of ho- 
nour and profperity into mifery and difgrace, Thus, in 
the Paradife Loft, we fee Adam and Eve finking from a 
flate of innocence and happinefs into the moft apject condi- 
tion of fin and forrow. The moft interetting tragedies 
among the ancients were founded on this Jatt fort of implex 
fable, particularly the tragedy of Cédipus, which proceeds 
upon 2 ttory, if we may believe Ariitotle, the moft proper 
for tragedy, that could be invented by the wit of man. 
Mr. Addifon, however, is of opinion, (Spe@ator, N~ 297,) 
that this kind of implex fable, in which the event is un- 
happy, although it is the moft perfeét in tragedy, is not fo 
proper for an heroic poem, Milton feems to have been 
fenfible of this imperfection in his fable, and ‘has therefore 
endeavoured to remedy it by feveral expedients, particu- 
larly by the mortification, which the great adverfary of 
mankind meets with upor his return to the affembly of 
infernal fpirits, as it is defcribed in a beautiful pallage 
of the tenth book; and likewife by the vifion, in which 
Adam at the clofe of the poem fees his offspring triumph- 
ing over his great enemy, and himfelf reftored to a happier 
paradife than that from which he fell. _ 

The epic fable, according to Boflu, is confined to the ra- 
tional kind ; i. e. the actors and perfons are to be gods and 
men; and yet it admits of great latitude; it may be either 
grave, illuftrious and important, or low and popular ; either 
whole or defeétive, in verfe ur in profe ; much epifodified, 
or brief; rehearfed by an author, or reprefented by ators 
on the ftage; all which are fo many circumftances which 
do not make any alteration in the nature and effence of the 
fable. 

The charaéters that {pecify the epic fable are thefe: it 
is rational and probable; it imitates a whole and an im- 
portant action ; and it is long and related in verfe: none of 
which properties affect the nature of the fable, or make it 
lefs a fable than thofe of A®fop. 

The fable, aceording to Ariitotle, confifts of two effential 
parts, wz. truth, as its foundation ; and fGtion, which dif- 
guifes the truth, and gives it the form of fable. The truth 
is the point of morality intended to be inculcated ; the fic- 
tion is the action, or words under which the inftruction is 
covered. 

To make a plot or fable, the firft thing, according to 
the great critic juft mentioned, is to pitch on fome moral 
inftru€tion to be exemplified. 

£. gr. I would exhort two brothers, or other perfons, 
who have fome common intereft, to live in amity, in order to 
preferve it, This is the end of the fable, and the firft thing 
T have in view. In order to this, I endeavour to impreis 
this maxim on our minds, that « ill underttanding ruims fa- 
milies and all kinds of feciety.’”. This maxim is the moral 
or truth which is to be the ground of the fable; which 
moral truth is now to be reduced into aétion, and a ge- 
neral action to be framed from feveral fingle and real ac- 


tions of fuch as were ruined by ill underftanding. 


Thus, e.g. I fay, that certain perfons united together for 
the prefervation of fomething that belonged to them in com- 
mon, coming to difagrec, their divifion left them open to 
an enemy who ruined them: fuch is the firlt plan of a fable. 

Vou. XIV. 


The aétion prefented by this narration has four conditions ; 
it is univerfal, imitated, feigned, and contains a moral truth 
under an allegory. 

The names given to the feveral perfons begin to fpecify 
the fable. &fop ufes thofe of brutes. Two dogs, fays he, 
appointed to watch a flock, fall out, fight, and leave alt 
open to the wolf, who carries off what he pleafes. 

If you would have the action more fingular, and render 
the fable rational, take the names of men. Pridamant and 
Orontes, brothers by a fecond venter, were left very rich by 
their father’s will; but difagreeing about the partition of 
their effects, they engaged themfelves fo far againft each 
other that they took no care of their common intereft againit 
Clitander, their eldeft brother by the firft venter; which 
latt, artfully enflaming their quarrel, and feigning he had 
no view but to fome moderate augmentation, which might 
be made him without opprefiing them, in the mean time, 
gets the judges on his fide, and the other perfons iatrufted 
with the affair, procures the will to be ailirmed, and be- 
comes entitled to the whole eftate about which the brothers 
were at variance. Now, this fable is rational; but the 
names being feigned as well as the things, and befides, the 
perfous being only of a private rank, it is neither epic nor 
tragic. However, it may be employed in comedy, it being 
arule laid dowa by Ariftotle, that epic and tragic poets only 
invent things, but comic poets invent both names aud things. 
See Comepy, &c. . 

To accommodate this comic fable more to the mode and 
talte of the town, fome Dorinda mutt be imagmed to have 
been promifed to Clitander; but her father, finding him dif- 
inherited by the will, changes his refolution, and will have 
her marry one of the rich, fenfelefs young brothers, whom 
fhe defpiles, é&c. 

But to return. The fiction may be fo difguifed with the 
truth of hittory that there fhall not appear any fi€tion at all. 
To effect this the poet looks back into hiftory for the names 
of fome perfons to whom the feigned aétion either really or 
probably did happen, and relates it under thofe knowa 
names, with circumflances which do not change any thing 
of the ground of the fable. 

As tor the fable, it matters but little whether the per- 
fons be called dogs, or Orontes and Pridamant, or Robert 
of Artois and Ralph de Neffe, or Achilles and Agamemnon. 

Arittotle obferves, that the fable of an epic poem fhould 
abound in circumftances that are both credible and aftonifh- 
ing; in other words, the fable fhould be filled with the pro- 
bable and the marvellous. If the fable is only probable, it 
does not differ from a true hiftory; if it is only marvellous, it 
is no better thanaromance. The great fecret, therefore, of 
heroic poetry, is to relate fuch cireumftances as may produce 
in the reader at the fame time both belief and aftonifhment. 
This is brought to pafs in a well-chofen fable, by the ac- 
count of fuch things as have a€tually happened, or at leaft 
of fuch things as have happened according to the received 
Opinions of mankind. Milton’s fable is a matfter-piece of 
this kind; as the war in ‘heaven, the condition of the fallen 
angels, the ftate of innocence, the temptation of the ferpent, 


‘and the tall of man, though they are very aitonifhing in 


themfelves, are not only credible, but regarded by many 
as objects of faith. Another method of reconciling mira- 
cles with credibility is by a happy invention of the poet ; 
as in particular, when he introduces agents of a fuperior na- 
ture, who are capable of effeting what is wonderful, and 
what is not to be met with in the ordinary courfe of things, 
Ulyfles’s fhip being turned into a rock, and JEneas’s fleet 
into a fhoal of water-nymphs, though they are very furprifing 
accidents, are neverthelefs probable, when we are told that 

H they 


FABL FE. 


they were thus transformed by the gods, It is this kind 
of machinery which fills the poems both of Homer and 
Virgil with fuch cirewmftances as are wonderful, but not 
impoffible, and fo frequeutly produce in the reader the mott 
pleafing paffion that can rifle in the mind of man, which is 
admiration. '£ we look into the fidtion of Milton’s fable, 
though we find it full of furprifing incidents, they are 
generally fuited to our notions of the things and perfons 
deferibed, and tempered with a due meafure of probability. 
We fhould, indeed, except the ** Limbo of Vanity,’? with 
his epifodes of ‘* Sin” and “ Death,’ and fome of the 
imaginary perfons in his ** Chaos.’? Theie paflages are 
aftonifhing, but not credible; they are the defcription of 
dreams and fhadows, not of things or perfons. ‘The ap- 
pearance of probability is fo abfolutely requifite in the 
greater kinds of poetry, that Ariftotle obferves the ancient 
tragic writers made ufe of the names of fuch great men as 
had a€tually lived in the world, though the tragedy pro- 
ceeded upon adventures in which they were never engaged, 
on purpofe to make the fubjec more credible. In a word, 
befides the hidden meaning of an epic allegory, the plain 
literal fenfe ought to appear probable. The ftory fhould 
be fuch as an ordinary reader may acquiefce in, whatever 
natural, moral, or political truth may be difcovered in it by 
men of greater penetration. 

We fhall devote the fequel of this article to fome remarks 
on the fable of the Iliad, as being the fineft plan of an epic 
poem in the world, and at the fame time the mott ufeful 
fyftem of the precepts of the art, it being hence that Arif- 
totle was furnifhed with all his refleGtions: referving for 
other articles obfervations on the fable of thofe poems to 
which we have referred under the article Epic Poem. 

In every difcreet undertaking the end is the firft thing 
propofed ; and by this the whole work and all its parts are 
regulated ; confequently, the defign of the epopeia being 
to form the manners, it is with this firft view the poet mutt 
begin. Now, the philofopher dwelling on virtues and vices 
in general, the inftru€tions he gives ferve equally for all 
fates and all ages; but the poet has a more immediate re- 
gard to his countrymen, and the prefling occafions of his 
fellow-citizens. On this view it is that he choofes his 
moral, which he ts to infinuate into the people by accommo- 
dating himfelf to their peculiar cuftoms, genius, and incli- 
nations. See how Homer has acquitted himfelf in thefe 
refpects. 

He faw the Greeks, for whom he wrote, divided into as 
many ftates as cities, each whereof was a body apart, and 
had its government independent of the reft. Yet were thefe 
different {tates frequently obliged to unite intoone bodyagaintt 
their common enemies. Here then were two forts of govern- 
ment too different to be commodioufly treated in one poern ; 
the poet accordingly had recourfe to two fables; the one 
for all Greece, confidered as confederated together, only 
confifting of independent parts; the other for each par- 
ticular eftate, fuch as they are in time of peace, and 
without the firft relation. ‘The firft is the fubject of the 
liad, the fecond of the Odyfley. , 

For the firft kind of government all experience agrees, 
that the only thing which can render it happy, and its de- 
fien fuccefsful, is a good underftanding, and due fubordi- 
nation among the feveral chiefs that compofe it; and that 
mifunderftandings, a defire of fway, &c. are the inevitable 
bane of fuch confederacies. The beft inftruction, there- 
fore, that could be given them, was to fet before their eyes 
the deftruétion of the people, and even of the princes them- 
felves, through the ambition and difcord of the latter. 
Homer, therefore, for the ground or moral of his fable, chofe 


this great truth, that the mifunderftandings of princes ruia 
their ftates. ‘¢ I fing,’ fays he, * the wrath of Achilles, 
fo fatal to the Greeks, and which deftroyed fo many heroes, 
occafioned by a difagreement between king Agamemnon 
and that prince.” 

To enforce this truth, he reprefents divers confederate 
ftates firft at variance and unprofperous; then reconciled 
and victorious ; all which he thus includes in one univerfal 
action. Several independent princes league again{ft a com- 
mon enemy ; he whom they choofe as their leader affronts 
the braveft of all the confederacy; upon which the offended 
prince withdraws, and refufes any longer to fight for the 
common caufe. This mifunderftanding gives the enemy fo 
much advantage, that the confederates are ready to relinquifh 
the enterprife. The difaffe€ted perfon himfelf becomes a 
fharer in the calamities of his allies, one of his chief friends 
and favourites being killed by the chief of the enemies. 
Thus, hoth parties grown wife by their own injury, are 
reconciled. Upon which the valiant prince, joining again 
in the war, turns the fcale to his own party, and kills the 
enemy’s chief. 

Such is the firft general’p!an of the poem. To render 
this probable and more interetting, circumftances of time, 
place, perfons, &c. are to be added; that is, the poet 
looks into hiftory or tradition for perfonsto whom fuch ac- 
tions may with truth or prebability be attributed. 

He pitches on the fiege of Troy, and fuppofes the aétion 
to have pafled there. The brave, choleric chara€ter, he 
calls Achilles; the general, Agamemnon ; the chief of the 
enemies, Heétor, &c. To infinuate himfelf into his rea- 
ders, he accommodates himfelf to their manners, genius, 
views, and to render his fable more intereiting, makes his 
chief perfons, and thofe who remain victorious, to be 
Greeks, the fathers of thofe very people. The courfe of 
the work is filled up and extended with other ufeful leffons 
and inftruGions. 7 

That the epopccia in all its glory is juflly and ftrifly a 
mere fable in the fame fenfe as the fictions of /Efop are, is 
fhewn by TF. Boffu, in a parallel between the fable of the 
Iliad and that of A&fop already mentioned. The moral in- 
ftruction is vifibly the fame in both ; fo is the fiction. All 
LAs difference lies in the names and qualities of the per- 
ons. 

Homer’s are kings ; he calls them Achilles, Patroclus, 
&c. and the general good to be preferved, he calls the 
Greeks. /fop, after his manner, gives his perfons the 
names of beatls ; the dogs are confederated, the wolf is their 
enemy ; and what Homer calls Greeks, /Efop calls fheep. 
One fays, that while the confederate princes were at va- 
riance, Hedtor rufhes on the Greeks, and makes them pay 
dear for the folly of their fovereigns (delirant reges, pleétun- 
tur Achivi) ; but that the allies, brought by misfortunes 
to themfelves again, re-unite, repulfe Hector, and kill him. 
The other, that while the dogs are together by the ears 
the wolf falls on the fheep; and that the dogs feeing the 
havoc he makes, join together, drive him away, and kill 
him. 

The two fables were capable of a ftill nearer refemblance. 
Homer has extended his by long f{peeches, defcriptions, 
comparifons, and particular ations ; that of Aifop might 
be amplified after the like manner, without corrupting or al- 
tering it. It is neceflary only to relate what caufe fet 
the dogs at variance, and fhew the rife of the fatal wrath in 
all its cireumftances ; to make fine defcriptions of the plain 
wherein the fheep fed, and of fome neighbouring wood 
where the wolf was fheltered ; to give thisenemy whelps 
to rear, make them follow their fire in fearch of prey, and 

defcrile 


————_— 


FAB 


defcribe the carnage they made at divers expeditions. Nor 
fhould the genealogy of the heroes be forgotten ; the wolf 
fhall boaft himfelf a defcendant of Lycaon, and one of the 
dogs be fprung in adire& line from Canicula ; which lait 
would be the proper hero of the peem, as being hot, and 
apt to be enraged. He would reprefent the perfon of 
“Achilles to admiration ; and the folly of fome Ajax, his 
coufin, would afford a good proof of fo divine an extraétion. 
Nothing more were required to engage heaven in the caufe, 
and divide the gods ; which, no doubt, have as much right 
in Alfop’s republic as in the ftates of Homer. Witnefs 
Jupiter taking care to give a king to the nation of the 
frogs. 

The reader has here field enough for an epope@ia ; if he 
have any thing of fancy and expreffion, and do but take 
care to repeat as often as Homer does, 


Toy D amausiGouevG- wporePn modes wrus. 


See In1ap and Opyssey. 

FABOMIT Laxe, in Geography, a lake of Canada. 
N. lat. 52° 28'. W. long. 88° 15/. 

FABRA, a town of Italy; 9 miles N.N.W. of Orvi- 
eto. i 

FABRAGAS, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ; 13 
miles weft of Gerona. : 

FABRE, Joun Cravupe, in Biography, a French ec- 
elefiaftic, was born at Paris in the year 1688, where he 
received his education, and was admitted to the degree of 
bachelor in theology by the faculty of Paris. He after- 
wards filled the office of profeffor in feveral feminaries in 
France. He died at the advanced age of 85, highly re- 
gretted by his brethren and friends for his candour, talents, 
and learning. He was author of very many works, among 
which is a Latin and French. diétionary, in 8vo. He 
gave a new edition of the fatirical dictionary of Richelet in 
two vols. fol. ; for the execution of fome of the articles he 
was obliged to fubmit to exile fora few years. On his re- 
turn he publifhed a continuation of the ecclefialtical 
hiftory of the abbé Fleury; and a tranflation of all the 
works of Virgil, accompanied with notes and diflertations. 
He gave alfo a profe tranflation of the fables of Phedrus, 
and afummary of M. de'Thou’shiftory. Moreri. 

FABRETTI, Rapxazr, a celebrated antiquarian, 
was born of a good family at Urbino, in 1619. He ftu- 
died jurifprudence im his native city, and after graduating 
he went to Rome, and became diltinguifhed for his great 
erudition, and for his knowledge of {tate affairs. He was 
nominated to feveral diplomatic itations, in which he ac- 
quired ‘much reputation. His leifure hours were fpent in 
the ftudy of antiquities, and particularly in the examination 
and colleétion of all the infcriptions, and ancient monuments 
difperfed through Latium, for which purpofe he traverfed 
the whole of that province alone, and on horfe-back, leay- 
ing no part unexplored. In 1680, he pubhthed a work, 
« De Aguis et AqueduAibus veteris Rome,’? which 
obtained for him high credit among the literati. His next 


‘work was a diflertation © De Columna Trajani,’? 1683, 


which contained the particulars concerning the naval and 
military eftablifhments of the ancients. In 1699 was .pub- 
lifhed at Rome his great work, entitled « Inicriptionum 
Antiquarum Explicatio ;” of this, it las been faid, « that 
it was the firft colleétion which was not filled with fai- 
tious inferiptions.”” The author died in the following year, 
univerfally regretted. His cabinet of ancient monuments 
Was depofited in the old palace of the dukes of Urbino. 
Nouv. Dict. Hitt. 

FABRI, Joun, a phyfician of diftinGion at Rome 


Yr aAB 


during the papacy of Urban VIII., was born at Bamberg 
in Franconia. He took the degree of doctor of medicine 
at Rome, where he fettled himfelf, and afterwards became 
profeffor of medicine, and botanift to the pope. Fann was 
particularly diftinguifhed by his knowledge of anatomy and 
natural hiftory, of both of which fciences he difplayed an 
extenfive knowledge, in his ‘¢ Commentary on the Natural 
Hittory of Mexico,” written by Francis Hernandez. This 
work contains efpecially fome curious faéis relative to the 
anatomy of monfters, and to comparative anatomy. He is 
faid to have been the firll to oppofe the generation of cer- 
tain beings from putrefaction ; and he defcribed with great 
accuracy the ftomachs of ruminating animals. He publifh- 
ed alfo an effay «* De Nardo et Epithymo,” in which he re- 
futes fome opinions of Scaliger. 

Fasri Honoré, anindnuitrious and learned Jefuit, was 
born in the diocefe of Bellay in the year 1606 or 1607. 
He fora long time held the chair of profeflor of philofo- 
phy in the eollege de la Trinité at Lyons; but in confe- 
quence of his profound knowledge of theology, he was 
called to Rome, where he was made a penitentiary. He 
died in that city on the oth of March, 1683. He wasa 
man of moft extenfive and univerfal knowledge, and ftudied 
medicine and anatomy with confiderable ardour. He af- 
fumed the credit of the difeovery of the circulation of the 
blood, and- father Regnault, and other credulous perfons, 
have fupported his aflumption, on the grounds that he 
had maintained the faét of the circulation in a difcufiion in 
1638 : but Harvey had publifhed his difcovery in 1628. 

The works of this Jeluit confit of an apology for the 
Peruvian bark, inanfwer to Plempius, which he publifhed 
at Rome in 1655, under the title of § Pulvis Peruvianus 
Yebrifugus Vindicatus ;”? and two other effays, one, ** De 
Plantis, et Generatione Animalium,”’ the other, ‘© De 
Homine,”’ publifhed at Paris in 1666, and at Neuremberg 
in 1677. 

FABRIANO, Gentite Da, wasa painter who ren- 
dered himfelf famous in the early ftage of the art after its 
reftoration. He was born at Verona in 1332, and was a 
difciple of Giovanni da Fiefole, His moit confpicuous 
work was a picturein the great council chamber of the 
ftate of Venice, executed by order of the doge nate, 
who regarded the work in fo extraordinary a degree of 
elteem, that they granted him a penficn for life, and con- 


and fe 


{late to beftow. 

Many of his pitures adorn the pope’s palace of St. Gio- 
vanni Laterano, and the churches in Florence, Urbino, Pe- 
rugia, Sienna, and Rome. One of them in the church of 
Santa Maria Nuova, placed over the tomb of cardinal Adi- 
mari, reprefenting the Virgin and child, with St. Jofeph 
and St. Benedi&, was highly commended by Michael An- 
gelo ; whom Vafari reprefents as being accuftomed to fay 
that in painting the hand of Gentile was correfpondent with 
his name. He died in 1412, 80 years old. 

Farrtano, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the mar- 
quifate of Ancona, at the foot of the Apennines, containing 
feveral rich monatteries; called one of the four caflles of Italy, 
and celebrated for its excellent paper; 33 nules S.W. of 
Ancona. 

FASRIC, the future or conitruGion of any thing, par- 
ticularly of a building. 

The word is formed of the Latin, fedrsia, which origt- 
nally fignifiesa finith’s fhop, or forge. 


In Italy, the word fabric is appled to:any confic 
; Il 2 baildn 


sr 


FAB 


building ; in France it rather figniiies the manner of build- 
ing. 

ore ie Lands, are lands given towards the maintenance 
rebuilding, or repair of cathedrals or other churches, men- 
tioned in the AG of Oblivion, 12 Car. II. cap. 8. 

In ancient times almoft every one gave by his will more 
or lefs to the fabric of the cathedral or parifh-church where 
he lived. t 

FABRICIA, in Botany, (io named by Gertner in 
honour of the celebrated John Chriftian Fabricius, late 
profeffor of Rural Economy in the Danifh univerfity of 
Keil, a pupil of Linneus, from whoie manuicript notes 
profeffor Gifeke derived much and important afliftance in 
his edition of Linnzus’s leGtures on the Natural Orders of 
plants, publifhed in Latin at Hamburgh im 1792. This 
able man is, however, far more known as the founder of a 
new, fyftem in Entomology, in which he purfued the Lin- 
nean idea, with refpe&t to quadrupeds and birds, of making 
the organs of feeding fubfervient to the purpofes of arrange- 
ment. But however this principle may lead to a natural 
fyftem in thofe tribes, in infeéts it often fails, becaufe in 
their perfe&t ftate eating is by no means their primary or 
neceflary occupation. See Enromorocy. Gertn.v. 1, 
175. t. 35. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 265. Willd. Sp. 
Pl. v.2. g51- Clafs and order, Icofandria Monogynia. 
Nat. Ord. He/peridee, Linn. Myrti, Jufl. 

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth turbinate, half inferior, attach- 
ed to the germen, with five deciduous teeth. Cor. Petals 
five, rounded, concave, equal, feffile, inferted into the rim 
of the calyx. Stam. Filaments numerous, diflinét, awl- 
fhaped, inferted into the rim of the calyx, fhorter than the 
petals ; anthers roundifh, incumbent. /Pi/?. Germen half 
fuperior, turbinate, its bafe attached to the calyx; ftyle 
cylindrical, Short, erect ; {tigma cap tate. Peric. Capfule 
orbicular, depreffed, umbilicated, of eight or ten cells, 
opening vertically ; partitions fiom the centre of each 
valve, meeting at the column. Seeds one or two in each 
cell, compreffed, with a membranous, rounded, terminal 
wing. : 

Ef. Ch. Calyx half fupericr, wih five teeth. Petals 
five, feffile. Stigma capitate. Capfule of many cells. 
Seeds winged. 

bf. This genus is next akin to Leptofpermum, from 
which it differs in having numerous cells to the capfule, and 
very eflentially in having winged feeds, which are only one 
or two, not many, in each cell. Both were confounded 
with Philadelphus by Dr. Solander, merely becaufe he never 
happened to have examined the latter, and referred them 
to it, during his voyage, trufting to future opportunities of 
inveftigation, asin many other inftances. For fuch apparent 
inaccuracies therefore the memory of this excellent man 1s 
no way refponfible 

The fpecies of Fabricia at prefent known are two. 

1. F. myrtifolia. Gertn. t. 35. f. 4. Capfule of ten 
cells. Calys-teeth nearly orbicular.— Native of New Hol- 
land. Stem fhrubby. Leaves fcattered, an inch and half 
long, obovato-lanceolate, entire. Flowers folitary, on 
fhort flalks, apparently terminal. 

2. F. levigata. Capfule of eight cells. Calyx-teeth 
triangular.—Native of New South Wales near Port Jack- 
fon. Itis now not uncommon in green-houfes about Lon- 
don, where it fometimes flowers. Stem fhrubby. Leaves 
fcarcely an inch long, obovate, obtufe, rather glaucous. 
Flowers white, axillary, folitary, on fhort thick ftalks. 

FABRICIO, Geronimo, in Biography, more commonly 
known by the name of Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapen- 
dente, was born at the town of this name, in the territory 


t 
? 


© A.B 


of Orvieto, in Italy, in the year 1537. His parents were 
but poor, yet they found the means of procuring him a 
good education. He wasfent to Padua, where he acquired 
a knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages, and, after 
having gone through the ufual courfe of philofophy, he 
began the ftudy of anatomy and furgery under Gabriel 
Fallopio, one of the moft intelligent profeffors of his time, 
His progrefs under this excellent tutor was fuch as to 
acquire for him a character not lefs diflinguifhed than that 
of his mafter, whom he afterwards fucceeded in the profef- 
for’s chair, in which he taught the fame fciences for nearly 
half a century, in the univerfity of Padua. During the 
whole of this long period ke maintained an uniform character 
for eloquence and found knowledge, and continued to excite 
great intereft in his leGtures. He died univerfally regretted 
in 1619, at the age of 82 years. 

The kindnefs and difinterefted generoity of Fabricio 
gained him the efteem of the principal families of Padua. 
The republic of Venice conferred many marks of their 
attention on him: they built a {pacious anatomical amphi- 
theatre, on the front of which his name was inferibed ; they 
alfo decreed him an annual {tipend of a thoufand crowns, 
and the honour of a ftatue, and created him a knight of St. 
Mark. But the celebrity which he obtained for the uniyerfity 
of Padua by his talents, afforded hima gratification above 
that which accrued from all thofe flattering favours. 

His attention was chiefly dire@ted to anatomy and furgery, 
both of which his refearches materially contributed to 
elucidate. He is faid to have been the firft to notice the 
valves of the veins, having demonitrated their ftru€ture 
in the year 1574. The honour of this difcovery has alfo 
been given to Paul Sarpi; but Albinus and Morgagni are 
of opinion that he was anticipated by Fabricius. Thefe 
anatomitts, however, were ignorant of the ufe of this 
valvular apparatus ; but Fabricius has given excellent views 
of its ftru€ture in his engravings. He was exceedingly 
methodical in his writings, firft defcribing the ftru€ture of 
each part of the body, and then its ufes. Valuable as his 
anatomical writings were, however, his furgical works 
obtained for him a ftill higher reputation. The improves 
ments which he introduced into the practice of his art, in 
confequence of his accurate anatomical knowledge, and the 
confiftent form which he gave to it, have, in fa&t, gained him 
the appellation of the father of modern furgery. His 
works are numerous: the frit, intitled ** Pentateuchus 
Chirurgicus,’’ publithed at Francfort, in 1592, contains 
five differtations on tumours, wounds, ulcers, tra¢tures, and 
luxations: 2. “ De Vifione, Voce, et Auditu,’’ Venice, 
1600. 3. “ Tractatus de Oculo, viftifque Organo,” Pa. 
dua, ‘601. 4. “ De Venarum Obftiolis,” ibid. 1603. 
5- * De Locutione, et ejus Inftrumentis,”’ ibid. 1603. It is 
faid that, in one day, all the Germans deferted the fchool of 
Fabricius, becaufe, in explaining the mechanifm of the muf- 
cles of {peech, he had ridiculed their mode of pronuncia- 
tion. 6. * Opera Anatomica, que centinent de formato 
Feetu, de formatione Ovi et Pulli, de Locutione et ejus In- 
ftrumentis, de Brutorura loquela,’? Padua, 1604. The 
effay on the langnage of brute animals, in this work, is cu- 
rious, and worthy the atteation of naturalifts. 7. © De 
Mulculi Artificio, et Offum Articulationibus,” Vicentia, 
1614. 8. “ De Refpiratione et ejus Inftrumentis, libri duo,”? 
Padua, 1615. 9. ‘* De Motu locali Animalium fecundum 
totum,’”? Padua, 1618. ro. ** De Gula, Ventriculo, et In- 
teitinis, Tractatus,”? ibid. 1618. 11. ‘ De Integumentis 
Corporis,”’ ibid. 1618. 12. “ Opera Chirurgica in duas 
Partes divifa,” ibid. 1617. This work, in which all the 
difeafes of the body, which are cureable by manual opera- 

: tion, 


FAB 


tion, are treated, paffed through feventeen editions, in dif- 
ferent languages. 13. ‘¢ Opera omnia Phyfiologica et Ana- 
tomica,” Leipfic, 1687. 14. ‘The whole of his works 
‘were alfo publifhed at Leyden, in 1723, and in 1737, im 
folio. We have mentioned only the original editions of the 
works of Fabricius ab Aquapendente, moft of which have 
been feveral times reprinted. 

FABRICIUS, Caivs,a Roman commander, diftinguifhed 
for valour and great integrity, was conful the firit time B. C. 
282, when he gained a complete victory over the enemies of 
his country, and gained fo large booty, that after liberally 
rewarding his foldiers he brought four hundred talents to 
the public treafury on the day lic triumphed, and this glory 
was all the recompence he referved for himfelf. He 1s 
particularly diftinguifhed for his condué as ambaffador to 
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who attempted to gain him over 
to his caufe by magnificent prefents. Thefe the general re- 
jected with indignation and contempt, which excited the fur- 
prife of the monarch, who was accuftomed to fuppote every 
man venal that approached a court. He was, however, 
more altonifhed at the virtue of Fabricius, who, when his 
opponent in the field, refuted the offer of the royal phyfician 
to poifon his mafter, and caufed the treachery to be made 
known tothe king. Fabricius, in the year 275, ferved the 
office of cenfor, and difplayed that rigour againft luxury 
which had been cuftomary among the ancient Romans. 
What he enjoined by precept and the authority of his office, 
he gave weight to by hisown example. He contemned riches 
during the whole of his life, and died fo poor that a dowry 
was given to his daughters out of the public treafury. 
Ont of pure refpe& to his memory, a law of the 12 Tables 
was difpenfed with, which prohibited burials within the city. 
To fimplicity of manners he added confummate {kill asa 
general, and an extenfive knowledge of whatever related to 
public affairs. Univer. Hilt. Plutarch. 

Fasricius, Grorce was born at Kemnitz, ia Mif- 
nia, in 1516, and entitled to notice in this work on account 
of his poetical talents. He publifhed twenty-five books of 
facred poems, printed at Bafilin two vols. 8vo. 1567. He 
wrote “ The art of poetry in feven books ;’? * A defcrip- 
tien of Rome and Travels,” in plain profe: likewile 
« Rerum Germanie magne et Saxonie univerfa memora- 
bilia,”? 2 vols. fol. «¢ Saxoniailluttrata feu Origines Saxonice,”’ 
2 vols, fol. and “ Rerum Mifnicarum,”’ fol. He publifhed 
a collection of the Chriftian Latin poets, with alterations. 
He died in 15715 and is much extolled by his countrymen 
for eafe and purity of ftyle ; aud fo nice was he in the choice 
of language, that in his facred poems he refufed to employ 
aterm which referred to Pagan mythology. Moreri. 

Fasaicrus, Jonn Arsert, who is celebrated for his 
great erudition, was born at Leipfic in 1688, and left a 
helplefs orphan at a very early age. His education was not 
neglected, and having borrowed of his {clool-maiter 
the Adverfaria of Gafpar Bartheus, he was fo aftonifhed at 
the learning difplayed in that work, that he determined, 
though at that time only 16 years old, to rival the author 
in his erudition. On his return to Leipfic, in 1686, he 


entered vigoroufly upon the fludy of theology, and began to 


coneeive the project of his great work, and made collections 
forthe purpofe. His firft publication was entitled « Mifcel- 
laneous: remarks on the feventy Interpreters of the Old 
Teftament.” During the next feveral fucceflive years he 


*. diftinguifhed himfelf as a preacher, a writer, and an able 


difputant in theology. In 1693 he went to Hamburgh, and 
undertook the fuperintendance of the Library of John 
Frederick Mayer; devoting all his leifure to literary purfuits. 
In 1697 he publifhed the frit edition of the « Bibliotheca 


FAB 


Latina,” in a fingle volume 8vo. In 1699 Fabricius was 
elected to the vacant chair of eloquence at Hamburgh, and 
foon afterwards took the degree of doétor of theology, and 
married the daughter of a {chool mafter at Hamburgh, whom 
he eventuaily fucceeded, and notwithitanding the extent of 
his private ftudies, no man was more affiduous in the inftruc- 
tion of his pupils, to whom he devoted ten hours a day for 
many of the firft years in which he was engaged in that 
occupation. He died in the year 1736 in his 68th year, 
leaving behind him works that muft perpetuate his name 
fo long as learning is in efteem. Of thefe the principal 
are :— Biblictheea Greca,’? in 14. vols. gto. 2,  Bib- 
lictheca Latina,” in two vols. 4to. The former is an 
extenfive and accurate account of the works and lives of 
Greek authors, with extraéts from their moft rare and 
curious books: the latter is a fimilar work with regard 
to Latin writers. 3. “ Bibliotheca Latina Ecclefiaftica,” 
or a colleétion of Latin writers concerning ecclefiafti- 
cal affairs. 4. *¢ Codex Apocryphus Novi Teftamenti,’? 
3 vols. ‘This isa curious compilation of all the falfe gofpels, 
&c. current in the early ages of Chriftianity. 5. ‘*Biblio- 
graphia Antiquaria,” in two vols. containing a notice of all 
the Hebrew, Greek, Roman, and eccletiaftical antiquities. 
Tabricius was a very modeft man, and mild in his difpofition, 
and itis thought that he was fcarcely ever furpaffed in a 
knowledge of bocks, fo that he obtained the title of Biblio- 
thecarius Republics literariz.? Moreri. 

There is no hiltorian, biographer, or artift, who has been 
in fearch of Greek and Reman literature ard fcience but 
hashad great obligationsto theindefatigable laboursslearning, 
accuracy, and good talte of this moft excellent writer, who 
is one of the few that can never have been confulted unpro- 
fitably. So ample is the information he affords on every 
fubjeét which he treats, that the enquirer is not only fure of 
finding what he feeks, but itill more fure of its authenticity 
and exactitude, when found. 

Fasricius, Wititam, better known by his furname 
Hildanus, was born at Hilden, a. village of Switzerland, 
whence he wasthus furnamed,onthe 25thofJuly,1560. Like 
his predeceffor of the fame name, Fabricius of A quapendente, 
he became one of the mot eminent furgeons of his age, and 
contributed not a little to the improvement of the art. He 
repaired to Laufanne in the year 1586, where he completed 
himfelf in the art of furgery, under the inftruGion of Grif- 
fon; an intelligent teacher in that city. Here he purfued 
his refearches with indefatigable induftry, and undertook 
the cure of many difficult cafes, in whieh he was fingularly 
fuccefsful. He combined a knowledge of medicine with 
that of his own art, and began to practife. both at 
Payerne in 1605, where he remained ten years, ard in 
1615 fettled himfelf at Berne, in confequence of an inyi- 
tation from the fenate, who granted hima pention. Here he 
enjoyed the univerfal efteem of the inhabitahts. But- in the 
latter period of his life he was prevented by fevere and fre- 
quent attacks. of the gout from rendering his fervices to 
his: fellow-citizens svith his accuftomed affiduity.. At 
length,, however, this malady left him, and he was feized 
with an afthma, of which he died‘on the 14th of February, 
1634, at the age of feventy-four.. His works were written 
in the German language, but moft of them have been tranf- 
Jated into the Latin. He publithed five “ Centuries of 
Obfervations,”? which were colle&ted after his death, and 
printed at Lyons in 1641, and at Strafburgh in 1713 and 
1716. Thefe ‘ Obfervations’’ prefent aconfiderable number 
of curious fa&s, as well as defcriptions of a great number of 
inftruments of his invention. His colle&ed treatifes were 
pyblithedin Latin, at Frankfort, in 1646, and again in 1682 

iz 


KAB 


in folio, under the title of “ Opera Omnia.” 
man edition appeared at Stutgard in 1652. 
Eloy. 

Fazricrus, James, areminent phyfician, was born at 
Roftock on the 28th of Auguil, 1577. Following the 
advice of Hippocrates, he joined the itudy of the mathe- 
matics with that of medicine, and was a pupil of T'ycho 
Brahé. His medical ftudies were not confined to his own 
country ; for he travelled through England, Germany, and 
the Low Countries, in order to obtain the inftructious of the 
mott celebrated profeffors ; and afterwards repaired to Jena, 
where he was diftinguifhed by the extent of his acquirements, 
and obtained the degree of do€tor at the age of 26. He 
foon gained extenfive empleyment in his profeflion, 
and at length received feveral lucrative and honourable 
appointments. He filled the ftations of profeffor of 
medicine and of the mathematics at Roftock during 
forty years, was firft phyfician to the duke of Meck- 
lenburgh, and afterwards retired to Copenhagen, where he 
was appointed chief phyfician to the kings of Norway and 
Denmark, Chriftian IV. and Frederick II]. He died at 
Copenhagen on the 16th of Auguft, 1652, in the feventy- 
filth year of his age ; and his remains were carried to Rof- 
tock for interment, by his fons-in-law and daughters. 

His works are entitled,—1. “* Periculum Medicum, feu 
Juvenilium Feture priores,?? Hale, 1600. 2. ‘* Urofcopia, 
feu de Urinis Traétatus,’’ Roftochii, 1605. ° 3. ** De Ce- 
phalalgia Autumnali,” ibid. 1617. 4. ‘¢ Inftitutio Medici 
practicam aggredientis,”? ibid. 1619. 5. ** Oratio Renun- 
ciationi novi Medicine Doétoris premifla, de Caufis Cruen- 
tantis cadaveris prafente Homicida,”’ ibid. 1620. 6. “« Dif- 
fertatio de Novo-antiquo Capitis Morbo az Dolore, cum 
aliis Difquifitionibus Medicis de diffic. nonnul. Materiis 
Praéticis,”? ibid. 1640. Eloy. Manget. Biblioth. Med. 
Pract. 

Fasricius, Purtir Conrp, profeflor of medicine in 
the univerfity of Helitadt, was the author of feveral ufe- 
ful works on the fubje@ts of anatomy and furgery, which 
have obtained for him the praife of the judicious Haller. 
His firft treatife was entitled « Idea Anatomes Practice,”’ 
Wetzlariz, 1741, and contained fome new directions re- 
fpeéting the art of injection, a defcription of feveral branches 
of the portio dura of the feventh pair of nerves, &c. 
2. * Sciagraphia Hiftoria Phyfico-Medicx,”? Wetzlariz, 
1746, in which are fome good obfervations relative to the 
abufe of the operation of trepanning. 3. ** De Cognitionis 
Anattomofeos Vaforum infigni Ufu,’? Helmettadi, 1750. 
4. © Obfervationes ncnnulle Anatomice,’”’ 1754. 5. “ Syl- 
loge Obfervationum Anatomicarum,” 1759. Haller. Bibl. 

Fasricius, Joun Lewts, a learned Swifs divine, was 
born at Sckauffhaufen in the year 1639. Great care was 
taken of his education, and he obtained the ufual degrees. 
In 1656 he was admitted to the exercife of the miniftry, and 
created profeflor extraordinary of the Greek language at 
Heidelberg. In thefe charaéters, and as tutor to the baron 
de Rothenchild, and to the eleétoral prince, he difplayed fo 
much integrity and wifdom, that he was, in 1664, nominated 
to the honour of ecelefiaftical counfellor to the elector, who 
made ufe of his great talents in a political embafly to Schaff- 
haufen. He was afterwards employed in Switzerland by 
William III. king of England, and the States General, to 
affift the Englith envoy to the cantons, and to watch over the 
interefls of the Dutch republic. He was likewife fuccefs- 
fully engaged in other diplomatic bufinefs, and having com- 
pleted the work which he undertook he returned to Hei- 
delberg, and from thence he went to Frankfort, where he 
died in the year 1697. He acquired much reputation for 


And a Ger- 
Mangetus. 


FAB 


political talents ; and for theological learning ; but he was 
deftitute of that Chriftian charity which his religion fhould 
have taught him, and was aétive in the perfecution of the 
Unitarians who were driven out of Poland, becaufe they ‘re- 
fufed to renounce their principles. His works are nume- 
rous, and written in the Latm language ; they are entitled, 
“ De Viis Dei, an et quofque fint fimiles Viis Hominum ;”? 
* De Ludis Scenicis ;’? ** De Controverfia circa Perfonam 
Chrifti,” &c. Moreri. 

Fasricirus, Cuarves, a painter of portrait and pieces 
of perfpeétive, born at Delft in 1624. His promifing ta- 
lents had raifed confiderable expetations, which were un- 
happily fruftrated by his fudden and early death in 1654, 
which happened by the blowing up of the great powder 
magazine fituated near his houfe. 

FABRICO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the prin- 
cipality of Corregio ; nine miles N. of Corregio. 

FABRIS, Lucca, in Biography, a young finger of 
Naples with a foprano voice, who, at the age of twenty-four, 
the laft of his life, was the delight and wonder of the 
Italian theatre. His voice and manner of finging were 
equally perfeét, and he was able to contend with the cele- 
brated Guadagni when at the fummit of his glory; till a 
fatal effort to fing a very high and difficult paflage, which 
a Neapolitan compofer had injudicioufly and cruelly given 
him to execute in the great theatre of San Carlo, coft him 
his life. It is afferted that this mafter, merely to encourage 
him to try to furpafs another finger, compofed an air beyond 
his natural compa{s and powers of execution ; and though 
the unfortunate Fabris protefted to him that he could only 
attempt it at the rifk of his life, the mafter infifted on his 
performing it; by which he burft a blood-veffel, that 
brought on a hemorrhage, which all the art of medicine 
and furgery being unable to ftop, foon put an end to his 
exiftence !” Effai fur la Muf. tom. ili. p. 317. This me- 
lancholy cataftrophe is related here, not without a hope 
that it may a little alarm and affuage the ambition of our 
fair country-women who never hear a mufical phenomenon, 
without trying night and day to rival thofe powers which 
nature gives to fo very few, and at which art can never 
arrive without endangering the health and exiftence of thofe 
who afpire at impoflibilities. 

Fasrts, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Greece, over= 
againft Attica. 

FABRISTAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the 
province of Mazanderan; 50 miles E. of Cafbin. 

FABROT, Cuarres AnniBat, in Biography, a learned 
jurit, was born at Aix, in Provence, in the year 1581, and 
after a liberal education he-took the degree of do€tor of 
laws in 16c6, and was admitted an adyocate in the parlia- 
ment of Provence. He was afterwards elected profeffor of 
law at Aix, and from thence he went to Paris, where he 
printed his notes on the Greek paraphrafe of Juitinian’s In- 
ftitutes. This work obtained for him the patronage of the 
chancellor Seguier; with a penfion, He remained in the 
metropolis for the purpofe of tranflating the Bafilics or col- 
leGtion of Roman laws in ufe in the eaftern empire, which 
he finifhed in feven vols. folio, with the title of Bafilicon. 
He edited other learned works, which he enriched with 
valuable notes. His application was almoft inceffant, and 
is faid to have fhortened his days, though he did not die 
till he had attained his 78th year. Moreri. 

FABULINUS, in Myrhology, the god of {peech, was 
the tutelary deity of children, and invoked by them, 
when they began to {peak. 

FABULOUS, denotes fomething that has a relation to 
fable. Varro divides the duration ef the world into two 

I ealier 


. 


FAB 


earlier ftates or periods, called the dark and fabulous. 
Sce AGE. 

TFasurous Philofophy of the Greeks was introduced 
‘among them by the firft founders of their ftates. Having 
ebferved, in countries already fetiled, the effet of that 
mode of delivering the doctrines of religion to the people 
under the difeuife of fable, which univerfaily prevailed in 
Egypt, and which was not unknown to the Pheenicians, 

- Thracians, and other barbarous nations, they found it par- 
ticularly fuitable to their defign of bringing flates newly- 
formed under the yoke of authority. ‘It was not poflible,”” 
fays Strabo, {l.i.) “ to lead a promifcuous multitude to 
religion and virtue by philofophical harangues ; this could 
only be effected by the aid of fuperftition, by prodigies and 
fables. The thunderbolt, the egis, the trident, the {pear, 
torches and {nakes, were the inftruments made ufe of by 
the founders of ftates to terrify the ignorant vulgar into 
fubjection.”” Indeed, it cannot be doubted, that the firft 
authors of the Grecian fables intended them to be vehicles 
of inftruétion. But it is now become almoft impraCticable 
to decipher their meaning; becaufe we are imperfectly 
acquainted with the hiftory, opimions, manners, and other 
circumftances of the times, when Grecian mythology was 
formed, and from what a variety of fources it was d:rived. 
Of thefe the two principal were, the cuftom of ranking 
public benefactors, after their death, among the gods (Plin. 
Hilt. Nat. 1. it. c. 17.) and the practice of applying allego- 
ries and fables to natural objeéts and appearances. (Dion. 
Halic. Antiq. 1.4.) The origin of the world, and the pro- 
duétion of natural bodies, wer¢ very early clothed in fable, 
in the cofmogonies of the Egyptians, Pheenicians, Thra- 
cians, and other nations; aid thefe were afterwards imi- 
tated by the Greeks. (See Cosmocony.) Another cuf- 
tom, which has very much contributed to caft a veil of ob- 
{curity over the fabulous philofophy of the Greeks, is that 
Weed serailed among them in early times, of giving their 
mythological doétrines a poetical drefs. Thefe were com- 
monly chofen as fubjeéts of verfe, and every poct enlarged 
and moulded the ancient fables, according to the fertility 
and luxuriancy of his own fancy. See the articles Prome- 
gHEUS, Linus, Orrxeus, Musxus, Ampnion, Me- 
LAmpPus, Hrsiop, Epimenipes, and Homer. See alfo 
Cuaos and Txurocony. 

FABURDEN, in Mufic, is an-old_Eaglith term, and 
ufed at the beginning of difcant, to exprefs what has fince 
heen ftyled counterpoint. If this {pecies of harmony had 
its admirers, it had likewife its enemies, when it was intro- 
duced independent of the Gregorian chant, or when this 
chant was corrupted by it ; and if many {tatutes remain for 
celebrating fettivals «cum cantu, et difcantu, a haute voix, 
a chant et a dechant,”’ there are others to cenfure the art, 
and keep it within eertain bounds, It was thought fo 
licentious at the beginning of the fourteenth century, that 
the ufe of it was prohibited in the mafs by a bull of pope 
John XXIT. 1322. However, there is at the end of 
it this favourable claule ; “ It is not our intention wholly 
to prevent the ufe of concords in the facred fervice, parti- 
cularly on great feitivals, provided the ecclefiaftical chant 
or plain-fong be carefully preferved.’? he Abbé Lebeuf 
oblerves, that thofe who drew up this bull, which’is in- 
ferted in the body of canon laws, erroneoufly confined dif- 
cant to fourths, fifths, and eighths, from the perufal of 


» ancient authors on the fubject of mutic, particularly Caffio- 


dorus, where they had found the following definition: 
¢ Symphonia eft temperamentum fonitus gravis ad acutum, 
vel acutiad gravem, modulamen efficiens, five in voce, five 
in percuffione, five in flatu. Symphonie fuat fex: prima, 


FAC 


diateflaron: fecunda, diapente: tertia, diapafon : quartas 
Giapafon et diatefferon : quinta, diapafon et diapente: fexta, 
diapafon et diapafon.”” «* Symphony, or mufic in confo- 
nance, is the mixing grave founds with acute, or acute 
with grave, either in finging or playing upon ftringed or 
wind inflruments. Symphonic concords are fix ; the fourth, 
fifth, and eighth, with their oftaves.” It is hardly poffible 
to read this paflage, and not give up the contelt concern- 
mg ancient counterpoint; or, at leaft, reduce it to that 
meagre kind, of which an example has been given in the 
firft volume, (Eift. Mufic by Burney, p. 145.) 

lt is eafy to fuppofe, fays the Abbé Lebeuf, that the 
defign of thofe who fir permitted chants in faburden to be 
fung in the churches of France, was to difti'zuith feftivals 
and holy times, by the ornaments and graces with whith 
they were fung ; as, in others was done by allowing par- 
ticular portions of the fervice to be performed in faux- 
bourdon, or counterpoint. Traité Hiflorique fur le Chant 
Eccles. See FAauso-porpone. 

FAC, in Stalian Mufic, is an abbreviation of facciata, a. 
fide, or page. See Carra. 

FACADE, io Architedure. See Face. 

Facave Clif, or Mural Afcent, in Geology, is a term for 
the precipitous face of a rock ; thefe, in fome few inftances, 
are occafioned by the ftrata below having funk down at a 
filure or fault, in others, on the fea fhore, they are occa- 
fioned by the waves having undermined and let down the 
ftrata, and fucceflively waihed away the fame; but more 
commonly facades are occafioned either by the violent ex- 
cavation which vallies have undergone, or by the abruption 
of the ftrata in certain diftrids, as Dr. W. Richardfon calls 
it (Phil. Tranf. 1808), but which had previoufly been 
called in our work denudation, which fee. Accordian to 
the obfervations of Mr. Farey, nearly all the lime-itone 
facades in the Derbyfhire mountains appear to have been 
the {kirts of veins, and their beiig coated with the {pars 
peculiar to vein-fkirts, feems to have preferved them from 
mouldering down or decay, in moft initances. 

FACATA, or Fucare, in Geography, a fea-port of 
Japan, in the ifland of Ximo, where the Jefuits had formerly 
a confiderable eftablifhment, and a church; 27 miles 
W.N. W. of Taifero. 

FACAUT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ; 
63 miles N. N. W. of Cogni. 

FACE, the furface or firft fide which a body prefents to 
the eye. See Surrace. ; 

Face, in Anatomy, denotes the fame part of the body as 
thefame term fignifies in common language. Our arrangement 
of the anatomical department of this work has rendered it 
neceflary to defcribe the various parts of the face in different 
articles. The mouth, lips, and cheeks are deferibed in the 
article DeGuuririon; the eye-brow, eye-lids, and eyes in 
the article Eyer ; and the nofe in the article Nosy. 

Face is particularly ufed for the vifage of an animal, and 


-efpecially of a man, as being in him the ouly part of the 


body that ordinarily appears to the eye. 

The Latins call it facies, vultus, os, Sc. 

The great variety obfervable ia men’s faces, voices, and 
hand-writings, furnifhes a noble argument of a Provi- 
dence, 

The human face is called the image of the foul, as being 
the feat of the principal organs of ienfe; and the place 
where the ideas, motions, &c. of the foul are chiefly fet 
to view. Pride and difdain are fhewn in the eye-brows, 
modefty on the cheeks, majefty on the fore-head, &c, It 
is the face which fhews the fex, age, temperament, health, 
or dileafe, &c. 

The 


PA 


The face, confidered as the index of the paffiona, habits, 
&c. of the perfon, makes the fubjec&t of phyfoguomy, 

Face, or Facade, in Architedure, 1s fometimes ufed 
fir the front of a building, or the fide on which the chief 
entrance is; as alfo for the fide it prefents to a itreet, garden, 
court, &c. and fometimes for any fide oppofite to the 
eye. 

Da sats Facia, or Fafcia, alfo denotes a flat mersber 
having a confiderable breadth, and but a fmall projeéture. 

Such are the bands of an architrave, larmier, &c. See 
Fascia. 

Fact of a Stone, is the furface or plain part which is to 
lie in the front of the work. The face is ealily known 
wifen the ftone is fealped, as being always oppofite to the 
ba&k, and the back going rough as it comes from the 

uarry. 

The workmen generally choofe to make one of thofe 
fides theface which, when in the quarry, lie perpendicular 
to the horizon, and confequently the breaking, and not the 
cleaving way of the ftone. 

Face of a Gun, in the Artillery, the furface of the metal 
at the'extremity of the muzzle of a piece. 

Face, in Afrology, is ufed for the third part of a fign, 
Each fign is fuppofed to be divided into three faces: the 
ten firft degrees compofe the firft face; the ten following 
ones the fecond ; and the laft ten the third. Venus is in 
the third face of Taurus; that is, in the lait ten degrees 
thereof. 

Face ofa Plant. See Hasir. 

Face of a Lajlion, in Fortification. 
Military Senfe, and Basvion. 

Face of a Place, denotes the interval between the points 
of two neighbouring baltions, containing the curtain, the 
two flanks, and the two faces of the battions that look to- 
wards one another. 

This is otherwife called the ¢enaille of the place. 

Face Prolonged, is that part of aline of defence rafant, 
which is between the angle of the epaule or fhoulder of a 
baftion and the curtain ; or the line of a defence rafant di- 
minifhed by the face of the battion. 

Face, Lxternal, Facies externa, ia Ichthyology, is uied 
to exprefs a general form or figure in certain fifhes, by means 
of which they agree with fome and difagrée with others ; 
aad according to which likenefs or diffimilitude fome authors 
of the Jate ages have arranged them into genera. This ge- 
neral figure in fifhes conlifts in the fhape of the head and 
body, and the fhape, fize, and proportion of the fins and 
tail, and though very obvious, is very indiftin@ ; it being 
in many cafes, where two fifhes have the fame general ex- 
ternal face, yet hard to fay, on a clofe examination, in 
what it is that the likenefs confifts. The authors who 
founded the diltinction of the genera of fifhes on thefe ex- 
ternal refemblances ran into very great errors; for it is not 
enough in a generical diftinction for the chara&er to be ob- 
vious, but it muft alfo be precife and determinate. What 
this facies had in the firlt of thefe requifites is often wanted 
inthe laft ; and, in general, it has been found to be no true 
bafis of dittinétion. 

Many fith have the facies externa, or general appearance 
fo much alike, as to be eafily coupled at fight into the fame 
genus; and that juftly, as they really belong to the fame 
when more precilely referred to it, according to their natu- 
ral and more effential charagter. Of this kind ace the gadi, 
the clupex, the falmons, the petromyze, the coregones, 
the pleuroneéte, the rays, and many of the cyprini. In 
thefe the facies externa 1s of real ufe, as it is an obvious 
mark, and leads to the road of truth; but there are befide 


See Face, in a 


them in their real characters. 


CE. 


thefe many other fifhes which, though they are truly of 
the fame genus, yet differ extremely in their feveral external 
appearances, fo that any method founded on the facies ex- 
terna mutt feparate them, though nature had really joined 
The tench and the trutta 
lacuttris, or lake-trout, are in regard to their facies externa 
extremely alike one to the other, yet here this obvious chae 
racter deceives us; for the tench is a fpecies of the cypri- 
nus, and the other a true and genuine falmon, two genera 
of fifhes effentially and very widely diffcrent, though this 
method of judging by the external appearance would have 
coupled together fifh belonging to them both, In the fame 
manner the fcorpena and cottus are very like one to the 
other in their external appearance ; but when nicely ex. 
amined, according to the rules of ichthyology, they are 
found to belong to two very different genera, aud to have 
very little real likenefs. From thefe, and numerous other 
examples of a like kind, it evidently appears, that as the 
facies externa cannot be depended on for eftablithing the ge- 
nera of fifhes, fome more eflential characters mult be ea- 
quired after for the regular and natural completion of this 
neceflary bufinefs. Therefore, the geserical chara&ters of 
fith are to be fought after in their external and invariable 
parts, and they are to be arranged into families and genera, 
according to the agreement of thefe in number, fituation, 
ficure, and proportion. Among all thefe, the characters 
taken from the number of the parts, where that is certain 
and invariable, are moft valuable, as they moit readil 
offer themfelves to the eye, and are leaft of all liable to 
errors, 

Face, in the Manege. See CHANFRIN. 

Face, in a AZilitary Senfe, means that front which is 
fhewn by a body of troops, or the general bearings of any 
particular defences in a fortified place: in the former in- 
ftauce, reference is had to the line of front, and not to any 
change of individual pofition, whether by turning (i. ¢. 
facing ) to the right or to the left, for the purpofe of march- 
ing by files; nor does an echellon movement in any wile 
alter the meaning, it being even underftood that the line of 
pivots, om which the wheel was made, denotes thé true 
front or face of that part of a line; though to an enemy 
there will be prefented an equivocal definition, or difplay, 
in confequence of the tendency of an echellon movement 
to produce a rapid change of front. For a further infight 
into this part of our fubje&, we refer our readers to 
EscuEetion and EvoruTion. 

The face of any lines, or fortified works, is to be afcer- 
tained by a confideration of what proportion of any real 
figure, or of any imaginary one, the feveral defences may 
occupy. Thus, in a fquare, there will be four diftinét 
faces; in a pentagon, (or figure of five fides,) there wilt 
be five; ina hexagon, (or figure of fix fides,) there will 
be fix; and thus of any number of portions into which a 
circle, an ellipfis, (or oval,) or any other perimeter, or 
circumference, may be divided. In all thefe we judge by 
the chords, fubtending the feveral portions refpectively, 
without adverting to their béing either equal or fimilar, as 
they fhould properly be in all works coming under the de- 
fignation of ‘ regular fortification,’ of which an ample 
defcription has been given under the head of Construc- 
rion, JVilitary. It may be proper in this place to obferve, 
that our beft engineers make it a rule not to extend a face 
beyond certain limits, proportioning the width of the 
curtain to the magnitude of the area to be enclofed. Con-, 
fequently, larze areas, which give a greater circumference, 
are neceffarily defended by more faces thau thofe of fimaller 
compafs, whereby the flanked angles of the baftions be- 

come 


FACE, 


@ome more obtufe, it being evident, that the angles of a 
triangle infcribed in a circle will be more acute than thofe 
of a f{quare, (under fimilar circumftances,) thofe of a 
fguare more acute than thofe of a pentagon, and thus, 
ad infinitum. 

The firft fyftem of Monfieur Vauban is that generally 
afted upon : it divides fortification into three claffes, namely, 
the little, the mean, and the great. The exterior fide of 
the little gives from 120 to 175 toifes (or fathoms) ; that 
of the mean includes from 175 to 185 toifes; and that of 
the great ranges from 185 to 260 toifes. lence, we 
readily eftimate the number of faces into which the cir- 
cumference of an area fhould be divided, obferving, that 
whenever any portion of that circumference impofes on us 
along fide, that is, above 280, but not exceeding 340 
toifes, there muft be formed two faces, covering fuch long 
front, or face. This is done by adopting each extremity 
of the latter asa centre, and defcribing from them refpe¢t- 
ively an arc, having 180 toifes for the radius; the inter- 
fection of thofe arcs oppofite the centre of the front will 
be the point of union of two faces, of which the ends of 
the front, whence the arcs were drawn, willbe the other 
extremities. 

If the front fhould exceed 360 toifes, it fhould be di- 
vided into as many portions, from 175 to 185 toifes each, 
as the ground may permit ; each fuch portion being con- 
fidered a feparate face, and to be defended by flat baftions. 
Tt has, however, been always confidered expedient to pro- 
teé& all fuch difproportioned faces, by means of whatever 
outworks may be molt applicable to local circumftances. 
Thus, if there be three fuch conjun& faces, the centre one 
fhould be covered by a horn-work, of which the flanks 
ought to be thrown at fuch an angle as might not admit of 
their aGting in behalf of the befiegers, fhould they fucceed 
in wrefting them from the garrifon. If only two conjunét 
faces are to be defended, the central baftion fhould be well 
covered by exterior defences ; fuch as a counter-guard, well 
flanked by lunettes, tenaillons, a fleche, &c.; fo as to 
give full effe& to the defences, but without fubjecting 
them to become obnoxious thereto, when poffeffed by the 
enemy. 

The faces of any particular work, fuch as a raveline, or 
a baftion, are thofe parts which form an angle projecting 
outwards from the place, tewards the efplanade, or coun- 
try: confequently, the faces of works that are mutually 
parallel, muft have the fame line of fire, or afpeét ; and, 
m the fame degree, flank all other works ftanding at an 
angle of not lefs than 60° nor more than 120°. 

Face of the Mea/fures, in Mining, is that part of a mine 
bounded by the length-way or principal vertical joints, or 
natural cracks of the meafures. In coal mines, thefe prin- 
cipal joints are called fline back, or face joints, and are ge- 
nerally parallel to each other; and, according to the recent 
obfervations of Mr. Farey in Derbyfhire and Notting- 
hambhire, thefe feem to tend towards the fame point of the 
compats, without regard to the direétion in which the mea- 
fures may dip or incline ; fo that the face of the work in 
the collieries there, is generally towards the two o’clock 
fun, or its oppofite direGtion, which feems a curicus cir- 
cumftance, and may prove of importance, if more extended 
obfervations fhould thew it to be a general faét: the leffer 
joints which crofs the flines, almoft at right angles, are called 
, énd-joints, or cutters, which fee. 

Face, Fr. in Mufic, is ufed to diftinguith the different 
forms of the triad, or ways of taking the common chord ; 


8 a 5 
as 1° face ?, 2°* face 3, and 3°° face 4 3 or, as we should 


Vou. XIV. 


fay, firft flage or lation of a chord, &c. A chord has as 

many faces or forms as it has notes. ‘The chord of the 7th 

to G, for inftance, may be played four feveral ways on a 

keyed inftrument, placing the thumb om the loweft note, 
8 


Blepe Wh 
as’ Z.°8, 3.5 
92) 179) aga 32 


3 65 halos : : 
Face, the Human, to the painter and fculptor is an 


objeét of the utmoft importance among their various ftudies. 
In endeavouring to convey in their reprefentations of the 
human figure the influence of thofe emotions of the mind 
which arife from the fubje& adopted, and which are fup- 
pofed to occupy the bofoms of the perfons reprefented, 
much is done by the general action of the figure ; but it is 
the expreflion or aétion of the features of the face which 
identify the paffion, convey the fulleft idea of its influence, 
and literally “ give to airy nothing a local habitation and a 
name.”? A regard of the eye, a motion of the lip, or of 
the noftril, fometimes {peaks a language more forcibie than 
words. An intimate acquaintance therefore with the ftruc- 
ture of thofe filent monitors, the features of the face, with 
the beft proportions either for their expreffion or beauty, 
appears to be abfolutely neceflary to obtain excellence in the 
art of reprefenting the different expreflions caufed by their 
variations. 

It will be neceffary, in order to treat this fubje& fully, 
to trace the growth of the human face from its ilage of 
childhood to its maturity and decline, each {tage having its 
peculiar variations, and the knowledge of each being re- 
quifite for the exhibition of the painter’s and {culptor’s art. 

That kind of character which marks the years of childhood 
is fo clearly difcernible, that it admits of no difpute. The 
form of the faces and features of children is as peculiar to 
themfelves as the fimplicity of their minds; yet we fre- 
quently obferve, even in very young ones, certain indications 
of gemus or ftupidity, which ripening time afterwards juf- 
tifies. ‘The form of the faces of children inclines to the 
circle, in contradiftinétion to that of the adult, which is 
eval, or rather egg-fhaped, with the apex downwards. 
The features, when young, are alfo round and foftened ; the 
iris of the eye is very large in proportion to the face. Mr. 
Hogarth, in his ‘* Analyfis of Beauty,’ obferves, “ that 
it ever continues the fame fize, fo that you may fometimes 
find it in a new-born babe as large as in a man fix feet high:”” 
it ferves, therefore, as a ftandard to meafure the growth of the 
other partsof the face. The nofe is flat, the cheeks plump 
and round, making the mouth appear flattened in the face ; 
the ears are large, and the whole expreffion heavy. During 
infancy the .faces of boys and girls have no confiderable 
difference, but as they grow up the features of the boy 
take upon themfelves more marks of peculiar character, and 
grow fafter in proportion to the iris of the eye than thofe 
of the girl, thus fhewing the diftinGtion of fex in the face. 
A manly featured boy derefore has his features larger than 
ordinary in proportion to the iris, whilft thofe who have 


_the contrary look younger and more childifh than they 


really are. 

In the progrefs of the face to maturity the features lofe 
much of their roundnefs, and partake more of the oval, 
the nofe rifes, the cheeks retire, the mouth forms, and the 
difpofition of the mind begins to fhew itfelf in the air of the 
face, and more efpecially we now perceive a difference ia 
the fexes, in the more fpeedy advance of the female te- 
wards that form which conttitutes beauty. 

————"* By degrees 

The human bloffom blows, and every day 

Soft as it rolls along fhews fome new charms, 

"The father’s luftre, or the mother’s bleom.”’ - 


. at 


FAC Es 


That diftinguifhing peculiarity, the growth of the beard, 
alfo takes place in the male ; now indeed with us (the in- 
“habitants of fouthern Europe,) under fentence of excifion, 
but once univerfally efleemed the proudeft diftin&tion of 
man, and cultivated with all imaginary care by faints and 
heroes. See Brearp. 

Arrived at maturity, the face poffeffes the whole charac- 
ter of the man, both phyfical and intellectual, and either 
fhines diftinguifhed by its character of fenfe or beauty; or 
appears odious in its groffnels and deformity. 

But the viciffitudes to which all the productions of this 
world are fubjeét forbid a permanence of that maturity, and 
having now no ferther progrefs to make in advance, the 
beauties of the face gradually change, wither, and die. Im- 
perceptibly at firft alteration takes place in the features, 
they lofe their foftnefs and fullnefs; lines fteal upon the 
cheeks and forehead; the colour of the face declines, and 
the coutitenance becomes more and more marked with the 
repetitions of the actions and expreflions of the paffions. 
Advancing in life the change becomes more vilible, and at 
length even rapid ; and the continued aGtion of the mufcles 
of the face increafing the marking of its various parts, they 
become more angular, and broken into many forms; the 
projections of the bones become more apparent by the 
finking in of the cheeks, from the lofs of the teeth, 
which caufes alfo the lips to difappear, by folding over the 
gums; and when the teeth are all gone, the mouth clofing, 
brings the jaws nearer together, and fhortens the {pace be- 
tween the nofe and chin; tll at lafttime triumphant, over- 
comes all that defignated the vigour and fenfe of man, or 
the beauty and amtability of woman, and renders thofe who 
bore fo much refemblance to each other in infancy, again 
fimilar in intelle& and in perfon; till the laft earthly fcene 
elofes and mingles them in their common duft. 

The varieties of the human countenance are not confined 
to thefe diftin@ive marks of the different periods of its exift- 
ence. Every country, every climate, has its peculiarity; it 
would require a copious diflertation to defcribe all the pe- 

euliarities that are nationally characteriftic ; a few of the 
principal ones will anfwer our purpofe. (See P/ate III. 
Painting, figs. 1, 2, 3» 4, and 5.) Among them none 
are fo obvions as the difference of the negro and the white 
man, in colour more particularly ; for as to form, though 
the thick lips, broad flat nofe, the want of beard, and the 
woolly texture of the hair of the former, are powerfully dif- 
tin& from the appearance of the European; they are not 
more fo than are the features of the Tartar or the Chinefe, 
who have round faces pointed at the chin, {mall eyes, with 
the outer angle inclining upwards, giving ftrongly the cha- 
rater of cunning. In the North another race of men are 
found likewife diftin@ in their faces as well figure. The 
Laplander, and his oppofite in North America, the Efqui- 
maux Indian. Hideous deformity to the eyes of an Eu- 
ropean characterizes tneir countenances, large, fiat, and broad 
faces; broken and funk nofes; thick eye-brows drawn 
back towards the temples; high cheek bones ; thick lips; 
and large mouths, confpire to dilguife the “* human face 
divine,” as the poet has termed it, and conceal the expreflion 
of all that is amiable or inviting. 

The fucceflive approaches to union of thefe countries 
produce alfo the fame fucceflion of approach in counte- 
nance. Fromthe Eaft; the Chinefe, the Hindoo, the Per- 
fian, the Turk, the Hungarian, the German, &c.: and from 
the North, the Laplander, the Ruffian, the Pole, the Ger- 
man, &c. have each their diftin@ clafles of feature gradually 
receding from, and approaching to, each other: and on the 
fouthern fide of Africa, the union of the features of the 


7 


Negro and Chinefe are found in the Hottentot (Barrow’s 
Inland Tour from the Cape of Good Hope.) Add to thefe 
the different features of the various tribes of North and 
South America, and fome idea may be formed of the almoft’ 
infinite varieties of the human face. To fuch a wonderful 
extent is this carried, that it is probable that from the firft 
formation of man to the prefent time, no two human beings” 
have been exa¢tly fimilar in feature and form of face. 


ray 
} 


This fpeculation, however, is carrying the matter much 
farther than is abfolutely neceffary for the purpofe of the. 
hiftorical painter. Though it is not amifs to be thus in- 
formed on this head, yet as it has been faid, and juftly too, 
‘‘ that his principal bufiaefs is to paint man, not men ; the_ 
generic chara€ter, not the individual fpecies,”’ we will point 
out thofe proportions of the face which are allowed to be 
the mott effective in exhibiting beauty or manly character. 
Yor this we mult turn our eyes to the Greeks, who appear 
to have fyftematically arranged their ideas aad practice in 
the production of their ftatues. 

Audran, in a work publifhed in Paris, has given the fol- 
lowing comparative fcale of proportions of the faces of the. 
Apollo Belvidere, and of an antique Venus, from actual mea- 
furement. ‘Taking the length of the nofe, which he calls 
a part, and dividing that in twelve parts, which he calls. 
minutes, he ftates the faces of the Apollo and of the Venus 
to have each three parts from the growth of the hair on the 
forehead to the bottom of the chin. Dividing the lower 
part into three, the uppermoft gives the line of divifion of- 
the lips; the other parts are propertioned as follow : 


Apollo. Venus. 
peeane sp. ns 
Width of the face from ear toear - 2 2 |2 2 
Theeye, feen in front ~ =" = == 6 53 
Space between the eyes +=: - = = 6 ‘bos 
Eye in profile, and the pupil in width 2 2 
Width acrofs the noftrils - - - - a2 | 6s 
Nofe‘tn' profile? se) So. sts ae 64 6 
Width of mouth infront - - = 9 72. 
—_———_- in profile - - = 42 32. 
From the noftril to the ear, in profile - 1 -84/1 6 
Length of theear = - - - + 1 I 


See Plate 1. Painting, figs 1, 25 35 4+ 


The greater part of the Greek ftatues of the higher clafs 
have nearly the fame proportions, and in fculpture thefe 
rules are moft ufually adhered to, particularly where the 
fubje@ is either a perfonification of divine or heroic cha-« 
rater, which are indeed the only proper fubjeéts for the 
difplay ofthis art. But painting having a wider range, both! 
in fubjeét and aétion, cannot always be bound by them, and 
in many views of the face it would be abfolutely impoffible 
to apply them. As the praétice of the painter calls for 
more individuality than that of the feulptor, fo is he more. 
or lefs at liberty to difpenfe with thefe proportions in a de-' 
gree; and it muft never be forgot that men of different cha- 
raters have differing countenances, their péculiar. expref- 
fions requiring, or rather, perhaps, producing, different pro- 
portions.. The painter who makes all his faces of the fame 
flandard can never excite an intereft in his works, or ever. 
enjoy the praife of felecting with judgment, or feeling the 
produGtions of nature for his imitation. This diverfity in 
the form of the faces and features arifing from internal cha- . 
raéter is the bafis of phyfiognomy, to which, for farther 
illuftration upon this fubjeét, we refer the reader. wo 

The general proportions mentioned above are, neverthe- 
lefs, of effential feivice-to the painter; for if they cannot” 

. iB: 


FAC 


be faid to have a binding influence over him to caufe 
him to adhere to them alone, they ferve him excellently 
as arule to {werve from, conftantly checking his caprice, 
and preventing his running into too common-place an 
imitation of nature, and producing caricature, inftead ef 
that charaéter, confiftent with the dignity of ftyle, which 
fhould accompany all grand works aiming at fuperiority of 
effect. 

In drawing the face there are fome regulations which 
facilitate the progrefs of it. Having made the oval, or 

eneral fhape of the head, it is ufual to draw a perpendicu- 
‘is line down the centre when feen in front, and that is 

-croffed by an horizontal one in the middle, tor the flation 
of the eyes. The perpendicular line being divided into 
four equal parts, the three lower ones give the {pace for 
the face, and according to the above-mentioned rules all 
the various parts may be fet off upon thefe lines, it being 
remembered, that the eyes, nofe, and mouth, are always pa- 
rallel, and the bottom of the ears on a level with that of the 
nofe; and in whatever view the face may be required to be 
drawn, thefe lines, though varying in their dire¢tions, will 
ftill be of ufe in determining the pofitions of the features, 
Ina head looking downwards thofe which were horizontal 
in adire& front view will be found to become concave, or 
the inferior part of a circle, and the reverfe takes place in 
one looking upwards ; and the impoflibility of the painter 
applying in every eafe the rules of proportion will be clearly 
feen, when it is known, that in moft views of the face fome 
of the features are feen fore-fhortened, (fee Fore-sHorTEn- 
tnG,) and of courfe others appear larger in line than their 
natural fize. 

When a face is dire&ted to the ground, the forehead and 
the nofe will appear far too Jarge for the cheeks and chin ; 
and by their projeGtion hide fomewhat of the other parts of 
the face. That of the forehead and eye-brows conceals 
part of the eyes; the nofe hides the mouth partially, or 
totally, according to the degree of depreffion of the face, 
or elevation of the view: the mouth, if not itfelf rendered 
invifible, hides apart of the chin; and on the contrary, in 
the elevation of the face, the upper lip hides the fpace be- 
tween it and the nofe ; the bafe of the nofe conceals its 
length, and the eye-brows in part conceal the forehead as 
we fee under them, confequently they project before it in 
the view. 

_In all thefe cafes, as has been already obferved, it is im- 
poffible to apply the rule, but the artift will do well always 
to keep it in view, as it will facilitate his labour, and ge- 
neralize his charaéters, without confining him too ftriély, 
or preventing his refearch after the more grand and juft im- 
preflions of phyfiornomical chara&er, or accidental effects 
of paffion or expreffion 5 which give the higheft value to 
works of art. 

For the variations that take place in the face of a man 
whofe mind is under the influence of the tronger paffions, 
fee Expression, in Painting, and Puystocnomy for the 
vatiations of the lines and features indicative of the pecu- 
liarities of natural charaGter in mankind. 

Of thofe peculiarities in the chara&ters of countenance, 
found among the higher clafs of the Greck ftatues, we have 
fpoken under the word Beauty, as relative to the arts of 
defign ; of their oval fhape in front ; of the Araight, or near- 
ly ftraight line in profile formed by the forehead and nofe ; 
of thin, full lips, and round chin. Thefe are the forms 
which were felegted by thofe elegantly minded and wile men, 
the Greek artifts, as mott impreflive of grandeur and of 
beauty in the human face, and the propriety of this felec- 
tion ftill remains unimpeached, though it is very rarely ap- 


FAC 


proached by Nature, and perhaps has never been completely 
produced by herin one countenance ; yet as thefe various 
features were found feparately in her works, and viewed 
with gratification, the artifts judiciovfly united them ; thua 
outfhining in perfeétion the model they imitated, and pro- 
ducing another more pure for her imitation, which fhe has 
never yet been found to equal; fo that to be as beautiful 
as the Venus in the language ofthe poets, is to poffefs that 
quality in a fuper-human degree. 

In the produGtions of nature the human face varies ia 
every direétion from this definitely beautiful form. In 
our own nation (where countenances are not in gene- 
ral lacking either in fenfe or beauty, and often poflefling 
both toa very confiderable degree,) we find among them 
fome faces tending to the round, others to the longer pro- 
portion, fome are flat, others prominent, fome fquare, 
others indefinitely fhaped ; the features in fome are large 
in proportion to the face ; in others, fmall and clofe tose- 
ther, occupying only the centre of the face ; or elfe, far 
apart,and with large fpaces between them. (See P/afe II. 
Painting, figs. 1, 253; 4.) Uhefe, with other variations of the 
like kind, are highly neceffary to be obferved by the por- 
trait painter, or the fculptor, occupied in producing indi- 
vidual refemblance : and endeavouring to form .in the mind 
a clear idea of the peculiar clafs of arrangement of fea- 
ture inthe face before them, isthe readieft and fureft way 
of producing its like on the canvas or marble. See Por- 
TRAIT Painting. 

FACELLI, ‘in Geography, a town of Naples, in La- 
vora; 18 miles N.E. of Capua. 

FACET, or Facetre, alittle face or fide ofa body, 
cut into a great number ofangles. 

Multiplying-glaffes are cut in facets, or facet-wife. Dia- 
monds are alfo cut in facets or tables. 

In brilliants there are two forts, fkew, or fkill-facets, and 
ftar-facets. Skill-facets are divided into upper and under. 
Upper fkill-facets are wrought on the lower part of the be- 
zil, and terminate in the girdle. 

Under fkill-facets are wrought on the pavillions, and ter- 
minate in the girdle. 

Star-facets are wrought on the upper part of the bezil, 
and terminate in the table. Jeffries on Diamonds. See 
Dramonps. 

Facets of a hill, in Geology, or face of ahill, are thofe 
parts which prefent a plane or flat furfaee. It has often 
been remarked, that hills and mountains have generally one 
flat fide, and which, in mott cafes, faces towards the eaft ; 
and a careful examination convinces us that the fame is occa- 
fioned by this plane being the uppermoft ftratem of matter 
ot which the hill is compofed. In examining the geology 
ofa diftria, itis of the utmoft confequenceto attend to the 
facets ofthe hills, becaufe they invariably point out the po- 
fition of the ftrata, and fhew us° where to look for the uni- 
form top of the ftrata, and where to expeé to fee the edges 
and alternation of different ftrata, expofed to view, wherever 
the’ vegetable foil and alluvial depofits are removed. Some 
few hills and mountains are compofed of volcanic matters, 
fucceffively and pretty evenly diitributed on their furfaces, 
but the number of fuch hills is exceeding final! ; other hills 
owe their origin, in afew inftances, to alluvial depofits of 
the ruins of ftrata, thrown together without order, or any 
difcoverable law ; but itis far more common io alluvial coun 
tries to find ftratified hills, with heaps of gravel and allu- 
vial matter on them, generally raifing them higher than 
they were before; but fome parts of the facets of the 
{trata are generally in fuch cafes fill to be difcovered. 

FACETANUS Lacertvs, in Zoolazy, the name of a 


I2 peculiar 


Fac 


peculiar fpecies of lizard, called at Rome and Naples the 
tarantula. 

FACIA, in Architecture. See Fascia, 

FACIAL Arrery, in, Anatomy, is fynonymous with the 
external maxillary. See ArTERY. 

Faciat Nerve, is the portio dura of the feventh pair. 
See Nerve. 

Faciau Veins. See VEIN. 

FACIES Hiprocrarica, in Medicine, is when the nof- 
trils are fharp, the eyes hollow, the temples low, the tips of 
the ears contraGted and cold, the forehead dry and wrinkled, 
and the complexion pale or livid. 

The facies Hippocratica is chiefly obferved towards the 
period of phthifes and other confumptions, and is held a 
{ure prognoftic of death. If it appears within three days 
after the attack of an acute difeafe, it is deemed to indicate 
death. 

FACILE Harsour, in Geography, a harbour of New 
Zealand, in Dusky Bay, on the weft coaft of Refolution 
ifland, recommended by Capt. Cook to thofe who are fail- 
ing fouthward. S. lat. 45° 40’. E. long. 166° 18'. 

FACING, in £ngincery, is the name for afmall thick- 
nefs ot the common earth, foil, or ftuff of a canal, laid in 
front of the fide-lining or puddle, on the floping fides 
C F and IG, figs. 14 and 15, Plate I. of Canals. Its 
ufe is to hold up the puddle, while the fame is working 
and chopping in the a of puddling, and afterwards to 
guard the puddle from being penetrated by the hitchers and 
poles ufed by the bargemen. See Canav. 

Facine, in Military Language, is that part of the uni- 
form of a profeffional man, whether commiffioned, non- 
commiflioned, or private, which is contrafted with the co- 
lour of his coat, &c. and this relates as much to the col- 
lar and the cuffs, as to thofe parts ufually called lapels, 
which fold back from the throat down to the waift. With 
the exception of one or two regiments, all our military 
corps are diftinguifhed by facings of various colours ; all 
bearing any royal deputation being of garter-blue, as are 
alfo the feveral corps of marines. For the moft part, yel- 
low, buff, white, grey, and light green are in ufe; a few 
may be feen of black, pompadore, or fcarlet. Few regi- 
ments wear lapels, but confine themfelves to the ule of 
capes and cufls of the appointed colour, to which their re- 
gimental ftandards, and the feveral omamental parts of 
equipage invariably conform. It has been confidered a rule, 
though not adhered to in modern times, that whenever a 
regiment lofes its colours, its facings fhould be difconti- 
nued until the corps may have regained its credit by taking 
the colours of fome oppofing corps. This does not relate to 
that kind of privation refulting from a furrender, whether 
in the field, orin a fortified ee but merely to the ad of 
abandoning the field in fuch diforder as fubjeéts the enfigns 
to that moft heart-breaking misfortune, which, to the 
honour of the Britifh army, may be faid not to be fa- 
miliar to our fervice. 

The mode iow in ufe, of making lapels, or facings, to 
fold over to fuch extent as fhould afford comfort to the fol- 
dier, cannot be too much conimended ; we are furprifed to 
fee any deviation from a_ practice fo evidently conducive 
not only to health, but to that compacinefs which facili- 
tates the various movements of the relock. Confidering 
the breaft and ftomach to be peculiarly fubje@t to derange- 
ment, from expoiure to inclement weather, 1t appears to 
usa defideratum, that in lieu of the many expeufive, but 
frivolous parts of a fi Idier’s equipment, {ome device fhould 
be adopted, whereby }oth e> ceffive heat, and pinching cold, 
fhould be precluded at pleafure from parts fo eafily affected 


FAC 


\ 
thereby ; if our information be correét the total ab fence 
of facings, fuch as might occafionally be either buttoned 
back, or be lapped over, a deficiency to be feen in many 
inttances, has been the occafion of very ferious illnefs, and 
of no brief obituary lift, among feveral of our expedi- 
tions, 

Facinc, Facade, or Revetement, in Fortification, means 
that portion of mafonry, or other binding, given to ram= 
parts, with the view to prevent the foil of which they are 
compofed from crumbling or giving way. When of ma- 
fonry, the wall fhould be five feet thick at the top, with 
an increafe or talus, equal to one-fixth of its height: but- 
treffes, called counter-forts, fhould be built within, at 
about fifteen feet apart, to ftrengthen the facing. In or- 
der to prevent efcalade, the facing is yenerally made full 
twenty-feven feet high, from the bottom of the ditch te 
the cordon. When the facing is carried up as high as the 
foles of the embrafures, it is called a whole revetement ; 
but when confined to the ditch only, it is termed a half-re- 
vetement. ‘Thefe muft depend on the nature of the foil, 
the facility of ubtaining materials, the time that can be be- 
ftowed, the importance of the poft, &e. Where difficul- 
ties occur, as alfo in temporary works, the facings are 


made with turf; in which cafe they are faid to be gazoned. - 


For field-works, and efpecially in the condu@iag of fieges, 
fafcines, which are faggots made of various materials, are 
very generally employed, and are found to anfwer the in- 
tention. (See Fasciwe. 

Facina, in Ship Carpentry, denotes letting one piece into 
another with a rabbet. 

FACINI, Pietro, in Biography, a painter of hiftory, 
born at Bolognain 1560. He began to paint when already 
grown up to manhood, at the advice of An, Caracci, whey 
on feeing a whimfical defign of his in charcoal, concluded he 
would be an acquifition to his fchool. OF this advice he 
had reafon to repent, not only becaufe Facini roufed his 
jealoufy by the rapidity of his progrefs, but becaufe he faw 
him leave his fchool, become his rival in the inftruGion of 
youth, and even lay fnares for his life. Facini had two cha- 
racteriftics of excellence, a vivacity in the attitudes and heads 
of his figures, that refembled the ftyle of Tintoretto, and a 
truth of carnation which made Annibal himfelf declare that 
his colours feemed to be mixed with human flefh. 

Beyond this he has little to furprife ; his defign is weak, 
his bodies vaft and undefined, his heads and hands ill fet on, 
nor had he time to corre&t thefe faults, as he died young, in 
1602. At St. Francefco, in Bologna, is an altar-piece of 
his, the Marriage of St. Catherine, attended by the four tute- 
lary faints of the city, and a number of infant angels, which 
fhews the beft of his powers. His children capeliings, or at 
play, in the gallery Matvezai, and elfewhere at Bologna, 
are equally admired; they are in the manner of Albani, 
but with grander proportions. Fufeli’s Pilkington. 

FACIO, ur Facias, and ut des, in Law. See Cons 
SIDERATION. 

FACK, in a Ship. See Faxe. ’ 

FACKER See, in Geography, a lake of Carinthia; 3 
miles S.E. of Villach. 

FACTEUR, Fr. in Mechanics, a maker ; asin mufic,; a 
flute or fiddle-maker, an organ-builder. How great a de- 
mand there was for flutes in Athens, may be conceived from 
a circumitanre mentioned by Plutarch in his life of Ifocrates. 
This orator, fays he, was the fon of Theodorus, a flute- 
maker, who acquired wealth fufficient by his employment 
not only to educate his children in a liberal manner, but alfo 
to bear one of the heavieft public burdens to which an Athe- 
nian citizen was liable, that of furnifhing a choir or area 

OF 


FAC 


for his tribe, or ward, at feftivals and religious ceremonies, 
Each tribe furnifhed their diftin@ chorus; which confifted 
of a band of vocal and inftrumental performers, and dancers, 
who were to be hired, maintained, and dieffed during the 
whole time of the feftival ; an expence confiderable in itfelf, 
but much increafed ly emulation among ‘the richer citizens, 
and the difgrace confequent to an infenor exhibition, The 
fluGtuations of trade and public favour have rendered the bu- 
finefs of boring flutes far lefs profitable at prefent than it 
was inthe time of Theodorus. But then we have had a 
harpficherd-maker in our own country (old Kirkman) who 
died worth 100,000/. and who was as able to maintain a 
ehoiras Theodorus, or any dean and chapter of a cathedral. 

FACTION, a cabal or party formed in a ftate to dilturb 
the public repofe. 

The moft celebrated fa€tions were that of the Guelphs and 
Gibelins, who kept Italy in alarm for many ages; and with 
us that of the Whigs and Tories. 

’ Faction was originally an appellation given to the di- 
vers troops or companies of combatants in the games of the 
circus. 

OF thefe there were four, v/z. the green faction, the blue 
faGion, the red fa@tion, and the white fa€tiou. “Phe em- 
peror Domitian ts faid to have added two others, wx. the 
purple and the yellow. 

Thefe faétions, with their liveries and badges, were at 
Tength abolifhed ; the emulation which was at firft between 
them growing to fuch a height, that in Juftinian’s time 
40,000 men were killed in a contelt between the green and 
blue factions. 

FACTITIOUS, fignifies any thing made by art, in 
eppofition to what is the produce of nature. 

FACTO, De. See the article De Facro. 

FACTOR, in Agriculture, is a term which in fome places, 
efpecially in the northern parts of the kingdom, fignifies an 
agent or perfon who has the overlooking and management 
cf an eftate for another. Perfons of this defcription are 
fomething more than bailiffs, and have commonly a know- 
ledge of the law, in fo far as landed property is concerned. 

Factor, in Commerce, an agent or perfon who aéts and 
negociates for a merchant by commiflion; called alfo com- 
miffioner, and on fome occation broker, and throughout the 
Levant, coagis. 

Fa@tors are either charged with the buying or the felling 
of goods, or with both. 

Thofe of the frft kind are ufually fixed in places 
of confiderable manufaétories, or cities of great trade. 
Their office is to buy up commodities for merchants refid- 
ing elfewhere ; to fee them packed, and fend them to the 
perfons for whom they were bought. 

Facrors of fale are ufually eftablifhed in places where 
there is a great vent. To thefe, merchants and manu- 
fa€turers fend their goods to be fold for them according to 
the price and other conditions exprefled in the orders deli- 
vered them; and they are authorized by a letter of attor- 
ney, with a falary or allowance for their care. 

The wages or allowances for felling are ufually clear of 

_ all expences of carriage, exchange, remittanees, &c. except- 
ing poftage of letters, which are never put to account. 

Mhetors fhould ftri@ly obferve the orders of their’ princi- 
pals, or elfe they are liable to the damage accruing from 
the negleé& of them. When factors have unlimited com- 
miffion to do for their conftituents the beft they can, they 
are excufable, though their tranfaciions are attended with 
lofs to their principals; but no faGor, who has merely a 
commiffion to fell, &c. for another, is excufable for entruit- 
ing avother perfon beyond the ete time allowed in the fale 


FAC 


of the commodities which he difpofes of ; in fuch a cafe he 
is anfwerable to the principal out of his own eftate. (1 Bulft. 
102.) In commiffions at this time, it is common to give 
the faétor power, in exprefs words, to difpofe of the mer- 
chandize, and deal therein as if it were his own; by which 
the faétor’s actions will be excufed, though they occafion 
lofs to his principal. Goods remitted to a fa€tor ought to 
be carefully preferved, and he is accountable for all lawful 
goods that fhall come to his hands; yet if the faétor 
buy goods for his principal, and they receive damage after 
in his poffefiion, not through his negligence, the principal 
fhall bear the lofs; and if a faétor be robbed, he fhall be 
difcharged in account brought againft him by his principal, 
(4 Rep. 83.) If a faétor fells on the ufual trutt to a per- 
fon of good credit, who afterwards becomes infolvent, he is 
difcharged3 but not if the man’s credit was bad at the time 
of fale. A faétor fhould always be punétual in the advices 
of his tranfaCtions, fales, purchafes, freichts, ard draughts 
by exchange: he fhould never deviate from the orders he 
receives in the execution of a commiffion for purchafing 
goods, either with refpect to price or quality : if goods that 
are bought are fent to a different place from that to which 
they were ordered, they become the faétor’s, uniefs the 
merchant allows them, 


tract of the factor fhall oblige the principal to the perform- 
ance of the bargain; and the principal is the proper perfor - 
to be profecuted on non-performance ; but if the faGor 
enters into a charter-party of affreightment with a matter 
of a fhip, the contra& obliges him only;:unlefs he lades 
aboard generally his principal’s goods, then both the princt- 
pal and lading become liablé for the freight, and not the- 
factor. (Goldib.137.) It is a general rule, that where a 
factor, who is authorized to fell goods in hisown name, 
makes the buyer debtor to himfelf, thouch he is not an= 
{werable to his principal for the debt, if the money be not 
paid; yet he has aright to receive it; if it‘ be paid, and his 
receipt is a difcharge to the buyer. The fa€tor may*conr- 
pel fuch payment by a@ion, and’ the buyer cannot defead 
himfelf by faying, that the principal was indebted to hin 
more than the amount. (Cowp. 255,6.) Where goods are 
fold by the fa&tor at his own rifk, for which he has an addi 
tional allowance, the vendor is not anfwerable to the owner. 
(Stra. 1182.) Though a factor has power to fell, and 
thereby bind his principal, yet he cannot bind or affe& the 
property of the goods by pledging them as a fecurity for 
his own debt, though there be the formality ofa bill of par- 
cels and a receipt. (Stra.1178.) A factor that fells a 
commodity under the price ordered by his principal fhall be 
obliged to make good the difference ; and if he purchafes 
goods for another at a limited price, and they rife in value, 
and he fecures to himfelf the advantage, he is obliged to 
fatisfy his principal for damages ; or if he makes any advan- 
tage of the fale of goods which his principal dire&ed him to 
purchafe, the principal (hall recover it from him, and he is 
liable to be amerced for the fraud. When fa&tors have ob- 
tained a profit for their principal, they mutt be cautious how 
they difpofe of it; for if they aé&t without commiffien they 
are refponfible ; and if a merchant remits goods to his fa&tor, 
and about a month after draws a bill on him, and the fa@or 
having effects in his hands, accepts the bill, but the principal 
breaks, and the goods are feized in the fa@or’s hands, on 
behalf of the creditors, it has been judged that the fa@or 
mult anfwer the bill, and come in as a creditor for f much 
as he was obliged by reafon of his acceptance to pay, 
If one employs a fator, and entrufts him with the difpofat 
of merchandize, and the faQtor reeeives thetmouey, and dies, 
indebreg 


FAC 


indebted in debts of a higher nature, and it appears by evi- 
dence that-this money was vefted in other goods, and re- 
mains unpaid, thofe goods fhall be taken as part of the 
merchant’s and not of the factor’s eftate ; but if the fa€tor 
has the money, it thall be coufidered as the factor’s eftate, 
and mutt firft anfwer the debts of fuperior creditors, &c. 
(4 Salk. 160.) Ifa perfon employs a faétor to fell goods, 
who {ells them on credit, and before the money is paid dies 
indebted more than his eftate will pay, this money thall be 
paid to the principal merchant, and not to the faétor’s ad- 
miniftrator, deducting his commiffion ; fora fator is only 
as truftee for his principal. (2 Vern. 638.) Bills remitted 
to a factor or banker, while unpaid, are in the nature of 
goods unfold ; and if the faétor become bankrupt muft be 
returned to the principal, fubject to fuch lien as the fa€tor 
may have thereon. (2 Blac. Rep. 1:54.) A fattor has a 
lien on goods configned to him, not only for incident 
charges, but as an item of mutual account, for the general 
balance due to him, fo long as he retains the poffeflion ; if 
he parts with the poffeffion, he parts with his lien. (1 Burr. 
489. 1 Blac. Rep. 4.) If he be furety in a bond for his 
principal, he has a lien on the price of the goods fold by 
him for his principal to the amount of the fum for which he 
is bound. (Cowp.25..) A factor has no lien on goods 
for a general balance, unlefs they come into his a@ual pof- 
feffion ; and if in confideration of goods being configned to 
him he accept bills drawn by the confignor, and pay part of 
the freight, and become infolvent before the bills are due, 
and before the goods get into his a¢tual poffeffion, the con- 
fignor may ftop them in tranfitu. (1 Term Rep. 11g.) If 
a faétor accept bills drawn by his principal upon the faith 
of-confignments agreed to be made by the principal to the 
factor, and both of them become bankrupts before a cargo 
configned came into poffeffion of the fa&or ; the factor’s 
affiznees have no property in fuch cargo, and cannot recover 
the produce of it againft the affignees of the principal, if the 
latter have fold it, and received the purchafe-money. (1 Term 
Rep. 783. 4 Bro. P.C. 47.) The confignor may ftop 
goods in tranjfitu before they get into the hands of the con- 
fignee, in cafe of the infolvency of the confignee ; but if the 
confignee affign the bills of lading toa third perfon fora 
valuable confideration, the right of the confignor as againtt 
fuch affignee is divefted, There is no diftin@tion between a 
bill of lading indorfed in blank, and an indorfement to a 
particular perfon, (4 Bro, P.C. 57. 2 Term Rep. 63. 1H. 
Blac. Rep..357. 2 Term Rep. 674. 3 Term Rep. 465.) 
Téa factor fell goods as his own, by indorfement of the bill 
of lading, though no delivery is made, the goods being et 
fea, the vendor fhall keep pofleffion, unlefs fraud appears be- 
tween him and the factor. (4 Burr, 2>46. 1 Blac. Rep. 629.) 
A factor who has money in hand belonging to his princi- 
pals, and who neglects to infure a fhip and goods according 
to order, fhall make good the damage if the fhip mifcarry ; 
and if he make any compofition with the infurers after in- 
furance without orders, he is anfwerable for the whole in- 
{urance. As fidelity and diligence are required from the 
faGtor, fo the law requires the like from the principal : if, 
therefore, a merchant remits counterfeit jewels to his faGtor, 
who fells them as true ones, and fultains lofs or damage by 
imprifonment or other punifhment, the principal fhall not 
make fatisfaction to the factor but to the party who pur- 
chafed them. Bufinefs of this kind is called commiflion- 
bufinefs ; and traders in this way have cuvrent as well as 
commiflion accounts conftantly between them, and draw on, 
remit to, and fend commiMions to each other only by the 
intercourfe of letters, which, among men of ‘honour. are 
as obligatory and authoritative as all the bonds and ties of law. 


FAC 


Factors, in Arithmetic, is a name given to the two num- 
bers which are multiplied one into another that 1s, the 
multiplicand and multiplier; fo called becaufe they are 
to facere produétum, make or conflitute the product. 

FACTORAGE. The faGtorage or wages, called alfo 
commiffion, is different at different places, and for different 
voyages: at a medium it may be fixed at about three per 
cent. of the value of the goods bought, befide the charge of 
package, which is paid over and above. When factors 
make themfelves an{werable for the debts of thofe perfons 
with whom they deal, the charges of commiffion or 
factorage are, of courfe, enhanced. - 

FACTORY, a place where a confiderable number o: 
factors refide, to negociate and officiate for their mafters or 
principals. 

The term is chiefly ufed in {peaking of the Eaft Indies, 
and other parts of Afia, Turkey, Italy, Portugal, &c, 
whither the European nations fend their fhips every year, 
and where they keep fa€tors to buy the commodities of the 
country, and fell thefe brought from Europe. 

Factory is alfo a denomination applied in fome of our 
manufacturing counties to the places where particular proe 
ceffes of the manufacture are carried on. 

FACTUM, in Arithmetic, the produ& of two quan- 
tities multiplied by each other. 

Factrum, in Zaw. See Fair. 

FACULA, in Affronomy, a name given by Scheiner, 
and others after him, to certaia {pots on the fun’s difk thas 
appear brighter and more lucid than the reit of the body. 

The word is Latin, beinga diminutive of fax, torchs and 
fuppofed to be here applied from their appearing and diffi- 
pating by turns. ‘ 

The faculz or bright {pots differ very confiderably from 
the macule or dark fpots, in light, colour, figure, mag 
nitude, and duration. : : 

Hevelius affures us, that July the zoth, 1634, he obferved 
a facula that took up a third part of the fun’s diameter ; 
and from the obfervations of the fame Hevelius we learn, 
that the macule frequently change into facule; but the 
facule into maculz rarely, ifever. Some authors even con- 
tend that all the maculz degenerate into facule before they 
quite difappear. 

Huygens, however, declares he was never able to difcover 
any facule, though the macule occurred to him very fre- 
quently. All the foundation he could fee for the notion of - 
facule, he fays, was, that in the darkifh clouds which fre- 
quently furround the maculz, one fometimes difcerns little 
points or {parks brighter than the reit. ; 

Many authors after Kircher and Scheiner have generally 
reprefented the fun’s body full of bright, fiery {pots, which 
they conceive to be a fort of volcanoes in the body of the 
fun; but Huygens, and others of the lateit and beft ob- 
fervers, finding, that the bett telefcopes difcover nothing of 
the matter, agree to explode the phenomena of faculz. 
Their caufe thefe authors attribute to the tremulous agita- 
tion of the vapours near our earth; the fame as fometimes 
fhews a little unevennefs in the circumference of the {un’s 
difk when viewed through a telefeope. Stri€tly, then, the 
facula are not eructations of fire and flame, but refractions 
of the fun’s raysin the rarer exhalations, which, being con- 
denfed in the neighbourhood of that fhade, feem to exhibit 
a light greater than that of the fun. See Spors. ; 

FACULTY, a power or ability of performing an a€tion, 
The term is much ufed by the ancient philofophers, and 
ftill retained in the fchools for explaining the aétions of 
natural bodies. Thus, to account for the aét of digeition, 
they {nppofe a digeftive faculty in the ftomach; to acco 

or 


FAC 


for motion, they imagine a motive faculty in the nerves, 
&e. which is only a fub{tituting of one name of an unknown 
phenomenon for another. 

The Facuuries or powers of the foul are commonly 
reputed two, viz. the underftanding and will, 

Facutry is alfo applied in the Schools, to the divers 
parts or members of an univerfity, divided according to the 
arts or f{ciences taught or profefled there. 

There are four faculties in mo{t univerfities ; that of arts, 
which includes the humanities and philofophy, and is much 
the moft ancient and extenfive; the fecond is that of theo. 
logy ; the third, medicine ; and the fourth, jurifprudence, or 
laws. See each under its proper article. 

The degrees in the feveral faculties in the univerfities are 
thofe of Bachelor, Mafter, and Door. 

The Facuury is frequently ufed abfolutely, and by way 
of eminence, for that chiefly ftudied and taught in any 
particular place. 

Facutry, in Law, denotesa privilege or fpecial power 
granted to a man by favour, indulgence, and difpenfation, 
to do that which regularly by law he cannot ; as to eat flefh 
upon days prehibited, or to marry without banns firft afked, 

ic ; 

) Facuuries, the Courtof. See Court of Faculties. 

| Facuirty of Advocates, in Scotland. See ApyocarTe. 

FACUSIM, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the 
ifland of Niphon; 55 miles N.E. of Meaco. 

.FADELA, a town of Fez; 28 miles S.W. of Salee. 

FADEN-HOTUN, a town of Corea, on the river 
Oula. N. lat. 41° 3/. Eslong. 125° 44!. 

FADLA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed ; 
180 miles N.E. of Mecca. 

FADOAL, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian ocean. 
S. Jat. 5° .51'. E. long. 132° 37". 

FACES, in Phyfiology, the réfidue of the food, which 
is expelled from the body, after the nutritious’ parts have 
been abforbed by the inteitines. See Dicestion. 

Faces, in Chemifiry. . Excrement, feces, or fecal mat- 
ter, is the indigeftible refidue of the food, both liquid and 
folid, mixed or combined with bile and other fecretions, 
during its paflage through the alimentary canal. 

The eager and unwearied fearch after gold, which diftin- 

uifhed and difgraced the ancient alchemilts, rendered them 
fable to be impofed upon by the flighteft and moft foolifh 
coincidences and analogies: hence doubtlefs it was that the 
cafual and flight refemblance in colour between gold and 
the mott difgufting of all fubftances led them to fubmit 
human ordure to various chemical procefles, with the expecta- 
tion of obtaining from it an oil which fhould’ have the pro- 
perty of fixing mercury. The details of moft of thefe 
experiments have fuffered the oblivion which they merited, 
and the difcovery of pyrophorus by Homberg is the only 
known fa€t of any importance which has refulted from 
them. This preparation, which is now obtained by a per- 
feGtly inoftenfive procefs, was firft procured from the matter. 
remaining in the retort after dry diftillation of human ex- 
crement. : 

Inthe year 1806 a laborious inveftigation of this fub- 


ftance was undertaken by Berzelius with a view of illuftrating 


the chemical hiftory of the provefs of digettion, from which 
we have féleGted the following particulars. Recent excre- 
ment appears to contain neither acid nor alkali in an uncom- 


bined ftate. Its odour is peculiar and remarkably fetid, but 


by time it becomes fenfibly fourifh, When of a medium 


~ confiftence it lofes about three-fourths of its weight, by 


being dried in a water bath. Ivis diffufible in water by 
‘agitation and maceration, and if flrained through a linen 


jes on ©! 


cloth in this flate, it may be divided into a fomewhat tur- 
bid fluid and an infoluble refidue. This latter is of a grey- 
ifh brown colour, and a very permanently fetid odour. 
When dried it appears to confift principally of the undi- 
getted refidue of vegetable, and perhaps_alfo animal food. 
It amounts to about 7 per cent. of the entire matter. The 
{trained liquid by ftanding depotits a flimy matter of a yel- 
lowifh-green colour, which is feparable from the more fluid 
portion by filtration. It appears to confilt, firft of a mat- 
ter foluble in alcohol, and much refembling the refin of bile ; 
fecondly, of a matter infoluble in alcohol, but foluble in wa- 
ter, poflefing many of the properties of mucus, and readily 
putrefyiag at the fame time, exhaling the odour of urine; 
thirdly, of a greenifh-grey refidue infoluble in water and 
alcohol, and affording by incineration filex and phofphat of 
pot-ath. 

The clear liquor, after feparation of the flimy matter, is 
of a light yellow colour, which, by expofure to the air, 
becomes brown and turbid. By, gentle evaporation it de- 
pofits cry!tals of ammoniaco-pho{phat of maguctia. 

The conftituent parts ef the remaising fluid are, 1, albue 
men; 2, refin of bile combined with foda; 3, a peculiar 
fubftance of a reddifh browa colour, that appears te be 
refin of bile fomewhat altered. 

The proportions of the above fubftances, according te 
Berzelius, are the following : 


Water = — 4 ve 5 = 73.3 
Vegetable and animal undigefted refidue - 7.9 
Bile - - - - - - - 0.9 
Albumen - 3 = = 2 ot fafa 
Extractive matter - = = mae 
Carbonat of foda ™ a = - 09 
Muriat of foda - - : = we ory 
Sulphat of foda - - = = = .0.05 
Ammon. phofphat of magnefia - - 0.05 
Phofphat of lime = - - ts Ont 
Slimy matter = 3 = = - 14.0 
100.0 


The excrements of ftall-fed cattle have been examined by 
M.M. Thaer and Einhof. The colour of this fubftance 
is yellowifh green; its odour is fomewhat like that of muffle. 
It contains no excefs of acid or alkali; when fubmitted to 
the agency of fulphuric acid there is a difengagement and 
production of acetic acid. ; 


100 parts of recent excrement are reduced, by drying on 
a-water-bath, to 28. aT eens ¢ 

When diffufed through waterand ftrained, there remains 
behind a yellowifh fibrous matter, which appears to be 
vegetable fibre but little altered. The folution depolits, by 
ftanding, a flimy fubftance, to which the feces owe their 
peculiar odour and colour. It is infoluble in water or al- 
cohol; when heated it gives out an odour like that of ox- 
bile. It is fearcely affeGed by the alkalies; but fulphuric 
acid developes from it acetic acid, and the oxymuriatic acid 
renders it yellow. y 

The fluid remaining, after feparation of the above Jimy 
fubftance, is at firft colourlefs, but, by expofure to the air, 
becomes firft of a wine yellow, and then of a brown colour, 
When evaporated to drynefs, there remains a brownifh mat- 
ter, of a bitterifh tafte, infoluble in alcohol, but foluble in 
water. It is not precipitated by infufion of galls; it foon 
becomes putrid, exhaling an ammoniacal odovr, and during 
combuttion exhibits the ufual charaéteriftics of animal mate 


ter. 


B AcE 


ter. .The fixed parts, after incineration of eight ounces 
ef the entire excrement, were as follow; 


Lime - - - - - - by Eze 
Pholphat of lime - - - - - 12.5 
Magnefia - - - - - clvieeea 
Iron - - - - - - =! U5. 
Alumine with fome manganefe ° - 34. 
Silex - - - - - - - 52. 
Muriat and fulphat of potafh - ay lee 


The excrements of carnivorous animals have not hitherto 
‘been examined. The dung of dogs (called album Grzcum) 
merits notice on account of its remarkable efficacy in fome 
-of the procefles of leather-dreffing. The great confumption 
of dung of all kinds is in agriculture as a manure. It is 
alfo largely employed in the conftruiion of artificial nitre- 
‘beds. The dung of the larger domeftic graminivorous 
quadrupeds is dried and made ufe of as fuel in thofe coun- 
tries that are deftitute of coal and wood; the foot arifing 
‘from this combuiflion is the fubftance from which the 
Egyptians procure fal ammoniac by fimple fublimation; and 
itis probable that a fimilar advantage might be taken of it 
in other couutries. 

FAECHDT, in Geography, a river of France, which 
runs into the Ill, near Guemar, in the department of the 
Upper Rhine. 

FAECULA. See Fecura. 

FAENZA, in Geography, a city of Italy, and capital of 
the department of the Amone, the fee of a bifhop, fuf- 
fragan of Ravenna; anciently called Paventia, It was 
ravaged by Totila, king of the Goths, in the 6th century, 
and in the 13th ruined by the emperor Frederick IT. be- 
eaufe it efpouled the intereft of the pope; but afterwards 
reftored by Manfredi. It afterwards fell under the power of 
the Venetians, the Bolognefe, and, at length, under that of 
the church. In 1708 it was taken by the Imperialifts; in 
1796 by the French, and afterwards by the troops of the 
pope, who garrifoned it. In 1797 the pope’s troops were 
defeated and expelled. Although it has an old fortrefs, 
it has no other defence betides a plain covered curtain with 
its ditch. It had formerly 15 or 16 churches, or convents. 
The cathedral ftands in the great {quare, and is adorned 
with a handfome fteeple five {tories high, with baluftrades. 
Near the church is a fountain, the bafon of which is fur- 
rounded by four fine lions of brafs, and encompafled with 
a wrought iron rail. Faenza was famous for its pottery, 
which took its name from that of the town. It is 20 miles 
§.W.of Ravenna. N. lat. 44° 18'. E.long. 11° 51’. 

FOE, an iftand of Denmark, in the Baltic, near the 
north coaft of Laland, about 12 miles in circuit, with two 
or three villages. N. lat. 54° 52’. E. long. rr° 20, 

FAERNO, GasrikEx, in Biography, a Latin poet and 
philologift, was a native of Cremona. His great learning 
obtained for him the employment of correétor and revifor 
of the books in the Vatican library. He was afterwards 
patronized by the cardinal de Medicis, both while he was 
eardinal, and vhen he was elevated to the popedom by the 
name of Pius 1V. Faerno employed all his influence in 
fupport of men of worth, integrity, and learning ; but he 
did not long enjoy the opportunity of being thus ufeful ; 
he died in.the prime of life, in 1561, much refpected for 
the amiablenefs and fimplicity of his‘chara&er. His chief 
work, as a literary man, is entitled « Fabule centum ex 
antiquis au@toribus deleét.”? Faerno was a tkilful critic, 
aid took pains in collating the beft MSS. of ancient authors. 
He edited the Philippics of Cicere and the comedies of 
‘Terence. Moreri. 


FAG 


FAILS, Vanper. See Lexy. 

FZESTING Men. See Fasrermans, 

FHSULA, Fiesout, in Ancient Geography, 2 town 
of Etruria, N.E. of Florentias; whence, it is faid, the 
Augurs paffed to Rome. Catiline made it a place of arms. 
‘The Goths, when they entered Italy under the confulate 
of Stilicon and Aurelian, A.D. 400, were defeated near 
this town. 

FZETOR. See Forror. 

FAFAA, in Geography, one of the {mall Friendly 
iflands, four miles N, of Obferyatory point, on the coaft of 
Tongataboo. 

FAG, is ufed for a knot or excrefcency in cloth. Stat. 
4 Edw. IV. cap. 1. The fag-end of a piece of cloth, or linen, 
is that in which the weaver ends his piece, and works up his 
wortt materials. 

Fac-end, in Sea Languages denotes the end of any 
rope or cord which is become untwifted and loofened by fre- 
quent ufe; to prevent which, the ends of ropes are gene- 
rally well-faftened by winding a piece of {mall line or pack- 
thread around them, which operation is called whipping. 

FAGAGNA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in Friuli, 
eight miles W. of Udina. 

FAGAN, in Conchology, Adanfon denominates the 
Area fenelis fagan in his Hift. Senegal. 

FAGARA, in Botany. The name feems to be of 
Arabian origin, and not, as the learned profeflor Martyn 
fuppofes, from Pay, to eat. Linn. Gen. 16c. Schreb. 80. 
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.666. Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 2. Juff. 374. 
Gertn.t. 68. Bauh, Pin. 412. Ger. em.1548. (Pterota; 
Brown. Jam. 146. t. 5. f.1. Euodia; Forit. Gen. ti7.) 
Clafs and order, 7etrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Du- 
mofe, Linn. Terebintaceis affine, Jul. 

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, very fmall, in four 
deep, concave, permanent fegments. Cor, Petals four, ob- 
long, concave, equal, fpreading. Stam, Filaments four, 
longer than the corolla; anthers ovate. Pi/?, Germen fu- 
perior, ovate; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the co- 
rolla; fligma of two bluntifh lobes. Peric. Capfules one, 
two, four, or five, ovate, of one cell and two valves. Seeds 
folitary, roundifh, polifhed. 

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft. Petals four. Capfules fu- 
perior, of two valves and one cell. Seeds folitary. 

A genus of aromatic, fometimes prickly, fhrubs, ‘with 
ternate or pinnate leaves. Willdenow has twelve f{pecies, 
found in various of the warmer parts of the globe, none of 
them in Europe. 

Linnevs confounded with his /. Prerota, which is 
Browne’s Jamaica plant, the #. Avicenna, Cluf. Exot. 185. 
Lob. Ic. v. 2. 133. Lamarck Encycl. v. .2. 445, which 
is the original officinal one, a native of China, Lamarck 
faw a fpecimen of this laft, gathered by Father d’Incarville, 
in Juffien’s herbarium, and corrected the above error. The 
qualities of this fruit are fomewhat aromatic and acrid, 
whence it was formerly thought an ufeful ftomachic, or 
{timulant, but it is now entirely laid afide in practice. 

Facara, in the Materia Medica, the name of a fruit re- 
fembling the cubebs found in the Philippine iflands. The 
part of this fruit which contains the principal virtue is the 
outer rind; this is tender and blackifh, and of an aromatic 
and fomewhat acid tafte. When the berries are ripe they 
eafily break, and difclofe a black, fhining, folid kernel, void 
of tafte fand frell. The berries, according to Avicenna, 
are heating and drying, and good for acold weak ftomach, 
to help digeftion, and are aftringent to the bowels. They 
were once much ufed, but of late are fearce known in the 


fhops. 
FAGER- 


FAG 


FAGERHULT, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in 
the province of Smaland; 35 miles N.W. of Calmar. 

FAGGOT, in Agriculture, is a bundle of any fort of 
fmall wood tied up clofely together by means of a with, 
or other kind of ligature. They are moftly made up from 
the cuttings or thinnings of under-woods, coppices, and 
hedges, being fold in many diftri€ts to the bakers, for the 
purpole of heating their ovens. They ufually fetch a good 
price in many fituations, efpecially near large towns. In 
making up thefe bundles the workmen trim off the fuper- 
fluous f{preading branches from the fides and ends, which 
givesthem aneater appearance. Thefe trimmings are put in 
themiddles of the faggots which are to be made up, by which 
they appear to greater advantage. 

Thefe trimmings are of little or no ufe in the fag- 
gots, and ought to be left on the ground; for being fmall, 
they would foon rot there, and would manure the ground 
fo as to be of more advantage to the next growth than is 
eafily imagined. The leaves of the trees falling to the earth, 
manure it very much; but this is nothing to the advan- 
tage of thefe little pieces of wood; any rotten wood, but 
in a moderate quantity, will turn a common bad earth into 
good garden mould ; and the growth of the young trees is 
more forwarded by this manure where it is left, than by any 
other means that can be ufed toit. We always fee the land 
where wood-ftacks have ftood enriched to a furprifing de- 
gree by them, and the fame advantage will occur wherever 
wood of any kind is left to moulder and rot upon the ground. 
That fort of fmall wood which is bound up in faggots is 
called faggot-wood, and fometimes bufh-wood. Faggots 
for fuel are required by 43 Eliz. cap. 14, to contain in com- 
pafs, befides the knot of the bond, twenty-four inches of 
affize ; and every faggot-{tick within the bond fhall contain 
full three feet of affize, except only one ftick, which is to 
be but one foot long, to flop or harden the binding. 

Faccor, or Fagot, in Fortification. See Fascine. 

Faccot of Steel, exprefles the quantity of 1zolb. 
weight. 

Tiger, in the times of Popery in thefe kingdoms, was 
2 badge wore on the fleeve of the upper garment by fuch as 
had recanted and abjured what was then deemed herefy ; 
being put on after the perfon had carried a faggot, by way 
of penance, to fome appointed place of folemnity. The 
leaving off this badge was fometimes interpreted a fign of 
apotftacy. 

Faccors, among Military Men, are ineffective perfons 
who receive no regular pay, nor do any regular duty, but 
are hired deeabtinelly to appear at a mutter, to fill up the 
companies, hide the real deficiencies thereof, and cheat the 
king of fo much pay, which goes into the officer’s pocket. 

FAGIANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the 
province of Otranto; fix miles E.S.E. of Tarento. 

FAGIUS, Paut, in Biography, a learned German di- 
vine, was born at Reinzabern, a town in the Palatinate, in 
the year 1504. In the courfe of his education he recom- 
mended himfelf to the notice and efteem of his preceptors 
by great dilicence in his ftudies. At a very early period he 
was diftinguifhed for his proficiency in the learned languages 
and in the Hebrew tongue. He became intimate with 
Bucer,. and the other celebrated reformers. At the age of 
twenty-three he was obliged to engage in the bufinels of 
{chool-mafter, in which he acquired great reputation, but 
he was bent on the work of the miniftry, to which he looked 
as the confummation of his wifhes, and in 1537 he was in- 
vited by the fenate of Ifne to undertake the paftoral office 
in that town, and for feveral years he difcharged the duties 
connefted with it with high reputation. Here the plague 

Vo Le XIV. 


FAG 


broke out with violence, during the ravages of which he 
difplayed a noble and benevolent fpirit, by reproving the 
rich, who, from their apprehenfions, were led to defert the 
poor and the afflicted ; by eftablifhing a fund for the relief 
of the diftreffed, and by engaging the magiftrates to make 
fuch wife and humane regulations as contributed to leffen 
the horrors of that dire calamity: and it is related, to his 
great honeur, that Fagius never quitted the fcene of in- 
feétion, but devoted his whole time to the fervice of the 
affiiGted, perfonally vifiting them, and affording them every 
relief in his power. He was, however, {pared by the hand 
of Providence, although he faw multitudes falling on his 
right hand and on his left. The plague reached to Straf- 
burg, and numbered Wolfgang Capito among its vidtims, 
whom he afterwards fucceeded in the minifterial funétions : 
and at the fame time he exerted all his powers in publifhing 
fuch works as eminently conduced to the promotion of the 
interefts of religion and literature. In 1546 Frederic II., 
elector palatine, fent for him to Heidelberg, to conduét the 
meafures proper to bring about a reformation of religion 
in his dominions, a proje&t which, from fome unfavourable 
circumflances, was obliged to be fulpende’, He returned 
to Strafburg, refumed his minifterial and literary employ- 
ments, and affifted Bucer and Martyr in the duties of the 
profefforfhip of theology. In 1548 he was obliged, by the 
treatment whieh the Proteftant divines experienced from the 
emperor, to quit Strafburg, and he fled for fafety to Eng- 
land with Bucer, both of whom had received preffing invi- 
tations from Cranmer, archbifhop of Canterbury. They 
refided for fome time at Lambeth, and it was intended that 
they fhould proceed from thence to Cambridge, where they 
were to be employed as profeffors, and engaged in coms 
pleting a new tranflation of the fcriptures. Fagius died, 
before he had made any progrefs in the work, in 1550, at 
the age of 45. During the infamous reign of Mary, his 
remains, and thofe of Bucer, were dug up and burnt, a 
paltry kind of revenge, and worthy of thofe who infli€ed 
it. His works are chiefly theological, and conneéed with 
biblical literature. Moreri. 

FAGLOE, in Geography, one of the Faroer iflands, in 
the North fea. 

FAGNANDO, a town of Italy, in the department of the 
Amona; 10 miles S. of Faenza. 

FAGO, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 18 miles N.W. 
of Taca. 

FAGONA, in Anatomy, a conglomerate gland, called 
alfo thymus. 

FAGONIA, in Botany, fo called by Tournefort, in com- 
pliment to Monf. Fagon, principal phyfician to Louis XIV. 
and a great patron of botany. He was one of the chief 
promoters of Tournefort’s journey to the Levant, which he 
ftrongly and repeatedly recommended to the confideration 
of hisfovereign. Tourn, Inft. 265.t. 141. Linn. Gen. 212. 
Schreb. 289. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.565. Mart. Mill. Dié. 
v. 2. Juff. 296. Gertn. t. 113. Clafs and order, De- 
candria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rutacee, Jul. 

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five lanceolate, up- 
right, {mall, deciduous leaves. Cor. Petals five, alternate 
with the calyx, rounded, equal, with claws about as long 
asits leaves, the limb fpreading beyond their points. Stam. 
Filaments ten, fimple, awl-fhaped, {mooth, ere@t, longer 
than the claws ; anthers roundifh. Pf. Germen fuperior, 
with five angles; ftyle awl-thaped, as long as the ftamens ; 
ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule ovate, with five deep fur- 
rows, and as many obtufe prominent angles, of five com- 
preffed cells, and ten valves. Seeds folitary, ovate, fmooth. 

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves, Petals five, rounded, 

K 


with 


PAG 


with claws, Stamens fimple. 
valves and five cells. Seeds folitary, 

1. F.cretica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 553- 
«: Spinous. Leaflets lanceolate, flat.” 
Crete, beft preferved in .the green-houfe, or even ftove. 
Siem often procumbent, branched, divaricated. Leaves op- 
polite, ternate, ftalked, dark green; Jeaflets all feffile, nearly 
equal, acute, rough-edged. — Stipulas {pinous. Flowers 
folitary, from the forks of the flem, or terminal, of au ele- 
gant purple, with yellow ftamens. Linnaeus compares them 
to thofe of a AZalpighia, which they fomewhat refemble, 
but without any real affinity. 

2. F. hifpanica. “ Not fpinous.” 
Biennial. ! 

3. F. arabica. ‘ Spinous. Leaflets linear, convex.’ 
Found by Shaw ia Arabia, who defcribes it with very 
long prickles. 

4. F. indica. Linn. Mant. 238. Burm. Ind. t. 34. ie 
“‘Spinous. Leaves fimple, oval.” Gathered in Perfia by 
Garcin. Annual, with yellow flowers. 

FAGOPYRUM. See Potyconum. 

FAGOTTINO, Jtal. in Mufic, a little baffoon. 

FAGOTTO, che Italian name for a baffoon, is derived 
from the manner in which it is tied up when taken to pieces, 
at which time it refembles a faggot, or bundle of ticks ; 
and its French appellation is derived from its low pitch, 
Bas-son. ; 

FAGRAEA, in Botany, fo named by Thunberg in ho- 
nour of his friend and countryman Jonas Theodore Fagre- 
us, M.D. whofe highly complimentary and florid effufions 
are prefixed to the Flora Japonica. Thunb. Noy. Gen. 
part 2. 34. A&t. Holm. ann, 1782. 132. t. 4. Schreb. 112. 
Murr. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 198. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 830. 
Juff. 150. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 2. Clafs and order, Pentan- 
dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Gentiane, Juff. and not poci- 
nee, ashe and Thunberg made it. 

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped, 
in five obtufe, rounded, imbricated, equal fegments, mem- 
branous at their margin. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; 
tube round, gradually dilated upward, pervious, naked at 
the mouth, nve times as longas the calyx ; limb {preading, 
in five elliptic-oblong, obtufe, oblique, equal {egments, 
about one-third as long as the tube. Stam. Filaments five, 
capillary, equal, inferted into the tube, rather fhorter than 
the limb; anthers incumbent, ovate, two-lobed, furrowed, 
externally convex. Pi/!. Germen fuperior, roundifh; ityle 
fimple, thread-fhaped, the length of the corolla; fligma 
peltate, orbicular, flat. Peric. Berry ovate, flefhy, coated, 
of two cells. Seeds orbicular, fmooth. 

EM, Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla funnel-fhaped ; limb 
oblique. Berry coated, of two cells. Seeds globofe. Stig- 
ma peltate. ‘ 

1. F. zeylanica, the only known fpecies, was gathered by 
Thunberg inthe ifland of Ceylon, between Columbo and 
Galle. The /fem is fhrubby, with, thick, leafy, fmooth, 
obtufely quadrangular branches. Leaves oppolite, crofling 
each other in pairs, on very fhort dilated foot-ttalks, obo- 
vate, obtufe, entire, {mooth, fomewhat flefhy, a {pan long, 
and three inches wide, tapering,at the bafe. Stipu/a {mall, 
cloven, crowning the infide of each footitalk, juft above its 
infertion. Flowers terminal, three together, in a fort of 
umbel, with f{mall, acute, oppofite bradeas, and thick, 
round, flefhy, {mooth ftalks. Of their colour we have no 
account, but they are large and handfome, about three 
inches long, with the afpect of a Gardenia, to which ge- 
nus Juffieu, with great appearance of probability, guefied 
the genus might belong, and confequently to his natural or- 


Curt. Mag. t. 241. 
Annual, native of 


Native of Spain. 


FAG 


Capfule fuperior, of ten der of Rudiacee, A fine {pecimen, however, preferved un- 


named inthe herbarium of the younger Linneus, has ena-. 
bled us to correct, as we hepe, what has been faid before us 
upon this fubjeé&t. By this fpecimen the affinity of the- 
plant to Lifianthus is evident. Its ftipulation is like the 
little intrafoliaeeous rim or border, obfervable in the larger 
{pecies of that genus, which perhaps deferves the fame name 3, 
but in the Fagrea a pofitive cloven intrafoliaceous flipula 
is vifible. . We cannot, however, dete¢t much of a bitter 
tafte in this plant, nor is that flavour ftrong in Liffan- 
thus. 5S, 

FAGUS, from Qzy:, to eai, becaufe its fruit, or at 
leaft that of an oak which bore the fame name, is fuppofed 
to have made a part of the food of mankind in the earl 
ages ofthe world. Linn. Gen. 496. Schreb. 647. Willd, 
Sp. PL v. 4. 459. Mart. Mill. Dié&t. vy. 2 Sm. Fl. Brit. 
1027. Juff. 409. Gertn. t. 37. (Caitanea ; Tourn. t. 352. 
Gertn. t.37. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 460.) Clafs and or- 
os Monoecia Polyandria. Wat. Ord. Amentacee, Linn. 

uff. 

Gen. Ch. Male Ca/. Perianth bell-fhaped, in five, fix 
orfeven deep, equal, acutefegments. Cor. none. Stam~ 
Filaments from five to twelve or more, capillary, longer 
than the calyx ; anthers ovate-oblong, vertical, of two-cells, 
burfting longitudinally —Female Ca/. Involucrum of one 
leaf, in four deep, acute, externally muricated fegments,. 
containing two or. three flowers, permanent ; perianth (ac- 
cording to Gertner) fuperior, of five or fix fmall, linear,. 
equal, withering leaves. Cor. none. Pi/t. Germen fome- 
what triangular, of three or fix cells, with the rudiments of 
two feeds in each; ftyle hort, in three or fix deep divi- 
fions ; ftigmas fimple, oblong. . Peric. none, except the en- 
larged, thick, prickly involucrum. Seeds two or three, 
ovate or triangular, pointed, coriaceous. 

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx bell-fhaped, five-cleft. Corolla 
none. Stamens five to twenty. Female, Calyx four-cleft. 
Corolla none. Styles in three or fix deep divifions. Nuts. 
two or three, invefted with the leathery prickly calyx. 

Obf. Some authors feparate Ca/lanea from Fagus, chief- 
ly becaufe the male flowers in the former are difpofed 
in a {purious fort of catkin, but it is by nomeansa ‘¢ naked 
catkin,’’ neither can the fame part be termed corolla in this 
inftance and calyx in the other. See the various writers 
quoted above. ‘ 

The {pecies are five, ie * 

1. F. Caflanea.. Chefnut. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1416. Engl. 
Bot. t. 886. (Caftanea vefca; Geertn. v. 1, 181, Willd. 
Sp. Pl. v. 4. 460.) . ‘* Leaves lanceolate, fharply ferrated, 
{mooth beneath. Prickles of the fruit compound and en- 
tangled.””— Native of the warmer, rather mountainous parts 
of Europe, where it often compofes large forefts, It is one 
of the largeft and moft long-lived of European trees, fomes 
times enduring more than a thoufand years. The name 
Caflanea, whence come all its modern appellations, is faid 
to be derived from Kejzu<, a town in Theflaly, the neigh- 
bourhood of which abounded with thefe trees. The timber 
is extremely durable, at leaft under cover : the foliage um- 
brageous, rich and beautiful. In the landfeapes of Salvator 
Rola chefnut trees are very confpicuous, but moft painters 
prefer the oak for beauty. The nuts produced in England 
are much fmaller than in Spain or Italy. They are 
ufed in thofe countries as a fubftitute for flour, in bread or 
puddings, but chiefly by the poor. —The dark of the trunk 
abounds in deep reticulated fiffures. Leaves alternate, 
ftalked, fix or eight inches long, veiny, {mooth and fhining, 
with numerous fharp fhallow Tooatnres Flowers in long 
pendulous yellowith {pikes ; the males unpleafantly fcent- 


3 , ed 5 


FAG 


4 produced in May, The fruit ripens rather late in au- 

tumn. 

: 2. F. pumila. Chinquapin. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1416. Sm. 
Inf. of Georgia, t. 57- Leaves lanceolate, fharply fer- 
rated, downy beneath. Prickles of the fruit fimple and 
ftraight.—Native of North America, from Maryland to 
Plorida. A tree fcarcely above fourteen feet high, known 
‘by the white backs of its faves. The nuts are eatable. 

3. FE. fylwatica. Beech. Lion. Sp. Pl. 14:6. Engl. Bot. 
t. 1846.— Leaves ovate, obfoletely ferrated, fmooth. 
Prickles of the fruit fimple, wavy —Common in Europe, 

. efpecially ona rich calcareous foil, bloffoming in April or 
May. Grafles do not thrive beneath its fhade, but feveral 
of the Orchidce ave there in perfection. ‘The wood ishard, 
but neither tough nor lafting in the open air. This tree 
makes excellent cut hedges for fhelter, as the leaves remain, 
though faded, through the winter, and the twifted branches 
form a very firm fence. The nuts, called Beech Matt, are 
eaten by hogs. An oil has been extracted: from them, 
which is {weet, and Hill ‘the poet had a project for bring- 
ing it into general ufe for feveral purpofes, but his {cheme 
failed. The /eaves are alternate, {preading, about two 
_inches long, ovate, wavy rather than ferrated, fhining, 
finely fringed. Flowers in.ovate, long-ttalked, hairy heads, 
the males lateral, the females. terminal. Nuts with fharp 
dilated angles, the pecs of their coye »y,amiple and=pliant. 
—_ e-leaved-heech is.a variety. .- R 

eg eee “AmseFican Beech. Ait. Hort. Kew, 
v. 3. 362. Sm. Inf. of Georgia, t. 75- ‘* Leaves ovate, 
pointed, downy beneath, widely ferrated. —Native of 
Korth America. Mefirs. Lee and Kennedy are recorded as 
having introduced it into our gardens in 1766. Leaves 
broader, and much more diftinétly ferrated than in the laft. 

it fmaller, tawny. 

at F. Le epeaticae ini dete Beech. G. Forft. Magell. 
32. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 460.—Leaves ovate, {mooth, dou- 
bly and obtufely ferrated, reticulated with veins.—Native 
of Terra del Fuego. A fhrub, with fpreading irregular 
branches. Leaves f{earcely an inch long, ovate, mottly 
abtufe, thick and rigid, fmooth, doubly and bluntly fer- 
rated, reticulated with innumerable veins; their bafe run- 
ning down into the footftalk. Flower-falks f{cattered, 
above an inch long, fingle-flowered. Calyx reddifh. dn- 
thers long and narrow. Fruit canknown. The young 
branches are downy, and young leaves glutinous.—We fuf- 

“pe& that the Betula antardica of Solander, enumerated by 
G. Forfter, among others from the Bankfian herbarium, at 
the end of his paper on Magellanic plants, is no other than 
this Fagus. His Celafirus venuflus we know to be our 
Efcallonia ferratasr See Escarvonta. ; 

Facus, iw Gardening, contains plants of the tree kind, 
of which the fpecies cultivated are ; the common beech- 
tree (F. fylvatica) ; the common chefnnt-tree (F. caftanea) ; 
and the-dwarf chefrut-tree, or Chinquapin (F. pumila.) 

It is remarked by Martyn, that fome fuppofe there are 
two {pecies of the common ‘becch tree, the mountain beech, 
and the wild beech; “ the firft of which has a whiter wood 
than the fecond; but that this difference arifes only from 
the foil.” -) Fe : 

- The murferies have two varieties, one with yellow, and 
the other with white-{triped leaves. Andin Germany there 
js another variety common with dark red leaves, which is 
called the purple beech. In woods there is likewife a fort 
with a rougher bark, which is termed hay beech by wood- 


men in general. ‘ ; ; 
And of the fecond fort there is a variety cultivsted with 


gold-itriped leaves, which is yery ornamental. ; 


FAG 


Method of Culture.—Thefe trees are capable of being 
increafed without much difficulty in the methods defcribed 
below. 

Modes of Culture inthe Beech hind. —Thele are eafily raifed 
by fowing the well-ripened feed, or maft, on beds of fine 
mould prepared for the purpofe, either in the early autumnal 
or fpring feafon, in flight drills, or broadcai, covering 
them well in by raking. When the plants come up they 
fhould be kept perfeétly clean from weeds, and, after two 
years’ growth, be planted out in nurfery, rows, two icet, or 
two feet and a half apart, and from a foot to eightcen or 
twenty inches diftant in the rows ; in which fituation they 
fhould be kept properly cleared from weeds, and have the 
intervals of the ground well dug over annually, in the au- 
tumn or very early {pring.- Some advife cutting the rox 
under with a fharp fpade at the depth of four or five 
once or twice while in the feed-bed. When they hav 
tained the growth of four or five feet in height, they 
proper for being planted out in plantations, fhrubberies 
and other places, where they are to grow for ornament.or 
timber. 

The varieties with ftriped leaves are to be continued by 
budding or grafting on common beech ftocks, taking care 
not to plant them where the foil is of the very rich kind. 

Modes of Culture in the Chefnut kind.—Thefe trees are 
capable of being increafed by fowing or planting the nuts, 
which have been well ripened here, or fuch as have been 
brought from abroad, without being dried in kilns, in the 
early {pring, on beds of frefh earth, ia drills two or three 
inches deep, and about a foot afunder, placing them three 
or four inches diftant, and covering them wellin. When 
the plants appear, they fhould be kept clear from weeds, 
and, after they have had two years’ growth in thefe beds, 
they fhould be removed into nurfery rows in the beginuing 
of autumn, being planted two feet and a half from row to 
row, and from one to two feet diftant in the rows, great 
care being taken not to injure their roots in taking them up, 
unlefs they happen to have tap roots, which muit be cut off 
in a careful manner. 

After they have remained in this nurfery four or five 
years, and have been kept perfectly free from weeds, by 
hoeing or flightiy digging over the intervals between the 
rows, they will be in a proper ftate for being finally planted 
out as ornamental fruit, or foreft trees. When they are ine 
tended to be planted for the fruit, they fhould be more fre- 
quently tranfplanted before they are finally fet out where 
they are to grow, but they are not of much importance in 
this view, as the fruit does not always ripen wellin this part 
of the country. 

The varieties with variegated or blotched leaves muit be 
continued by budding or inarching them on itocks of the 
common kind, which anfwer perfectly well. 

And the third fort may be raifed in the fame manner 
from nuts brought in fand from America, and have the 
fame method of culture afterwards as the others. = 

The firft fort is-frequently made ufe of as timber-trees, 
and in forming hedges, and the others as ornamental trees 
in lawns, clumps, borders, and other parts of pleafure- 
grounds, where they have a fine effet. They fucceed on 
almoft any foil, but the bef on thofe of the loamy kind: 
They form good fences on the borders of the fea in many 
fituations, as well as for protection or fhelter in gardens and 
other places. 

FAGUPAL, in- Alythology, a temple of Jupiter, fe 
called from fagus, the deech, a tree facred to Jupiter; bes 
canfe, asfome day, the temple was ereéted in the neighbour- 
hood of a foreft of beech ; and on this account they lay that 

K2 part 


> a¢ 


FAH 


part of mount Efquiline, which was formerly called Mons 
Appius, was afterwards called fagutalis ; and that Jupiter 
Fagutalis was the fame with Jupiter of Dodona. 

FAHACA, in Ichthyology ; the Arabians call the Tetro- 
don lineatus by this name, according to Haffelquift. 

FAHALFAHARA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, 
in the province of Mecran ; 100 miles N. W. of Kidge. 

FAHAU, one of the Carolina, or New Philippine 
iflands, in the Pacific ocean. 

FAHLERZ, in Mineralogy, is an ore of copper, which 
fee. : 

FAHLUN, in Geography, a town of Swedeii, in the 
province of Dalecarlia, fituated in the midft of rocks and 
hills, between the two large lakes of Run and Warpen, and 
containing 1200 houfes, and, including the miners, 7090 
inhabitants. Excepting two churches of brick, roofed 
with copper, anda few other houfes of the fame materials, 
the buildings are principally of wood and of ftone. 
This town owes its celebrity to the copper mine on its 
eaftern fide. The great antiquity of this mine is proved by 
the earlieft records of Sweden, and particularly in the 
charter of Magnus Smek, which renews its privileges, and 
confiders it as exifting from time immemorial ; hence we 
may fairly conclude that it muft have been worked eight or 
nine hundred years. The mine is private property, and con- 
filts of 1200 shares, each worth 150 rix-dollars (37/. 10s.) 
The ore is divided four timesa week into 11 equal heaps, 
eight of which are diftributed among eight of the proprie- 
tors, and the remaining three are fold by auction; one of 
which is appropriated to the repairs of the works, another 
to pay the falaries of the miners and other workmen, and 
the third, which formerly belonged to the king, is now em- 
ployed in defraying the expence of new excavations. In 
this manner the ore is equally divided, until all the pro- 
prietors have had their refpective fhares ; _and then the 
rotation begins again. The copper of this mine is not 
found in veins, but in mafles, and the bed does not extend 
an Englifh mile in circumference. ‘The matrix of the ore, 
or rock, is the Saxum of Linnzus and pyrites of iron. 
The richeft part of the ore may perhaps yield 20 per cent. 
of copper ; but 2s the poor atid rich parts are blended, they 
give only two per cent. when firft brought from the mine, 
and 12 per cent. when once fmelted. Twelve hundred 
workmen are employed, 600 miners, and the fame number 
in roafting and {melting the ore, making charcoal, and other 
works above ground. The mouth, of opening of tire mine, 
is perhaps the largeft in the world, being 1200 feet in dia- 
meter, or near 4 of an Englifh mile in circumference. The 
defcent is by fieps cut in the rock, and floping fo gently 
that horfes may be employed in bringing up the ore. The 
galleries are from fix to ro feet high, and fuificiently fpa- 
cious. The perpendicular depth of the mine from the top 
of the chafm is rozo feet. Coxe’s Travels, vol. v. 

FAHNELEN, Fawexen, or Vanlsten, «mong the 
Germans, a kind of greater fiefs which the emperor alone 
could confer. 

This was done by the delivery of a flandard, whence 
they had the name of fahnelen; i. c. feude vexilli. We 
find them mentioned in the golden bull of the emperor 
Charles IV. ann. 1356: ‘ Feudis principum exceptis, & 
illis que vanlehen vulgariter appellantur, quorum inveftitu. 
ram & collationem foli imperatori, vel regi Romano {pecia- 
liter refervamus.”” Du-Cange Gloff. Lat. in voc. : 

The word is more ufually written fabalebn. 

FAHR, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the prin- 
cipality of Wurzburg, five miles S, S. W. of Gemunden, 

4 


FAT 


FAHRAG, a town of Perfia, in the province of Fare 
fiftan; 180 miles N. E. of Schiras. 

FAHRENHEIT, Gasrrer Dantet, in Biography, 
a native of Hamburgh, known for the thermometer which is 
graduated according to a ftandard invented by himfelf. The 
time of his birth and that of his death are not accurately 
known. About the year 1720 the improvement in thermo- 
meters, of ufing mercury inftead of fpirit of wine, was 
brought into ufe, and in 1724 Fahrenheit publifhed “A 
differtation on Thermometers.”? The fcale he employed is 
chiefly ufed in this country, and in this, the freezing point 
is marked 32°, and the boiling point 2.2°, and the interval 
between thefe points is divided into 180 equal parts, the 
remainder of the tube, below 32° and above 212°, is divided 
into fimilar parts as faras it extends, Fromoorzero, below the 
freezing point, the degrees are marked — or minus. Thus 
mercury freezes and becomes folid and malleable at —40° or 
at 72° below the freezing, a degree of cold never expe- 
rienced naturally but inthe very northernmoft parts of the 
world. See Tuermomerer, Faeezinc-Mixrurg. 
Nouv. Hift. Di&. 

FAHRLAND, 2 town of Germany, in the New Mark 
of Brandenburg; four miles N. of Potzdam. 

FAID, or ferp, a town of Arabia, in the province of 
Nedsjed, 140 miles N. E. of Hagiar. N, lat. 26° 54’. 
E. leng. 40° 50% . a 

FAIDA, in our OLY Writers, is ufed for malice or dead- 
jy feud. Leg. Hen. 1. cap. 88, ‘ 

FALIDIT, Anserm, or Gavstrm, in Biography, a 
‘Troubadour, whe had been much efteemed by our Richard 
when he was count of Poitou, and refided at the court of 
Provence during the life of his father Henry II. and whe 
accompanied him <2 Paleftine, in the holy war, has left a 
poem on the death of his benefactor, which we found in the 
Vatican, among the MSS. bequeathed to that library by 
the queen of Sweden, No. 1659, with the original mufic, 
by tho bard himfelf, who was as mich admired by his cone 
teniporaries for fetting his poems to mufic, as writing them : 
having been faid, in the old language of Provence, to have 
compofed de bons mots, ¢ de bons fons, good words, and 
good tunes. He feduced from a convent at Aix, and mare 
ried, 2 beautiful nun, with whom he travelled on foot from 
one court toanother, many years. This lady, befides her 
perfonal charms and aecomplifnments, hed a remarkable fine 
yoice, and was much admired for finging her hufband’s 
fongs. ‘The melody to the verfes on the death of Richard 
is the moft ancient which we have been able to find to 
Provengal words. 

FAID®, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the 
canton of Uri, fituated on the Telino ; it is the refidence 
of a bailiff, whe remains in office four years with almoft une 
limited power; 12 miles N. of Bellinzona. 

FALFO, or Barro, a fea-port town of Cochinchina, 
fituated in 2 bay of the Chinefe fea. It isa place of great 
trade, and has an annual fair, which continues about four 
months. N. lat. 15° go’. Es long. 198° 1o0!. 

FALLDA, 2 town of Portugal, in the province of Tras 
los Montes ; feven miles S. of Braganza. 

YFAILIS, in Heraldry, a French term, denoting fome 
failure or flaw in an ordinary, as if it were broken, and a 
iplinter taken from it. 

FAILS, in Mining, are thort flat pieces of wood, laid 
on the crofe pieces or ftemples, acrufs a vein, for i a 
floor, on which to lay the refufe of the mine, or for 
making a gate or gang-way, &c. 

FAILURE, or Faiine, a fpecies of bankruptcy, po- 
pularly called breaking or ftopping payment, 

Fainvas 


FAI 


Farture of Record, in Law, is ufed when an adion is 
brought againit a man who alledges in his plea matter of 
record in bar of the aétion, and endeavours to prove it by 
the record. The plaintiff replies, nu/ tie! record ; that is, 
he denies there is any fuch record. Upon which the de- 
fendant has a day given him by the court to bring it in ; 
and if he fails to do it, he is faid to fail of his record, and 
the plaintiff fhall have judgment to recover. ‘Terms de Ley. 

Farture of the Strata, in Geology, is a term which Mr. 
Kirwan ufes (Geol. Eff. p. 162) feemingly to denote the 
finking down or deprefflion of mafles of itrata; in which 
fenfe it anfwers to the effect produced by a fau/t; fee that 
article. 

FAINT, or FAint-Action, in Law, is as much as 
Seigned aétion ; that is, fuch an aGtion as, though the words 
of the writ be true, yet, for certain caufes, the party has 
no title to recover thereby. By which it differs from falfe- 
a@tion, which is that wliere the words of the writ are falfe. 
Yet fometimes the two are confounded. 

Faint Pleader, a fraudulent, falfe, or celiufive manner 
of pleading, to the deceit of a third perfon ; againft which, 
among other things, was made the ftatute 3 Edw. I. 
cap. 29. ‘ ath ‘ 

Faints, in the Difillerz, the weak fpirituous liquor 
that runs from the {till in rectifying the low wines after the 
proof fpirit is run off. pon 

Faints denote alfo the laft runnings of all {pirits diftilled 
bythealembic. The clearing the worm of thefe is fo effential 
a point in order to the obtaining a pure fpiit by the fuce 
ceeding diftillatien, that all others are fruitlefs without it. 

FAINTING. See Syncope. 

FAIOUM. See Fayoum. 

FAIR, a public place, where merchants, traders, and 
other perfons, from divers parts, meet on fome fixed day in 
the year, to buy and fell commodities, and to paitake of 
the diverfions ufually accompanying fuch aflemblies = or it 
denotes the concourfe of perfons affembled on iuch occa- 
fions. See Marker. 

The word fair is formed of the French foise, which fig- 
nifies the fame thing ; and foire fore derive from the Latin 
forum, market; others from the Latin ferie, becaufe 
fairs were anciently always held in the places where the 
wakes, or feafts, of the dedications of chuxches, called 
feria, were alfo held ; and becaufe it is incident to a fair, 
that perfons fhall be privilcged from being moleited or ar- 
refted in it, for any other debt or contraét than what was 
engaged for in the fame. (Cee ftat. 17 Ed, TV. c. 2. made 
perpetual by 1 PR. III.c. 6. See alfo fiuis.2 Ed, TIT. 
e.15. 5 Ed. Ill.c.5. 27 Hen. Vi.c.5. 1&2P.& 
M.c. 7. 13 Eliz. c. 21.) The Romans cated them 
nundine. Eric Puteanus has a pretty little treztife on the 
fairs of the Romans, “ De Nundinis Romanorum,” which 
he calls nova fafforum facula. , 

Fairs can only be eftablifhed by virtue of the king’s 
grant, or by long and immemorial ufage and prefcription, 
which fuppofes fuch a grant (2 Init. 220. 3 Mod. 123) ; 
he is alfo the {ole judge where fairs and markets ought to 
be kept; and if any perfon fet up a fair without. the king*s 
authority, a gue warranto lies againft him; and the per- 
fons who frequent fuch faics, &c. may be punifhed by fine 
to the king. Faire are gencrally kept once or twice in the 

ax; and it has been obferved, that, as they were firft oc- 
cafioned by the refort of people to the feaft of dedication, 
they are kept, in moft places, on the fame day with the 
wake or feflival of that faint to whom the church was de- 
dicated; and for the fame reafon they were held in the church- 


yard, till reftrained by flat. 13 Ed. IY, ft, 2.6. 6. (2 Init, 


FAI 


221. Blount.) The reafon of their being held near fome 
cathedral, church, or monaftery, on the anniverfary dedi- 
cation of the church, or on the feftival of the faint to whom 
it was dedicated, feems to have been as follows. When 
bifhops and abbots obferved that crowds of people aflembled 
from all places to celebrate the feftivals of their patron 
faints, they took advantage of this circumitance, and ap- 
plied to the crown for charters to hold fairs at thofe times, 
for the accommodation of ftrangers, and with a view to in- 
creafe their own revenues by the tolls which their charters au- 
thorized them to levy at thefe fairs. Hence the multitude of 
attendants increafed, fome of whom were aCiuated by relis 
gious, and others by commercial views. Many precautions 
were takea to preferve good order, and to prevent theft 
and cheating in thefe ecclefiaftico-commercial fairs, fome of 
which are not a little fingular, When a fair was held 
within the precinéts of a cathedral or monaftery, it was nut 
uncommon to oblige every man to take an oath at the gate, 
before he was admitted, that he would neither lie, nor fteal, 
nor cheat, while he continued at the fair. (Murator. t. 2. 
Differt. 30.) Many of thefe ecelefiattical fairs are ftill kept in 
all Popith countries ; and many of our own fairs are ftill held 
on the fame faint’s days to whofe honour they were origi- 
nally inftituted. Every fair is fubjeét to the regulation of 
the court of piepowder. The duration of fairs is deter- 
mined by proclamation, by ftat. 2 Ed. III. c. 15 ;. and if 
a perfon fhall fell any goods after the time of the fair ex- 
pires, he fhall incur a forfeiture of double the value of the 
goods fold, one-fourth to the profecutor, and the reft to 
the kings (5 Ed. III. c. 5.) Any citizen of London 
may carry his goods toany fair or market in England at his 
pleafure. (See ftat. 3 Hen. VII. c. 9.) If any perfon is 
intitled to hold a fair or market, and another is fet up 
within the diftance of a third part of twenty miles, either 
on the fame day, or a different day, it isa nufance, and an 
aétion on the cafe lies; and alfo againft perfons diflurbing 
{uch as are coming to buy or fell in the fair or market, fo 
that the perfon holding the fair, &c. lofes his toll, (fee 
Toux,) or receives prejudice in the profits arifing from it. 
(2 Rol. Abr. 140. 2 Saund. 172. 1 Mod. 69. 1 Role 
Abr. 106. 2 Vent. 26. 28.) 

Owners and governors of fairs are to take care that every 
thing be fold according to juft weight and meafure ; for 
which purpofe they may appoint.a clerk of the fair or 
market, who is to mark and allow all fuch weights, and te 
take his reafonable and juft fees. (4 Inft. 274. Moor. 523. 
1 Salk. 327.) Fairs and markets are forfeitable franchifes ; 
axif the owners of them hold them contrary to their chare 
ter, as by continuing them longer than the charter admits, 
by difufes, and by extorting fees and duties where none are 
due, or more than are juftly due. (2 Init. 220. Finch 164. 
3 Mod. 10%.) As to their intereft, it arifes chiefly from 
tolls. See Tout. 

Fairs abroad are either free, or charged with tolls and 
impofitions. The privileges of free fairs confiit chiefly, 
1. In that all traders, &e. whether natives or foreigners, 
are allowed to enter the place, and are under the royal fafe- 
guard and protection in coming and returning, they and 
their agents, with, their goods, &c. 2. In that the faid 
perfons, and their effects, are exempt from all duties, impo- 
fitions, tolls, and fervitudes. 3. ‘That merehants in going 
to, or returning from, the fair, &c. cannot be arretted, 
or their goods topped, &c. It is the fovereign alone that 
has a right, by his letters patent, to eftablifh fairs, whether 
free, or fubject to duties, and the other ordinary laws and 
penalties. 

Several fairs are held in the open fields, or on heaths and 

commons, 


FAIR. 


commons, under tents, booths, and barracks, ereGted for 
the purpofe ; as Stourbridge-fair, &c. others in places 
walled in for the purpofe, and formed into regular ftreets, 
lanes, &c. for the occafion; as the fair of St. Laurence 
at Paris.. Laftly, others are held in the open places and 
ftreets of cities; as Briitol-tair, the fair of St. Ger- 
mains, &c. 

Fairs, particularly free fairs, make a very confiderable 
article in the commerce of Europe, efpecially that of the 
Mediterranean or inland parts; as Germany, &c. where 
the continual paflage and re-paflage of veffels are imprac- 
ticable. 

The moft celebrated fairs ja Europe are thofe: 1. Of 
Francfort, held twice a year, in {pring and autumn; the 
firft commencing the Sunday before Palm-Suday, aud 
the other in September. Each is declared by found of bell, 
and lafts three weeks ; the firfk of which is called the week 
‘of acceptance, and the fecond the week of payment ; 
though many bills of exchange are now payable in the 
third week, but this muft be mentioned, becaufe every bill 
payable in the fair is, without fuch a claufe, deemed payable 
in the fecond week. They are famous for the fale of all 
kinds of commodities, but particularly an immenfe quantity 
of curious books, no where elfe to be found; and from 
whence the bookfellers throughout all Europe ufed to 
furnifh themfelves. Before each fair there is a catalogue of 
all the books to be fold at it, printed and difperfed, to call 
together purchafers, though the learned have generally 
complained of divers unfair practices therein, as fictitious 
titles, names of books purely imaginary, &c. befide great 
taults inthe names of the authors, and the titles of the real 
books. 2. The fairs of Leipfic, which are held thrice a 
year; one beginning on the firft of January, another three 
weeks after Eafter, and a third after Michaelmas ; they laft 
twelve days each, and are, at leaft, as confiderable as thofe 
of Francfort. 3. The fairs of Novi, a little city in the 
Milanefe, under the dominion of the republic of Genoa. 
There are four of thefe in the year; commencing on the 
firft of February, the fecond of May, the firft of Augutt, 
and fecond of November. Though the commodities bought 
and fold here be very confiderable, yet, what chiefly con- 
tributes to render them fo famous is the vaft concourfe of 
the moit confiderable merchants and negociants of the 
neighbouring kingdoms, for tranfacting affairs, and fettling 
accounts in matters of bank and exchange. Each of thefe 
ufually lafts eight days. 4. The fairs of Riga, whereof 
there are two in the year; one in May, and the other “in 
September. They are much frequented by the Englith, 
Dutch, and French fhips; as alfo by others from all parts 
of the Baltic. The beft time for the fale of goods at Ri- 
ga is during the fairs. Since the building of the famons 
city of Peterfburgh, thefe fairs have fuffered fome diminu- 
tion, 5. The fair of Archangel ; during which, all the 
trade foreigners have with that city is managed. It con- 
tinues a month, or fix weeks at moft; commencing from 
the middle of Auguit. The Mafcoyite merchants attend 
here, from all parts of that vaft empire; and the Englith, 
Dutch, French, Swedifh, Danifh, and other fhips in the 
port of that city, on this occafion, ordinarily amount to 
three hundred. But this is no free fair, as the reft are: the 
duties of exportation and importation are very ftrictly paid, 
and on a very high footing. 6. The fair of St. Germain, 
one of the fuburbs of Paris, commencing on the third of 
February, and holding till Eafter ; though it is only free 
for the firft fifteen days. It is frequented by traders with 
various forts of cloths and ftuffs; and the goldfmiths, jew- 
ellers, and toy-men of Paris, have well furnifhed and hand- 


2 


fome fhops in it. #2 The fairs of Lyons, which Monf. 
Du Cheine, in his « Antiquity of Cities,’”? would infinuate, 
from a paflage in Strabo, were eftablifhed by the Romans; 
though it 1s certain, the fairs, as they now itand, are of a 
much later date. There are four in the year, each lafting: 
twenty days, and free for ever. They begin on the firit 
Monday a‘ter Low Sunday, the fourth of Auguit, the 
third of November, and the firft Monday after Eafter, 
8. Fair of Guibray, a fuburb of the city of Falaife, in the 
Lower Normandy, It is faid to have been eftablifhed by 
our William the Conqueror, in confideration of his being 
born at Falaife, It commences on the fixteenth of Auguft, 
and lafts fifteen days; free by charter, and longer by cuf- 
tom. g. Fair’of Beaucaire, held partly in a city of that 
name, in Languedoc, and partly in the open country, uz- 
der tents, &c. It commences on the twenty-fecond of 
July, and only continues for three days ; yet it is the great- 
eft, and moit célebrated, of all the fairs in that part of 
Europe, both for the concourfe of {trangers from all parts 
of the world, and for the traffic of all kinds of goods: the 
money returned, in thefe three days, amounting fometimes 
to above fix millions of livres: Befides thefe, there are, or 
there were, before the late revolution, in France, feveral 
other fairs of confiderable note ; as the four fairs of 
Rheims, the two of Rouen, two of Bourdeaux, two of 
Troyes, two of St. Dennis, that of Caen, of Dieppe, and 
of Toulon, &c. : 

The fairs of Porto-Bello, Vera-Cruz, and the Havannah, 
are the moft confiderable of all thofe in the Spanifh Weit 
Indies. The two firft lat as long as the flota and gal- 
leons continue in thofe parts ; and the laft is opened as foor 
as the flota, or galleons, arrive there, upon their return 
for Spain ; this being the place where the two fleets join. 

The principal fairs in Great Britain are, Stourbridge- 
fair, near Cambridge; the two fairs of Briftol; that of 
Exeter, Weft Chefter, Edinburgh, Weyhill, and Burford 
fairs, for fheep; Pancrafs fair, in Staffordthire, for fad- 
dle-horfes ; Barnet fair, near London, for lean and Welfh 
black cattle; St. Faith’s, in Norfolk, for Scots runts 5 
Yarmouth fithing fair for herrings ; Ipfwich butter fair ; 
that of Woodborough Hill, near Blandford in Dorfetthire, 
famous for weit-country manufactures, Devonthire kerfeys, 
Wilthhire druggets, &c. two cheefe-fairs at Atherfton and 
Chipping Norton; befides many more fairs and weekly marj 
kets in different parts of the kingdom. See Market. 

Farr, in Sea Language, is ufed for the difpofition of the 
wind, when it is favourable to a fhip’s courfe, in oppofi- 
tion to that which is contrary or foul. The term tair is 
more comprehenfive than large, and includes about fix- 
teen or eighteen points of the compafs; whereas large is_ 
confined to the beam or quarter, that is, to a wind 
which croffes the keel at right angles, or obliquely from 
the ftern, but never to one right a-ftern. Falconer’s Marine 
Dic. e 

Fair-Way, the path or channel of a narrow bay, river, 
or haven, in which fhips ufually advance in their paflage up 
and down ; fo that if any veffels are anchored therein, they 
are faid to lie in the fair-way. Falconer. 

Fair-Curve, in Ship Building, is a winding line, ufed in 
delineating fhips, whofe fhape is varied, according to the 
part of the fhip which it is intended to deferibe. 

Fair Maids of Kent, in Gardening, a common name 
given to afpecies of ranunculus. See Ranuncunvs. , 

Fair-Foreland, or Vogel-Hook, in Geography, the N.W 
point of Prince Charles’s ifland, in the Northera ocean} 
N. lat. 78° 52’. ; 

Farr J/fland, or Fara, an ifland in the North fea, 


lying 


FAT 


Tying between Shetland and Orkney, 24 miles from the 
former, aud 30 from the latter. It is more than three miles 
from north-eaft to fouth-weft, and nearly two miles in 
breadth, confifting of high and barren rocks, which are in- 
terfperfed with tome fheep paitures. It has two harbours 
tor fmall boats, and contains about 1690 inhabitants, who 
chiefly fubfift by fikhing, On the coait of this ifland the 
duke of Medina Sidonia, any of the Spanifh Ar- 
a, was fhipwrecked, A. D. 1588. 
oh Beory a river of Canada, which runs from Wapaf- 
faa to lake St. John. , 
arr Pleading, in Law. See Beav-pleader. 

Fair Ape, in Zoology. See Simia Argentata, 

FAIRVAX, Rozerr, doctor in muiic, in Biography, 
an eminent Englifh compofer during the reigns of Henry 
VII. and Henry VIII. He had his doétor’s degree 
at Cambridge, and_was incorporated at Oxford in the year 
1511. He was of the York{hire family of Fairfax, and a 
very valuable mufical MS. is preferved which once apper- 
tained to the fubject of this article, and was afterwards in 
the pofleflion of general Fairfax, upon whofe demife it 
made a part of the Thorefby collection, at the fale of which 
it was purchafed by John White, the Quaker, of Newgate 
ftreet, who exclufively dealt in ttraw hats for ladies. 
He wasa great collector of fearce and curious things of all 
kinds, among which the mufic book of Dr, Fairfax was a 
rarity, with the loan of which we were obligingly indulged, 
Tt confifts of a colleétion of the moft ancient Englith fongs, 
to which the mufic has been preferved. The writing 1s 
very clear and intelligible for the period when it was tran- 

- feribed, though the time of the mulical characters, from the 
want of bars, and the ufe of ligatures and prolation, with a 
mixture of red notes for diminution, is fometimes difficult to 
afcertain. We feored the whole of this curious Ms. by 
which we were enabled to judge of the progrefs which had 
been made in fecular mufic by our countrymen, at the be- 
ginning of the 16th century ; which, to fay the truth, was 
not very great ; the leading and fundamental laws of har- 
mony were not violated ; sths and Sths in fucceffion were 
feduloufly avoided; but there appear no defign, no grace, 
jnyention, or melody. The« compofers of thefe fongs are 
William of Newark, —— Sheryngham, Edmund Turges, 
Tutor, or Tudor, Gilbert Banetter, —— Browne, Richard 
Davy, William Cornythe, junior, fir Thomas Phelyppes, 
aad avert Fairfax. But little is known now concerning 
thefe muficians, except that Turges is a name which occurs 
among the muficians of Henry VI. Tudor was author of 
feel compotitions in the mufic book of prince Henry, 
afterwards Henry VIII. Corny fhe was of Henry VIL.’s 
chapel; and Fairfax was admitted to a doctor’s degree in 
mufic, at‘Cambridge ; but as he is not ityled doétor in this 
MS. we may reafonably fuppole his compofitions in it to 
have been anterior to his receiving that honour in the uni- 
verfity. ‘ 

Mott of thefe muficians feem to have been merely fecular 
compolers, as we have met with none of their names, eX 
cept that of Fairfax, among thofe for the church. The 
mufic of thefe ditties is fomewhat uncouth ; yet it is {till 
better than the poetry: but this may be accounted for, by 
the frequent changes of our national language, which was 
never ferioufly cultivated till the reign of queen Elizabeth. 
The Saxons, who difpoffefled the Britons of the greateft 

art of the ifland, we find, from Bede’s account of Cxd- 
mon, had poetry, though not rhyme, in the feventh century ; 
for he repeatedly calls the compofitions of Cedmon carmina, 
poemata, and in one place verfus. No traces, however, 
of rhyme, or metre, can be found.in our language, till fome 


FAT 


years after the conqueft, at which time French was forced” 
upon us, and till the reign of Edward IIE. it was the 
practice in all fchools to conftrue Latin into Norman 
French; a language which was fafhionable at our court, 
even before the time of William the Conqueror ; as Edward 
the Confeffor, who had. been brought up in the court of 
Normandy, encouraged many Normans to follow him into 
England. 

In the thirty-fixth year of Edward III., however, 
a law was made, “ That all pleas in the court of the king,. 
or of any otber lord, fhall be pleaded and adjudged in 
the Englith tongue; and the reafon recited in the preamble 
was, that the French tongue was too much unknown.’? 
And yet for near fixty years afterwards the proceedings in 
parliament appear to have been in French. 

The Englith of Robert of Gloucefter, who flourifhed 
about 1265, during the reigns of Heary. III. and Edward L.,. 
is more Saxon than Norman ; however, it would not be 
very difficult to read, if the charaters in which it is printed 
had been thofe in prefent ufe, inftead of Saxon, with which 
it abounds. he language of Trevifa, 1385, is not very 
unintelligible, if the x be regarded as a g, for which we 
believe it was originally meant. About the firft year of. 
Henry VI., 1422, French and Englith feem pretty equally 
balanced, and to have been ufed indifferently ; however, 
very little improvement was made in our language and 
verification from the time of Edward IV. to that of Henry: 
VIII. Indeed, few Englith fongs are to be found whicly 
were fet to original mufic during that period; it haying 
been the fafhion for the great to fing none but French words, 
as appears by the mufic book of Prince Henry, fon of 
Henry VII., in which all the fongs are in French, Italian, 
or Latin. 

Tt was fo much the cuftom for our old poets to write new 
words to old tunes, that there was little bufinefs for a com- 
pofer. Thefe tunes, like thofe of the Improvifatori of 
Italy at prefent, being very fimple, and little more airy than 
the chants of the church, required no teaching, and were 
an eafy and ready vehicle for the bard who wifhed to get at 
the heart of his audience, or at leaf to engage its atten- 
tion by the blandifhments of his own art, not thofe ofanother. 
For metrical romances, and hiftorical ballads of great lengths 
this kind of plain and familiar melody was belt adapted ; 
as it had f{carce any other effect than juft to render the tone 
of the narrator’s voice a little longer and louder, and con- 
fequently more articulate and diltin@ than in common {peech. 

Faixrax, Epwarp, an Englith poet,. was fon of fir 
Thomas Fairfax, of Denton, in Yorkfhire ; by fome writers 
he has been reprefented as illegitimate, but later biographers, 
upon apparently good authority, have refuted the affertion. 
His education was liberal, and his literary acquirements very 
confiderable. He entered into no profeffion, but is fup- 
pofed to have rendered himfelf ufeful to his brother lord 
Fairfax, by the education of his children, and in the ma- 
nagement of his eftate. He publifhed a work on “ Demo- 
nology,”? in which he treats on witchcraft, and fhews 
that he was not free from the credulity and fuperttition of 
the age in which he lived. He is known as a poet bya 
tranflation of ‘* Taffo’s Godfrey of Bouillon,’ which was 
dedicated to queen Elizabeth, in the year 1600. The 
tranflation is given in ftanzas of eight lines, and he ren- 
dered the original line by line. Mr. Fairfax wrote.a hiftory 
of Edward the Black Prince, and fome eclogues; of the 
firft, nothing is known, and of the others, only the fourth, 
which was printed in the “ Mufe’s Library,”? 1737. He 
died about the year 1632, leaving behind him a fon named 
William, who tranflated Diogenes Laertius. Biog. Brit. 

Fairrarx, 


FAT 


Farrrax, Tuomas, lord, general of the Parliament’s 
army in the civil wars of Charles I. was eldeit fon of 
Ferdinando lord Fairfax, and born in 16:1. He was 
educated at St. John’s college, Cambridge ; from thence he 
went to Holland, and ferved as a volunteer with the 
Euglifh troops under Horatio lord Vere, with whom he 
wes at the taking of Bois-le-Duc. On h’s return he re- 
tired to the country, and married the daughter of lord 
Vere, by whom he was afterwards inftigated to take a de- 
cided part againft the royalifls. Whea aétual hottilities 
broke out, he was made general of the korfe under his 
father. At firft they fultained feveral fignal defeats. 
Their valour, enterprize, and zeal were, however, very 
confpicuous, and when the army was new-modelled, Fair- 
fax was unanimoufly appointed to fucceed the earl of Effex 
as general ; and in the year 1645, when the two parties met 
at Nafeby, he gained a complete and molt deciiive viétory 
over the royal army. It was his characéter to be animated, 
during aétion, with a fpirit which did not feem to belong to 
his ordinary temper, and which rofe to enthufiafm. He 
purfued his fuccefs with vigour, and was every where tri- 
umphant, and, to his honour it is {poken, he uniformly con- 
dudted himfelf with hemanity, and exhibited a ftudious con- 
cern for the interelts of literature, fo that on the furrender 
of Oxford he diligently preferved the Bodleian library and 
other places from pillage. It is recorded, that the univerfity 
fuffered vaitly let's from the rebels, as they were then called, 
than from the royalitts. 

After this Fairfax joined the army agitators, advanced to 
London, and joined in the reftoration cf the feceding mem- 
bers, which deflroyed all parliamentary independence. He 
behaved with refpect towards the king, and feemed defirous 
of reftoring him to the throne ; neverthelefs he concurred in 
the declaration of the army to fupport the vote of the com- 
mons for no farther addrefles or application to him. He 
fucceeded his father, in March 1€48, in his titles, and thus 
united the hereditary dignity of the peerage with the ho- 
nours which he had acquired by his bravery. He now refumed 
his arms, and aéted with his ufual vigour. He was engaged 
in the fiege of Colchetter, which had been occupied by the 
infurgents; this place held out eleven weeks, when it fur- 
rendered without conditions. On this occafion lord Fairfax, 
contrary to his general charaGler, ordered two brave men, 
fir Charles Lucas and fir George Lifle, whom he confidered 
as foldiers of fortune, to be thot. Returning to London, 
he took up his quarters at Whitehall, and prepared the way, 
by over-awing and purging the parliament, for the king’s 
trial. He was among the firft of thofe nominated for the 
king’s judges, but he refufed to act, and it was expected he 
would have interfered to prevent the execution, but it was 
faid that he was kept back in prayer and conference at ma- 
jor Harrifon’s apartments till the fatal blow was ftruck. 
Ire foothe his relentment he was appointed general in chief 
of the forces in England and Ireland; and under this com- 
miffion he fuppreffed the levellers, who were become for- 
midable in Oxfordthire. In 1650 the Scottifh nation de- 
clared for Charles II, when it was determined to make war 
upon that country, and Fairfax was looked to for this pur- 
pofe, but chofe rather to lay down his arms, and retired 
into the country with a penfion of soco/. per annum. At 
the eve of the reftoration he determined to make his peace 
with the exiled king, and was at the head of the committee 
appointed te wait upon him at the Hague, to invite him to 
return and refume his office. He was well received, and 
having performed the commiffion entrufted to him, he re- 
tired into the country, where he died, in 1671, in the fixtieth 
year of his age. Lord Fairfax was of a manly afped, 


FAY 


gloomy but gentle in his difpofition, fincere, open, difinte- 
refted, liberal in his fentiments, a lover and patron of learn- 
ing, but poffeffing moderate talents, and unfit for taking a 
lead in any affairs but thofe of the army. Biog. Brit. 

Fairrax,in Geography,a county of Virginia, in America, 
about 25 miles long, and 18 broad, on the W. bank of Po- 
towmack river. It contatus 7239 free inhabitants, and 6078 
flaves ; the chief town is Alexandria. The court-houfe, 
which has a poft-office, is 14 miles from Wathington. —Alfo, 
a poft-town in Franklin county, Vermont, E. of Georgia, 
and on the bank of the river La Moille, containing 756 in- 
habitants ; about nine miles from lake Champlain. 

FAIRFIELD, the fouth-wefternmoft county of Cone 
necticut, bounded W. by the ftate of New York, E. by 
New Haven county, N. by Litch‘eld, and S. by Long 
Ifland found, It is divided into 13 townfhips, of which 
Fairfeld and Danbury are the chief; and contains 38,208 
inhabitants, including 276 flaves. It is feparated from 
New Haven county and part of Litchfield county by Strat- 
ford river. The other parts of the county are watered by 
feveral {mall ftreams. Several harbours and {mall ifles lie 
along the found, in the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, 
Norwalk, Fairfield, and Stratford. The face of the coun- 
ty is rough, and the foil is good.—Alfo, a poft-town and 
port of entry of Conneticut, and capital of the above county, 
the «* Unquowa”’ of the Indians, pleafantly fituated on Mill 
run, a little above its entrance into Long Ifland found, 
22 miles S.W. by W. of New Haven, and 64 from New 
York. It contains about 200 houfes, and 3730 inhabitants, 
a neat congregational church, and a court-houfe. About 
4 miles N.W of the centre of the town is the beautiful pa- 
rifh of Greenwich, in which is a flourifhing academy. This 
town was fettled from Weathersfield in 1639. It carries 
on a contiderable trade to the Weft Indies.— Alfo, a county 
in the flate of Ohio.—Alfo, a townfhip in Kennebeck 
county, Maine, on the S.E. bank of Kennebeck river, S. of 
Canaan and oppofite to Hancock, 7 miles from fort Hali- 
fax, and 225 miles N.E. of Bofton. It contains 852 inha- 
bitants.—Alfo, a new townfhip in Herkemer county, New 
York ; containing 2065 inhabitants.— Alto, a poft-town in 
Franklin county, Vermont, E. cf St. Albans; containing 
git inhabitants. It is 13 miles S. of the Canada line, and 
as far from the neareft part of lake Champlain.—Alfo, 
a townfhip in Wafhington county, New York, containing 
591 inhabitants.— Alfo, a townfhip in Cumberland county, 
New Jerfey, on Cohanzy creek, and at the head of Black 
creek ; 25 miles E. by S. of Salem, in Salem county.— 
Alfo, a townfhip in Weftmorcland county, Pennfylvania, 
containing 1363 inhabitants.x—Alfo, a diftri& of South Ca- 
rolina, between Wateree river, which feparates it from Lan- 
cafter county, and Bread river, which divides it from New- 
bury and Union diltrifs. Its chief town is Winnfbo- 
rough. 

FAIRFORD, a market town in the hundred of Bright- 
wells Barrow, Glouceiterfhire, England, is fituated on the 
banks of the river Colne ; and derives its name from an old 
ford over that river near its confluence with the Thames. 
The celebrity of this town has arifen more from the beauty 
of its church, and the very fine painted glafs of which that 
is the repofitory, than from any other circumftance. The 
church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, is a fine fpecimen of 
the ityle of architecture that prevailed about the clofe of 
the fifteenth century. It confifts of a lofty nave, a chan- 
cel, and fide aifles, with a tower rifing from the centre. The 
internal architeture is extremely fine and highly embel- 
lifhed: the aifles are divided from the nave by light fluted 
pillars, fultaining four arches on each fide, with a range of 

windows 


FAT 


windows above them in the upper part of the nave. The 
aifles are continued parallel with the chancel, with which is 
a communication by two arches of equal height. A beau- 
tiful oak fcreen furrounds the chancel, ornamented with 
finely carved tabernacle-work, and having ftalls in the fame 
ftyle. On the north fide of the altar are three niches, or 
fubfellia, ufed in the Catholic times by the officiating priefts. 
This elegant church, 120 feet in length, and 55 in breadth, 
owes its erection to John Tarne, an opulent merchant of 
London; who, about the year 1492, is recorded to have cap- 
tured a veflel beund from a Flemifh port to Italy and laden 
with painted glafs, which, agreeably to the expentive piety 
of the times, he determined to put up in a large edifice ex- 
prefsly built for its reception. The ylafs was difpofed in 
twenty-eight windows, with four or more compartments in 
each: but in feveral of them the figures are now mutilated 
or difplaced. The principal fubje&s are feriptural, and 
difplay the moft important events in the life of our Saviour, 
with a few of the more remarkable tranfactions recorded in 
the Old Teftament. The church contains a variety of mo- 
numents and fepulchral inferiptions. In the north aifle is a 
table tomb of Italian marble to che memory cf John Tame, 
pe beneficent founder of this edifice, and Alice his 
wife. 

The town confitts of two ftreets ; the buildimgs in general 
are neat and regular; here are three bridges over the 
river Colne. Among many charitable in{titutions is a free- 
{chool, eftablifhed by the produce of money expended in the 
purchafe of lands, and bringing in about fixty pounds an- 
nually, purfuant to the bequells of the Hon. Elizabeth 
Fermor, and Mary Barker, fpinfler, Two fairs are held an- 
nually, and a weekly market on Thurfdays; originally 
granted by Henry III. in 1263, and renewed and confirmed 
by a charter procured in £688, through the intereft of An- 
drew Barker, efq. Fairford is 79 miles diftant from Lon- 
don: the population of the parifh in 1801 was returned at 
1326; and the number of houfes at 273. 

Near the church was anciently a manorial refidence, 
erected by the earls of Warwick, and called Beauchamp and 
Warwick court. This appears to have been rebuilt by the 
Tames, as Leland mentions “ a fayr manfion-place of the 
Tames, hard by the chirche-yarde, builded thoroughly by 

*John Tame and Edmund Tame: the back thereof goithe 
to the very bridge of Fairford’? This edifice was pulled 
down by Andrew Barker, efq. who, with the materials, 
erected at a few farlongs diftance, the prefent manor houfe, 
which is a {pacious and convenient building, fituated ina 
pleafant park, and now inhabited by John Raymond 
Barker, efq. who has confiderably improved it. 

Two miles north from Fairford is Quenington, or Queen- 
ington, a {mall village, remarkable for the architeGure of 
its church, which is a fmall low building, difplaying 
veftiges of great antiquity ; though it has apparently un- 
dergone confiderable alterations during the two la(t cen- 
turties. F 

About three miles from Fairford is the grand canal which 
unites the rivers Severn and Thames. Rudge’s Hiltory of 
Gloucetterfhire, 2 vols. 8vo. Bigland’s ditto fol. 

FAIRHAVEN, atown of America, in Briftol county, 
Maflachufetts, lying on the N.W. fide of Buzzard’s bay, 
and on the eaftern fide of Accufhnet riyer, oppofite to Bed- 
ford. N. Jat. 41° 34’. W. long. 7o° 50'—Alfo, a confi- 
derable port-town in Rutland county, Vermont, N.W. of 
Poultney, containing 4:1 inhabitant.; and 51 miles N. of 
Bennington. —Alfo, a bay on the N.W. coait of Spitzber- 

a. N. lat. 79° 50. E. long. 69°. 

FAIRHEAD, a cape of Jreland, en the northern eoait 

Von. XIV. 


ee 


of the county of Antrim, oppofite to the ifland of Rag- 
hery. It forms part of that interefting bafaltic region, {fo 
frequently referred to in geological controverfies. It is 
fuppofed to be the Robogdium Promontorium of Ptolemy, 
and its Irifh name is Ben-more, or the great promentory, a 
name to which it feems well entitled. It and the promoa- 
tory of Bengore ftand at the diftance of eizht miles from 
each other: both formed on a great and extenfive feale, both 
abrupt to the fea, and abundantly expofed to obfervation ; 
and each in-its kind exhibiting noble arrangements of the 
different fpecies of columnar bafaltes. Fairhead raifes its 
lofty fummit more than five hundred feet above the fea, 
forming the eaitern termination of Ballycaftle bay. It 
prefents to view a va{t mafs of rude columnar ftones, the 
forms of which are extremely grofs, many of them ex- 
ceeding two hundred feet in length, and the texture fo 
coarfe as to refemble an imperfeét compaé granite, rather 
than the uniform fine grain of the Giant’s caufeway bafaltes. 
At the bafe of thefe gizantic columns lies a wild wafte of 
natural ruins, of an enormous fize, which, in the courfe of 
fucceflive ages, have been tumbled down from their foun- 
dation by ftorms, or fome more powerful operations of 
nature. Thefe maffive bodies have fometimes withitood the 
fhock of their fall, and often lie in groups and clumps of 
pillars, refembling many of the varieties of artificial ruins, 
and forming a very novel and ftriking landfcape. A favage 
wildnefs characterizes this great promontory, at the foot of 
which the ocean rages with uncommon fury. Scarce a fin- 
gle mark of vegetation has yet crept over the hard rock to 
diverfify its colouring, but one uniform greynefs clothes the 
{fcene all around. Upon the whole it makes a fine contrak 
with the beautiful capes of -Bengore, where the varied 
brown fhades of the pillars, enlivened by the red and greea 
tints of ochre and grafs, caft a degree of life a: d cheerfulnefs 
over the different objeéts. Dr. Hamilton fays that, from 
attentive obfervation, there is reafon to imagine that this 
enormous pile refts on the foffils ufually attendant on beds 
of fea-coal; and that the ftrata of the Ballycaftle coal pits 
extend entirely under the promontory of Fairhead. This 
cape is'in long. 6° 2'. W. from Greenwich, lat. 55° 44’ N. 
Hamilton’s Antrim. 

FAIRLEE, a townfhip of America, in Orange county, 
Vermont, on the W. bank of Conneéticut river, 16 miles N. 
of Dartmouth college. This townfhip, which is hilly but 
having a good foil, is divided into E. Fairlee, containing 
435 inhabitants, and W. Fairlee, including 371. 

FAIRLEY, a town of Scotland, in the county of Ayr; 
rr miles N.W_ of Irvine, 

Fairey Road, a narrow ftrait of Scotland, in the frith 
of Clyde, between the iflands of Cumora and the county of 
Ayr. 

FAIRNESS Sounp, a harbour on the W. coat of 
Eday, one of the Orkney iflands. 

FAIRUYOSAND, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan, oa 
the Heermund; 20 miles S.W. of Boft. 

FAIRWEATHER, Care, a cape on the N.W. coat 
of America, in N. lat. 58°36’. W. long. 138°.—Allfo, a 
cape on the E. coaft of Patagonia. S. lat. 51°34’. W. long. 
68° 25'.— Alfo, a mountain on the W. coait of North Ame- 
rica; foo miles S.E. of Admiralty bay. N. lat. 59°. 
W. long. 137°. 

FAIRY, a term frequently occurring ia ancient tradi- 
tions and romances, denoting a kind of genii, or imaginary 
deities, coaverfant on earth, and diftinguifhed by abundance 
of fantattical ations and offices, either good or evil. 

The fairies, according to ‘thefe traditions, are peculiar 
{pecies of divinities, that have but little relation te any of 

IL. thole 


FAIR Y. 


thofe of the ancient Greeks and Romans, unlefs, perhaps, 
to the larve; though others will not have them ranked 
among deities, but fuppofe them an intermediate kind of 
heings, neither gods, nor angels, nor men, nor devils. 

‘They are of oriental extraction, and feem to have been 
invented by the Perfians and Arabs, whofe hiftory and re- 
ligion abound with tales of fairies and dragons. The Per- 
fians call them Peri, and the Arabs Ginn; having a pecu- 
liar country which they fuppefe them to inhabit, called 
Ginnifian, and, by us, Fairy Land. Our famous country- 
man Spenfer’s malter-work, the Fairy, Queen, is an epic 
poem under the perfons and charaéters of fairies, 

Fatey Circles; or Rings, an expreffion by which, cer- 
tain {pots, frequently, to be obferved upon the grafs in the 
fields, are commonly denoted, The {pots couiift of grafs 
more green aud more Juxuriant than the refit of the ficld. 
The figure of the {pot is fometimes circular; viz. an area 
either circular, or enearly circular, is peculiarly luxuriant 
throughout its whole furface ; but it more commonly cou- 
fifts of a circular or nearly circular zone of luxuriant grafs, 
including a {pace of the Jame kind of coloured grafs as that 
which furrounds the zone. In this latter, and by far more 
frequent cafe, the circular zone is feldom complete, gene- 
rally confilting of an arch or fegment, part of which often 
bends its direction in an irregular manner. 

The fize of thefe {pots varies confiderably. When the 
fpot is luxuriant throughout, its diameter generally is very 
{mall ; but the circular zones, which are from two inches to 
a foot or more in breadth, are the arches of very different 
circles, the radius of their curvature varying from a few 
inches to ten fect and upwards. 

Thefe fingular appearances have been long noticed, not 
only by fhepherds and Jabourers in the field, but likewiie by 
philofophers and naturalifts, who have endeavoured to exa- 
mine all their peculiarities, for the purpofe of inveltigating 
their nature and origin. 

With refpe&, to the old vulgar opinion relative to the 
ongin of thefe fpots, we need not fay any thing, the ab- 
durdity of it being pretty well manifeited by their denomi- 
nation ; but of the {cientific opinions it is incumbent upon 
us to give a diltinG and fatisfactory account. 

Two different opinions have been principally advanced 
by philofophers with refpe& to the origin of thefe {pots, 
and hoth opinions are grounded upon experiments and ob- 
fervations. ‘The fairy cirelés were for a long time fuppofed 
to be the effets of lightning ; but they were afterwards at- 
tributed to the growth of fungi: and this latter opinion 
feems upon the whole to be the moft probable, efpecially 
in the manner in which it has been lately illuftrated by 
Dr. Wollatton. 

One of the early volumes of the Philofophical Tranf- 
actions coutains the following obfervations of Mr, Jeflop. 

« T have,” he fays, “ often been puzzled to give an ac- 
count of thofe phenomena which are commonly called fairy 
circles. have feen many of them, and thofe of two forts : 
one fort bare, of feven or eight yards in diameter, making a 
round path, fomething more than a fuot broad, with green 
grafs in the middle ; the others ke them, but of feveral 
bigneffes, and encompafled with a circumference of grafs, 
about the fame breadth, much frether and greener than that 
in the middle. But my worthy friend Mr. Walker gave 
me full fatisfaétion from his own experience: it was his 
chance one day to walk out among fome mowing grafs (in 
which he had been but a little while before) after a great 
itorm of thunder and lightning, which feemed by the noife 
and flafhes to have been very near him; he prefently ob- 
ferveda rqund circle, of about four or five yards diameter, 

2 


the rim whereof was about a foot broad, newly burnt bare, 
as the colour and brittlenefs of the grafs roots did plainly 
teflify. He knew not what to afcribe it unto but to the 
lightning, which, befides the odd capricios remarkable in 
that fire in particular, might, without any wonder, like all 
other fires, move round and burn more in the extremities 
than the middle. After the grafs was mowed, the next ~ 
year it came up more frefh and green in the place burnt than 
in the middle, and at mowing-time was much taller and 
ranker.’? 

Dr. Prieftley, at the end of his Hiflory of Eletricity, 
where he relates his original eleétrical experiments, defcribes, 
amougtt others, the effets which were produced by the 
difcharges of a battery upon feveral fubftances, efpecially 
upon metallic furtaces, which he fometimes covered with 
water. The experiment which principally relates to our 
prefent fubjeét is as follows. 

“ I then laid,” the docior feys, “* more water upon the 
copper, but fo as only to moillen it 3 for the furface, being 
convex, would not allow it to be in any great quantity 5 
and upon taking the explofion, I found no circle, but feveral 
beautiful circular {pots melted very deep, ene of which was 
much larger than the ret. Thefe experiments feem to fhew 
that the ele&tric matter meets with a confiderable refiftance, 
in pafling through water, which coafines its excurfion more 
thao the air; and that, by fuch a condenfation, its force is 
greatly increafed, fo as to leave deeper impreffions upon the 
metal than when it had pafled only through the air. In 
like manner, if two pieces of metal be placed nearly in cons 
tact, or if they be light, and one of them lie upon the other, 
the impreflion made upon both of them by the difcharge 
of the battery pafling through them will be confiderably 
deeper than it would have been if the ele€tric matter had 
not been confined to fo {mall a compafs as the points in 
contact. 

“To account for the formation of thefe concentric cir- 
cles nothing feems to be neceffary but the fuppofition of 
the elafticity of the eleéric fluid, whereby its particles 
repel one another. For then, fuppofing a quantity of 
electric matter to iffue from one piece of metal to another 
through the air, it will endeavour to fpread, but will be 
confined in its paflage by the furrounding ele&ric medium 
and the flrong attraction of the oppofite metal. If this. 
piece of metal have a fiat furface, or one that is nearly fo, 
the fluid will be attraéted by it pretty equally, within a 
certain fpace, fo that the mutual repulfion of its particles 
will have room to exert itfelf, and produce a diyifion of the 
whole quantity : and as this repulfion is the fame in all di- 
rections, the effe€& mutt be its throwing itfelf into a circle, 
or feveral concentric circles, on its entering the oppofite 
piece of metal, and confequently melting it in that form. 
For the fame reafon, the circles themfelves-will confift of 
feparate dots, each of which might have been canfed by the 
fluid in another hollow circle, but being fo {mall the fufion 
of the metal could not fhew that circumftance.” 

Anda little farther on the door fays, ‘* communicating 
this experiment to Dr. Price, he fuggefted to me, that the 
circles, called fairy rings; which confit of grafs of deeper 
green in palture fields, and which have by tome been ima- 
gined to be occafioned by lightning, might be analogous to 
the circles above-mentioned, but that they want a central. 
fpot. I have fince examined one of thefe rings. It was 
about a yard in diameter, the ring itfelf about a quarter of a. 
yard broad, and equally fo in the whole circumference ; but. 
there was no appearance of any thing to currefpond to the 
central {pot.’” ; 

Notwithitanding thefe experiments and thefe conjeGures, | 

ie 


FAT 


it was not long after the publication of Dr. Prieftley’s 
Hiftory of Eleétricity, that the fairy circles began to be at- 
tributed to the growth of fungi; for Mr. Cavallo, in the 
firft edition of his Treatife on Eleétricity, which was pub- 
lifhed in the year 1777, defcribes the method of forming, by 
means of the eletrical apparatus, fuch rings as were difco- 
vered by Dr. Prieftley, and which have ‘been already de- 
feribed ; after which he fays, 

«T have given thefe {pots the’appellation of fairy circles, on 
‘account that they bear fome refemblance to the {pots fo 
called, which are often obferved upon the grafs in the 
fields. Thefe, which we may call natural fairy circles in 
‘the fields, it has been thought to be effected by lightning, 
“on account of their bearing fome refemblance to the above- 
mentioned circles produced by electricity ; the fuppefition, 
however, feems not very probable; for the fpots in the 
fields, called fairy circles, have no central {pot, no concen- 
tric circles, neither are they always of a circular figure ; and, 
ws T am informed, they feem to be rather beds of muth- 
rooms, than the effets of lightuing.” 

Inthe year 1807 Dr. Wollafton prefented a paper to the 
Royal Society, containing various valuable obfervations 
relative to the fairy circles, and from this paper, which is 
coatained in the volume of the Philofophical Vranfactions 
for the above-mentioned year, we fhall now tranfcribe fuch 
paflages as feem abfolutely neceffary to illuftrate the fubje& 
of this article. 

s¢ That,” he fays, ‘¢ which firft attracted my notice, was 
‘the pofition of certain fungi, which are always to be found 
‘growing upon thefe circles, if examined in a properfeafon. 
In the cafe of mufhrooms, I found them to be folely at the 
~exterior margin of the dark ring of grafs. ‘The breadth of 
the ring in that inflance, meafured from them towards the 
centre, was about twelve or fourteen inches, while the 
mufhrooms themfelves covered an exterior ring about four 
‘or five inches broad. 

« The pofition of thefe mufhrooms led me to conje@ure 
that progreffive increafe, from a central point, was the pro- 
bable mode of formation of the ring. I was the more in- 
clined to this hypothefis, when I found that a fecond fpe- 
cies of fungus prefeated a fimilar arrangement, with refpe& 
to the relative pofition of the ring and fungi ; for I obferved, 
that'in all inftances the prefent appearance of fungi was 
upon the exterior border ofa dark ring of grafs. I thought 
‘it not improbable that the foil, which had once contributed 
‘to the fupport of fungi, might be fo cxhaufted of fome pe- 
culiar pabulum neceflary for their production, as to be ren- 
dered incapable of producing a fecond crop of that fingular 
clafs of vegetables. The fecond year’s crop would confe- 
quently appear in a fmall ring furrounding the original cen- 
tre of vegetation, and at every fucceeding year the de- 
fect of nutriment on one fide would neceffarily caufe the 
new roots to extend themfelves folely in the oppofite direc- 
tion, and would oceafion the ‘circle of fungi continually to 

* proceed by annual enlargement from the centre outwards. 
An appearance of luxuriance of the grafs would follow as 
a natural confequence, as the foN of an interior circle would 
always be enriched by the decayed roots of fungi of the pre- 
ceding year’s growth.” : 
© Inthe fequel Dr. Wollafton relates fome obfervations of 
Dr. Withering, who had already attributed thefe {pots to 
the growth of fungi, but he confined his conjecture to one 
Apecies only of avaric ; (viz. the Ag. orcades of his arrange- 
ment. ) “ I am fatisfied,”’ Dr. Withering fays, that the bare 
and brown, or highly clothed and verdant circles in patture 
fields called fairy-rings, are caufed by the growth of this 
agaric.”’— Where the ring is brown and alinoft bare, by 


‘ 


rAtl 


digging up the foil to the depth of about two inches, the 
{pawn of the fungus will be found of a greyifh white co- 
lour; but where the gvafs has again grown green and rank, 
I have never found any of the {pawn exiting”? Dr. Wol- 
lafton then continues in the following manner. *¢ Had,” he 
fays, «© Dr, Withering frequently repeated this examination 
of the foil, he would have correéted the laft remark, which 
is not univerfally trac, as the grafs may at fome period be 
found Iuxurtant even over the undecayed {fpawn. During 
the erowth of the fungi, they fo entirely abforb all m:tri- 
ment from the foil bencath, that the herbage is fora while 
deftroyed, and a ring appears bare of grafs, farrounding the 
dark ring. Ifa tranfverfe feGtion be made of the foi! beneath 
the ring at this time, the part beneath the fungi appears 
paler than the foil on either fide of it, but that which is 
beneath the interior circle of dark grafs is fouad, on the con- 
trary, to be confiderably darker than the general furround- 
ing foil. But in the courfe of a few weeks after the fan.ri 
have ceafed to appear, the foil where they ftocd grows 
darker, and the grafs. foon vegetates again > 
vigour; fo that I have feen the furface covered with dark 
grafs, althouzh the darkened foil has not execeded half an 
inch in thicknefs, while that beneath has continued white 
with fpawn for about two inches in depth. 

; ie Yor the purpofe of oblerving the progrefs of various 
circles, I marked them three or four years in {neceflion, by 
incifions of different kinds, by which I could difti zuifh 
clearly the fucceffive annual increafe, and I found it to vary 
in difterent circles from eight inches to as much as two feet, 
The broadeft rings that I have feen were thofe of the com- 
mon mufhroom (Ag. campeftris); the narroweft are the 
mott frequent, and are thofe of the champignon (Ag. or- 
cades of Dr. Withering.) The mufhroom accordingly 
makes circles of largeft diameter, but thofe of the champig- 
non are moft regular. There are, however, as many as 
three other fungi that exhibit the fame mode of extenfion, 
and produce the fame effect upon the herbage. Thefe are 
the Ag. terreus, Ag. procerus, and the Lycoperdon bo- 
vifta, the laft of which is far more common than the two 
laft mentioned agarics. 

“There is one circumftance that may frequently be ob- 
ferved re{pecting thefe circles, which can fatisfactorily be 
accounted for, according to the preceding hypothefis of the 
caufe of their increafe, and may be confidered as a contirma- 
tion ofitstruth. Whenever two adjacent circles are found 
to interfere, they not only do not crofs each other, but both 
circles are invariably obliterated between the points of 
conta& ; at leaft in more than twenty cafes 3 I have feen no 
one inftance td the contrary. The exhauftion occafioned 
es ne the progrefsof the other, and both are 


Farry-Stones, or Fairy Night-caps, in Natural Hi 


41 


with peculiar 


Rory 
are the vulgar names, in fome parts of England, for the 
impreflions of Echini whieh are found plentifully imbedded 
in the chalk {trata, and are often ploughed up on the fur 
face of fuch ftrata, See Dr. Woodward’s © Method of Fof- 
fils,” p- 11, or Parkinfon’s « Organic Remains,” vol. 1.p. 4. 
See alfo W. Martin’s “ Outlines of the Knowledee of Ex- 
trancous Fotils,? p. 93: . 

FAISAN of B uffor, in Or 

I AIsSANS, Iste ve, Jer beafants, or //fe of Confer- 
ences in Geogra; > a fmall ifland in the river Bidafloa, ce- 
lebrated for being the place where the peace of the Pyre- 
neés_ was d in 3669, between France and Spain, 
and for the joterview between the kings of France and Spain, 
on the martiage of Louis XIV., the firit nanie it received 
from the number of t 1 there, and the lait 


phealants found 
hon 


o>) 


gy. See-Prasiancs, 


La 


F A;T 


from the circumftance of the interview. It is twomiles dif. 
tant from Fontarabia. 

FAISTENBERGER, Awnrtuony and Josern, in 
Biography, two brothers, landfcape painters; they both 
imitated Gafper Pouflin with confiderable fuccefs, and their 
works are fo much alike, that with difficulty the difference 
is difcernible. They wrought together at the court of 
Vienna in feveral large works, and were likewife employed 
by many of the princes of the empire. Anthony died in 
1722, aged 44. 

FAIT, Facrum, in Law, is ufed for a writing lawful- 
ly executed to bind the parties thereto. See Deep. 

FAITH, Fives, in Antiquity, as denoting honefty or 
fidelity, was deiied by the Romans, and reprefented with 
an ereét open air, and dreffed in a thin robe, fo fine, that 
one might fee through it. ‘This deity is alfo repre- 
fented as very old and grey-headed; and fhe appears on 
medals as giving her hand, and fometimes only by two 
hands joined together. The oath made in the name of 
this deity, or ‘Jupiter Fidius,’? who was the fame, was 
of all oaths the moft inviolable. The temple of Faith 
ereéted by Calatius was in the capitol, near that of Ju- 
piter; and if we admit the teftimony of Dionyfius Ha- 
licarnaffenfis, and that of Plutarch, the firft who ereéted a 
temple to this deity was Numa Pompilius. He like- 
wife ordered the priefts, whom he fet over the worfhip 
of this deity, to wear white veftments when they offer- 
ed facrifices. Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis, (1. ii. c. 5.) has 
ftated the reafons why Numa Pompilius gave Faith a 
place among the venerable Roman divinities. This was 
done in order to engage the people to obferve mutual 
fidelity and truth in their contraéts with one another. 
With this view he deified Faith, and confecrated a temple 
to this divinity. Hence Faith came to be fo revered, and 
held in fuch awe, as to have greater influence with the Ro- 
mans than witneffes and oaths. Hercules was reprefented 
as prefiding over Faith pledged in contraéts: and the oath 
taken on {uch occafions was thus conceived, “ Medius Fi- 
dius,”’ i. ¢. “ Ita me Deus Fidius adjuvet,” So help me 
Medius Fidius, or Hercules. ‘* Swear to me,” fays Plau- 
tus in one of his comedies, by Medius Fidius. 

Faitu, in Philofophy and Theology, that affent which we 
give to a propofition advanced by another, the truth of 
which we do not immediately perceive from our own reafon 
or experience ; or, it is a judgment, or aflent of the mind, 
the motive whereof is not any intrinfic evidence, but the 
authority, or teftimony, of fome other, who reveals or re- 
lates it. 

Hence, as there are two kinds of authorities and teftimo- 
nies, the one of God, and the other of man, faith becomes 
diftingu'thed into divine and human. 

Fairx, Divine, is that founded on the authority of 
God; or, it is that affent we give to what is revealed 
by Ged. 

“The objects of this faith, therefore, are matters of revela- 
tion, which fee. 

Fairs, Human, is that whereby we believe what is told 
us by men. The object of this faith is matter of hu- 
man teftimony aud evidence. See Evipence and Tesrti- 
MONY. * 

Faith, again, may be diftinguifhed into implicit, and /ci- 
entific. 

Fairn, Implicit, or Blind, is that whereby we give our 
affent to a propofition advanced by another, of whofe 
knowledge and veracity we have no certain and evident 
reafon, or proof. ‘This is only opinion, under another 
name. 


FAT 


We may obferve here, that the terms implicit faith are 
ufed in two different fenfes. "With us Proteftants, at leaft 
in this country, no more is commonly meant by them than 
the belief of a doétrine, into the truth of which we have 
made no inquiry, on the bare authority of fome perfon or 
fociety declaring it to be true. But this pre-fuppofes fome 
knowledge, or fome conception of the doétrine itfelf. In 
this acceptation of the term implicit, it merely denotes that, 
in lieu of evidence, one refts on the judgment of him or 
them by whom the tenet is affirmed: and no other igno- 
rance is implied but that of the proofs. But the implicit 
faith, recommended by the fchoolmen, is a very different 
thing, and is conftituted thus: if you believe that all the 
religious principles, whatever they be, which are believed 
by fuch particular perfons, are true, thofe perfons who 
hold the principles are explicit believers, but you are an 
implicit believer of all their principles. Nor is your belief 
the lefs efficacious, becaufe you are ignorant of the prin- 
ciples themfelves. The tranfcendent excellency of implicit 
faith confifts in this: that you have it then in the highet 
perfection, when, in regard to its objet, you know ne- 
thing, and have heard nothing at all. This is as if we fhould 
call one an implicit mathematician, who knows not a tittle 
of mathematics, nor even the definitions and axioms; but is 
convinced of the knowledge of fome other perfon, who is 
really, or whom he fuppotes to be an adept in that fcience. 
«© To believe implicitly,”? fays Bona, ‘ is to believe in ge- 
neral univerfally all that holy mother church believes ; fo as 
to diflent from her in nothing, nor difbelieve any of her ar- 
ticles.”’ It is of no confequence, according to the {cho- 
laftic do€tors, what a man’s explicit faith may be ; he may 
be an Arian, a Socinian, an Anthropomorphite, a Poly- 
theift, in fhort, any thing ; he cannot err, whilft he has an 
implicit faith in the church. Implicit faith has been fome- 
times ludicroufly ftyled ‘ fides carbonaria,””? from the noted 
ftory of one who, examining an ignorant collier on his reli- 
gious principles, afked him what it was that be believed. 
He anfwered, ‘I believe what the church believes.’? 
“What then,’”? rejoins the other, ‘¢ does the church be- 
heve??’ He readily replied, “‘ the church believes what I 
believe.’ The other defirous, if poffible, of bringing him 
to particulars, refumes his inquiry : ‘ Tell me then, I pray 
you, what it is which you and the church both believe ??? 
The only anfwer the collier could give was, “ Why truly, 
fir, the church and I both believe the fame thing :” this is 
implicit faith in perfection, and, in the eftimation of fome 
celebrated doctors, the fum of neceffary and faving know- 
ledge in a Chriftian. Campbell’s Leétures on E. H. 
Leet. xxiii. 

Fairn, Scientifical, or feeing, is that by which we give 
our affent to a propofition advanced by one who can neither 
deeeive, nor be deceived ; which may be properly referred 
to {cience and knowledge. ; 

Divine faith, ceteris paribus, is ftronger than human 
When we are fully convinced, that any propofition comes 
from God, faith becomes affurance, or {cience ; it being an 
ingredient in our idea of God, that he can neither deceive, 
nor be deceived ; but when there is any doubt, whether the 
propofition is declared by God, the faith can be no ftronger, 
or weaker, than the reafons on which it is founded ; divine 
faith, therefore, may either be ftrong, weak, or none at all. 
Again, the reafons or motives of believing men may be of 
fuch weight and force, that being perfectly underftood, 
they may equal a mathematical evidence ; and then the 
human faith is fearce inferior to the divine ; there being, 
as it were, an equal neceflity of giving our affent on each 
fide. ‘ 

Hence, 


FAI 


Hence, it is eafily obferved, that all our faith or belief 
has its foundation on reafon, which cannot deceive us, if we 
make a due ufe of our liberty, and do not acquiefce, till 
that neceffarily compels us. 

All our prefent religious faith is really human, as de- 
pending on the fecondary teftimony of men ; of whofe ve- 
racity, however, we have the ftrongeft proofs. The 

rophets, or thofe to whom God immediately revealed his 
will, believed him, becaufe they knew he could not deceive, 
We at this day believe them, or rather their writings, for 
ether reafons; wiz. the fame which oblige us to believe all 
well-attefted hiftories. (See Evipence.) Befides the two 
fpecies of faith, human and divine, the Romanifts make a 
third, or intermediate kind, called 

Fairu, Ecclefiafical, which is the aflent orthodox per- 
fons give to certain events decided by the church, and en- 
joined to be believed by all. As, when the church declares 
that fuch a book contains heretical doétrine, &c. 

This term, ecclefiaftical faith, was firft introduced by 
Mr. Perefixe, to diftinguifh the faith whereby we believe 
matters of divine revelation, from that whereby we believe 
matters of ecclefiaftical determination. 

Fairu, in Pradical Theology, makes the firft of the the- 
ological virtues, or graces. 

Faith in God, in this fenfe, denotes fuch a:conviGtion of 
his being, perfections, charafter, and government, as pro- 
duces love, truft, worfhip, obedience, and refignation. 
Faith in Chrift, as it has been defined by fome, is a mere 
affent to the Gofpel as true; according to others, it fig- 
nifies fuch a perfuafion that he is the Meffiah, and fuch a 
defire and expeétation of the bleffings which he has pro- 
mifed in his Gofpel to his fincere difciples, as engage the 
mind to fix its dependence upen him, and fubje& itfelf to 
him in a'l the ways of holy obedience ; and thus defined it 
is a very extenfive principle, and includes in its nature and 
infeparable effects the whole of moral virtue. In this fenfe 
it has been faid, that under the Gofpel a man is juftified by 
faith. Faith, likewife, in refpeét to futurity, is a moral 
principle, implying fuch a conviétion of the reality and im- 
portance of a future ftate, as is fufficient to regulate the 
temper and conduct. 

A theological writer of confiderable reputation, who is 
of opinion that the New Teftament teaches, with the clear- 
eft evidence, a double juflification, (which fee,) or falvation, 
maintains a diltinGtion of faith, correfponding to his ideas of 
juftification, Accordingly he fays, that the faith which 
gave aright to the firft juftification, or an admittance into 
the kingdom of God in this world, was confiftent with a 
man’s perifhing eternally : becaufe he might be admitted in- 
to the church upon a profeffion of ¢hat faith, and yet remain 
a wicked perfon, and be loft for ever. This was evidently 
the cafe with Simon the forcerer, (Ads, viii. 21.) of whom 
itis faid, though ‘his heart was not right in the fight of 
God,” and he was in the ‘ gall of bitternefs, and bond of 
iniquity,” (v. 23.) that ‘ he believed and was baptized,’ 
(v. 13.) Confequently, that faith muft be the general faith, 
which is common to all Chrifians, good and bad ; or faith 
confidered fimply and feparately from the fruits and effects 
of it. It was that general profeffion of faith in Chrift Je- 
fus, as.the Mefliah and Saviour of the world, (which in- 
cluded a -profeffion of repentance, and which indeed ought 
t» have been fincere,) upon which the apottles baptized the 
firft converts. In this fenfe, “* we are all the children of 
God by taith in Jefus Chrift,”” (Gal. iii. 26.) This faith 
may be called the fir/ faith. (See 1 Tim. v. 12.) And it 
is the continued profeffion of this faith in Chrift, which 
gives usa continued right toa place in the church. For, if 


pears to be diftinguifhed. 


FAI 


we caft off this firf faith, we renounce our profeffion, we 
ceafe to be Chriftians ; or, we no longer belong to the pecu- 
liar family of God. Of this Arf faith St. James fpeaks, 
(chap. ii. 14—26.) and he very juftly pronounces it infuffi- 
cient, being alone, for our final falvation or juftification. In 
order to haz, this general and profeffed faith muft grow into 
a principle in the heart, working by love, overcoming the 
world, and bringing forth all the fruits of righteoufnefs in 
this life ; otherwife the fi-/? faith, and ff juttification, will 
come to nothing. This is the working faith, (Gal. v. 6) ; 
faith perfeGted by works, (Jam. ii. 23.); the continued 
faith (Col. i, 23.) ; the growing faith (2 Theff. i. 3. 2 Pet. 
eG se Com ace ls) the Jiedfaf, or eftablithed faith 
(Col. ii. 5.) 3 unfigned faith (1 Tim. i. 5.) The firf faith 
is the common faith of all Chriflians ; this latter faith is 
peculiar to real Chriltiass. The ff? may be a dead, 
inactive faith, (Jam. ii. 17. 20. 26.). The orher is living 
and active. The fir/? is a profeffion; the other, an opera- 
tive principle. A man may haye the jirf faith, and perith ; 
by the other, we “believe to the faving of the foul.” 
(Heb. x. 39.) The jirf faith may be a foundation without 
a fuper-itrudture ; the ofher is faith duilt upon and improved. 
(2 Pet. i. s—8. Jude, 20.) This diftinétion of faith feems 
to be agreeable to the following texts. Rom.i.17. 1 John, 
v. 135 in the latter of which the frff and /econd faith ap- 
Taylos’s Introdu€tion to his 
Paraphrafe, &c. on the Romans. 

The diftinétion above fated will ferve to reconcile the de- 
clarations of St. Paul and St. James concerning faith and 
works, which fome have pretended are contradictory ; or, 
they may be otherwife reconciled by confidering that 
St. Paul puts faith for the whole of Chriftianity, in contra- 
diftin@ion to the law of Mofes, and the works which he de- 
clares to be unneceffary for juftification, are the rites and 
ceremonies of that law. On the other hand, by faith, 
St. James means a bare affent to the truth of the gofpel ; 
and the works which he declares to be neceflary for juitifi- 
cation are the moral duties enjoined by the gofpel, and 
which are produced by faith. St. Paul, therefore, fays, the 
religion of Chrift, if believed and obeyed, is fufficient to juf- 
tify. St. James fays, the bare belief of the religion of 
Chrift, without conformity to its precepts, is not fufficient 
to juftify. Thefe two propofitions are perfe@tly confiitent 
with each other; and the feeming contradition in the paf- 
fages themfelves arifes from the circumftance juft mentioned, 
namely, that the two apoitles, in reafonifig againft different 
errors, ufe the fame words in different fenfes. See Bifhop 
Tomlin’s Elements of Chriftian Theology, vol. ii. p. 262. 

Faitu, Articles of. See ArtIcres. 

Faitx, Confeffion of. See ConrFession. 

Farru and Homage, in the Feudal Law. See Feaury. 

FAITHFUL, an application which the Mahometans af- 
fume to themfelves. See Mussutman. 

FAITHFULNESS, in Zyhics, isan agreement bet ween 
a man’s promifes and-his actions. 

FAITTIERE, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a 
fpecies of fhell-fifh; called by many amthors, by a much lefs 
determinate name, concha imbricata. The French have 
thus called it, from the word faitage, which, in the fame 
language, fignifies the roof of a houfe. Whe fhell is of the 
bucardium, or-ox heart-kind, and has feven longitudinal ribs, 
and a great’many lamine running tranf{verfely acrofs them, 
fo that’ it greatly refembles the roof of a houfe, where the 
rafters and crofs-beamsare feen while it is not covered with 
tiles. 

FAITOURS is ufed in ftat. 7 Ric. II. cap. 5. for evil- 
doers; and may be interpreted idle livers, from (fays the 

author 


FAK 


author of the Terms de Ley) faitardife, which fignifies a 
kind of fleepy difeafe, proceeding from too much fluggifhnefs. 
Tu the fore-mentioned ftatute it feems fynonymous with va- 
rabond. 

FAKAUL, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, 
in Caramania; 4 miles N. of Cogni. 

FAKE, or Facx, in the Sea Language, one round or cir- 
ele of a cable; otherwife called a coil. 

FAKENHAM, in Geography, a {mall market town in 
the hundred of Gallow, Norfolk, England, is fituated on 
the flope of a hill near the river Yar. The buildings are 
neat and compact. “Che church, dedicated to St. Peter, 
is a large, commodious ftructure, confilting of a nave, two 
aifles, chancel, porch, and lofty fone tower; the latter hasa 
fine weltern docr-way with a large window divided into fix 
lights, and fubdivided by a horizontal mullion’ and tracery 
mouldings. In the church is an o¢tangular font, richly 
ornamented on every fide with religious emblems. The 
quarter-feffions for this part of the county were formerly 
held alternately here and at Walfingham ; but fince the turn 
has been removed hence to Holt, the feffions-houfe has been 
ufed as a fchool. he fheriffs’ open court for the whole 
county is ftill kept on an adjoining hill. Fakenham is 108 
miles diftant from London ; contains 237 houfes, and 1236 
inhabitants; has two annual fairs, and a weekly market on 
Thurfdays, which is eftcemed the beit for corn in the county, 
and is regularly attended by the merchants from Wells and 
other contiguous ports. Blomefield’s Topographical Hif- 
tory of Norfolk. 

FAKIR, or Faquir, a kind of dervife, or Mahometan 
religious, who travels the country, and lives on alms. 

The word fakar is Arabic, and fignilies a poor or needy 
perfon. It is formed of the word Apa» fakara, to be in 
need. 

D’Herbelot makes fakir and dervife the fame thing. 
The Turks and Perfians ufe the name dervife for any poor 

erfon, whether he be fo out of neceffity or choice ; and the 
Arabs apply fakir in the fame fenfe. Whence, in fome 
Mahometan countries, the religious are called derviles; aud 
in others, particularly throughout the ftates of the Great 
Mogul, fakirs. 

The fakirs fometimes travel fingle, and fometimes iu 
companies of two or three hundred. When they go in 
companies, they have a fuperior, who is diftinguifhed by 
this habit. Each fakir bears a horn, which he blows at 
his arrival in any place, as alfo at his departure; and a 
kind of fcraper or trowel, to {crape the earth in the place 
where he fits, or lies down. When they go together, they 
divide their alms equally amongit them; give what is left 
every night to the peor: and never referve any thing for 
the morrow. 

There is alfo a kind of idolatrous fakirs, who follow much 
the fame practice. D’Herbelot reckons in the Indies eight 
hundred thoufand Mahometan fakirs, and twelve hundred 
thoufand idolatrous ones ; to fay nothing of divers extraor- 
dinary f{pecies of fakirs, particularly penitents, whofe morti- 
fication and penance confift in very odd obfervances. Some, 
. gr. remain night and day, for many years, in certain 
uneafy poftures. Others never ft or lie down to fleep, 
but fuftain themfelves by a rope, hung down for that pur- 
pofe. Others bury themfelves in a ditch, or pit, for nine 
or ten days, without eating or drinking. Others keep their 
arms lifted up to heaven fo long tll they cannot let them 
down again if they would. Others lay fire on their heads, 
and burn the fealp to the very bone. Others roll them- 
felves naked Gn thorns. ‘Tavernier, &c. 

In Bengal, where they are very numerous, they are the 


FAL 


refufe of fociety, and live altogether en the alms beftowed 
upon them by the fuperftition of the people. They go, fays 
Stavorinus, entirely naked, and are wholly devoid of fhaite, 
On their fhoulders they carry a thick club, the end of which 
is wound round with rags of cloth, of different colours. It 
is dangerous to meet them in folitary places, or in the woods; 
for they make no f{cruple of knocking down, and murder- 
ing any one that has any thing of value about him. They 
ftrew their hair, which hangs down their backs, with afhes, 
and fometimes wallow in afhes. They generally take up 
their abode in fhady places, either in the open air, or in old 
and ruinous buildings, without any thing to repofe upon, or 
to cover themfelyes. The genuine fakirs make vows’ of pe- 
nance 3 and Stavorinus fays, that he faw one of them, who 
had impofed upon himfelf a filence of i2 years. 

Ancther clafs ef fakirs retire into mofques, live on alms, 
and devote themfelves to the {tudy of the law, the reading 
of the Alcoran, &c. to fitthemfelves for moulas, or doGors. 
People of quality fometimes affume the character of fakirs. 
The famous Aurengzebe himfelf, before he afcended the 
throne, gave out, that he intended to commence. fakir, 

FAKIRA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland 
of Ximo; 15 miles S. of Nagafaki. 

FAKOENT, a town of Walachia, on the Danube; 
21 miles N.N.E. of Railovat. 

FALACA, a kind of batlinado icfliGed on the Chrif. 
tian captives in Algiers. The falaca is properly a piece 
of wood, about five feet long, bored with two holes, 
through which the feet of the patient are put, who is laid 
on his back on the ground, with his arms tied. Two men 
are employed to give him fifty or an hundred ftrokes with a 
cudgel, or buil’s pizzle, on the foles of his feet. A very- 
trifling faut often incurs this fevere punifhment. ; 

FALACER, in Adjthology, the name of a Roman deity 
recorded by Varro. : 

FALAISE, in Geography, a town of France, and princi- 
pal place of a diftri¢t, in the department of Calvados, fi- 
tuated oy the Ante. The town is divided into two parts, 
one containing 8000 inhabitants in yo communes, and the 
other 6002 in go communes ; ona territorial extent of 2373 
kiliometres. It has manufaétures of ferges, linens, and lace, 
This was the native place of William the Conqueror. It 
lies 18 miles S. of Caen. N. lat. 48° 55’. W. long: 0° 7/. 
—Alfo, a {mall town in the department of the Dyle; 16 
miles $.E. of Tirlemont. 

FALARI, a town of Italy, in the Patrimonio; 10 miles 
N.E. of Sutri. 

FALARICA, in Antiquity, a kind of dart or miffive 
weapon, of fingular fervice to the Saguntines in their con- 
teft with the Carthaginians. This dart was difcharged by the 
partics poited in wooden towers, upon the enemy. ‘Thefe 
wooden towers were called “ falz,’’ from which was de- 
rived the name of the weapon. Towards the end it had a 
{quare piece of iron, bound about with tow, befmeared with 
pitch. The iron head, refembling that of the Roman pilum 
or javelin, was three feet long, that it might be capable of 
penetrating the itrongeft armour, and, through it, of doing 
execution. As the combuttible part of it was fet on fire 
before it was difcharged upon the enemy, and this fire mutt 
have been greatly encreafed by the air fanning it in its mo- 
tion, it could sot fail to do mifchief, and to excite terror. 
This dart was fometimes difcharged out of the baliita with 
an inconceivable force, and did not only deitroy men, but 
likewife frequently confumed the wooden towers of the 
enemy, at which it was levelled. Liv. lib. xxi. Eun. apud 
Felt. in voc. /alarica. 

FALARIL Farart, in Ancient Geography, a town of 

Italy, 


FAL 


Italy, in Etruria, E. of Tarquinii, and very near the Tibere 
The ancients reprefent it as a well fortified city, The inha- 
bitants often took up arms againft the Romans, but when it 
was fubdued by them, they eftablifhed a colony in it. 

FALASJAM, a country of Africa, W. of Abyffinia. 

FALCADE, in the Manege. A horfe makes falcades, 
when he throws himfelf upon his haunches two or three 
times, as in very quick curvets, which is done in forming a 
itop, and half-ftop. A falcade, therefore, is the action of 
the haunches, and of the legs, which bend very low, as in 
curvettes, when you make a {top or half-ftop. 

They fay, this horfe {tops well, for he makes two or three 
falcades, and finifhes his {top with a pefate. This horfe 
has no haunches, he will make no falcades. The faleades 
are fo much the prettier, as in making them his haunches 
are low. Stop your horfe upon the haunches, in making 
him ply them well, fo that after forming his falcades, he may 
refume his gallop without making a pelate, that is, without 
ftopping or making one time. And thus he will make an 
half iftop. See Hauncnes and Time. 

FALCANDUS, Hueu, in Biography, a Sicilian hif- 
torian of the 12th century, was fuppofed to have been a 
Norman by birth. He publifhed his hiftory about 1199, 
of which the fubjeé is the exploits of the Normas in Si- 
cily, and the calamities which it underwent from 1154 to 
1169, under the two kings William I. and 11. This work 
has been feveral times printed. Moreri. 

FALCATA, in our Old Writers, was ufed for the grafs 
frefh mowed, and laid in fwathes. 

FALCATED, one of the phafes of the planets, popu- 
larly called horned. 

The altronomers fay, the moon or any planet is falcated, 
when the enlightened part appears in form of a fickle, or 
reaping-hook, by the Latins called fa/. 

The moon is faleated whilft fhe moves from the third 
quarter to the conjunétion, and frem the conjunétion, or 
from new moon, to the firft quarter; from hence to 
oppofition or full, and from full to the third quarter the 
enlightened part appears gibbous, and the dark falcated. 
See Moon. 

FALCATOR, in our Old Writers, the fervile tenant 
who performed fervice of falcature. 

FALCATURE, Farcarura, fignifies one day’s 
mowing of grafs; a cuftomary fervice to the lord by his 
inferior tenants. Kennet’s Gloff. in voc. 

FALCKENBERG, in Geography, a town of the duchy 
of Hollftein; feven miles W.S.W. of Nordtorp. 

FALCKENBURG, a town of France, in the depart- 
ament of Mont Tonnerre ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Deux Ponts. 

FALCO, in Ornithology, a genus of Accipitres, the bill 
of which is hooked, and furnifhed at the bafe with a cere; 
head clofely covered with feathers; tongue bifid at the ead. 

The falcons are diftinguifhed from the vultures in feveral 
effential refpe&ts, notwithftanding the fimilarity in their ge- 
neral appearance and manners of life. The billin the vulture 
is of amore lengthened form, or ftraight, being only 
hooked at the apex ;. in the falcon the curvature of the bill 
commences nearly at the bafe; the head of the vulture is 
alfo bare of feathers, and the neck retra&tile ;. they differ be- 

des in other particulars,.but the two tribes may be’ clearly 
afcertained by the above characters. The falcons are very 
generally difperfed throughout the globe,. being inhabitasts 
of almolt every climate, while the vulture is confined to the 
warmer regions. Both prey on {maller birds, quadrupeds, 
reptiles, and fome fpecies on fifth: thefe the vulture feems to 
prefer in a putrid ftate, as it is rarely known to attack living 
animals.unlefs urgently prefled by hunger; but the falcon, on 


FAL 


the contrary, rejeéts its food in this ftate, delighting to feizeits 
prey alive, and devour it recent. The falcon, like the vule 
ture, is capable of enduring abftinence for a confiderable 
period without experiencing any material inconvenience. It 
has been obferved of the falcon tribe that they affociate 
only in the breeding feafon, and then only in pairs for the 
purpofe of perpetuating their offspring ; their neft 1s fome- 
times formed of a few {ticks and herbave on the bare ground; 
moft commonly, however, they feek fome convenient {pot 
on the fuminits of rocks or hills, and the larger kinds the 
loftier pinnacles of mountains. 

_A confiderable variation prevails with regard to the co- 
lours as well as markings of the plumage in the falcon tribe 
at different periods of their growth, and hence writers who 
have treated on this family have been occafionally mifled, 
and induced to deferibe aa-diltingt {pecies what are in reality 
no other than the fame bird in different tranfitions of plu- 
mage, Some material errors of this kind have already been 
detected, and others of a fimilar nature will, no doubt, be 
difcovered likewife, as we become better acquainted with 
the hiftory of this tribe than we are at prefent. The falco 
genus, in poiat of {pecies, is very numerous. 


Species.. 


Harryya. Head crefted with-long feathers; body va 
tiegated beneath. Gmel. Vultur harpyi2, Linn. Aguila 
brafilienfis criflata, Brifl. Aquile criflate genus, Raj. 
Yzqguauhtli, Hernand. Crefled eagle, Will. Oranooko eagle, 
Brown. Crefled vulture, Lath. 

Size rather exceeding that.of the turkey; the plumage 
above mixed with black ; the,head is covered with feathers, 
and aderned with a creft of four feathers, two placed on 
each fide; the middle ones are two inches long;. thofe at'the 
fides rather fhorter, and the whole are moveable at the will’ 
of the bird. The hind part of the neck is fulvous; body 
beneath white; tail fafciated with brown and black; vent 
and thighs with bleck and white; the legs are covered with 
white feathers, and {potted with black. Linnzus- defcribes 
the legs in his fpecies harpyja as being naked. This crea- 
ture inhabits South America, and is: faid to poffefs fuch 
amazing {trengh that it is able to cleave a man’s {kull at one 
firoke of the bill. 

Jacguint. Feathers of the head long and numerous ;: 
feet naked; body fnowy white. Gmel. Vultur coronatus, 
Jacquin Beytr. Crowned vulture, Lath. 

Native of the mountains of New Granada; in fize nearly 
refembling the former. The back, wings, greater part of 
the neck, and bill, black; head reddifh afh, with a crefted 
tuft of long feathers,.which ftand ere@ when the bird is irri-- 
tated; tail long, whitifh, with tranfverfe black bands; feet 
and toes yellow ;. claws black. 

Avsicitta. Cere and legs yellow; quill-feathers white, 
the middle ones tipped with black. Lion. guile albicilia, 
Brifl. Grand pygargue, But. Cinereous' eagle. 

Found in Europe and the fouthern parts of Ruffia; the 
fize is equal to that of the turkey, and-its food confifts 
chiefly of fith and fmall birds: 

Coronatus. Cere ferruginous; feet white, {potted 
with black, downy; breaft rufous; fides banded with black 
Gmel. Aguila africana criflata, Brifl.. CGrscuned eagle, 


Edwards. 
The body is brown above, with the 


Inhabits Guinea. 
edge of each feather pale brown; beneath white, with ro 


black fpots; breait rufous; the fides fafciated with ble 


ark : : <. 
tail deep grey, tranfverfely banded with black ; toes bright 
orange.» ‘The feathers’on the top of the head, and forming 
acreit. 


FALCO. 


Curvsartros. Cere yellow; legs downy, yellowith 
rutty ; body variegated brown, and rulty; tail black, waved 
at the bafe with cinereous. Linn. Le grand aigle, Buff. 
Gold adler wirfing, Golden eagle, Lath, 

The length of this bird is three feet; breadth, when the 
wings are expanded, feven feet ; the hill is blue; the cere 
and legs yellow; the head and neck bright ruft colour; 
body and tail dark brown. It delights in mountainous fitu- 
ations, and occurs throughout Europe and Siberia. | The 
golden eagle is a bird of prodigious ftrength and courage, 
and preys on all the fmaller tribes of animals and birds, and 
is fometimes known to carry off the lambs from the flocks 
of fheep in the mountain paftures; it flies to an amazing 
height in ferene weather. 

Ossirracus. Cere and legs yellow; legs fomewhat 
downy ; body ferruginous ; tail-feathers white on the inner 
fide. Linn. Aquila offfraga, Brifl. Sea eagle, Will. 

Size of a large turkey, and inhabits Europe and North 
America; this bird lives chiefly on fh. 

LeucocasTer. White; back, wings, and tail dull 
brown ; tip of the tail white; bill and legs yellow. Gmel. 
White bellied eagle, Lath. 

Inhabits North America. The length is two feet nine 
inches; the bill brownifh yellow, large, and much hooked ; 
the head, neck, breaft, belly, thighs, and vent white; back, 
wings, and tail dark brown; legs yellow, and very ftout; 
claws black. Defcribed from a fpecimen formerly in the 
Leverian mufeum. Native place fuppofed to be the iflands 
in the South feas. 

Japonensis. Cere dufky ; legs yellow ; body brown. 
Gmel. Japonefe hawk, Lath. f 

Defcribed from a fpecimen in the Bankfian collection, 
meafuring one foot eleven inches; the bill is narrow, at the 
ate blue, tip black, and beneath yellowifh ; the forehead 
buff colour ; the reft of the head and body brown, with 
the tips rufty ; throat white, ftreaked with black, and fur- 
rounded with a black ring ; feathers of the breaft and belly 
yellowifh-white at the edges ; quills dark, and on the inner 
web of each feveral ferruginous {pots placed tranfverfely 5 
tail deep brown, and all the feathers fpotted each fide of 
the webs with ferruginous, except the two outermo&, which 
are plain on the outer web; claws rather large, hooked, 
and black. 

Frerox. Cere green; body above brown; back, belly, 
and tail-coverts fnowy, variegated with chefnut {pots ; tail- 
feathers equal, brown, with four paler bands. Gmel. Nov. 
Comm. Petr. Fierce eagle, Lath. 

Was found abundant, according to Gmelin, near the city 
of Aftrachan, in the winter of 1769. The length is about 
two feet, and its difpofition. highly fierce and rapacious, ‘as 
it would not feed on the carcates of dead animals, ‘The bill 
is lead colour; eye-lids blue; the head and neck ferrugi+ 
nous mixed with whitifh ; quill-feathers twenty-fix in num- 
ber, black, beneath white ; tail-feathers twelve, equal, and 
beneath white; legs white, thick, and rough, and claws 
crooked. 

Sinensis. Cere and legs yellow; body above red-brown, 
beneath yellowith. Gmel. Chinefe eagles Lath. ‘ 

Native of China, and other parts of Afia. In fize cor- 
refponding nearly with the common eagle acrofs the wing 
a dufky band; two bands and tip of the tail dufky. 

Amegicanus. Cere, and woolly legs pale yellow ; 
head, neck, and breaft dufky-cinereous ; tranfverfe band 
onthe cheeks, back, betly, wings, and tail black. Gmel. 
Black cheeked eagle, Ar&. Zool. 

Size of the common eagle ; inhabits North America. 

Cueevra. Somewhat crefted, aud fufcous; body brewn ; 


wing-coverts {potted with white ; td white ; tail with a 
broad white band. Lath, Cheela falcon. 

Length exceeding two feet ; the {pecies inhabits India, 
where it is not uncommon, and is known by the name of 
Cheela. 

Astaticus. Legs yellow, half downy; body brown 
above, white beneath; breaft ftreaked ; tail-feathers filver 
grey ; external ones with five pale bands. Lath. Afratie 
‘alcon. 
f Native of Chinas fize that of the honey-buzzard. The 
bill is black ; quill-feathers grey with black bands; upper 
tail-coverts white ; legs downy on the fore part. 

Novaz Houranpiaz, White ; cere, orbits, and legs pale 
yellow ; hind claw twice as long as either of the reft. 
Falco Nove Hollandia, Gmel. New Holland white eagle, 
Lath. 

Deferibed on the authority of Dr. G. R. Forfter. The 
{pecies inhabits New Holland, is twenty inches in length, 
and has the bill and claws black. 

Avusrtratis. Deep brown; cere yellow; tail black 
with the tip yellowifh. Gmel. Staatenland eagle, Lath. 

Length twenty-five inches; the fpecies inhabits Staten 
Land, and has a peculiar note, refembling the cry of the 
common hen. 

Guavucopis. Cere and legs citron yellow ; legs fome- 
what downy; back and breaft brown; head and crown 
yellowifh-white with brown ftripes; quill-feathers black. 
Gmel. 

Found among the mountains of Germany ; its length one 
foot nine inches. The bill is glaucous; noftrils large, oval, 
and befet with briftles ; front with brown lunate marks ; 
legs fhort, and covered with foft feathers, 

Mer vanonortus. Cere, and woolly legs pale yellow > 
head, hind part of the neck, belly, and wing-coverts ferru- 
ginous; throat, breaft, back, and quill-feathers black. 
Lath. Ind. Orn, Falco niger, Gmel. Black backed cagle, 
Brown. 

Size of the golden eagle; bill and claws black ; bafe of 
the tail to the middle white ; the extreme part black ; claws 
black. Native place unknown. 

Leucoryruos. Cere livid cinereous; legs pale whitifh, 
flightly downy ; body clouded brown ; crown with a tri- 
angular white fpot; throat white. Gmel. guila leuco- 
rypha, Pallas. White crowned eagle, Lath. 

Frequents the fouthern parts of Siberia. This bird is 
larger than the ofprey, and in feveral refpeéts refembles it ; 
the wings are dufky black, within white; tail long, ftiff, 
equal; claws very large and black. 

Tuarus. Cere and legs pale yellow ; body of the male 
whitith with black {pots; female grey ; crown crefted: 
Falco tharus, Gmel, Chilefe eagle. 

Defcribed by Molina as an extremely common fpecies in 
Chili, where it builds in the highett trees, forming its neft 
of twigs, wool, hair, and feathers; and lays five eggs. 
This bird feeds on carrion, poultry, &c. ‘The female is 
rather {maller than the male. 

Mocitnix. Cere pale yellow; legs woolly, and with 
the reft of the body dusky ferruginous; back. mixed 
with white. Aguila mogiluik, Gmel. Nov. Comm. Petrop, 
Ruffian eagle. 

Inhabits the defarts near Tanais ; the bill, pupil, claws, 
and quill-feathers black; tail equal; tail-feathers black, 
with dufky grey bands; tawny at the tips. 

Cristatus. Head crefted; back, throat, and wings 
black ; belly white ; tail with four parallel cinereous bands. 
Gimel.  Crefled falcon, Dillon. Caracca falcon, Lath. “s 

1ze 


. 


FALCO. 


Size of a turkey ; upper mandible much hooked, lower 
ftraight. 

Hatiztus. Cere and legs blue; body above fufcous, 
beneath white ; head whitith. Gmel. 

Levertanus. Legs yellow; head fufcous and white in 
altersate {trix ; body above fufcous, beneath white 5 wings 
duil brown. Gmel.  Leverian falcon, Aré. Zool. 

Native of Carolina; fize of the buzzard. 

Lacoprus. Cere and downy legs yellow 3 body black, 
fpotted with white; tail-feathers white, towards the tip 
black. Gmel. Graa-fail, AG. Nidrof. Rough-legged fal- 
con. © 

This rare {pecies inhabits Europe, and has been obferved 
in Britain ; a {pecimen fhot near London occurs in the ¢ol- 
leétion of Mr. Donovan. 

Groenranpica. Cereandlegslead-colour; body above 
brownifh, beneath whitifh with longitudinal brown ftreaks. 
Gmel. Greenland falcon, Ar&. Zool. Falco fufeus 2, Faun. 
Gren. Falco lagopus 2, Lath. 

By fome writers this bird is confidered as a variety of the 
former ; the crown is brown with irregular oblong {pots of 
white; front whitith ; cheeks blackifh; tail above dufky, 
eroffed with paler bars, beneath whitifh. 

Antituarum. Bodyentirely brown. Briff. Mansfeny, 
Hift. Antilles. 

Native of the Weft Indies. The fpecies feeds on fmaller 
birds, fnakes, and other reptiles; and is about eighteen 
inches in length. j 

Pennarus. Cere and legs yellow; body above varie- 
gated with blackifh brown and dirty grey, beneath brown. 
yellow, with longitudinal blackifh lines; feet feathered to 
fal toes. Gmel. Lulco pedibus pennatis, Brifl. Booted 

‘aleon. ‘ 

Length about twenty inches; the bill blackifh; head 
and neck yellow-grey with blackifh lines ; tail brown, to- 
wards the tip blackifh, with the apex grey ; claws black. 
Defcribed by Briffon from a fpecimen in the mufeum of 
Madame de Bandeville ; its native place unknown. 

Maritemus. Cere and legs yellow; body and tip of 
the tail white; fhanks reddifh mixed with white. Gmel. 
Javan eagle. 

A large {pecies, meafuring in length near four feet ; it 
lives on the fea coaft of Java, and feeds on fifh and car- 
rion. ; 

fEcrrtius. Cere yellow; legs half downy and yel- 
low ; body above cinereous, beneath ferruginous ; wings 
above brown ; tail forked, as long as the body, and barred 
with brown, Gmel. Falco cincreo-ferrugineus, Forfkal. 
Arabian kite, Lath. 

Frequent in Egypt. Length cighteen inches ; bill yel- 
low; tail-feathers black towards the tip; wings beneath 
grey-brown ; tail cinereous; claws black. 

_ Nitoricus. Cere and legs yellow ; body above reddifh 

brown with tranfverfe black rays; tail forked, as long as 
the body ; wings variegated with brown, grey, white and 
reddifh. Sonnini. Wilotic fainn. 

Length twelve inches; the bill black, at the bafe grey ; 
feathers of the head black in the middle, of the fides of the 
head varied with black, grey, and red; throat grey; upper 
part of the breaft reddifh with black longitudinal {pots ; 
reft of the body beneath grey, tinged with red; legs 
{potted with black. 

* Mitvus. Cere yellow; tail forked; body ferruginous ; 
head whitifh. Linn. AMilvus regalis, Brill. Milan royal, 
Buff. Hiiner-geyer, Licht. Weifer Milan, Gunth, Kite, 
Will. Donoy. Brit. Birds, &c. 
The kite is common in mott of the hilly parts of Britain, 
Vou, XIV. 


and is found in Sweden, Germany, and other parts of Eu. 
rope, and alfo in Afiaand Africa, but upon the beft autho- 

rities appears to be unknown as an inhabitant of the Ame- 

rican continent. In England it remains throughout the 

year; as it approaches the more northern climates it becomes 

migratory, pafling the winter in milder climates. The kite 

is a bird of large dimenfions, in length exceeding two feet. 

The {maller kinds of birds, and other animals of inferior fize, 
are its ufual prey ; and poultry efpecially, in queft of which 

it is often feen hovering on the wing over farm-yards in the 

country ready to dart down upon the ftraggling young and 
carry them away. The egg of the kite is blueifh white, in- 
clining to red at one end. 

In the laft edition of the Syftema Nature-three fuppofed 
varieties of this {pecies are enumerated, as 2 milvus vertice et 
gula caftaneis, Gmel. having the head and throat chefnut; y 
accipiter kor{chun, S.G. Gmel. found in the deferts at 
Tanain in the Ruffian dominions ; the bill of which is blueifh 
black ; ‘cere greenifh ; area of the eyes white; fides of the 
head pale brown ; head and throat chefnut ; 2 milvus jai- 
cenfis; Lepechin, with the coverts of the back violet; fea- 
thers marked at the top with a white fpot. 


Aver. Cere and legs yellow; above fufcous black ; 
head and beneath whitifh; tail forked. Gmel. Milous 
niger, Briff. Milan noir, Buff. Black geld, Sibbald. 
Braunermald geyer, Kram. : 

Smaller than the common kite, and inhabits Europe. 


Austriacus. Cere and legs yellow; legs fomewhat 
downy; body above chefnut, beneath brickduft colour 
{potted with brown; tail forked. Gmel.  Lrauner-geyer, 
Kram. duflrian kite: 

Inhabits the woods of Auftria, and feeds on fmall birds 
and dormice; in point of fize refembles the common kite. 


Brasixiensis. Legs yellow; body rufous with white 
and -yellow dots; tail variegated with white and brown. 
Gmel. Circus bra Hicofits Briff. Milvus brafilienfis, Cara- 
cara, Ray. Bra/fitian kite, Will. 

Native of Bratil; its fize is that of the common kite, 
and it is exceedingly deftruétive to poultry. Length nine 
inches. 

Furcatus. Cere ob{cure ; legs yellowith; body above 
fufcous, beneath white, tail forked and very long. Gmel, 
Milvus carolinenfis, Brifl. Falco peruvianus, cauda furcatay 
Klein. Milan de la Caroline, Buff. Scvallow-tailed hawk, 
Catefby. Szwallow-tailed falcon, Ar&. Zool. 

An elegant {pecies, and of larger fize than the common 
European kite ; it inhabits Carolina inthe fummer months, 
where it is called the fnake hawk. ‘The principal food of 
this bird confifts of infe&ts. 

Urusitinca. Cere and legs yellow ; body fufcous and 
ferruginous varied; wings black mixed with cmereous ; tail 
white, the tip black fpeckled with white. Gmel. Urudi- 
tinga, Ray. Brafilian cagle. 

Briffon defcribes this as being about the fize of a half 
grown duck, and as a native of Brafil. 

fEguinoctiatis. Legs pale yellow; head, neck, and 
back black-brown; breait reddifh; wing-coverts and 
foulders chocolate ; tail black ; the feathers, except the 
two middle ones, marked with the letter V in white. 
Gmel. L£guino&ial eagle. 

Native of Cayenne; length twenty-one inches; bill pales 
claws pale, with the tip black. 

Ortentatis. Legs lead-colour; body fufcous; eye- 
brows ferruginous; wings and tail {potted with whites 
Gmel. Oriental haewé, Lath. 

Length feventeen inches ; the bill is black, beneath, yoke 

Ow § 


FALCO. 


ac body beneath fub-ferruginous ; the {pecies inhabits 
apan. 

Inpicus.. Cere and legs yellow ; body reddith fufcous ; 
front and rump white; belly ftreaked with whitifh; tail 
Pepe with five black bands. Falco indicus, Gmel. Javan 

awk. 

Size of the laft; bill black, bafe yellow; hind head 
whitifh. 

Ponticertanus. Cere blueifh; body chefnut ; head, 
neck, and breaft white, with a longitudinal brown line in the 
middle of all the feathers. 4quila ponticeriana, Briff. 
Aigle de Pondichery, Buff. Pondicherry eagle. 

About the fize of the jer-falcon, the length one foot 
feven inches. The fpecies is held facred among the natives 
on the coaft of Malabar, where it inhabits. 

Bureo. Cere and legs yellow; body fufcous ; abdo- 
men pale with fufcous {pots; tail fulcous and banded. 
Linn. Za bufe, Buff. Maafe geyer, Gunth. Pojana fe- 
cunda, Zinnan. Buzzard, Will. 

The buzzard is a native of Europe and preys on {mall 
birds, reptiles, the inferior tribes of quadrupeds, and infects ; 
its length is twenty inches. Not uncommon in Britain. 

Arivorus. Cere black ; legs half naked and yellow ; 
head cinereous; tail witha cinereous band, and white tip. 
Linn. La bondrée, Buff. Pojana,Zinnan. Honey buzzard, 
Lath. Donov. Brit. Birds. 

Inhabits Europe, and preys on mice, lizards, frogs, 
{mall birds, and infects, efpecially bees, whence its name; the 
male birds are very uncommon, the female extremely rare. 
The length of this {pecies is one foot eleven inches. 

Varizcatus. Legs yellow, body fufcous, beneath 
white with fufcous fpots; head and neck whitifh with 
ferruginous-brown ftriz ; tail pale brown, with paler bands 
crofling each other. alco variegaius,Gmel. Buzzardet, 
Ar&. Zool. Speckled buxzard, Lath. 

Length twelve inches ; the bill duiky with black clawa. 
This {pecies inhabits North America. 

Jamaicensis. Cere and legs pale yellow ; body above 
brownifh yellow varied with fufcous. Gmel. Jamaiea 
buzzard, Lath. 

Inhabits Jamaica ; the fize of the common buzzard, and 
rare. 

Boreatis. Cere and legs pale yellow; body above brown, 
beneath white ; tail pale rufty, witha tranfverfe rufty band 
nearthe tip. Gmel. Red sailed falcon, Ar&t. Zool. 

Size of the laft, and inhabits North America. 


Rurus. Legs yellow; body rufous, above inclining to 
brown ; tail cinereous. Gmel. Circus rufus, Briff. Lifch- 
goyer, Frifch. La harpaye, Buffon. Harpy falcon. 

Native of France and Germany. 

fEnucinosus. Cere greenifh; body grey; crown, 
chin, arm-pits, and legs yellow. Linn. alco beticus, Ge- 
rin. Circus paluftris, Bill. Bufard, Buff. Fauxperdrieux, 
Belon. Z/ nibbio, Zinnan. Moor-buzzard, Will. 

Length twenty-one inches ; the fpecies inhabits Europe, 
where it frequents marfhy places, and fubfifts principally on 
fifh, aquatic birds, and rabbits. Some variation is obfery- 
able in the plumage of different individuals of this fpecies. 

Scravonicus. Cere yellow; legs downy ; body brick- 
duft colour, fpotted with black; head and neck whitifh. 
Kram. Sc/avonian buzzard. 

Native of Sclavonia ; its fize that of the common cock. 

Marerinarus. Cere blueifh; body above variegated 
brown and rutty, beneath rufty, with irregular oval brown 
f{pots; tail-feathers barred with blackith, edged with white, 
Falco marginatus, It. Pofegan. Croatian buzzard. 


Rather lefs than the former, and alfo inhabits Sclavonia 
and Croatia. 

Rusicinosus. Fufcous; beneath whitifh-yellow ; 
breaft with a yellow fpot; tail-feathers with four dull 
red bars. It. Pofegan. 

Bill black ; head whitifh yellow ; wing-coverts white at 
the tip; legs pale yellow. The fpecies inhabits Sclavonia, 

Javanicus. Cere black, in the middle yellow; legs 
yellow ; head, neck, and breaft chefnut; back brown. 
Wurmb. 

Inhabits the maritime parts of Java, and feeds on fifh. 

Spapiceus. Cere yellow; body chocolate mixed with 
rufty ; beneath white at the fides; legs feathered to the 
toes. Falco /padiceus, Phil. Tranf. Bay falcon, Lath. 

This and the Placentia falcon ( Lath.) are fuppofed to be 
varieties of the fame fpecies. The firft is from Hudfon’s 
bay, the other from Newfoundland. The Bay falcon preys 
on ducks, which they feize as they rife out of the water ; its 
length is twenty-two inches. 

Oxssoretus. Legs yellow, body brown; beneath 
flightly {potted with white; tail-feathers in the middle 
pale brown. Gmel. Plain falcon. 

Length two feet; bill black, nape {potted with white ; 
native of Hudfon’s bay. 

Nov# Zeranpiz. Cere and legs yellow; body 
ferruginous brown; beneath ftriated with rufous; tail 
fafciated with pale yellow; thighs ferruginous. Lath. 
New Zealand falcon. 

The female meafures twenty three inches in length, the 
male eighteen. Its bill is blue, as are alfo the naked orbits 
of the eye; in the female the orbits are blue. 

Lineatus. Cere and legs yellow; body ferruginous 
brown, varied with white and paleerufty lines ; tail-feathers 
dufky brown, with two tranfverfe dirty white bands and 
tips. Gmel. Red /houldered falcon, Ar&. Zool. Barred- 
breafted buzzard, Lath. 

Native of North America; fize that of the common 
buzzard. 

Rusricorus. Cere, eye-lids, and legs yeliow ; body 
waved with cinereous and white; collar white. Linn. 
Collared falcon. 

Inhabits Sweden, and, according to Linnzus, is the fize of 
the common hen. 

Macrourvs. Cereand legs pale yellow ; bill blackith ; 
body above cinereous, beneath white; inner parts of the 
wings cinereous, tips white. Lepechin, &c. Long-tailed 
falcon. 

The length of this bird is nineteen inches ; tail nearly 
nine inches ; it inhabits Ruffia, and is known by the name of 
Lun. 

Cayennensis. Legs blue; head and neck blueifh- 
white ; back and wings dufky afh, throat, breaft, and belly 
whitifhe Gmel. Petit autour de Cayenne, Buff. Cayenne 
‘falcon. 

A Native of Cayenne ; the bill is blue ; irids yellow. 

Patumsarius. Cere black, edged with yellow; legs 
yellow ; body brown ; tail-feathers with pale bands ; eye- 
brows white. Linn, &c. Affur, Brifl. Groffer gepfeilter, 
Falck, Frifch. L’aflore, Cetti. Gofhawk. 

Formerly ufed in falconry, and highly efteemed for that 
purpofe ; the fpecies is twenty-two inches in length; the 
bil blue with the tip black; irids yellow; head brown; 
body beneath white, waved with black ; tail long, cinereous, 
white at the tip, and claws blueith. The gofhawk is fcarce 
in England, in Scotland not uncommon, and is there con- 
fidered very deftruGive to game. ‘The fpecies inhabits 
various parts of Europe, and extends to Afia and America. 

GENTILIs. 


FALCO. 


Gentitis. 
brown fpots; tail with four blackifh bands. 
montanus, Ray. Faleongentil, Will. &c. 

Inhabits the mountains of Europe and North America, 
and occurs rarely in England ; the fize excels that of the 

ofhawk, and the fpecies preys on partridges. ‘The bill is 
fede colivir « irids yellow; head reddifh with oblong black 
{pots ; tail dotted with white ; claws black. 

Communis. Body brown; the feathers edged with 
rufty ; tail with darker tranfverfe bands ; bill blueifh ath ; 
cere, irids, and legs yellow. Linn. Accipiter fufcus, Frifch. 
Faucon, Buff. I falcone cetti. Common falcon. 

The common falcon is about the fize of a moderate fowl, 
and nearly eighteen inches in length. Whether this be 
the primitive ftock from whence the following fuppofed 
varieties, enumerated by falconers, have originated, we cannot 
pretend to determine; and fhall only obferve that it is 
admitted as fuch by writers of repute. 


Cere and legs yellow ; body cinereous with 
Linn. Falco 


Varieties. 


Hornotinus 8. Inclining to cinereous. Gmel. Falcon 
fors, Buff. Yearling falcon, Lath. The young of the com- 
mon falcon. 

Gibbofus y. Back gibbous. Ray. Faucon haggard ou 
bofu, Buff. Haggard falcon, Will. 

So named when grown old, from drawing its head clofe 
between the fhoulders, as though it were hump-backed. 

Leucocephulus 8. Head white, with fmall brown fpots. 
Briff. Rauh-fufs-geyer ; gelbbrauner geyer, Frifch. White 
beaded falcon. 

In this variety the bill isafh-coloured ; cere pale yellow ; 
back and wing-coverts {potted with brown, rufous, grey, 
and whitifh indifcriminately ; beneath grey with brown 
{pots, each {pot encircled with rufous; feet feathered to 
the toes; legs yellow; claws black. There is another 
variety in which the head, neck, and breaft are white, with 
minute fufcous {pots only. 

Albus +. Entirely white. Ray. Weifer falk, Weiffer 
geyer, Frifeh. White falcon, Will. 

Several varieties of this kind are defcribed ; in fome the 
back and wings are marked with a few black {pots, and the 
tail barred; others have the white plumage marked with 
{earcely vifible yellow f{pots. 

Ater 2. Uniformly blackifh brown. Briff. Falco 
columbarius nebbi dius, Ray. Black hawk, Edw. 

Buffon admits this to be a diftin& {pecies, and names it 
le Faucon Paffager. ; 

Nevius » Wings{potted. Briff. ' 

Fufcus 3. Dark brown. Braunfahler geyer, Frifch. 
Brown falcon. 

Ruber +. Spotted with black and red, 
Ray. Red falcon, Will. 

Indicus x. Beneath reddifh fulvous. Falco ruber indicus, 
Briff. Falcones rubri indici Aldrovandi, Ray. Red Indian 
falcon. ' 

ftalicus >. Breaft pale yellow with ferruginous {pots ; 
wings near the tip {potted with white. Briff. Jtalian 
falcon. 

Found in the Alps. 

The varieties above-mentioned are widely difperfed 
throughout Europe, and North America, China, and other 
parts of Afia. 

Gynratco. Cere blue, legs yellow ; body fufceus ; be- 
peath faf{ciated with cinereous ; tail at the fides white. Linn, 
Jer-falcon. 

Inhabits Europe. 


Falco rubens, 


Istanpicus. White, with fufcous fpots; tail-feathers 
white; outer edges {potted with brown. Lath. 

Native of Iceland. 

Perecrinus. Cere and legs pale yellow ; body above 
blue, cinereous, ftriped with brown; beneath reddifh-white, 
with blackifh ftripes; tail dotted with white. Gmel. Pe- 
regrine falcon, Donoy. Brit. Birds, &c. 

Breeds in the mountainous parts of Britain, and was for- 
merly employed in the fports of falconry. The fpecies is 
found in various parts of Europe, Afia, and America. 

Versicotor. Cere yellow; head and body above white, 
with pale reddifh fpots, beneath white ; breafta little fpotted 
with ferruginous. Gmel. Spotted falcon. 

Three diftin@ fpecies of the falco tribe have been de- 
{cribed by different Englith writers, under the name of the 
{potted falcon. The firft bird to which this name was af- 
figned is {maller than the other two, and differs confiderably 
in plumage ; the fecond is the fpotted falcon of Pennant ; 
and the third the {potted falcon of Lewin and Walcot. 
The errors of the latter-mentioned writers have originated 
from mifconceiving the {pecimen firft defignated by the title 
of the {potted falcon, and which for this reafon ought with 
propriety to be confidered as the original, Each of the 
individual {pecimens defecribed by thofe refpective writers 
were preferved in the late Leverian mufeum, and are at pre- 
fent in the poffeflion of Mr. Donovan. 

Barsarus. Cere and legs pale yellow; body blueith, 
with fufcous 'fpots; breaft immaculate; tail fafciated. 
Linn. Falco tunetanus, Ray. Barbary falcon, Will. 

Length one foot five inches; the {pecies inhabits Bar- 
bary. 

S.Jouannis. Cere and feathered legs yellow; body 
brown ; above with black and dirty white oblique lines ; 
beneath with white and yellowith f{pots; tail barred, and 
white at thetip. Gmel. S¢. John’s falcon, Ar&. Zool. 

Native of Newfoundland. 

Sacer. Cere and legs blue; back, breaft, and primary 
wing-coverts {potted with brown; tail with kidney-fhaped 
fpots. Briff. Sacre, Buff. 

A large fpecies, meafuring in length two feet ; it inha- 
bits Europe, and extends to Tartary. The fpeckled par- 
tridge-hawk of the Aric Zoology is fuppofed to be a 
variety of this bird. 

Nova Terra. Cere and legs yellow; body above 
brown, beneath and hind head ferruginous ; tail variegated 
with paler and darker lines. Gmel. Newfoundland falcon. 

Length twenty inches; legs half-feathered ; the {pecies 
inhabits Newfoundland. 

Stevraris. Legs blue; body blackifh, with radiate 
{pots ; beneath intermixed with black and white. Briff. 
Falco cyanopus, Klein. Blue faoted, Will. Starry falcons 
Lath. 

Native of Europe. Size of the peregrine faleon ; wings 
fhorter ; tail longer ; irids golden. 

Hyematis. Cere yellow; head and back black brown; 
neck ftreaked with white; Ireaft and belly white, with 
cordated {pots. Gmel. Winter falcon, Ar&. Zool. 
ern falcon, Lath. 

Inhabits New York during the winter feafon. Length 
eighteen inches ; in the male the wing-coverts are duiky, 
edged with dull white, the exterior one orange ; tail with 
brown and black bars, and white at the tip; bill black ; 
feet long and flender. 

Ruomseus. Legs yellowith; body above grey, beneath 
brown, with rhombic f{pots; tail-feathers with eleven ob- 
lique black bands. Lath. Rhomboidal falcon. 

The length of this bird is nineteen inches; the bill is lead 

M2 colour; 


Noria- 


FA LC 'O, 


colour; head and neck black ; back and wings grey, with 
black bands ; tail grey, and fafciated with black ; native of 
India, about the river Ganges. . , 

Nicricotuis. Legs yellow; body rufous, with black 
bars; crown and neck ftreaked with black; tail-feathers 
blackifh at the tips. Lath. Black-neched falcon, Lath. 

Native of Cayenne; its length one foot eleven tiches ; 
bill black, and a black ftreak behind the eyes. 

Axvsicotiis. Legs yellow; head, neck, fore part of the 
back, ‘breaft, and belly white; wings black, with white 
{pots; feathers between the fhoulders marked with fquare 
black {pots. Lath. MWhite-necked falcon. 

Length twenty-two inches; quill-feathers fpotted with 
white from the bafe to the middle. Inhabits Cayenne. 

Mevanoreucos. Legs pale yellow; body white; head, 
neck, back, fhoulders,-and quill-feathers black ; wing-co- 
verts and tail white. Gmel. Black and white Indian falcon, 
Ind. Zool. 

Defcribed’ by Sonnerat as a native of Ceylon, under the 
title of faucon 4 collier des Indes. ‘(he length is fixteea 
inches; its irids are yellow; orbits fpotted with white ; 
bill, claws, and middle wing-coverts blackith. 

Cirruatus. Cere and feathered legs pale yellow; bifid 
creft on the hind head pendulous ; body above black ; be- 
neath ftriated black and white. Lath. 2e/co indicus cri/fa- 
tus, Briff. Cirrhatus, Ray: Faucon hu; des Indes, Buff. 
Grefted Indian falcon, Will. 

Size of the gofhawk} the bill dark'blue ; irids yellow ; 
neck tawny; tail with cinereous aid black bands placed 
tranfverfely ; claws black. A fuppofed variety, has a black 
band acrofs the breaft, and another on the wing. 

Meripionauis. Cere and chin yellow; head and neck 
rufous, with dark ftreaks ; belly whitifh, with narrow black 
bars ; four middle tail-feathers with one, the outer with fix 
pale bars. Lath. Rufous-headed falcon. 

Length nineteen inches ; the fpecies inhabits Cayenne. 

Mevanops. Cere and legs pale yellow; body black, 
with white fpots; beneath white; head and neck white, 
with black {trie ; orbits black ; quill-feathers black, with a 
white band in the middle. Lath. Svreaked falcon. 

Size of a rook, and inhabits Cayenne. 

Cacuinnans. Cere and legs pale yellow ; eye-brows 
white ; body varied with brown and whitifh ; crown white, 
with a black ring. Linn. Laughing falcon, Lath. 

Inhabits South America, and emits a laughing found 
when obferved. The back, wings, and rump are brown ; 
neck, chin, breaft, and belly, wich the under parts of the 
wings white ; tail with yellow and black bands. 

Surrrator. Cere and legs pale yellow; body whitifh- 
brown ; eye-lids bony. Linn, Surtnam falcon, Lath. 

Native of Surinam. ‘ 

Biventatus. Bill bidentated and fufcous; body lead 
colour; breaft and abdomen rufous; vent white; quill- 
feathers with many, tail with three bars of white. Lath. 
Notched falcon. 

Jative of Cayenne ; length fourteen inches. 

Formosus. Cere and legs pale yellow ; throat and neck 
purple ;, body above blue, tinged with red ; abdomen flefh- 
colour. Ztaleo formofus, Vath. Falco aquilinus, Gmel. 
Petit aigle d’? Amerique, Buff. Red-throated falcon. 

The length of this beautiful fpecies is eighteen inches. 
The bill is blue and ftraight at the bafe ; irids orange ; legs 
yellow ; claws black. Inhabits Cayenne and South Ame- 
rica, The female is five inches longer than the male, the 
body blacker, purple on the neck more obfcnre, and the 
potterior part of the thighs with the vent white. 

Axsscans. Cere and legs pale yellow; body brownifh, 


beneath whitifh; quill and ftail-feathers blackifh. Gmele 
White lanner. 
Iahabits Europe, and is by fome believed to be the fame 
with the common lanner, 
Lanarius. Cere pale yellow; legs and bill blue; body 
eath marked with black longitudinal {pots. Lian. Le 
» Buff. Lannerc?t, Alb. Lanner, Ars. Zool. Brown 


ther lefs than the buzzard, and inhabits Europe 5 very 
in Britain. ; 

Crantus. Cere white; legs fulvous); 
a white I 


body blue-grey ¢ 
y over the eyes, and furrounding the chin (male). 
Palea ¢ s, Linn. Falco torquatus (maf.),-Brifl, ~ Falco 
accipite af.), Ray. alco albanella, Germ, Falco sine- 
reusy Vrifch.  Oifeau Si. Martin, Buff. Hen Harriers 
Lath. Donov. Bre Birds, &c: 

‘Cere lees yellow; hody cinercous; abdomen pale, 
with oblong rufous {pots ; orbits of the eyes white (female). 

‘ale rgus, Linn. Falco torquatns (fem.). La foubufe, 
. Ring tail, Lath. Donoy. Br. Birds, &e. 

The above are the two fexes of the fame fpecies ; the 
mele is feventeen inches i: length, the female nineteen inches 
anda half; the {pecies is found ia Europe and Siberia. 

Huvsonius. Cere-and legs yellow; back brown; eye- 
brows white ; fpeculam onthe wing blueifh. Linn, Wings 
tailed hawk, Edwards. White-rumped bay falcon, Lath. 

Length one foot nine inches and a half; the bill black ; 
body beseath white, with rufous-brown fpots. -The*Hud- 
fon’s bay-ring-tail of Latham is fuppofed by that writer, in 
Ind. Orn. to be the fame with the above, and beth, together 
with the following, are imagined to be varieties of cyaneus. 

Burront. Cere blue; legs yellow; body blackith 
chefnut; beneath reddith buff; eye-brows yellow; tail 
with pale and dufky brown fpots. Gmel. Cayenne ringtail, 
Lath. 

Inhabits Cayenne. 

Ucicinosus.. Cere and legs orange, body above 
brown, bebeath fhining rulty ; tail with four black bands. 
Gmel. Adar/h hawk. 

Briffon confiders this as a variety of falco cyaneus, and 
in this opinion he is countenaaced by fome other writers ; 
it differs principally in being larger, and in having a black 
ftreak through the eye, independently of the above-mention- 
ed charaGers, “The Marfh hawk is reprefented as a fierce 
bird, and inhabits Jamaica. ; 

Caripvs. Legs yellows body brown-black, beneath 
white, with black lunvles; tail with obfolete bars. Lath. 
Behree falcon. 

This fpecies inhabits India, and is called Behree; its 
length is nineteen inches. 

Nitipus. Leadcolour; beneath white, with cinereous 
bands; tail-feathers blackish, with two narrow tranfverfe 
white lines. Gmel. Plumbeus falecn. 

Native of Cayenne; length thirteen inches and a half ; 
legs yellow. ; 

Tinnuncutus. Cere.and legs yellow; back rufous - 
with black dots ; breaft ftriated with fufcous ; tail rounded. 


Linn. Cenchris, Klein. La Crefferelle, Bull. Kefiril, 
frannel, or windhover, Will. Lath. Donov. Brit. Birds, 
&c. 7 


The male is fourteen inches in length, the female much 
larger ; the former has the head and tail grey, and the 
back and wings purplifh red, with black {pots; in the fe- 
male the head is reddifh with black itreaks; back, tail, _ 
and wing-coverts rufty with black lines. The Species was 
formerly employed in the {ports of falconry for young par-* 
tridges, and {mall birds. The hawk, called Pepervier des 
alouettes 


FALCO. 


a by Briffon js fuppofed to bea variety of the female 
eftril. 

Sparvertus. Cere and legs pale yellow ; head fufcous ; 
crown and abdomen red; wings blueifh. Linn. 2/falon 
peetnent Brifl, Lfmerillon de Cayenne, Buff. Little falcon, 
Catefby. 

Native of Carolina, Virginia, and St. Domingo; the 
Jength eleven inches, bill and irids yellowifh; head blueifh 
ath; crown, body above, and wing-coverts brown-orange, 
‘with black tranfverfe lines; tail red-brown, with dots of 


black ; legs yellow; head of the fuppofed female furrounded - 


with feyea blackith fpots, 

- Dominicensis. Cere and legs pale yellow; head ci- 
nereous ; body above red-brown, beneath dirty white, and 
both fpotted with black ; eight middle tail-feathers chefout, 
towards the tips black, and at the extremity white. Gmel. 
Asfalon ep aien ps: Brifl. £merillon de St. Domingue, 
oe New York-merlin, Lath. and St. Dominga falcon, 

ath. 

Inthabits St. Domingo, The bill is yellow, with the tip 
black ; irids yellow ; outer tail-feathers of the male white 
on the outfide and tips; infide chefaut, with a tranfverfe black 
{pot towards the tips ; of the female the outfide white, 
with five black fpots; claws black. The male alfo differs 
in having the upper part lefs numeroufly {potted than in the 
female, and the throat and fore part of the neck more inclin- 
ing to red-brown.. In the Ind. Orn. of Latham fparverius 
and dominicenfis are admitted to be of the fame f{pecies, the 
firil as male, the other female. 


Nisus. Cere green; legs yellow; abdomen undulated 
with grey; tail with blackith bands. Linn. Aecipiter, 


Brill. Nijus firiatus fagittatus, Frifeh. Le /parviere, Cetti. 
Lpervier, Bull. Sparrow hawk, Will. Dounov. 

* Thetwo fexes of this hawk are exceedingly dillimilar ; 
the male is twelve inches in length, and the female fifteen. 
In the male the plumage verges to dove colour, like the fe- 
male it is marked ou the breaft with, tran{verfe lines, but 
which are lefs abrupt, and numerous than in the other fex ; 
and the under parts are alfo darker. Both fexes are pale 
above the eyes, and the bill and legs blue. The fparrow 
hawk commits valt havoc among the young of, poultry and 
game, as well as pigeons, and all the {maller tribes of birds, 
The {potted fparrow hawk of Latham, l’epervier tacheté 
of Briffon, is a variety of this {pecies. 
with the plumage perfe@ly white, or milky white, occurs 
occafionally. Gmelin defcribes one of this kind asa dif- 
tin@ variety ‘ accipiter corpore toto lacteo unicolore.” 
The fame circumftance is however obfervable in birds of every 
defcription. 

Bouemicus. egs yellowifh; body above cinereous ; 
bencath white; orbits white; five exterior quill-feathers 
black. Gmel. Meufe-habicht, miffilauce, Mayer. Bohemian 

‘aleon. 

Inhabits the mountains of Bohemia, and preys in the 
evening on mice. Length about one foot. 

Fuscus. Cere cinereous; legs yellow; body black, 
waved; above cinereous-brown, beneath whitish. Gmel. 
American brown hawk. 

Size of the {parrow hawk ; bill lead colour ; tail cinereous 
with three tranfverfe pale brown bands; tip paler; claws 


black. ° 
’ Piscator, Somewhat crefted ; head ferruginous ; body 


~ cinereous; margin of the feathers fufcous ; beneath yellow- 
ith, with longitudinal fafcous {pots. Lath, aucon pecheur, 
Damp. Fi ing falcon. 
Native of Senegal, and fubfiftson fifh; the bill and irids 
are yellow ; legs fufcous. 


The {parrow hawk. 


Bavius. Legs pale, head and body above brown, be- 
neath white, with yellow lunar fpots; tail pale browns 
with four dufky lines, Falco badius, Gmel. Brown hawk, 
Brown IIluftr. 

Inhabits Ceylon ; length thirteen inches ; bill blue, irids 
yellow. 

Dusivus. Cere, irids, and legs yellow ; body fufcous, 
beneath white, ftriated with fufcous ; tail-feathers cine- 
reous, with four black bands. Gmel. Dubious falcon, 
Lath 

Length ten_inches, and inhabits Carolina. 

Ozscurus. Cere and legs yellow; hind head and neck 
{potted with white ; body above fufcous ; beneath whitifh 
lineated with black ; tail with fufeous bands. Felco obfcurus, 
Gmel. Dufhy falcon, Aré&t. Zool. 

Smaller than the laft, andinhabits New York. The bill 
is blueifh ; head dull fufcous ; tail fhort ; legs with the tip 
white 

CotumBariuvs. Cere, irids, and legs pale yellow 5 
body fufcous ; beneath whitifh, ftriated with fufcous ; tail 
with four narrow black bands. Linn, &c. Accipiter caro- 
linenfis, Brifl. Epervier des pigeons, Buff. Pigeon hawk, 
Catefby. 

Length teninches, the bill whitihh, with black tip; legs 
yellow, and cizws black; the fpecies is a native of Carolina, 
and other parts of North America, and’ is called the {mall 
bird hawk by the inhabitants of Hudfon’s bay. It feeds on 
{mall birds, and fhrieks hideoufly. 

Vocirerus. Legs yellow; body cinereous grey, be- 
neath white ; larger aad leffer wing-coverts black. Gmel. 
Petite bufe criade, Son. Criard falcon. 

Frequent among the rice plantations on the coaft of Co- 
romandel, where it is fuppofed to prey on the frogs which 
abound in thofe places; when-difturbed, it uttersa loud 
cry, and has hence obtained the name of criafd. Its fize 
isthat of a pigeon; the irids.are yellow, and the orbits red 
and naked. 

Supercitiosus. Cere and eye-lids pale yellow; body 
fufcous, with whitifh waves ; quill-feathers rufty, with 
black bands. Lian. Guiana falcon, Lath. 

Size of the magpie, and inhabits Surinam and Guiana. 
The fecondary tail-feathers are whitifh at the outer edge ; the 
tail black, with two broad bands, aud cinereous tip 3; vent 
white, with a few black ftreaks; bill and claws black. 

Vesprertinus. Cere, legs, and eyelids pale yellow ; 
vent and thighs ferruginous. Linn. Kober, Decouv. Jn 
grian falcon. 

Native of Ingria, Ruffia, and Siberia; on the banks of 
the Baikal very common, and known by the names of ko- 
ber and derbnitkchoek; it flies chiefly in the evening or night 
time, and feeds on quails, {mall birds, reptiles, &c. The 
fizeisthat of the pigeon ; the body blueifh, fufcous ; belly 
blueifh white; head fufcous; bill yellow; legs naked. 
The neft is built on the tops of high trees, and not unfre- 
quently it takes poffeffion of the magpie’s neft inftead of 
conftruGting one for itfelf. 

VesPERTINOIDES. Cere, legs, and eye-brows pale yel- 
low ; thighs black ; neck, breatt, and belly browniih, with 
white fpots, Falck, Kc. Permian falcon. 

Inhabits Permia and Bafchkiria, in Siberia; fize half 
that of vefpertinus. 

Macnirostris. Cere and legs yellow ; body fufcous ; 
abdomen white, with ferruginous itriz ; quill-feathers black 
and white banded. Gmel.  Epervier @ gros bec de Cayenne, 
Buff. Great-billed falcon. 2 

Larger than the fparrow hawk, and inhabits Cayenne. 

Jonannxensis. Legs pale yellow; body ferruginous, 

8 with 


FAL 


with linear black dots; throat pale yellow ; quill-feathers 
blackifh fufcous ; tail cuneiform and white. Lath. Johanna 
falcon. 

Inhabits the ifland of Johanna, in India; its fize uncer- 
tain, the {pecies being defcribed from a manufcript in*the 
poffefiion of the late Dr. Fothergill. 

Sussputzo. Cere and legs yellow; back fufcous ; nape 
white; abdomen pale, with oblong fufcous fpots; vent 
and thighs rufous. Linn. Falco barletta, Ger. Hobreau, 
Prifl. Baum-falck, Gunth. Hobby, Will. Lath. Donov. 
Br. Birds, &c. 

Native of Europe, and extending as far as Siberia. 
Length twelve inches; the bill blue; orbits yellow; lateral 
tail-feathers with blackifh bars; claws black. Preys on 
larks, and other {mall birds. A variety of this bird has the 
body above blueifh black; cheeks white with a black line 
reaching through them from the crown. 

Lirxoratco. Cere yellow ; body cinereous fufcous ; 
beneath reddifh with longitudinal fufcous ftreaks ; tail-fea- 
thers blackifh toward the tips, and at the extremity white. 
dhe lithofalco, Ray. Le rochier, Buff. Stone falcon, 

ill. 

Size of the keftril, and inhabits Europe ; bill lead-colour, 
irids yellow. 

Montanus. Legs pale yellow; body cinereous brown, 
beneath whitifh; head black; throat fpotted; tail at the 
bafe cinereous, in the middle blackifh, at the tip white. 
Gmel. Falco montanus, Ray. Mountain falcon, Will. 

Briffon defcribes this bird as being lefs than the peregrine 
falcon, and as a probable variety of the ftone falcon; the 
*¢ faucon de montagne cendrée”’ of the fame writer is con- 
ceived to be another variety ; the latter is twenty-one inches 
in length; the bill is black; iris yellow; general colour 
cinereous; paleft on the wing-coverts; beneath white ; 
legs luteous. 

Avrantius. Bill and legs lead colour; body blackith ; 
back, bafe, and tail with white interrupted bands ; breaft 
fulvous ; thighs ferruginous. Lath. Orange-breafted hobby. 

Native of Surinam, and in length fifteen inches. The 
bill is whitifh at the bafe ; throat with round white {pots ; 
lower tail-coverts rufty ; legs long and flender ; claws black. 
There is a variety in which the body is more dufky; the 
chin white, and throat orange ; this is two-thirds the fize 
of the former. Another of the fame magnitude as the lat- 
ter fmall variety has the legs tawny ; body above blueith- 
black with blueifh ftreaks, and ftreaked beneath with 
white. 

Prumseus. Cere dufky ; legs yellow ; body cinereous ; 
upper part of the back black-lead colour; tail feathers 
underneath with three white fpots. Lath.  Spotted-tail 
hobby. 

Size of the fparrow hawk ; bill and claws black ; head 
and neck cinereous ; legs fhort. Native of Cayenne. 

fEsaton. Cere and legs yellow; head ferruginous ; 
body above blueifh-afh with rufty {pots and ftripes; beneath 
yellowifh white with oblong fpots. Gmel, &c.  Cenchris, 
Frifch. Accipiter Jmerillus, Ger. Merlin, Will. Donov. 
Br. Birds, &c. 

The merlin inhabits various countries in Europe, and the 
fouthern part of Afia, but appears to be every where rather 
uncommon. ‘The f{pecies is of a {mall fize, being {carcely 
larger than a blackbird : it was neverthelefs formerly em- 
ployed in the {ports of falconry, and was not confidered in- 
ferior in point of {pirit to any of the hawk tribe. Merlins 
have been known to breed, though very rarely, in North 
Britain ; in lefs temperate regions they migrate foutherly 


FAL 


at the approach of winter. The bill is blueifh; tail marked 
with alternate dufky and reddifh ftreaks ; claws black. 

There are feveral varieties of this {pecies: one kind has 
the front cinereous ; crown, back, and wing-coverts chef- 
nut ; temples with a triangular {pot of white, edged with 
black ; tail chefnut with black ftripes, beneath varied with 
black and white. The Caribbee variety is rather larger than 
athrufh; it is rufous above with black fpots, beneath white 
with longitudinal fpots of black. Briffon confiders this as 
a variety of the merlin, and names it l’emerillon des Antilles. 
The natives of the Antilles call it gry gry. The true fal- 
coner’s merlin, according to Buffon, refembles the hobby 
in figure, except that the wings are fhorter, and in colour 
and other refpe€ts accords with the ftone falcon. This, 
however, feems very doubtful, as Salerne obferves, for 
{portimen have commonly confounded all birds of the hawk 
tribe inferior in fize to the buzzard, under the name of 
merlin, and there are, for this reafon, feveral birds which 
have an equal claim to the fame title, as well as the ambi- 
guous variety mentioned by Buffon, 

Minutus. Cere brown; legs yellow; body beneath 
white; tail-feathers brown, banded with black. Linn. 
Accipiter minor, Brifl. Minute falcon. 

Inhabits the ifland of Malta; length eleven inches; the 
bill and claws are black ; body above brown, varied with 
rufous ; beneath with tranfverle brownifh red ftreaks ; belly 
with lanceolate fpots. 

Cezrutescens. Cere, eye-lids, legs, and body beneath 
pale yellow ; back blueifh black ; temples furrounded by a 
white line. Linn. Falco bengalenfis, Briff. Little black 
and orange Indian hawk, Edw. Bengal falcon. Length fix 
inches and a half ; inhabits Bengal. 

Recutus. Cere greenifh; legs obfcure yellow ; ruff 
ferruginous ; body above lead colour, beneath whitifh with 
rufty {pots. Pallas. Siberian falcon. 

A rare {pecies difcovered by Pallas in Siberia ; the irids 
are brown ; crown brown with black lines ; wings white at 
the edges, varying beneath ; tail-feathers lead-colour to- 
wards the tip, beneath with pale bands, edges black, tips 
white. Lefs than fix inches in length; and preys on 
larks, 

Tinvs. Legs yellow; body cinereous fufcous; beneath 
whitifh with blackifh bands ; crown whitifh. Lath. Tiny 
falcon. 

This minute fpecies, formerly in the Leverian mufeum, 
is fix inches in length, or rather lefs ; the bill dufky ; legs 
yellow. The tail in this fpecimen wanting. 

The jer-falcon, the gentil falcon, the common falcon, the 
peregrine, and the gofhawk, were the principal {pecies ufed 
in the diverfion of Fafconry, which fee. 

Facon, in Gunnery. See Faucon. 

Farcon //lands, in Geography, two or three {mall iflands 
near the coatt of Conneéticut, in Long Ifland found. N. lat. 
41° 10!. W. long. 72° 4o!. 

Farcon, in Ornithology. See Fauco. 

FALCONARA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in 
Calabria Citra; nine miles W. of Cofenza. 

FALCONE, Da Benevento, in Biography, an ancient 
chronicler, filled an high office under pope Innocent II. 
about the middle of the 12th century. He was afterwards 
chief magiftrate of Benevento. He wrote a chronicle of 
the affairs of the kingdom of Naples from 1102 to 1140, 
which is efteemed a faithful and very ufeful record. It is 
found in Muratori’s and other hiftorical colleGtions. Moreri. 

FALCONER, a perfon who brings up, tames, and 
makes, that is, tutors and manages birds of prey; as falcons, 
hawks, &c. The grand feignior ufually keeps fix thoufand 

1 - falconers 


FAL 


falconers in his fervice. ‘The French king had a grand fal- 
xoner, which was an office difmembered from that of great 
hunt, grand veneur. The duke of St. Alban’s is hereditary 
grand falconer of England. 

Hiflorians take notice of this poft as early as the year 
1250. One great bufinefs of the falconer is to confider the 
quality and mettle of the birds, to know which to fly early, 
and whichlate. He muftalfo be bufy and cleanly in freeing 
them of lice, nits, and vermin. Every night aiter flying 
he fhould give his bird cafting ; nor muft he forget to water 
her unlefs fhe have been bathed. After this, fhe muft be 
put in a warm room, having a perch, with a candle burning 
by her; where fhe is to fit unhooded, that fhe may prune 
and pick herfelf. Next morning fhe fhould be weathered, 
&e. 

. Farconer, Wittitam, in Biography, was born in a 
village in Fifefhire, Scotland, and left, at an early age, an 
orphan. He was brought up a failor, and in that capacity 
he fpent the greater part of his life, in a very low ftation. 
We do not know how he acquired a tafte for literature, but 
while ferving on board a man of war he attracted the no- 
tice of Campbell, author of Lexiphanes, who took him for 
his fervant, and became his literary inftruétor. He pub- 
lifhed, in 1751, a poem on the death of Frederic, prince of 
Wales, which was but little noticed, and he was left to ftrug- 
gle with the hardfhips of his profeffion. Like many other 
poets, he feems to have been the fport of ill fortune, for he 
éalls himfelf ‘a haplefs youth, whofe vital page was one 
fad lengthened tale of woe.’? He fuffered fhipwreck ina 
voyage from Alexandria to Venice, a circumftance that pro- 
duced a poem to which he is indebted for celebrity : it is 
entitled “* The Shipwreck.”? He dedicated this little work 
to Edward, duke of York, by whofe intereft he obtained 
the lucrative employment of purfer to the Royal George. 
‘This poem confifts of three cantos: the {cene of the firlt is 
Near the city of Candia, and the time about four days anda 
half; the fcene of the fecond hes in the fea between Cape 
Frefchia in Candia, and the ifland of Falconera; the time 
from nine in the morning till one the following morning ; 
the fcene of the third ftretches from that part of the Ar- 
chipelago which lies ten miles to the northward of Fal- 
conera to Cape Colonna, in Attica; the time from one till 
eight in the morning. The verfification of this poem is 
varied and melodious; its defcription, being drawn from 
reality, is ftrong, glowing, and often original. It is, never- 
thelefs, fo technical, as fometimes to be too ob{cure for com- 
mon readers; but it has the advantage of communicating 
new ideas, which is no common quality in cultivated verfe. 
After Mr. Falconer’s promotion in the {ea-fervice, he enlifted 
in the field of fatyrical controverfy, as one of the king’s 
friends, and wrote a fatyrical poem, entitled, “* The Dema- 
gogue,’”? in which Mr. Pitt, Wilkes, Churchill, and the 
oppofition in general, were treated with virulence. In 1769 
he publifhed “ The Marine Dictionary,” a work of 
confiderable merit, and to which many modern Cyclo- 

edias have been indebted. This was his laft performance, 
or in the fame year he embarked on board the Aurora, 
bound to the Eait Indies, where Falconer propofed to fet- 
tle. The veffel was never heard of after fhe left the Cape 
of Good Hope, and it is fuppofed fhe perifhed with all her 
crew. Lives of the Poets. 

FALCONERA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in 
the duchy of Mirandola; four miles N.E. of Mirandola. 
N, lat. 36° 57'. IE. long. 24° 1'—-Alfo, a town of Italy, 
in the department of the Panaro; four miles N. of Mi- 
randola. 


FALCONET, in Gunnery. See Fauconer. 


FAL 
FALCONIERI, in Geovraphy, a {mall iflandin the Me. 


diterranean, near the coaft of Sicily. 

FALCONRY, or Fauconry, the art of taming, ma- 
naging, and tutoring, birds of prey, particularly falcons 
and hawks; and employing them with advantage in the 
purfuit of game ; called alfo hawking. This art is now in 
a great degree fuperfeded through moft parts of Europe by 
the more certain and ready fervices of the gun. 

The word is formed of falco, falcon, or faucon, the bird of 
moft ufe and efteem in this kind of fport. 

Falconry, though the principal amufement of our ancef- 
tors, was either wholly unknown, or very little praétifed, 
among the Greeks and Romans. All their writings do not 
furnifh fo much as a proper name to call it by; fo far are 
they from teaching us the terms. Ariftotle (Hift. Anim. 
1, ix. c. 6.) merely mentions fome rude practice of this art in 
Thrace; and /Blian (Hift. Anim. 1. iv.c. 26.) {peaks of 
hawks and crows among the Indians (fee alfo Pliny H. N. 
].ii. c.8.); but little or no mention of true falconry oc- 
curs before Julius Firmicus, in the days of Conftantius, fon 
to Conftantine the Great. If the Romans, fays the learned 
Rigaltius, had well underitood their airy chace, they would 
have abandoned or lefs regarded their Circenfian recreations. 
In the European world the Germans and the French feem 
to have been the firft who devoted themfelves to the feience 
of falconry. 

It is the French language alone that has particular words 
for all the parts of falconry and hunting; and from them 
moft of our terms, as well as what we know of the art itfelf, 
are borrowed. 

The art of falconry, fays Beckmann, who maintains 
that it was known to both the Greeks and Romans, feems 
to have been in the greateft perfeftion, and to have been 
much in vogue with the principal: courts of Europe, in the 
12th century. Hence fome have, therefore, afcribed the 
invention of it to the emperor Frederic I., and others to 
Frederic II. But when the invention of gun-powder was 
introduced, hawks were difcarded, and the diverfion of fowl- 
ing was very much reftricted to fhooting. 

“© In our own country,” fays Mr. Pennant, “I cannot 
trace the certainty of falconry till the reign of king Ethel- 
bert, the Saxon monarch, in the year 760, when he wrote to 
Germany for a brace of falcons, which would fly at cranes 
and bring them to the ground, as there were very few fuch 
in Kent. It feems highly probable, that falconry had its 
rife in Scythia, and pafled from thence to the northern parts 
of Europe. Tartary is even at prefent celebrated for its 
fine breed of falcons; and the fport is in fuch general 
efteem, that, according to Olearius, (tom. i. p. 217,218.) 
there was no hut hut what had its eagle or falcon. The 
boundlefs plains of that country are as finely adapted to the 
diverfion, as the wooded or mountainous nature of moft part 
of Europe is ill calculated for that rapid amufement.”’ 

In England falconry feems to have continued in high ree 
pute till about the time of the Ufurpation, after which it 
appears to have gradually declined. This diverfion was 
purfued with fuch ardour fo late as the reign of James I. 
that fir James Monfon is faid to have given a thoufand 
pounds fora caft of hawks; and the laws were very ri- 
gorous that tended to preferve this pleafure. Inthe 34th of 
Edw. III. it was made felony to iteala hawk; and to take 
its eggs, even in a perfon’s own ground, was punifhable with 
imprifonment for a year and a day, befidesa fine at the king’s 
pleafure; and in the reign of queen Elizabeth the impri- 
fonment was reduced to three months; but the offender was 
to find fecurity for his goed behaviour for feven years, or 
to remain in prifon tillhe did. We may here obferve, that 
almoft 


FAIZO-O,N RY. 


atmoft every kind of falcon, from the largeft to the fmallef, 
may be trained to falconry; even eagles themfelves have 
here been ufed for the chace of the roebuck, the antelope, 
the wolf, fox, &c. Falcons of the larger kind, as the jer-falcon, 
the peregrine, and the gofhawk, were ufed for the flight after 
the heron, the wild goofe, the-crane, the hare, &c. ; and the 
common falcon for game in general; while thofe of the 
{maller kind were often inftructed to fly at the partridge and 
the quail, The Iceland falcon is, according to Mr. Pen- 
nant, inthe highelt efteem, and will laft ten or twelve years 
(fome falcons are {aid to continue in full vigour for twenty 
years); whereas thofe of Norway, and other countries, are 
feldom fit for the {ports of the field after two or three years’ 
ufe. The feats performed by the jer-falcon may be num- 
bered among the nobleft inthe practice of falconry. Sca- 
liger afferts, that he faw fome which belonged to Henry, 
king of Navarre, ftrike down a buzzard, two wild geefe, 
divers kites, a crane, andafwan. Among the betft of hawks 
for falconry isalfo the gofhawk; thefe were ufed by the em- 
peror of China in his fporting progrefles attended by his grand 
falconer, and athoufand fubordinate perfons in his train. 
The emperor often carried a hawk on his hand, to let fly at 
any game which might prefent itfelf, and which were ufually 
pheafants, partridges, cranes, or quails. ‘This diverfion was 
witneffed by Marco Polo in the year 1269. The flight of 
a ftrong falcon is wonderfully {wift. To this purpole it is 
recorded that a falcon, belonging to a duke of Cleve, flew 
out of Weftphalia into Pruffia in one day; and in the county 
of Norfolk a hawk has made a flight at a woodcock near 
thirty miles in an hour. 

Hawks in general prove courageous or cowardly all their 
lives, as they are firft quarried ; and if they are taken out of 
the eyrie before they are fully fummed and well penned, 
their wings will never grow to perfection. Their legs alfo 
will grow crooked, and their train will be full of taints. 
Falcons of one and the fame kind are called by the fportf- 
men by very different names, and efteemed of feveral differ- 
ent kinds, according to the places and time of their reclaim- 
ing, and the countries from whence they came. ‘Thus 
the names mewed-hawk, ramaged-hawk, foar-hawk, and 
eyefle, firt commenced ; and thefe are again divided into 
large hawks, wean hawks, and flender hawks. All thefe 
have different mails and plumes, according to the country 
from whence they come; feme are black, fome brown; 
they have alfo each its different difpofition, fome being beft 
forthe field, and others for the brook orriver. Different 
names are alfo given to falcons according to their different 
age and time of taking. The falcon is called an’ eyefle, as 
long as fhe remains in the eyrie; thefe are always trouble- 
fome in their feeding ; they cry very much, and they are not 
entered without great difficulty ; but being once well en- 
tered, they prove excellent hawks for the heron and all the 
large fowl, and are very hardy and full of courage. The 
fecond name given this bird is the ramage-falcon. ‘This 
-name fhe retains from the time of her leaving the eyrie, during 
the months of June, July, and Auguft. Thefe are always 
hard to be manned; but being reclaimed, they are not in- 
ferier to anyhawk. The third is the foar-hawk, fo called 
in September, Oétober, and November. Thefe birds 
keep tor a whole twelvemonth the firft feathers, which they’ 
have on when they leave the eyrie, and do not molt 
them. Thefe are therefore called the foar-feathers. The 
fourth is termed the murzarolt or carvift, quafi carry-fitt ; 
for they may .at this time be almoft continually carried on 
the fit. They.are thus called from January to the middle 
of May. ‘Thefe are ufually great baters, and very little 
eaters; they are fubject to feveral troublefome dilorders, 


particularly to the filanders, more than any other hawk, and 
they are very feldom brought to be good for any thing. 
The fifth name is the entermew. They are called by this 
name from May till December, becaufe all that time they 
are calting their coats, Thefe would be excellent hawks if 
they could be trufted; but they are unfleady. They mutt 
be kept hard under, and the falconer muft make his fiit their 
perch. The hawk newly taken muft be feeled, have all new 
furniture, and mutt be often ftroked with a ftick to acenf> 
tom her to be gentle. She'mutt alfo have two good bells, 
that fhe may be well heard when fhe ftirs or {cratches ; and 
her beak and talons muft be cut a little, but not fo near as 
to make them bleed. If there be a foar-falcon taken that 
has already croffed the feas, fhe is ufually very hard to be 
broken; but that being well done, fhe is the beft of all 
hawks. Her food muft be good and warm, and it muft 
be given her at leaft three timesaday. It fhould be pigeons, 
larks, or other live birds; for fhe muft be broke by de- 
grees from her accuftomed manner of feeding. The hawk 
muft always be fed with hoop and Inre, that fhe may always 
know when you will give her meat. She muft then be 
gently unhooded, and two or three bits being given her, 
fhe muft be hooded again; and in the night let her rooft on 
a perch near fome perfon’s bed, that fhe may be often waked 
inthe night. When by thefe means fhe becomes tame and 
gentle, her ufual food may be changed, and a fheep’s heart 
given her. Alter.this fhe may be unhooded in the day 
time, but not in company, and after giving her a bit or two, 
fhe muft be hooded again, and then a little more given her. 
After this, by degrees, fhe will be taught to eat before 
company, and then the bufinefs of taming her will foon be 
accomplifhed, Till fhe is thoroughly manned, fhe mutt be. 
borne continually on the fill, and fed in company, giving her 
in the morning about fun-rife the wing of a pullet, and. 
every morning the foot of a hare or rabbit cut eff above the 
joint, flead, and laid in water, which having {queezed give it 
her with the pinion of a hen’s wing. It is beft to give the 
hawk wafhed meat, and after this plumage, according as fhe 
feems to be foul withif. She is then to be hooded, and no- 
thing more fhould be given her till fhe gleams after cafting;_ 
but when fhe has gleamed and catt, fhe fhould then have 
fome hot meat given her, toward evening efpecially, and be 
made to eat in company. When fhe is well reclaimed, man- 
ned, and fharp-fet, fhe may be fed on the lure. 

But three things are to be confidered before your lure 
be fhewed her. 1. That fhe be bold and familiar in com- 
pany, and not afraid of dogs and horfes. 2. Sharp-fet 
and hungry, having regard to the hour of morning and 
evening when you would Ture her. 3. Clean within, and 
the lure well garnifhed with meat on both fides. When 
you intend to give her the length of a leafh, you muft ab- 
fcond yourfelf ; fhe muft alfo be unhooded, and have a bit 
or two given her on the lure, as fhe fits on your fit. That 
done, take the lure from her, and fo hide it that fhe may 
not fee it; when fhe is unfeeled, caft the lure fo near her, 
that fhe may catch it within the length of her leafh ; and as 
foon as fhe has feized it, ufe your voice as falconers do, 
feeding her.upon the lure on the ground. 

After having lured your falcon, in the evening give her 
but little meat, and let this luring be fo timely, #4 you 
may give her plumage, &c. next morning on your fit ; 
when fhe has cait and gleamed, give her a little beaching 
of warm meat about noon, tie a creance to her leafh, go 
into the field, there give her a bit or two upon the lure, 
and unfeelher. If you find fhe is fharp-fet, and has eagerly 
feized on the lure, let a man hold her, to let her off to the 
lure ; then unwind the creance, and draw it after you a good 

way, 


FALCONRY. 


way, and let him who has the bird hold his right hand on 
the taffel of her hood, ready to unhood her as foon as you 
begin to lure; to which if fhe come well, ftoop roundly 
upon it, and haftily feize it ; let her caft two or three bits 
thereon ; that done, take her off the lure and deliver her 
again to the perfon that held her; and, going farther off 
the lure, feed her as before ; and fo daily farther and farther 
off the lure. Afterwards you may lure her in company, 
but do not fright ber: and having ufed her to lure on the 
foot, do it alfo on horfeback 3 which may be fooner accom- 
plifhed, by caufing horfemen to be about you, when you 
lure her on foot : it is alfo fooner done, by rewarding her 
upon the lure on horfeback among horfemen. And when 
fhe is grown familiar this way, let fomebody a-foot hold 
her, and he that is on horfeback mutt call, and caft the 
lure about his head, while the holder takes off the hood by 
the taffel ; and if fhe feize eagerly on the lure without 
fear of man or horfe, then take off the creance, and lure 
at a greater diftance. Laftly, if you would have her love 
dogs as well as the lure, call dogs when you give her 
lumage. See Hawkxina. 

The Abbé le Pluche, in his defcription of falconry, re- 
prefents it as one of the nobleft, and alfo the mott profitable 
of pleafures. For the various kinds of this diverfion, the fal- 
con, the jer-falcon, the lanner, the faker, the gofhawk, 
the merlin, and the fparrow-hawk are ufed ; but in general 
the falcon and hawk are more frequently ufed than the rett. 
The falcon, jer-faicon, and gofhawk are in great repute ; 
and are trained up to various flights, fome of which are 
pointed againft the heron, others againft the kite, the cur- 
lew, or the owl. The hawk is ufed in low flights, and is 
fagacious and fuccefsful in attacking the partridge. The 
manner of training up hawks, and employing them in the 
field, is very agreeable. Such as are taken in the nett are 
called « Rias,’? and fuch as are taken when full-grown, 
and at full liberty, are called «* Haggards,” or old birds. 
When hawks are too wild, they are neither fed, nor fuffered 
to fleep for three or four days and nights, and are never left 
alone; by which means they come familiarized to the fal- 
coner, and obedient to all his commands. An unquiet hawk 
has been fometimes placed in a {mith’s fhop, where, by the 
continued noife of the hammering, he has been made gentle 
and traGtable. The principal care of the falconer is to ac- 
cuftom thefe birds to fettle in his filt, to {pring when he 
throws them off ; to know his voice, his finging, his whittle, 
or any other fignal he givesthem, and to return to order on 
his fit. At firft they are tied with a ftring about 30 fa- 
thoms in length, to prevent them from flying away ; from 
which they are not releafed till they are completely difci- 
plined, and return at the proper call or fignal. Yor this 
purpofe they muft be lured. The lure isa piece of red 
hulk er wool, on which are fixed a bill, talons, and wings. 
To this is likewife faftened a piece of that flefh on which 
the bird feeds, and the lure is thrown out to him. When 
they intend to reclaim or recall him, the fight of food bring's 
him back ; and in time the voice will be fufficient. The 
various plumage with which the lure is fet off is called a 
« Drawer.”? _When they accuftom the hawk to fly at a 
kite, a heron, or a partridge, they change the drawer ac- 
cording to the kind of game to which he is to be devoted. 
When this is a kite, they fix the bill and feathers of that 
bird to the lure ; and fo of the reft: and in order to entice 
the bird to his object, they faften beneath the drawer or 
plumage the flefh of a chicken, or other fowl, occafionally 
feafoned with fugar and fpices, together with marrow and 
other delicacies. Thus he is prepared for {pringing at real 
game, which he does with /urprifing precipitation. Having 


Vou. XIV. 


been accuftomed to a month’e exercife in a chamber or 
garden, the bird is tried in the open fields, when little bells 
are faftened to his feet, in order to be informed of his mo- 
tions. He is always capped or hooded, that he may fee no 
obje& but his game ; and as foon as the dogs either ftop or 
{pring it, the falconer unhoods the bird, and toffes him into 
the air after his prey. His various motions in the air furnifh 
much diverfion ; at length he defcends and launches upon 
his prey with the rapidity of an arrow, and bears it to his 
matter, who recalls him. By thefe fi: ft effays, he is pre- 
fented with the neck and entrails of the prey which he has 
brought. Thefe gratuities, and the carefies of the falconer, 
animate the bird to the performance of his duty, and pre- 
vent him from “ bearing away his bells ;’” that is, from 
flying off, and not returning, which, however, 1s fometimes 
the cafe. 

When falcons are taught to fly at rabbits, hares, &c. it 
is called ** flying at the fur ;”” and fome are inftruGed to 
fly at the fur and the plume, or to the purfuit of hares and 
rabbits, as well as of pheafants and partridges, &c. Torthis 
purpofe, when the falcon is very tame, they either take a 
live hare, and break ove of its legs, or elfe a here’s fkin 
ftuffed with itraw ; and having fixed to ita piece of chick- 
en’s flefh, or fuch food as the falcon is moft fond of, they 
tie this {kin, with a long cord, to the girth of a horfe, and 
as the fkin is thus draggedalong, the bird imagines it to be 
ahare in flight, and is allowed to dart upon it; and is thus 
taught to diltinguifh the animal, Falcons of the larger 
kind have been taught to fly at the roebuck, and even at the 
wild boar, and the wolf. With this view they fhould be 
accuftomed to feed, when young, from out of the fockets 
of the eyes of a wolf’s or boar’s head; the whole fkin of 
the animal being ftuffed, fo as to make it appear alive. 
While the bird is feeding, the falconer begins to move the 
figure gradually ; in confequence of which the bird learns 
to faiten itfelf fo as to ftand firm, notwith{tanding the pre- 
cipitate motions which are gradually given to the ftuffed 
animal. He would lofe his meal if he quitted his hold, 
and therefore he takes care to fecure himfelf. When thefe 
firft exercifes are finifhed, the fkin is placed on a cart, 
drawn by a horfe at full {peed ; the bird follows it, and is 
particularly feeding ; and then, when they come to fly him 
in the field, he never fails to dart on the head of the firft 
beaft of the kind he difcovers, and begins to {coop out the 
eyes. This puts the animals iato fuch diftrefs, that the 
hunters have time to approach, and difpatch it with their 
{pears. 

In order to obtain birds fit for inftruGtion, they fhould, if 
poffible, be taken from the neft; but as this is not always 
practicable, the wild and full-grown bird mult undergo the 
troublefome procefs of education. Falcons, like all other 
birds, may be taken by means of nets, fuch as are ufed in 
catching larks ; but the main difficulty is that of initra@ing 
the bird. If a falcon is purfuing his prey in the air, he 
will. not defcend to an immoveable and lifelefs bait on the 
grouud. é 

As this is the cafe, the experienced falconer fixes in the 
centre of his neta pulley, or a {trong iron wire bent into a 
ring, through which he pailes a ftring, 30 or go fathoms 
long, and at its extremity ties by its legs a live pigeon, 
which he carries with him into his hut or cover; and asthe 
falcon fometimes flies fo high as not to be feen, the falconer 
is informed of his motions by meaus of a butcher-bird, 
which is fattened by a {tring tied to a flick fixed near the 
net. This bird by its movements indicates the kind of hawk 
which is hovering above ; if it be a buzzard, or any kind of 


lluggifh hawk, the butcher-bird’s motions are but fli 


FAL 


but. if it fuddenly flies down and hides itfelf, it isa fign that 

_fome Jarge kind of faiconis above. The falconer, therefore, 
Jets out the pigeon, whofe apparent ftate of liberty attracts 
the fight of the falcon. If it approach readily, the man 
withdraws the pigeon, and, after a very fhort interval, lets 
it out again. ‘This fecond appearance of the pigeon never 
faiis to invite the falcon, which darts upon it as his preys 
and is confequently caught in the net, which the man 
inftantly draws over it. The above-defcribed method of 
taking falcons, and, indeed, the art of falconry in general, 
feems to have been held in no high ee Linneus, 
fince, by way of note to his fpecife character of * falco 
gentilis,’”’ he adds ‘ ars capiendi falcones columba et lanio, 
inftituendi, venandi gazellas, ardeas, avicuks, &c. propriis 
artificibus commiffa, in Juxuriam magnatum, ridenda etiam 
a ftulto.”’ 

Among the oldeft writers on falconry we may reckon 
Demetrius, who, about the year 1270, was phyfician to the 
emperor Michael Paleolopus. His book, written in Greek, 
was firlt printed at Paris in 1612, by Nicholas Rigaltius, 
from a MS. in the king’s library, and with the Latin tranf- 
lation-of Peter Gyllius. (See Fabr. Bibl. Gree. ]. i. c. 25. 
vol.i. 155.) A curious precept occurs in the book of De- 
metrius, which requires {porti{men to fay their prayers 
before they go out to the field. Some other works, of un- 
known antiquity, were printed at the fame time. 

The writers of reputation on falconry are Defparon, 
Franchiere, Tardiffe, Artelouche, Dalagona, Latham, &c. 
M. de S. Martha has put the principles of the art into fine 
Latin verfes, in bis Hierafcofophion, five De Re Accipi- 
traria, libri tres. 

There is alfo a treatife on hunting, hawking, and heral- 
dry, printed at St. Alban’s by Caxton, and attributed to 
dame Julian Barnes. Beckmann’s Hilt. of Inventions, &c. 
yol. i. Shaw’s Zoology, vol. vii. part. i. 

FALCZI, or Fartscui, in Geography, a town of Mol- 
davia, on the Pruth ; 32 miles E. N, E. of Birlat. 

FALDAGE, a term which was formerly employed to 
fignify an old privilege referved by different lords of manors 
to themfelves, for fetting up fheep-folds or pens in any 
fields within their manors, for the purpofe of having them 
better manured, not only with their own, but likewife with 
their tenants’ fheep. It was alfo frequently termed /*da 
faldac, and in fome particular old charters fold-/oca, which 
in fome places implied a fold courfe, or free-fold. 

FALDE'LLA, in Surgery, rolled or twifted lint, ufed 
for compreffes. 

FALD-FEE, or Fey, in Rural Economy, is a term 
which was formerly ufed to denote a rent or fee paid by 
certain cuftomary tenants for the liberty of folding their 
fheep upon their own lands. 

FALDUSTOR wasanciently ufed to fignify the higheft 
feat of a bithop, inclofed round with a lattice. 

FALDWORTH, among the Old Writers, was ufed to 
fignify a perfon of age, fufficient to be reckoned of fome 
decennary. 

FALE, in Geography, a river of England, in the county 
of Cornwall, which rifes about five miles S.E. from 
St. Columb Major, and russ into the fea at Falmouth. 

FALEMIL, ariver of Africa, which runs into the Sene- 
gal; 20 miles W. of Gallam. 

FALERA, a town of Switzerland, in the Grifons; 
four miles N. N. E. of Lantz. 

FALIGE, a town of Germany, in the principality of 
Culmbach ; five miles S.S. E. of Hof. 

FALIN, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which runs into 
the fea of Japan. N. lat. 43° 5’. E. long. 133° 164 


FAL 


FALIOS, a town of A fiatic Turkey, on the Black fea ; 
24 miles W. of Amafrek. 

FALKANAU, a town of Silefia, in the principality of 
Neiffe ; four miles S. of Grotkau.—Alfo, a town of Bohe- 
mia, in the circle of Saatz, on the Egra, in which are 
manufactures of alum, fulphur, and vitriol; 12 miles N. E. 
of Egra. N. lat. 50° 9’. E. long. 12° 37'. 

FAILKENAW, atown of Pruffia, in Oberland, 22 miles 
S. E. of Marienwerder.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in Erme- 
land; nine miles S. W. of Marienburg. 

FALKENBERG, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 10 
miles N. of Oberwoltz.—Alfo, a fea-port town of Sweden, 
in the province of Holland, fituated at the mouth of the 
Athron, on the Scaggerac. The chief employment of the 
inhabitants is fifhing, 52 miles N. of Helfingborg. N. lat. 
56° 50'. E. long. 12° 19'—Alfo, a town kok in 
the county of Lippe; two miles S. of Horn,—Alfo, a 
town of Saxony; five miles N. W. ef Leibenwerda.—Alfo, 
a town of the Middle Mark of Brandenburg ; feven miles 
E. N. E. of Farftenwald.— Alfo, a town of Silefia, called 
Niomodlin, in the principality of Oppeln; 14 miles W. of 
Oppeln. N. lat. 50° 35’. E.long. 17° 22’. 

FALKENBURG, a town of Brandenburg, ia the New. 
Mark, on the Drage ; 124 miles N. E. of Berlin. N. lat. 
53° 28. E.leng. 16>. See alio Fauquemonr, 

FALKENHAGEN, a town of the duchy of Pome- 
rania; five miles S. of Ramelfburg.—Alfo, a town of the 
Middle Mark of Brandenburg; 40 miles E. of Berlin. N. lat. 
52° 25’. E.long. 14° 30’. 

FALKENSTEIN, Joun Henry, in Biography, was 
born in 1682. He received his education at fome of the 
Dutch or German univerlities, and was, in the year 1714, 
appointed direétor of the academy of Erlangen. After this 
he entered into the fervice of John Anthony, bifhop of 
Eichftadt, by whom he was employed to write a hiftory of 
the bifhopric. By the death of his patron he loft his em- 
ployment in the year 1730, and was taken into the fervice 
of the margrave of Anfpach. In this fituation he remained 
till the time of his ceath in Feb. 1762. He was buried 
inatomb, which he caufed to be built in his life time, and 
which he often vifited. Falkenftein wrote much, but his 
works contain a deal of matter collected without tafte and 
judgment, but which will be found ufeful to the future 
hittorian. His principal performances are, ‘* Antiquitates 
Nordgavienfes,” or refearches refpecting the antiqnities 
and every thing remarkable in regard to the town of Nord- 
gau; in three vols. fol. ; ‘* Delicie topographice Norim- 
bergenes,” or a geographical defeription of the imperial city 
of Nuremberg, &c.; ‘* Antiquitates Sudgavienfes,”’ or an 
hiftorical defcription of thofe diftriéts which in the feventh 
and eighth centuries were known under the general name 
of Sudgau, &c. Gen. Biog. 

FAvKensTEin, in Geography, a town of Auftria, with 
acaftle, the proprictor of which has a right to coin money ; 
10 miles N, W. of Zifterfdorff.—Alfo, a town of Auttria, 
10 miles S, of Aigen.—Alfo, a town of Upper Bavaria, on 
the Inn; 24 miles S. W. of Traunftein.—Alfo, a {mall 
county of Germany, ceded to France by the treaty of 
Campo Formio, and confirmed by the peace of Luneville. 
It contains the town of Winweiler, a town of its own name, 
and about 15 villages. The inhabitants are partly Roman 
Catholics, but chiefly Lutherans.—Alfo, a town of Ger- 
many, in Lower Bavaria, 13 miles N. of Straubing.—Alfo, 
a town of Germany, in the Vogtland, called Elleford ; 
two miles S. of Aarbach.—Alfo, a town of France, in the 
department of Mont Tonnerre, but in the county of Fal- 

kenitein ; 


F AL 
kenftein ; 24 miles W. of Worms, and 27 N. E. of Deux 


Ponts. 

FALKIA, in Botany, fo named by Thunberg in com- 
memoration of John Peter Falk, profeflor at Peterfburgh, 
whom he celebrates as a highly meritorious ard very found 
botanift. Linnzus in his Supplementum fays profeffor Falls 
was a Swede, and tamous tor his botanical tour in the 
eaitern parts of Ruffia. Thunb. Nov. Gen. 17. Linn. 
Suppl. 30. Schreb. 237. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 248. 
Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 2. Juff.132. Clafs and order, Pen- 
tandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Borragineis affine, Julf. 

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped, with 
five angles, in five ovate, bluntifh, equal fegments. Cor. 
of one petal, twice as long as the calyx, funnel-fhaped, 
fpreading, plaited, its margin in ten regular fegments. 
Stam. Filaments five, thread-fhaped, ereét, rather fhorter 
than the corolla and inferted into its tube; anthers ovate, 
comprefled. Pi/f?. Germens four, fuperior, {mooth; ftyles 
two, capillary, divaricated, the length of the corolla; 
fligmas capitate, obtule. Peric.none. Seeds tour, globofe, 
in the bottom of the calyx. 

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, inferior. 
petal, plaited, funnel-fhaped, with ten fegments, 
four, naked. 

1. Forepens. Linn. Suppl.2rr. Ait, Hort. Kew. v. r. 
325. (Convolvulus Falckia; Thunb. Prod. Cap. 35.) 
Native of watery places at the Cape of Good Hope. 
Stems perennial, woody, creeping, branched, leafy. Leaves 
on long ftalks, cluitered, beart-fhaped, obtufe, entire, rather 
flethy, flichtly downy. F¥owers on fimple, folitary, ax- 
illary ftalks, white or pale flefh-coloured, exaétly like thofe 
of a Convolvulus, to which genus profeflor Thunberg has 
now reduced this plant. Confequently his own defcription 
of the fruit, as given aboye, mult be exceftively erroneous. 
‘The learned editors of the Hortus Kewen/fis had long ago 
corrected another miftake in the number of the ftamens, 
which they found to be five only, as analogy would lead us 
to expect ; not fix, except from occafional luxuriance. 

FALKIRK, in Geography, a confiderable town in the 
fhire of Stirling, Scotland, is fituated on an eminence near 
the river Carron on the high road from Edinburgh to 
Glafgow, and commands an extenfive profpeét of the ad- 
jacent country. It was formerly a royal borough; but is 
now governed by a baron-bailie, appointed by the lord of 
the manor. This town is noted for feveral fairs, and three 
celebrated tryfts, at which are fold on an average 60,c00 
head of black cattle, and a great number of fheep and 
horfes. Yalkirk is 12 miles diftant from Stirling, and 24 
from Edinburgh ; the whole parifh, which includes feveral 
villages, was returned, in 1801, as containing 1767 houfes, 
and 8838 inhabitants. The great cana}, which forms a com- 
Taunication between the Britifh ocean and the north chau- 
‘nel, interfeéts this parifh. A degree of celebrity attaches 
to Falkirk from a battle fought in its vicinity July 22, 1298, 
when the Scots, under fir William Wallace, were defeated 
by the Englifh under Edward I. ; and the town was again 
‘diftinguifhed by an engagement between the royal and rebel 
forces January 18, 1746. 
~ FALKLAND, a town in the fhire of Fife, Scotland, 
‘was erected into a royal borough in 1458. The govern- 
‘ment is velted in three bailies, 14 counfellers, a treafurer, and 
‘town clerk. The town is neatly built, and plentifully 
fupplied with water by leaden pipes : and carries on a con- 
fiderable manufacture of coarfe linens and Ofnaburghs. The 
vicinity abounds with coal and lead-ore. Falkland is 15 
miles diflant from Edinburgh, and about the fame diftance 
from Perth; the population of the parifh was returned in 


Corolla of one 
Seeds 


‘ 


FAL 


1801 as 2241, inhabiting 460 houfes. This town was 
formerly the refidence of the kings of Scotland, and the 
remains of the palace, though in ruins, evince its former 
magnificence. 

Favxranp’s Jflands, a group of iflands, fituated in 
the fouthern Atlantic ocean, esftward of the ftraits of 
Magellan. The firlt difcoverer of ‘thefe iflands is faid to be 
Captain Davies, the affociate of Cavendifh, in 1g92. In 
1594 fir Richard Hawkins faw land, fuppofed to be the 
fame, and from obferving fires he concluded that it was 
inhabited. In honour of his miftrefs, queen Eli th, | 
called it ** Hawkins’s Maiden-land.” Lone afte: 


”? and by the Spaniards they are den 


luinos.”” The two principal iflands of t 
which is about 40 miles {quare, were probably diftinguifhe 

by the name of Falkland’s iflands by captain Strong, or 
Strahan, in the year 1639, in honour of vifcount Falkland ; 
and thisname has been continued ever fince. Roggew2in, 
who pafied by thefe iflands in the year 1721, called them 
‘South Behira,”’ and they have likewife been called ‘I flands 
of St. Lewis,”’ ‘+ Pepys’siflands,’”? and ‘* Sebaldde Wert’s 
ilands.”” The name of “ Pepys’s’’ ifland was given to this. 
land by Cowley, who had only a diftant view of it in 
January 1683, who erroneoufly makes its latitude to be 
47. But the true pofition ard extent of thefe iflands, aud 
every circumftance which could render their exiftence of any 
confequence, remained abfolutely undecided till commodore 
Byron vifited them in 1765. Lord Anfon conficered 
Pepys’s ifland and Falkland’s ifles as diftin places, diltant 
from each other about 5 degrees of latitude. But Byron’s 
refearches have reétified this capital error; and it is now 
decided, beyond all contradiction, that as captain Cook ob- 
ferves, “ future navigators will mifpend their time, if they 
look for Pepys’s ifland in latitude 47° ; it being now certain 
that Pepys’s ifland is no other than thefe iflands of Falkland.” 
Byron took poffeffion of Port Egmont, (which fee,) and 
all the neighbouring iflands, January 1765, for his majefty 
king George IIT., by the name of Falkland’s iflands; and 
captain Macbride, who followed him thither two years after, 
having circumnavigated their coaits, and taken a compleat 
furvey, a chart of Falkland’s iflands has been conftructed 

with fo much accuracy, that the coafts of Great Britain it 
{elf are not more authentically laid down upon our maps. 
“We found,” fays captain Macbride, “a mafs of iflands and 
of broken lands, of which the foil was nothing but a bog, 
with no better profpeét than that of barren mount: 
beaten by ftorms almoit perpetual. Yet this is fiimmer; 
and if the winds of winter hold their yatural proportion, 
thofe who lie but two cf&bles’ length from the fhore mutt 
pafs weeks without haviig any communication Ho. Je 
1763 the French having loit Canada, turned their attention 
towards thefe aflands, with a view to an American fettle- 
ment; and the account of Bougainville’s voyage for that 


.purpole, publithed by Pernétty, cantains ample details con- 


cerning thefe iflands. From thefe we learn, that there is 
little herbage except on the N.E. and E., the fouthera an- 
tarctic winds being extremely celd. The rocks are of 
quartz, with fome pyrites and traces of copper. Grey and 
reddifh flate is common, ‘with red and yellow ochre. Ix 
thefe iflands, the foil and climate of which are unfavourable, 


there is a confiderable variety of fowls and fh; and the 
plants feem fomewhat to refemble thofe of Canada. The 


walrufs, and other animals of the feal kind, frequent the 
thore’.’ Although Byron made a fmall eftablithment at 
Port Egmont, it was found to be of little or no alu 

N2 


FAL 


in the year 1774 it was ceded to Spain. Thefe iflands, 
which feem to be unfit for the habitation even of favages, oc- 
cafioned {ome ridiculous difputes ; and this circumftance is 
the more extraordinary, as they are covered with reeds and 
mofs, and are fubject to perpetual fogs, and furious tem- 
pelts from the antarctic pole. The extreme cold cannot be 
relieved by fire, as there is no material for fuel, though Cow- 
ley fays, that it abounded with woods ; and even a fhip in 
the port is covered with perpetual fnow. The penguins 
fupply a fcanty and miferable food. S. lat: 51° 6! to 52° 
30'. W. long. 56° 30! to 62” 16’. 

Farxvanp’s Sound, a tlvait or bay, feparating the two 
largeft of the Falkland iflands. 


FALKOPING, atown of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ; 
56 miles E. of Uddevalla. N. lat. 58° 12'. E. long. 13° 
26’. 

FALL, ariver of Scotland, which rifes in the S.W. 
part of Perthfhire, and runs mto Loch Lomond. 

PFauu /ndians,' Indians of North America, who occupy a 
territory, through which runs Red Deer river in N, Iat. 
between 51° and 52°,and between s10° and 115° W. longi- 
tude. Thefe Indians, calledalfo“ Big-bellied Indians,”? amount 
to about 600 warriors. They feem to have migrated from the 
fouth-eaftward, and belong to a people who inhabit the plains 
from the north bend of the Miffifoury river, N. lat. 47° 32'. 
W. long. 101° 25', to the fouth bend of the Afliniboin 
river, tothe number of 700 men. Some of them occa- 
fionally come to the latter river to exchange drefled buffalo 
robes, and bad wolf-fkins for articles of no great value. 
Thefe Fall Indians, intermixed with the Affiniboins, refign< 
ing the territory next lake Winipic, and abont its fource, to 
the Algonquins and Knifteneaux, occupy the more central 
parts of the country. They do not exceed 500 families. 
‘They are not beaver-hunters, like thofe laft mentioned, but 
confine themfelves to the hunting of the buffalo, and trap- 
ping wolves, which cover the country. What they do not 
want of the former for raiment and food, they fometimes 
make into “ pemmican,’? or pounded meat, while they melt 
the fat, and prepare the {kins in their hair, for winter. The 
wolves they never eat, but produce a tallow from their fat, 
and prepare their fkins; all which they bring to exchange 
forarms and ammunition, rum, tobacco, knives, and various 
baubles, with thofe who go to traffic in their country. 
Mackenzie’s Voyage, &c. Introd. 

Fat River, a town of America, in Briftol county, Maffa- 
chufetts, lately the foutherly part of Freetown, incorporated 
in 18033 5o miles S. of Botton. 

Favs, atownthip of Bucks county, in Pennfylvania; 
containing 1680 inhabitants. 

Faux, Defcent, in Phyfics, the tendency of any heavy 
body towards the centre of the earth. 

Galileo firft difeqvered the ratio of the acceleration of fall- 
ing bodies; vx. that dividing the whole time of falling 
into equal parts, the body will fall thrice as far in the fecond 
moment as in the firft; five timesas farin the third; feven 
times in the fourth, &c. and fo on in the order of the uneven 
numbers. See ACCELERATION. 

Faut of bodies, for the caufe of the. 

Faux of bodies, for the laws of. 
rion, DescenT, and Force. 

Fari, Water. See CATARACT. 

Fat isalfo ufed in a moral fenfe: as the fall of Adam, 
See Oricinat Sin ; the fall of the Roman empire, &c. 
Authors contend, that Plato hada notion ef Adam’s fall, 
which he had learnt from Mofes. Eufebius, De Preparat. 
Evangel. lib. xii. cap. 11. quotes a fable from Plato’s Sym- 


See Gravity. 
See AccELERA- 


Feat 


pof. wherein he thinks he finds the whole hiftory allegorical- 
ly related. 

Faux, in Mujfic and Poetry. See CADENCE. 

Fary, in Agriculture, a meafure of length, which in 
fome places fignifies the fame as the rod; but in others, as 
the northern parts of the kingdom of Scotland, it denotes 
a meafure which contains fix of the ells of that country, 
each of which is equivalent to thirty-feven two tenths Eng- 
lifh inches. See Measure, and WeicurTs and Mea- 
SURES. 

It isa meafure alfo frequently made ufe of in the appli- 
cation of marle, and other fimilar earthy fubftances to land, 
ef{pecially in the northern counties, in which cafes, from 
two to four or five falls are confidered a proper fet. See 
Marte. 

Yau, a fuperficial meafure, is the Scotch pole of land 
= 36 Scotch ells, =342.25 Scotch feet, =38.027 Scotch 
yards, = 345.96 fquare Englith feet, = 38.44 fquare Eng- 
lith yards, =1.27 Englith perches. 

Fart, afolid meafure,; is ufed in Lancafhire in meafur- 
ing marle, and isa cube, whofe fide is four yards, =64 
cubic yards, 

Fat, among Seamen, denotes the rope that conneéts the 
blocks of a tackle ; and fometimes it fignifies that part of 
the rope of a tackle which is haled upon. They fay alfo that 
a fhip hath falls when fhe is not flufh, but hath rifings of 
fome parts of her decks more than others. Alfo, a fhip is 
faid to fall off, when, being under fail, fhe keeps not fo near 
the wind as fhe fhould do. 

Fact not of, at fea, a word of command from him that 
conducts the fhip, fignifying as much as keep the fhip near 
the wind. 

To Fav aboard of, is to firike or encounter another fhip, 
when one or both are in motion ; or to be driven upon a 
fhip by the force of the wind or current. 


To Fauu a-flern, is to be driven backwards, or to re- 
treat with the {tern foremoit ; and is expreffed of the mo- 
tion of a fhip, either under fail or at anchor. 

To Fat calm, expreffes a total ceflation of the wind, 

To Fauu down, is to fail or be conducted from any part 
of a river, towards fome other part nearer its mouth or 
opening. 

Farr, Cat. See Cat-heads. 

Fart of the Leaf, in Vegetable Phyfiology, is that fpon- 
taneous feparation of the leaves of trees and fhrubs from their 
branches, which regularly takes place every autumn in fuch 
{pecies as are, for that reafon, termed deciduous, and which 
happens, fooner or later, to all leaves whatever. (SeeDe- 
cipuous.) Leaves commonly undergo confiderable changes 
before they fall, ceafing to grow for a long time previous 
to their decay, they become gradually more rigid and lefs 
juicy, often parting with their pubefcence, and always 
changing their healthy green colour to more or lefs of a 
yellow, fometimes a reddifh hue. American trees and 
fhrubs in general, and fuch European ones as are botanical. 
ly related to them, are remarkable for the rich tints of red, 
purple, oreven blue, which their leaves affume before they 
fall. Hence the autumnal foliage of the woods of North 
America is, beyond all imagination, rich and fplendid. In 
tropical countries, though many trees lofe all their leaves 
regularly in the rainy feafon, or winter, the generality are 
evergreen, parting with them in fucceffion only, fo as néyer 
to be naked. Even thefe trees, however, if injured by 
tranfplantation, or any other caufe not iefotitet fatal, 
caft their leaves prematurely, by an effort of the vitat 
energy, which is thus able to withdraw itfelf with more 

vigour 


F A.L 
vigour into the moft important organs. On this principle 
we have, under the head above cited, explained the fall of 
leaves as a floughing, or cafting off difeafed or exhaufted 
arts. S. 
: FALLACY, Farvacia, a deception, or falfe appear- 
ance,. or report. 

The Epicureans deny that there is any fuch thingas a 
fallacy of the fenfes. According to them, all our fenfa- 
tions, and all our perceptions both of fenfe and phantafy, 
are true; they add, that fenfe itfelf is the firlt grand crite- 
rion of truth. hat the fenfes are never deceived, they ar- 
gue from their being incépable of all ratiocination and re- 
membrance: hence they can neither add, take away, cou- 
ple, nor disjoin ; they cannot, therefore, infer, conclude, 
or invent ; and confequently they cannot deceive by apy ia- 
ference or invention, ‘This the mind may do, but not the 
fenfe, whofe bufinefs is only to apprehend what is prefent, 
e. gr. colours; not to difcern or diitinguifh between this 
body and that, But a thing that barely apprehends, with- 
out pranouncing any thing, cannot deceive : add, that there 
is nothing to conviét our fenfes of falfehood. The right eye, 
e. gr. cannot convict the left; nor Plato’s eyes thofe of 
Socrates ; fince the reafons or pretenfions of each are equal ; 

and the purblind perfon fees what he fees as much as the 
lynceus. Nor can a fenfe of one kind convict another ; as 
the fight thefmell ; becaufe their objets are different, and 
confequently their reports or judgments are not of the fame 
things. Thus, again, if I feea {tick ftraight when out of 
the water, but when in it, crooked, my perception is alto- 
gether as true inthe latter as inthe former cale; i.e. it is 
as true that I have the perception or idea of the crook- 
ed ftick as of the ftraight one ; and this idea isall that the 
fenfe fuggelts, fo that it does not deceive. Liattly, reafon 
cannot fhew our fenfes miftaken, fince all reafoning depends 
on previous fenfations, and the fenfes muft firtt be true, be- 
fore any reafoning, founded thereon, can be fo. ‘Thus the 
Epicureans, whole fy{tem is ftrongly confirmed by what we 
haye already laiddown from Dr. Berkeley, concerning ex- 
iftence. 

The Cartefians, on the other hand, are continually ex- 
claiming agaiaft the fenfes, as the great fources of all de- 
ception, Every thing with which our external fenfes pre- 
fent us, they fay, fhould be fufpected as falfe, or, at bett, 
dubious, till our reafon has confirmed the report. They add, 
that our fenfes, as being fallacious, were never given us by 
nature for the difcovery of the truth, but only to point 
out what things are convenient or hurtful to our bo- 
dies. 

The Peripatetics keep a middle courfe : they hold, that 
ifa fenfible objeét be taken in its common and generical view, 
the fenfe cannot be deceived about it; for the fight can {ee 
nothing but what is vifible, nor can it err in perceiving 
what is vifible, qguatenus fuch. But they add, that if the 
object be taken under its fpecific view, the fenfe may be 
miftaken about it ; viz. froma want of the difpofitions ne- 
ceflary to a juft fenfation; as a diforder in the eye, or 
fomething uncommon in the medium, &c. 

Fauvacy, in Logic, or fyllogiflic fallacy, is a captions 
argument, called alfo a fophifm. : 

Fallacies either arife from words or things: the found- 
ation of an illufion and fallacy in words is ambiguity, 
which is of two kinds; vx. fimple homonymia, and am- 
phibology. 

The Kinds of fallacy in things are very numerous ; 
but they may be reduced to feven general heads; viz. 
ignoratio elenchi, petitio principiil, falfa gaufa, inter- 


FAL 


regatio multiplex, limitatio vitiofa, accidens, et confe- 
uens, 

a FALLAFAJEEA, in Geography, one of the Friendly 

iflands, inthe Southern Pacific ocean. S. lat. 20° 30'. E. 

long. 185° 16’. 

FALLATTY, a town of Abyfiinia ; 56 miles W.N.W. 
of Gondar, 

FALLEN, a [mall river of the county of Longford, 
Treland, which runs into the Shannon, a few miles north 
of Lanefborough. 

Farven City, or Old Jerufalem, a range of rocks among 
the Virgin ifles, in the Weft Indies; S. W. of Virgin 
Gorda. N. lat. 18° 13’, W. long. 62° 53’. 

FALLERN, a town of Sweden, in the province of 
Smaland, noted for its mineral fprings; 3 miles from 
Wexio. 

-FALLERONE, a town of Italy, in the marquifate of 
Ancona; 14 miles W. of Fermo. 

FALLERSLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the prin- 
eipallys of Luneburg, on the Ailer; 27 miles S. E. of 
Zella. 

FALLET, a town of Sweden, in Helfingland; 15 
miles N.W. of Hernofand. 

FALLING-Stuices, in Engineery, are gates con- 
trived to fall down of themfelves, and enlarge the water-way 
oa the increafe of a flood, in a mill-dam, or the pound of 
a river navigation ; fluices of this fort were fome years ago 
to be feer on the Oufe river, below Redford. See 
Cava. 

Faruinc-in of ffrata, in Geology, isa term ufed by Dr. 
Townfon (Philofophy of Mineralogy, p.81.) to denote 
thofe finkings of particular and {mall traéts of ftrata which 
are in fome places obfervable, particularly where caverns 
abound in the ftrata beneath, as Mr. Mawe has obferved 
(Mineral. of Derby, p. 126.), in accounting for Elden hole, 
and other openings or fwallow-holes in tie peat limeitone 
diltrié&t of Derbythire. (See Depression and Assorp- 
Tion.) A very remarkable initance of {trata which have 
fallen in, that has not, we believe, been noticed by any 
writer, is to be feen at Dowall, or Dower, a hamlet of 
Hartington parifh, Derbythire, fituate by the fide of the 
Dove rivulet, which there feparates the counties of Derby 
and Stafford. Dowall is remarkable for the very diflocated 
{tate of its ftrata, and for the very fingular conical and wedge- 
like hills which it contains. ~ It is fituate upon or very near 
to the great fault which almoft furrounds the Derby hire 
and Staffordfhire mineral limeftone diftri@, and the fame 
feems to have occafioned the falling-in or abforption of 
larger pieces of ftrata in this place than are ufually to be 
met with. Dove pit, one of the chafms here, ocecafioned by 
a funken piece of the fourth lime-rock, is little if at all ia. 
ferior to Elden hole in curiofity, although hitherto over- 
looked by tourifts. Near to this cavern a funken piece of 
ftrata, about a mile in length and 309 yards or more in 
width, is feen fo much depreffed, that the limeftone-itrata 
remain upon it im the hollow, furrounded on all fides by 
high and precipitous hills of the fourth limeitone (fee the 
fection and thicknefles of the ftrata here mentioned in Phi- 
lofophical Magazine, vol. xxxi. plate 2.) This funk or 
fallen piece of ftrata is furrounded by a line of fhake-holes, 
or f{wallows, into which the water which colleéts on the fur- 
face drops and difappears. Croom hill, near this place, 
feems to owe its very fingular wedge-like form to one half 
of it having flipped off or funk down, with the fuperincum- 
bent {trata on it, and which now occupy the adjoining vale 
or bay between the hills. The eafy diftance of this very 
fingular place from Buxton, will, we hope, occafion its be 

ny 


FALLING. 


ing frequently vifited and examined in futwre by thafe whe 
travel to view nature in thefe her grandeft {cenes. 

Variine Spring, in Geography, a branch of James river, 
in Virginia, where it 1s called Jack/on’s river, which fee. 

Faruinc-of, in Sea Language, denotes the movement or 
diveétion of the fhip’s head to leeward of the point whither 
it was lately directed, particularly when fhe fails near the 
wind, or lies by. See Fart not off 

Faruinc-of is alfo the angle contained between her 
neareft approach towards the fource of the. wind, and her 
fartheft declination from it when trying. 

Pauuinc-ert/, in Veterinary Science, isa difeafe to which 
horfes are fubjeét, proceeding from ill blood and cold thin 
phlegm collected in the fore part of the head, between the 
pinnacle and the brain, which, being difperfed over the whole 
brain, caufes the horfe fuddenly to fall, and bereaves Lim 
for a time of all fenfe. Spanifh, Italian, and French horfes 
are more fubject to this difeafe than the Englith. 

For the cure of this diforder, bleed the horfe in the neck, 
end again in the temple-veins and eye-veins, four or five days 
after ; anoint his body all over with a comfortable friétion, 
and bathe his head and ears with oil of bay, liquid pitch and 
tar mixed together, and keep his head warm, by covering it 
with a canvas gp, quilted with wool, and give him a purg- 
ing or fcouring, 

LPaurinc-/icknefs, in Medicine. See Epiversy. 

Fartine Stones. Of thefe bodies, the molt general 
opinion now is, that they are really of celettial origin. But 
a few years ago nothing could have appeared more out of 
the reach of human inveftigation than the analylis of any 
part of the folar fyitem beyond the planet we inhabit. 
‘The heavenly bodies, revolving at a diftance fo izconceivably 
remote, feemed relatively to us to be rather inacceffible 
wvifions than objeéts of chemical examination ; the only me- 
dium that appeared to connect them with us was that of 
fight: to be able to fee them, and be confcious of their ex- 
iftence, was the utmoft boundary of human expectation. 
How little was it to be expected that beyond this we fhould 
ever be able to examine the mot minute fragment of the fide- 
rial fyftem; and it muft no doubt be reckoned among the won- 
ders of the age in which we live, that confiderable poytions 
of thefe heavenly bodies are now known to have defcended 
to the earth. So wonderful and unexpected an event was 
at firt received with incredulity and ridicule, but we may 
now venture to confider the fact as well eftablithed as any 
other hypothefis of natural philofophy, which does not ac- 
tually admit of mathematical demonttration. 

The attention of the philofophers of this country was firlt 
called to this fubjeét by the falling of one of thefe mafles of 
matter near Flamborough Head, in Yorkfhire: it weighed 
about fifty pounds : and for fome years after its defcent was 
announced did not excite the intereft it deferved, wor 
would perhaps that attention have been paid to it which 
was required for the inveftigation of the truth, if a fimilar 
and more ftriking phenomenon had not happened a few 
years afterwards at Benares, in the Eatt Indies. Some 
fragments of the ftones which fell in India were brought 
to fir Jofeph Banks by Major Williams, and fir Jofeph being 
defirous of knowing if there might not be fome truth in 
thefe repeated accounts of falling ftones, propofed that they 
fhould be chemically analyfed, to fee if any peculiarity 
could be detected in theircompofition. He therefore gave 
‘them to Mr. Howard, a gentleman eminently qualified for 
this inveitigation, who found, by avery fkilful analyfis, pub- 
lithed in the Tranfa€tions (1802), that the {tones collected in 
various countries, and to whicha fimilar hiftory is attached, 
contained very peculiar ingredients, and all of the fame kind, 


The earthy ‘parts of thele were all of them filex and magne- 
fia, in which were interfperfed fmall grains of metallic iron. 
Upon amore minute examination of the metallic particles 
they were found conneéted with another metal, nickel. It 
is a curious circumftance, and not remarked, we believe, by 
any writer on this fubjoét, that iron and nickel are the only 
two magnetic metals ; but whether this cojncidence is ac- 
cidental, or relates to their mode of formation, we {hall not 
prefure to determine. 

The peculiarity of this compofition, which was:the fame 
as large mafles of native iron found formerly in Siberia, ex- 
cited a fufpicion that they might all have had one common 
origin. he great mafs of iron found by Pallas in Siberia, 
contained within its fpongy fubftance fmall drops of a 
tranfparent body, refembling chryfolite. Mr. Howard was, 
therefore, defirous of afcertaining whether thefe tranfparent 
particles, though differing in appearance from the ftoues he 
had already analyfed, might not contain fimilar ingredients, 
and on making proper experiments he found they a&tually 
contained the two earths above mentioned, filex and mégne- 
fia. Sinee thefe inyeftigations of Mr. Howard: the fub- 
ject has attracted very general attention, and moft of the 
fragments of ftones faid to have fallen from heaven, and 
which have been preferved in the cabinets of the curious 
on account of this tradition, have been analyfed, and found 
to confilt of the fame ingredients, varying only in their dif- 
ferent proportions. 

The iron found in thefe-maffes differs from our artificial 
iron In containing no charcoal, and the proportion of nickel 
preferves it from ruft. The mixture with nickel is not uni- 
form in the fame fpecimen, butit is unequally diftributed, 
as if it were the efle& cither of preflure or imperfe& fufion. 

Several writers, particularly Dr. Chladni on the continent, 
and Mr. King of our own country, have been at great pains 
to collect the various teftimonies that are to be found in 
different authors from the earlicft times, in favour of the 
occafional defcent of fragments and fhowers of (tones. 

Pliny relates, that a great [tone fell rear Egos Pota- 
mos, in the Thracian Cherfonefe, in the fecond year 
of the 78th Olympiad. Confidering the immenfe time that 
thefe maffes may remain uhdeftroyed, it is not abfolutely 
impoflible, if ever that country becomes more civilized than 
at prefent, that fome intelligent traveller may find vettiges of 
it {till remaining. Anaxagoras the aftronomer is faid to have 
predicted this event ; a circumftance that fhould teach us to 
receive with great caution the traditionary prediétions of 
eclipfes, fuch as that of the fun by Thales, moft of thefe 
events, and ethers of the fame nature, having been prediéted 
mott probably long after they happened. This weaknefs 
was not peculiar to the ancients ; this very fummer (1809) 
a belief has been very generally prevalent that the late un- 
ufual wet feafon was foretold by Dr. Herichel. 

In the year 1706 another large itone is, on the authority 
of Paul Lucas, then at Lariffa, faid to have fallen in Mace- 
donia: it weighed 72 pounds. 

Cardan affires us, that a fhower of at leaft 1200 ftones 
fell in Italy, the largeft of which weighed 120 pounds ; and 
their fall was accompanied by a great light in the air. 

In the Phil. Tranf. for 1718 is a defcription of a fiery 
meteor feen at Jamaica, which ftruck the earth, and made 
feveral holes. " : 

In the Tranfactions for 1725 an account is to be found 
of a fire-ball which burft at Mixburg, in Northamptonhhire, 
and two holes were made, about a yard deep and five inches 


in diameter, in a grayelly foil. An iron ball thot perpendicu- 


larly from a mortar did not make a greater impreffion, In 
fearching the holes, a very hard glazed {tone was found, ten 
, . inches 


FALLING. 


inches long, fix wide, and four thick, cracked iato two 
pieces. A man was killed’ by what is called the lightning ; 
he was much wounded, with fome appearance of eleciric 
effects. 

At Otumpa, in South America, in the Chaco Gualambra, 
far from any mines or rocks, a mafs of about 300 gquintals 
was found, and which was then fuppofed to be of volcanic 
origin. Phil. Tranf. 1788. . 

Mr. Southey, in his ‘Travels through Portugal, mentions 
the flones that fell m Portugal, 1796. 

The caaba, or great black ftone, preferved by the Maho- 
Mmetans in the temple of Mecca, had probably a celeftial 
origin. IJtis faid to have been brought from heaven by the 
angel Gabriel. Of its chemical nature we have no account, 
ner would it be very fafe tor a modern chemilt to attempt 
to procure a piece to fatisfy our curiofity. 

The following are fome of the beft authenticated and moft 
iperetting of the accounts lately publifhed relating to thefe 
bodies. . 

Proces verbal of a fhower of ftones which fell near Avig- 
non, in the department of Vaucleufe. 

On the 8th of September, 12th year of the republic, 
about half pait ten in the morning, there appearing only a 
few light clouds in the heavens, and the weather being re- 
markably calm, a noife, refembling that of a cannon fired at 
the diftance of a quarter of a league, was heard with the 
fame force, and attended with the fame circumftances, by a 
number of individuals in varieus places, but more particu- 
larly ia the country, at the diftance at leaft of feven or eight 
leagues from Apt, the principal town of the fourth diftrié 
of the department of Vaucleufe. This no'fe, however, 
could be the effect only of an unufual explofion, becaufe it 
is certain that throughout the whole extent above-men- 
tioned, and at that hour, no cannon was fired, nor was there 
any explofion of gun-powder. This circumftance, which at 
firft furprifed all who were witneffes of it, was accompanied 
by a phenomenon ftill more extraordinary. On the fame 
day, and at the fame hour, citizen Jofeph Jully, a farmer 
in the diilri@ of Apt, and his wife, being about 500 paces 
from the country-houfe of citizen Bartholomew de Vaux, 
fituated north of the town of Apt, at the diftance of about 
a quarter ofa league, in the limits of Saurette, having heard 
the noife above-mentioned, immediately afterwards heard 
for the {pace of fix or feven minutes a whiftling, which in- 
creafed in found as it approached, and announced the fall of 
fome folid body. Being terrified, and cafting their eyes up- 

wards, the wife of Jully perceived a black fubftance, whofe 
fall to the ground both fhe and her hufband heard diftin@ly, 
after which the whiftlng ceafed. ‘The wife of Jully ftates, 
that this black fubftance mutt have fallen in the vineyard of 
citizen de Vaux: the wife of the latter being then in the 
fields heard the fame noife and fubfequent whiitling, but 
being alarmed fhe ran into the houfe, and neither faw nor 
heard the fall of the above fubftance. Her fon, being then 
at work 3 or 400 paces from the houfe, alfo heard the noife, 
the whiftling, and the found of the fall of a body, which, 
however, he did not fee. At the fame inftant, Margaret 
Hugues, widow, and Marie Jean, wife of Jacques Julien, 
being on the road from Villeurs to Apt, heard the fame 
noife, the whiftling, and the fall of fome fubftance in de 
Vaux’s vineyard, which adjoins the fame road. After the 
found of the fall the whittling ceafed. It appeared to them 
that the above fubftance did not fall at more than 30 paces 
from them. 
As foon as the report was {pread that fome confiderable 
fubftance had fallen in the above vineyard, a great eagernefs 
was manifefted to fearch for it. ‘The attempt was at firlt 


fruitlefs, but on the roth De Vaux’s fon, croffing the vineyard, 
perceived, at the diftance of about thirty paces from the” 
houfe, a large hole newly made between two rows ot vines, 
which denoted the place where the fubftance muft have 
fallen. He was confirmed in this opinion when he per- 
ccived that fome {mall pebbles near the mouth of the hole 
had been ground to powder. He then dug and found an 
extremely hard itone, weighing feven pounds fix ounces; 
and could not doubt that this was the fubftance, the fall of 
which had alarmed the neighbourhood. Phil. Mag. vol.. 
xvii. 

Extract of amemoir of M. De Dree, read in the Na- 
tional Inftitute, 11th April, 1803. M. De Dree, being at 
Lyons, received the following account from Dr. Petetin. 

About four years ago, faid he, during the evening twi- 
light, in the month of March, the weather being ferene,. 
and not at all cloudy, there paffed over Lyons, nearly in a 
direGtion from eaft to weft, a luminous ball, which, as it at- 
tracted attention by the ftrong light it emitted in its paflage,. 
was almolt generally obferved. He added, that he learned, 
a few days after, that this luminous globe had been feen by 
fome travellers on mount: Cenis, and he was informed at the 
fame time that it had fallen in the environs of Ville Franche- 
under the form of an incandefcent ftone, a {mall fragment of 
which was fent to him..- 

He affured me alfo that a comparifon he then made of 
the periods at which the meteor had been obferved at 
Mount Cenis, at Lyons, and at Ville Franche, pofitively an-- 
nounced that it was the fame ball which had traverfed that 
line, and fhewn itfelf in thefe three points. 

I expreffed to Dr. Petetin adefire of feeing the fragments 
of this ftone which he had in his poffeffion, and the do€tor- 
jedging,. no doubt, from the anxiety I fhewed to obtain 
information refpecting this phenomenon, how much I was 
interefted in it, was fo kind as to offer me this fragment in. 
cafe he fhould find it. 

Twas the more defirous, indeed, to fee the fpecimen of this. 
mineral mafs, as I had it'in my power to compare it with 
analogous fpecimens, one of which fell near Wold cottage, 
in Yorkfhire, on the 13th of December, 1795; and another 
near Benares, in Bengal, on the 19th ‘of December, 1798, 
a fragment of which I brought with:me a few years ago 
from Eondon,, where I received it from court: de Bour- 
non, F. R.S.a very celebrated mineralogift. 

Some time after, Dr. Petetin fent me the fragment’ in 
queftion, and I was much furprifed to find that it had a 
perfeét fimilarity to fpecimens of thofe which fellat Benares 
and, at Wold cottage, a {imilarity manifeft, not only in re- 
gard to the genus of the ftones, but to the mineralogical 
{pecies which enter into their compolition, and alfo- in 
regard. to the effeéts refulting from their motion in the 
atmofplieric fluid. 

As I‘had reafon to hope I fhould be able to difcover the 
exact fpot where this globe fell, I made refearches in the 
neighbourhood of Ville Franche, and was dire&ted towards 
the commune of Sajes; at about the diftance of a league 
and half to the north-wett of Ville Franche, in the department 
of the Rhone, where I learned that moft of the inhabitants 
had been witnefs of, and frightened by the arrival of this 
luminous body which had fallen in a vineyard within three 
hundred paces of the village, and near the houfe of a 
vintager, called Pierre Crepier. 

I proceeded with two of the inhabitants, be acquainted 
with the faét, towards the houfe of Crepier, and on the {pot 
where the ftone buried itfelf received every information 
refpecting it, and obtained the lait {pecimen which Crepier 
had remaining. 

3 The 


PAL LING. 


The following are all the circumftances I colleéted in 
regard to this fingular phenomenon, omitting the utelefs 
reafoning in regard to its authenticity. 

On the 12th of March, 1798; about fix in the evening, 
the weather being calm and ferexe, a luminous globe, of an 
extraordinary appearance, attracted towards the eait the 
eyes of the inhabitants of the commune of Sales, and of the 
neighbouring villages, as they were returning trom their 
labour ; and by its rapid approach and horrid noife, like that 
produced by an irregular and hollow body ‘traverling the 
atmofphere with rapidity, threw ail the inhabitants of that 
commune into the greatc{t terror, efpecially when they faw 
it pafs over their heads at a very little clevation. 

According to their report this ball left behind it a long 
train of light, and emitted, with au almoft continual crackling 
noife, {mall blue {parks, like {mall ftars. 

Its fall was obferved by three workmen, who were not 
more than fifty paces from it ; one of them was fo much 
alarmed, that he dropped his coat and a billet of wood, that 
he might efcape as faft as poffible. ‘The other two fled to 
Sales, where a general alarm prevailed. Thefe three wit- 
neffes agree that the body moved with aftonithing rapidity, 
and that after its fall they heard a hifling noife, proceeding 
from the {pot where it buried itfelf. 

In regard to Crepier he was at home, where he was fo 
much terrified with the hiffing of the body and noife of 
its fall, that he fhut himfelf up, and fpent the night with- 
out daring to go out. 

Next morning he was called out by the two workmen 
who had obferved it, and they went with M. Blondel, 
adjunct of Sales, and feveral other perfons, to the place 
where the fubftance buried itfelf. At the bottom of a 
hollow, eighteen inches in depth, they found a large, black, 
irregular ovoid mafs, entirely covered with a blackifh crutt ; 
it was no longer warm, and had the {mell of gunpowder. 
It was fplit in feveral places, fo that thrulting a ftick into 
one of the fiffures made it fall to pieces, ‘The weight of 
this ftone was about twenty pounds. 

M Place, amerchant of Ville Franche, affured me he was 
a witnefs, as well as many other inhabitants, of the paflage of 
this luminous globe over the town; that he heard its 
humming noife; that its elevation could not exceed 500 
toifes, and that its diretion was from ea{t by fouth to weit 
by north. 

It fince appears that this meteor was feen by M. Pictet, 
and other inhabitants of Geneva, and of the neighbouring 
towns as far as Berne; they obferved a luminous body which 
fuddenly appeared in the fouthern regions proceeding rapidly 
from weft to eaft. This phenomenon was then confidered 
as a meteor, but M. Piétet is now perfuaded it is the fame 
body which fell at Sales. 

M. Biot, the celebrated aftronomer and mathematician, 
has drawn up a very accurate memoir of the meteoric mafs 
that fell in the neighbourhood of Laigle ; the moft interett- 
ing particulars of which we have extra€ted, and are as 
follow. 

July 20, 1803. I went firft to Alencon, fifteen leagues 
weit-fouth-weft of Laigle, and in going thither I learned 
that a globe of fire had been. feen proceeding towards 
the north; the appearance of this globe had been fol- 
lowed by a violent explofion. This took place on the 
26th of April, 1802, at one in the afternoon. By the 
direGtion of this phenomenon, the day, and particularly 
the hour, I judged that this, had been the commencement of 
the meteor of Laigle. Xt Alencon nothing had been 
heard, in confequence,; no doubt, of the noife which ufually 
prevails in a large town, but I learnt_by the. mineralogical 


collections of the country that nothing exits in the neigh- 
bourhood of Laigle which has any refemblance to the 
meteoric ftones. From Alengon I proceeded to Laigle, - 
traverfing the villages condu@ed by the accounts given me 
by the inhabitants. All of them had heard the meteor on 
the day, and at the hour mentioned. In this manner I 
reached Laigle, and proceeded to the houfe of our colleague, 
Le Blond. 

The meteor did not burft at Laigle, but at the diftance 
of half a league from it I faw the awful traces of this phe- 
nomenon, I traverfed all the places where it had been 
heard, and colleé&ted and compared the accounts of the in- 
habitants. At laft I found fome of the {tones themfelves 
on the {pot, and they exhibited phyfical charaéters, which 
admit uo doubt of tke reality of their fall. 

If we firft confider the phyfical teftimonies, no meteoric 
ftoues had been in the hands of the inhabitants before the 
explotion on the 26th of April. 

The mineralogical colleétions formed on the fpot with 
the ereatel care, for feveral years, contained nothing of the 

ind. 

The founderies, iron-works, and mines in the neighbour- 
hood which I vifited exhibited nothing in their produc- 
tions, or their fcorie, which had the leaft affinity to thefe 
fubftances. No traces of a volcano are found in the 
country. 

Suddenly, and only fince the time of the meteor, thefe 
ftones have been found on the ground, and in the poffeffion 
of the inhabitants, who are better acquainted with them 
than any other perfons. 

Thefe ftones are only found in a certain extent, in ground 
foreign to the fubftance they contain, and in places where, 
from their fize and number, it is impoflible they could have 
efcaped notice. 

The largeft of thefe ftones, when broken, {till exhale 
a ftropg fulphureous f{mell from their interior parts. 
That of their furface has vanifhed, and the f{malleft exhale 
no fenlible odour, fo that the odour of the former feems 
likely to be diffipated in the courfe of time. 

Traces, which ftrongly atteft the fall of thefe ftones, 
never mentioned without terror, are fill fhewn, ‘The in- 
habitants fay they faw them defcend along the roofs of the 
houfes like hail, break the branches of the trees, and re- 
bound on the pavement. ‘The earth {moked round the 
largeit of them, and they ftill burnt after they had them 
in their hands. ‘Thefe accounts are given, and the traces 
fhewn only in a certain extent. It is there only that me-, 
teoric ftones are found on the ground; not a fragment is 
found beyond that diftrict. 

From the aggregate of the teftimonies, we have deduced 
the following account of the phenomenon. 

On Tuefday, April 26th, 1802, about one in the after- 
noon, the weather being ferene, there was obferved from 
Caen Pont, Audemer, and the environs of Alencon, 
Falaife, and Verneuil, a fiery globe of a very brilliant 
fplendour, which moved in the atmofphere with great ra- 
pidity. Some moments after there was heard at Laigle, and 
in the environs of that city, to the extent of more than 
thirty leagues in every direétion, a violent explofion, which 
lafted five or fix minutes. 

At firft there were three or four reports like thofe of a 
cannon, followed by a kind of difcharge refembling a firing 
of mufketry ; after which there was heard a dreadful rumb- 
ling, like the beating of a drum. The air was calm, and the 
{ky ferene, except a few clouds, fuch as are frequently ob- 
ferved. 

This,noife proceeded from a {mall cloud which had a 

A rectangular 


FALLING. 


rectangular form, the largeft fide being in a dire€tion from 
eait to weft. It appeared motionlefs all the time the phe- 
nomenon lafted, but the vapour of which it was compofed 
was projected momentarily from the different fides, by the 
effeét of the different explofions. This cloud was about half a 
league to the north-north-eaft of the town of Laigle; it was 
at a great elevation in the atmofphere, for the inhabitants of 
two hamlets, a league diflant from each other, faw it at the 
fame time above their heads. In the whole canton over 
which this cloud hovered, a hiffing noife, like that of a ftone 
difcharged from a fling, was heard, and a multitude. of 
mineral maffes, exa¢tly fimilar to thofe diftinguithed by the 
name of meteoric flones, were feen to fall at the fame time. 
_ The diftri& in which thefe {tones fell forms an elliptical 
extent of about two leagues and a-half in length, and nearly 
one in breadth; the greateft dimention being in a dire¢tion 
from fouth-eaft to north-weit, forming a declination of about 
22”. This direétion, whith the meteor mutt have followed, 
is exactly that of the magnetic meridian, which is a re- 
markable refult. 

The largeft of thefe ftones fell at the fouth-caft extre- 
mity of the large axis of the ellipfe, the middle ones fell 
in the centre, and the fmalleft at the other extremity. It 
‘thereby appears that the largeft fell firft, as might naturally 
be fuppofed. 

The largeit of all thofe which fell weighed 174 pounds ; 
‘the {malleft I faw weighed two gros, which is the thoufandth 
part of the former. The number that fell is certainly above 
two or three thoufand. . 

On the 5th of April, 1804, another ftone of this kind 
fell near Glafgow, the particulars of which were very well 
afcertained by feveral profeffional gentlemen belonging to 
the univerfity of that place. They are related in the 18th 
velume of the Philofophical Magazine. On the day above 
mentioned three men, at work in a field at Poffil, about three 
miles north of Glafyow, were alarmed with a fingular noife, 
which they think continued about two minutes, feeming to 

roceed from the fouth-eaft to the north-weft. - At firft it 

eemed to refemble four reports from the firing of cannon; 
afterwards, the found of a bell, or rather gong, with a 
violently whizzing noife; and laftly, they heard a found, 
as if fome hard body had ftruck with great force the 
furface of the earth. On the fame day, in the forenoon, 
fixteen men were at work in the Pofftl quarry, thirty ‘feet 
below thefurface of the ground, and there, too, an uncom- 
mon noife was heard, which, it is faid, feemed at firft to pro- 
ceed from the firing of fome cannon; but afterwards the 
found of hard fubitances hurling downwards over {toncs, 
and continuing, in the whole, for about the {pace of a mi- 
nute. 

By others who were at the quarry, viz. the overfeer of 
the quarry, and a man ina tree, to whom he was giving di- 
reGtions, the noife is defcribed as continuing about two mi- 
nutes, appearing as if it began in the weit, and paffed round 
by the fouth towards the ealt ; along with thefe people there 
were two boys of ten and four years old, and a dog ; the 
dog, on hearing the noife, ran home ina great fright. The 
overfeer, during the continuance of the noife, looking up at 
the atmofphere, obferved in it a mifty commotian, which 
alarmed him, and he called to the man in the tree, “‘ Come 
down, I think there is fome judgment coming upon us ;”’ 
and he fays that the man in the tree had fearcely got on the 
ground, when fomething {track with great force in a drain 
made for turning off water, about ninety yards diflance, 
{plafhing mud and water about twenty feet round. The 
elder boy, led by the noife to look up to the atmofphere, 


fays, that he obferved the appearance of fmoke in it, with 
Vor, XIV. ‘ 


fomething of a reddifh colour moving rapidly through the 
air from the welt, till it fellon the ground. The younger 
boy, at the inftant before the ftroke was heard, called out, 
* Oh, fuch a reek!” and fays he faw aa appearance of 
fmoke near the place where the body fell. ‘The overfeer 
immediately ran up to the place where the fplafhing was 
heard, when he faw ahole made at the bottom of the drain. 
The hole was filling with water from a fmall flream, and 
about fix inches of it remained empty: he thruft his hand inte 
the hole, (which was nearly perpendicular, the bottom a very 
little inclined to the eaft, and the upper part to the weft,)} 
and felt fomething hard at the bottom, which he could not 
move. ‘The hole was cleared out, expeéting a cannon-ball, 
but nothing obferved except the natural ftratum of foil, and 
the rock on which it lay, and two pieces of ftone that had 
penetrated a few inches into the rock; he thought they were 
whinftone, and that they were eighteen inches below the 
bottom of the drain, and the hole fifteen inches diameter; 
no particular heat was obferved in the water, nor in the 
pieces of ftone, nor any uncommon {mell in the latter. The 
ane piece of ftone was about two inches long; the other 
fix inches long, four broad, and four.thick, blunted at the 
edges and end; the fraétures coincided ; he did not know 
whether the fraéture was caufed by the fall or the mattock ;” 
and fays that he never faw any fuch ftone about the quarry. 

Some days after, when the particulars came to be known, 
a fearch was made for thefe ftones, and the firft mentioned 
piece was foon found; the other, having fallen among rubbifh, 
was miffing ; a few days after a fragment of it was found: 
the two fragments make the two extremes of the ftone; 
on the furface they are pretty fmooth, of a black colour, 
internally of a greyifh appearance: the intermediate part 
feems as yet to be loft. It may be proper to remark, 
though the overfeer did not obferve any particular fmell in 
the ftone, that when Mr. Craufurd obtained the firft piece 
ithad a fifhy and feetid {mell; and the fecond had the fame, 
but ina lefs degree. No warmth, however, was perceived 
in them at any period. 

Account of a ftone lately fallen in Kuffia—Oa the 
13th of March faft, in the afternoon, the inhabitants of 
the canton of Juchnow, in the government of Smolenfk, 
were alarmed by an uncommon loud clap of thunder. 
At the moment of this explofion two peafapts, belonging 
to the villaze of Peremefchajeu, in the canton of Werreja, 
being out in the fields, perceived, at the diftance of forty 
paces, a black ftone of confiderable magnitude falling 
to the earth, which it penetrated to a confiderable depth 
below the fnow. It was dug up, and found to be of an 
oblong fquare figure, of a black colour, refembling cait- 
iron; its furface was very {mooth, fhaped like a coffin on 
one fide, and it weighed about 160 pounds. Philofophical 
Magazine, 1807. 

But one of the beft authenticated accounts we have yet 
received is from Conneticut, in America ; the circumftances 
of which were communicated by Charles Greville, efy. 
F. R. S. to whom they were originally tranfmitted. 

The particulars of this phenomenon were colle€ted with 
great care by Meffieurs Silliman and Kingfley, who vifited 
and carefully examined every fpot where the ftones had 
been afcertained to have fallen: they converfed with all the 
principal original witneffes, and {pent feveral days in the 
invettigation of all the important fats that could be col- 
leGed on this occafion. The fubftance of the account is as 
follows, The meteor, which has fo recently excited alarm 
in many, aud aftonifhment in all, firft made its appearance 
in Wefton, about a quarter or half pait fix o’clock A. M. oa 
Monday the fourteenth inftant (Dec. 1807.) © The morn- 


ing 


FALLING. 


Ing was fomewhat cloudy, mingled with {pote of clear f{ky, 
a fpace of 15° along the northern horizon perfeétly clear ; 
there was little er no light except from the moon juft 
fetting. Judge Wheeler was paffing through the enclofure 
adjoining his houfe, with his face towards the north, and 
his eyes on the ground, when a fudden flafh acrofs the 
northern fky made him look up; he immediately difcovered 
a globe of fire, pafling behind the firft cloud, which was 
very dark, and ob{cured the meteor. In this fituation its 
appearance was diftin@, like the fun feen through a mitt. 
It rofe from the north, and proceeded in a direction nearly 
perpendicular to the horizon, but inclining by a very {mall 
angle towards the weft, deviating from the plane of a great 
circle, but in large curves, fometimes on one fide of the 
plane, and fometimes on the other, but never more than four 
or five degrees; it appeared about one-half or two-thirds 
the diameter of the full moon, but it was impoffible to 
afcertain what angle it fubtended. Its progrefs was not fo 
rapid as that of common meteors and fhooting ftars ; when 
it paifed the clear fky it flafhed with a vivid light, not fo 
intenfe as lightning in a thunder ftorm, but like what is 
called heat lightning. Its farface was apparently convex. 
When not too much obfcured by clouds, a conical train 
of paler light attended it, waving, and in length about 10 
or 12 diameters of the body. In the clear fky there was a 
brifk {cintillation about it, like a fire-brand carried again{t 
the wind. It difappeared about 15° fhort of the zenith, 
and the fame number weft of the meridian; it did not vanifh 
inftantaneoufly, but grew fainter, as a red-hot cannon ball 
would do, cooling in the dark, only much more rapidly. 
There was no particular fme]l in the atmofphere, nor any 
luminous maffes feen to feparate from the body ; the whole 
period between its appearance and extinétion was eftimated 
“at 30 feconds. 

About 30 or 40 feconds after this, three loud and diftine 
reports, hke thofe of a four pounder, near at hand, were 
heard ; they fucceeded each other rapidly, and did not 
occupy above three feconds: then followed a continued 
rumbling, like a cannon ball rolling over a floor, fometimes 
louder and fometimes fainter; fome compared it to a 
waggon running down a ftony hill, others to a running fire ; 
this noife continued about as long as the body was in rifing, 
and died away in the dire€tions from which the meteor 
came. A Mr. Elihu Staples faid, that when the meteor dif- 
appeared, there were three fucceflive efforts or leaps of the 
ball, which grew more dim with every throw, and difap- 
peared with the lait. 

We now proceed to the fall of a number of maffes of 
ftone, in feveral places principally within the towa of 
Welton, The places which had been well afcertained at 
the period of our inveftization were fix, the moft remote 
nine or ten miles diftant from each other, in a line differing 
little from the courfe of the meteor. It is, therefore, proba- 
ble, that the fucceffive maffes fell in this order, the moft 
northerly firft, the moft foutherly laft. We think we can 
point out the three places where the ftones fell, correfponding 
with the three reports and leaps of the meteor. In every 
inftance, immediately after the explofions had ceafed, “there 
was obferved a loud whizzing at all the places, and at the 
moment of the fall; after this was heard an. abrupt noife, 
like a ponderous body ftrikmg the ground. Excepting 
one, the {tones were more or lels broken. 

The mott northerly fall was within the limits of Hunting- 
don, on the borders of Welton, about 50 rods eaft of the 
great road from Bridgeport to Newton, in a crofs road, 
near the houfe of Mr. Barr; he was ftanding in the yoad 
when the ftone fell; the noife produced by its colliion with 


a rock of granite, on which it fell, was very loud ; Mr. Burr 
was within 50 feet, and fearched for the body ; but it being 
dark did not find it tillan hour after. By the fall fome wae 
reduced to powder, and the reft broke in {mall fragments, 
thrown roundtothe diftance of 30 feet; the granite was ftained 
at the place of contact with a deep lead-colour; the largeft 
fragment did not exceed the fize of a goofe egg, and this 
waft {till warm ; there was reafon to fuppofe the {tone mult 
have weighed 25 pounds. 

The maffes of the fecond explofion fell in the vicinity of 
Mr. Prince’s, in Wetton, about five miles fouth of Mr. Burr’s. 
The family were in bed when ** they heard a noife of the 
fall of a heavy body after the explofion.’”? ‘They would 
have paid no further attention to the circumftanee, had they 
not heard that {tones had fallen in other parts of the town ; 
this induced them towards evening to fearch a hole newly 
made in the yard, where they found a ftone buried in the 
loefe earth which had fallen on it ; it was two feet from the 
furface, the hole 12 inches diameter, and as the earth was 
foft the mafs was little injured, only a few fmall fragments 
being detached. It weighed 35 pounds. 


Six days afteranother mafs was difcovered, half amilenorth- 
weft of Mr. Prince’s; the fearch was induced by the perfuafioa 
of the neighbours that they heard it fall near the {pot where 
it was found buried. It weighed from feven to ten pounds, 
and was {plit in fragments, having fallen on a detached mafe 
of gneifs rock which it had fplitin two. We found another 
mais, of thirteen pounds weight, half a mile north-eaft of 
Mr. Prince’s; it was broken only in two pieces, one of 
whieh we purchafed, for it was now become an article of 
ale. 

A fifth mafs fell two miles fouth-eaft of Mr. Princes’ at 
the foot of Tafhowa hill. Its fall was heard by Mr. Porter 
and his family. They faw a {moke rife, from the fpot where — 
they found a ttone, in the road, which had penetrated two feet 
in the deepeft place, the hole twenty inches diameter, and 
the margin coloured blue from the powder of the ftone, 
which weighed 25 pounds. 

It is probable that the four laft ftones were projected at 
the fecond explofion, and one has been fince found on the 
neighbouring hill, weighing 35 pounds, which muft be re- 
ferred to the fame. 

A mafs of ftone, far exceeding the united weight of all we 
have defcribed, fell in a field belonging to Mr. Seely, within 
30 rods of his houfe. 

A circumftance attended the fall of this which feems 
peculiar to it. Mr. Staples lives on the hill, at the bottom 
of which this body fell. After the laft explofion a noife 
like a whirlwind pafled to the eaft of his houfe, and over 
his orchard ; at the fame inftant a ftreak of light pafled over 
it in a large curve, and feemed to pierce the ground; a fhock 
was felt, and a report heard like that of a heavy body 
ftriking the earth. 

Three or four hours after this, Mr. Seely went to look 
after his cattle. Some had leaped into the adjoining inclo- 
fure, and appeared frightened; pafling on he was furprifed 
to finda {pot of ground all torn up, and the earth lookirg 
freth. Coming to the place he found a great mafs of frag- 
ments of a ftrange looking ftone. 


Here were ftriking proofs of a violent collifion; a ridge 
of micacious {chiftus, lying nearly even with the ground, and 
fomewhat inclining like the hill to the fouth-eaft, was fhi- 
vered to pieces to a certain extent by the impulfes of the 
ftone, which thus received a ftill more oblique dire€tion, and 
forced itfelf into the earth to the depth of three feet, leavin 
a hole of fiye feet in length, and four and a half in breadth ; 

throwing 


FALLING. 


throwing large maffes of turf, and fragments of ftone and 
earth, to the diftance of 50 and 100 feet. 

This ftone was all in fragments, none of which exceeded 
the fize of a man’s fift. From the beft information we 
could obtain of the quantity of fragments of this laft 
ftone, compared with its fpecific gravity, we concluded 
that its weight could not have fallen much fhort of 
200 pounds, All the ftones when firft found were 
friable ; this was eipecially the cafe where they had been 
buried in the moift earth, but by expofure to the air they 
gradually hardened. 

The {pecimens obtained from all the different places are 
perfe@ily fimilar. The mott carelefs obferver would inflantly 
pronounce them portions of acommon mais, different from 
any of the flones commonly feen on this globe. 

Of their form nothing certain can be faid. Few of the 
{pecimens weigh one pound ;, molt of them lefs than half a 
pound, from that tothe fraction of an ounce. On many of 
them, however, may be diftin@ly perceived portions of the 
external part of the meteor. 

It is every where covered with a thin black crutt, deftitute 
ef {plendour, and bounded by portions of the large irregular 
curve, which feems to have enclofed the meteoric mafs. This 
curve is far from being uniform ; it is fometimes deprefled 
with concavities, fuch as might be produced by prefling a 
foft fubftance. The furface of the crutt feels harfh, like pre- 
pared fifh fkin or fhagreen. It gives {parks with fteel. 
There are certain portions of the ftone, covered with the 
black cruft, which appear not to have formed a part of the 
outfide of the meteor, but to have received this coating in 
the interior parts, in confequence of the fiflures or cracks 
produced by the intenfe heat to which the body feems to 
have been fubjeGted. 

The fpecific gravity is 3.6, water being 1. 

The colour of the mafs of the ftone is principally a dark 
afh or leaden colour. It is difperfed with diftin¢ét maffes, 
from the fize of a pin’s head to the diameter of one or two 
inches, which are almo{t white, refembling the cryftals of 
feldt{par in fome varieties of granite, and in that fpecies 
of porphyry known by the name of werd antique. 

The texture of the {tone is granular and coarfe, refembling 
grit tone. It cannot be broken with the fingers, but gives 
an irregular fra@ture with the hammer. 

On infpeéting the mafs four diftin& kinds of matter may 
be perceived by the eye. 

ft. The ftone is thickly interfperfed with black globular 
mafles, moft of them {pherical, fome oblong. The largeft are 
of the fize of a pigeon fhot; but generally much {maller ; 
they can be detached, and leave a concavity in the ftone. 
They are not attractable by the magnet, and can be broke 
by the hammer. 

2d. Mafles of yellow pyrites may be obferved. 

3d. The whole ftone is thickly inter{perfed with metallic 
points, many ofthem vifible to the eye, and numerons with 
alens. Their colour is whitifh, and mittaken by the difco- 
verers of the ftone for filver. ‘They appear to be malleable 
iron alloyed with nickel. 

4th. The lead-coloured mafs which cements thefe toge- 
ther has been defcribed already, and conttitutes by far the 
greater part of the itone. After being wet and expofed to 
the air, the itone becomes covered with reddith fpots, which 
do not appear in a frefh fracture, and arife from the rulling 
of the iron. 

Finally, the ftone has been analyfed in the laboratory of this 
college, according to the inftructions of Howard, Vauque- 
ling and Fourcroy. ‘The analyfis was hafly, the exact pro. 


ttions and the fteps of the analyfis are referved for more 
eifure. 

It is fufficient to obferve that the ftone appears to confit 
of the following ingredients; filex, iron, magnefia, nickel, 
and fulphur. 

The two firft conftitute by far the greateft part of the 
ftone ; the third in confiderable proportion, but much lefs 
than the others ; the fourth probably {till lefs, and the ful- 
phur exifts ina {mall but indeterminate quantity. 

Mokt of the iron is ina perfe@ly metallic ftate ; the whole 
ftone attra&ts the magnet, and this inftrument takes up a 
large proportion of it when pulverized. Portions of metallic 
iron may be feparated fo large that they may be eafily ex- 
tended under the hammer. Some of the iron is in combina- 
tion with fulphur ia the pyrites, and.probably mot of the 
iron is alloyed by nickel. 

Inthe Trranfaétions for 1803 is an account by C. Greville, 
efq. of three fpecimens in different mufeums in France, of 
{tones which have fallen to the earth, all fimilar in their ge- 
neral charaGter to thofe defcribed by Mr. Howard; and 
alfo of a mafs of native iron found in Perfia in the year ot 
the Hegira 1030, according to the annals of the empire, 
written by the emperor, and of which he is ftated to have 
made fome fabres and daggers; but until other iron was 
mixed with that of the mafs defcribed, the iron was not 
malleable. 

But the moft beautiful f{pecimen of perfe& iron was 
brought from the Cape of Good Hope. Barrow, in his 
travels into that country, defcribes the original mafs as exift- 
ing in the interior of Africa, and it is thought that fome 
traditionary fuperftition is conneéted with it by the natives. 

Notwithftanding every doubt feems now to be removed 
as to the general authenticity of the above relations, yet 
philofophers are not perfe&tly agreed either as to their 
origin or mode of formation. Of the different theories that 
have been propofed, that which fuppofes them formed in 
the air, that is, in our atmofphere, is certainly the leaft 
analogous to our prefent ftate of chemical knowledge. 
Others are more inclined to aflign them an aftronomical ori- 
gin, though great doubts {till exift as to the particular clafs 
of bodies from which they are moft probably derived. 
Some altronomers imagine they have been thrown from 
a lunar volcano: there is nothing, perhaps, philofophi- 
cally inconfiftent in this theory, for volcanic appearances 
have been feen in the moon; anda force fuch as our vole 
canoes exert would be fufficient to project fragments that 
might poflibly arrive at the furface of the earth. It is de- 
monitrated by mathematicians, that ifa ponderable body be 
projected from the earth’s furface with a force fufficient to 
give it a certain initial velocity, it will never return. This 
velocity is about feven miles an hour. From the moon, 
the velocity requifite to produce a fimilar effet is about four 
times as great as that of a camon-ball, fo that there is no- 
thing impoffible in the fuppofition of thefe bodies havin 
been projected from the moon. But probability is bavtainlt 
again{t it, and it feems more likely that they are frag- 
meuts of comets; becaufe thefe bodies, from their gfeat 
numbers, render the queition of mere probability favourable 
to this hypothefis ; and befides, from their own nature they 
mui be fubjeét to chemical changes of a very violent na- 
ture; add to this, that fron: the {mallnefs of their dimenfions, 
a fragment projected from them with a very flight velocity 
would never return to the mafs to which it originally be- 
longed, but would traverfe the celeitial regions till it met 
with fome planetary or other body fufficiently ponderous to 
attract it toitfelf, Many arguments likewife concur, which 


O2 lead 


FALLING. 


lead to the conjeéture that the comets themfelves are nothing 
more than larger fragments of matter, which have been them- 
felves feparated by volcanic violence from other celeitial bodies 
of greater magnitude thanthemielves; perhapsfrom fixed ftars. 
The theory of the new planets, as fuggelted by Olbers, like- 
wife continues to gain ground in the eftimation of aftrono- 
mers ; thefe are by him fuppofed to be only portions of a large 
planet which once revolved about the fun in an entire form. 
‘Warranted by fuch ftrong indications, why fhould we hefi- 
tate to extend the analogy from otr own earth to the great 
fiderial fyftem ? On our own planet, not only the volcanoes 
at prefent exifting, but the indubitable veftiges of the patt, 
are fuflicient to convince us that great and marvellous 
changes are continually taking place in confequence of the 
chemical and mechanical aétion of the different elements on 
each other: fo it is, probably, throughout the whole crea- 
tion. The immenfely long periods in which thefe changes 
are accomplifhed appear relatively to our limited {feale of 
exiftence to be of great importance; but contemplated by 
intelleét of a higher order than our own, the whole hiftory 
of the fiderial univerfe may be a phenomenon almoft initan- 
taneous. To return, however, to this fublunary world, it 
ftill remains to adda few words onthe different theories that 
have been fuggefted to explain the fudden ignition of thefe 
meteors, and the violent eleétric or ftormy appearance which 
has been obferved to accompany them. 

Of the number of theories that have been fuggefted to ex- 
plain the ignition of thefe bodies, and the explofions that 
often attend their arrival, very few deferve even to be no- 
ticed. So imperfec is our meteorological knowledge, that we 
mutt content ourfelves with mere conjeéture. The leaft im- 
prchable opinion of thofe tha: have been hazarded feems to 
be this, that the inflammation and combuttion of the ftones 
proceeds from the heat neceflarily extricated by the fudden 
compreffion of the air, in confequence of the great velocity 
they poffefs on their firft entering our atmofphere, which ve- 
locity is afterwards much diminifhed by the conftant refiftance 
of the air. In this cafe, however, we muft {uppofe them of 


the nature of pyrophori, an hypothefis far from fatisfactory. 
Mr. Davy’s late difcoveries feem likely to lead us nearer to 
the truth. If thefe earthy bodies were in their metallic {tate 
of exiftence previous to their arrival on the confines of our 
world, their fudden inflammation would be eafily accounted 
for, and would at the fame time afford us a curious circum- 
ftance in their hiftory, as it would be evident they came 


from a place where ne oxygen was to be found; they could 
not, therefore, come from the furface of a habitable world like 
ours, ‘They may, however, even on this hypothetis, have been 
part of the internal nucleus of fome planetary or cometa 
body having an atmofphere, but not of fufficient thicknels 
to have produced that inflammation which takes place when 
they enter ours. The eleGtrical appearances that fo often 
accompany thefe bodies in their defcent indicate that the 
equilibrium of the atmofphere is more eafily deranged than 
otherwife might be imagined; for certainly it is much more 
rational to fuppofe that this difturbance is rather the effe&t of 
the meteor than the caufe of it. If there be any truth in 
the prevailing opinion of feamen, that the firing of cannon 
{tills the wind, this faét will ftrengthen the opinion that great 
apparent changes may take place in the atmofphere by the 
various chemical operations that may: accidentally take 
place within it. But we fhall ab{tain, however, from farther 
conjecture, and trutt, that one day the future progrefs of 
{cience will enable philofophers to explain, in a fatisfaGtory 
manner, all the circumftances which at prefent feem to be 
involved in fuch compleat obfcurity. 

But whatever be really their origin, the hiftory of thefe 
productions we mult acknowledge to be highly interefting ; 
from the earlieft times thefe fragments have been wibnthactalky 
arriving at the furface of the earth, though it is only lately 
that they have attracted the notice of philofophers, and their 
hiftory been authenticated by the fuperior lights of modera 
{cience. From the moft ancient period of hiftory there are 
repeated accounts of ftones falling from heaven, which, but 
for the careful inveftigations above defcribed, would for 
ever have been confounded with the fabulous prodigies fo 
familiar to ancient credulity. And this affords a fingular 
and ftriking inftance, in which the true hypothefis was 
embraced by the ignorant and credulous part of mankind 
at the fame time that it was rejeGted by philofophers. In 
favour of learning, however, we fhould obferve, that it could 
only have been by the fuperior feience of the prefent age, 
that faéts of {uch an extraordinary nature could have been 
authenticated and feparated from the multitude of fabulous 
and wonderful events which have been believed and recorded 
by the fame hiftorians. : 

We fubjoin the following epitome of the analyfis of thefe 
bodies from Thomfon’s Chemittry, and a table is fabjoined 
from a French work of M. Izarn, 


Subftances. Places where they fell. Period of their fall. Teltimony. 
Shower of ftones At Rome Under Tullus Hoftilius Livy. 
Shower of ftones At Rome (eer erguetas sae M: } 13. Obfequens, 
Shower of iron In Lucania Year before defeat of Craffus |Pliny. 
Shower of mercury In Italy Dion. 
very large {tone In Thrace 2d year of 78th Olympiad _|Pliny. : 


Ch. of count Marcelli. 
Geoffroy le Cadet. 
Paul Lucas. 


In Thrace 
At Quefnoy 
Near Lariffla, Macedonia 


B. C. 452 
January 4th, 1717 
January, 1706 


“hree large ftones 
Shower of fire 
Stone of 72 lbs. 


‘About 1200 ftones, one of 

120 lbs. } Near Padua, in Italy In 1510 (Cardon Varcet. 
Another of 60 lbs. F 
‘Another of 59 lbs. On Mount Vaife, Provence |November 27th, 1627 Gaffendi. 


Shower of fand for 15 hours |In the Atlantic April 6th, 1719 Pere le Feuilles, 


Shower of fulphur Sodom and Gomorrah 


Sulphureous rain In the duchy of Mansfeld _|In 1658 Spangenberg. 
The fame Copenhagen In 1646 Olaus Durmius, 
Shower of fulphur Brunfwick OGober, 1721 Siegefber. 


Subftances, 


Ditto of a vifcid unknown 


matter 

Two large ftones, weighing 
zo lbs. 

A ftony mafs 

A ftone of 7% Ibs. 

A ftone 

A ftone 


Exteufive fhower of ftones 


Mafs of iron, 70 eubic feet 
Mafs of ditto, 14 quintals 
Shower of {tones 


Large ftone, 260 lbs. 


FALLING, 


TABLE continued. 


Places where they fell. 


Lreland 


t |Liponas, in Breffe 


(Niort, in Normandy 

At Luce, in Le Main 

At Aire, in Artois 

In Cotentin 

Environs of Agen 

Sienna, Tufcany 

Wold Cottage, Yorkfhire 
Sale, department of the Rhone 
{n Portugal 

Benares, Eaft Indies 

At Plunn,near Taber, Bohem. 
America 

Abakank, Siberia 
Barboutan, near Boquefort 
Enfifheim, Upper Rhine 


‘Two ftones, 200 and 300 lbs. Near Verona 


Stone of 20 lbs. 
Several ditto, from 10 to 


‘Sales, near Ville Franche 
‘Near L’Aigle, Normandy 


Period of their fall. 


In 1695 


September, 1753 


\In 1750 

September 13th, 1768 
In 1768 

In 1768 

July 24th, 1790 
July, 1794 

December 13th, 1795 
March 17th, 1798 
Feb. rgth, 1796 
Dec. igth, 1798 
July 3d, 1753 

April 5th, 1800 
Very old 

July, 1789 
November 7th, 1492 
In 1762 


March 12th, 1798 
April 26th, 1803 


Teftimony. 


Mufchenbroek. 


[pe la Lande. 


De la Lande. 
|Bachelay. 

|Gurfon di Boyaval. 
Morand. 

St. Amand Baudin, &c. 
Earl of Briftol. 

Captain Topham. 

Le Lievre and De Drée. 
Southey. 

iJ. Lloyd Williams, efq. 
B. de Born. 

|Phil, Magazine. 

Pallas, Chladni, &c. 
Darcet, jun. Somet, &c. 
Butenfchoes. 

Acad. de Bourd. 

(De Drée. 


|Fourcroy. 


\Glafgow 
Conneticut 


The ftony bodies, when found, are always hot. They 
eommonly bury themfelves fome depth under ground. Their 
fize differs from a few ounces to feveral tons. They are 
ufually roundifh, and always covered with a black cruit. 
In many cafes they {mell ftrongly of fulphur. The black 
cruft, from the analyfis of Howard, confifts chiefly of 
oxyd of iron. 

The outer furface of thefe ftones is rough; when broken, 
they appear of an afh-grey colour, and of a granular texture, 
like fand-ftone. When examined with a microfcope, four 
different fub{tances may be difcovered, of which the {tone is 
compofed: ift, a number of {pherical bodies, varying in 
fize from a pin-head to a pea, of a greyifh-brown colour, 
opaque, breaking eafily in every direction, of a compact 
texture, capable of fcratehing glafs, and of giving a few 
feeble {parks with fteel; 2d, fragments of pyrites, of an 
indeterminate fhape, of a reddifh-yellow colour, granular, 
and eafily reduced to powder; the powder has a black 
colour; 3d, grains of iron in the metallic itate, {cattered 
like the pyrites through the ftone; 4th, the three fubftances 
juft mentioned are cemented together by a fourth, of an 
earthy confiftence, and fo foft that all the other fubftances 
may be eafily feparated by the point of a knife, and the ftone 
itfelf ehledge pieces between the fingers; this cement 
is of a grey colour. The proportion and fize of thefe dif- 
ferent conftituents vary confiderably in different {pecimens ; 
but all of them bear a ftriking refemblance to each other. 
Their f{pecific gravity varies from 3.352 to 4.281. 

From the analyfis of Howard, which was conducted with 
much precifion and addrefs, and which has been fully con- 
firmed by Vauquelin and Klaproth, we learn that the black 
cruft confifts of a compound of iron and nickel, partly me- 
tallic and partly oxydated. The pyrites confift of iron, 
nickel, and fulphur. The metallic grains confift of iron, 
combined with about a third of its weight of nickel, and the 
yellow globules are compofed of filex, magnefia, iron, and 


nickel. The count Bournon obferves, that thefe globules 
refemble the chryfolite of Werner, and that their chemical 
analyfis correfponds exa@ly with Klaproth’s analyfis of that 
mineral. The earthy cement confifts of the very fame fub- 
itances, and nearly in the fame proportion, as the globular 
fubftances. But-it will be neceflary to exhibit a {pecimen 
of fome of the analyfes, as publifhed by the philofophers to 
whom we are indebted for them. A ftone which fell at 
Benares in India was analyfed by Howard. The pyrites 
confifted of 

2.0 Sulphur 

10.5 Iron 

1.0 Nickel 
2.0 Earths and foreign bodies, 


15-5 


The {pherical bodies confifted of 
50.0 Silex 
15.0 Magnefia 
34-0 Oxyd of iron 
2.5 Oxyd of nickel. 


101.5 


The earthy cement confifted of 
48.0 Silex 
18.0 Magnefia 
34.0 Oxyd of iron 
2.5 Oxyd of nickel, 


102.5 


A ftone which fell ia Yorkshire, deprived as much as pof- 
fible of its metallic particles, gave Mr. Howard, from 150 
grains, 


75 Silex 


FAL 


75 Silex 
37 Magnefia 
48 Oxyd of iron 
2 Oxyd of nickel. 


— 


162 
The increafe of weight was owing to the oxydizement of 
the metallic bodies. - 
Stones which fell at ?Aigle in France, in. 1803, yields, 
ly the analyfis of Vauquelin and Fourcroy, 
54 Silex 
36 Oxyd of iron 
9 Magnefia 
3 Oxyd of nickel 
2 Sulphur 
1 Lime. 


—_—. 


105 


The celebrated ftone which fell at Enfifheim in Alface, 
in 1492, yielded to the fame philofophers, 
56.0 Silex 
30.0 Oxyd of iron 
12.0 Magnefia 
2.4 Nickel 
3-5 Sulphur 
1.4 Lime. 
105.3 

FALLINGBOSTEL, in Geography, a town of Ger- 
many, in the principality of Luneberg-Zell; 14 miles N.E. 
of Rethem. 

FALLOPIA, in Botany, named by Loureiro in honour 
of Gabriel Fallopius, the celebrated anatomift, who excelled 
in the knowledge of plants. He wrote feveral tracts on 
their virtues, and alfo a commentary on Diofcorides. Lour. 
Cochinch. 335. Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynia. 
Nat. Ord. Vilacets affine ? 

Gen.Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, coloured, 
fomewhat f{preading leaves. Cor. Petals five, ovate-oblong, 
fmall, equal, ereét. Stam. Filaments about 50, thread- 
fhaped, unequal, inferted into the receptacle; anthers 
roundifh. Pi/f, Germen fuperior, roundith ; ftyle thick, 
awl-fhaped, fhorter than the ftamens ; ftigma fimple. Peric, 
Berry globular, of one cell, with four roundifh feeds. 

Eff. Ch. Corolla of five petals. Calyx of five leaves: 
Berry fuperioy, of one cell. Seeds four. 

Obf. We have prefumed to corre&, from analogy, the 
defcription of Loureiro, who confiders as a ne¢tary the five 
fmall leaves which we efteem petals, and takes our calyx for 
the corolla. He thinks there is no true perianth, but calls a 
common calyx what we judge by his defcription to be 
braéteas. y 

1. F.nervofa. Hai pi ip of the Chinefe. Found wild 
in the neighbourhood of Canton. A free, eight feet high, 
with {preading branches, and a fibrous or hemp-like bark. 
Leaves {cattered, ovato-lanceolate, fomewhat ferrated, 
ribbed, fmooth. Flowers white, in {mall terminal clufters ; 
partial ftalks, each bearing three flowers, encompaffed with 
twelve lincar-lanceolate, deciduous bracteas.—As we have 
only Loureiro’s account to dire&t us, we cannot aver that 
this plant is not already known to fy{tematic botanifts by 
fome other name and chara&ers, but we have net been able 
to refer it to avy already publifhed. 


EAL 
FALLOPIAN Tunes, in Anatomy, two {mall tor- 


tuous canals, conneéted to the fundus of the uterus. See 
GENERATION, Organs of. 

FALLOPII Licamentum, the inferior border of 
the tendon of the obliquus externus abdominis, extended 
from the anterior fuperior {pine of the ileum to the angle of 
the pubes. See Osxtiguus. 

Factor Agueduus, a canal in the temporal bone, 
through which the facial nerve paffes. See the defcription 
of that bone in the article Cranrum.. 

FALLOPIO, Gasriet, or, with the Latin termination, 
Fatvopivs, in Biography, a phyfician of Modena, cele- 
brated for his knowledge of anatomy. His biographers 
are not agreed as to the year of his birth, and confequently 
as to his age at the time of his death, in 1563. Caltellani, 
Guilandini, and Haller believe that he was born in 1523, 
and died in his fortieth year ; which opinion feems to be the 
moft corre&. Fallopio exhibited, in his youth, the mott 
ardent zeal in the purfuit of knowledge. After having 
ftudied anatomy under Breffavola, and others, he left Italy 
in order to profit by the inftru€tions of the moft eminent 
profeffors in other countries ; and he is faid to have attained 
to a depth and extent of information unufual at his age. 
Botany, chemiftry, and aftrology were among the ftudies to 
which, befides anatomy, he particularly direSted his atten- 
tion. He was appointed profeffor of anatomy at Pifa in 
1548; and thence went to Padua, where the fame honour- 
able office was confided to him in 1551. He alfo taught 
botany at Padua, but with lefs celebrity. In faét, his ana- 
tomical excellence not only did honour to the univerfity of 
Padua, where a crowd of pupils was annually induced to 
refort for the advantage of his inflruétions, but procured for 
himfelf the reputation of the moft able phyfician of his age. 
He died at Padua in 1563, as already ftated. Fallopio wa¢ 
not only diftinguifhed as a phyfician and anatomift, he was 
alfo eminent in the practice of furgery ; of which fubje&, 
however, he has left no writings, unlefs the notes written 
by fome of-the pupils who attended his le&tures, and pub- 
lifhed in a carelefs manner by them, can be confidered as 
fuch. Douglas has charaéterized him in a few words; * in 
docendo maxime methodicus, in medendo feliciflimus, in fe- 
cando expeditiflimus.”? He contributed to elucidate the 
{cience of anatomy by his unceafing induftry, although he 
had certainly been anticipated in feveral of his difcoveries, 
the credit of which he claimed. In attaching his name to 
the uterine tubes, which are believed to receive the ovum 
from the ovarium, and to convey it to the uterus, and are in 
general called the Fallopian tubes, anatomifts acknowledge 
his title to the difcovery of them. It muft be admitted, 
however, Eloy obferves, that thefe tubes were known to 
the ancient anatomifts, Herophilusand Rufus the Ephefian, 
who have left us very accurate defcriptions of them. The 
charaéter of this great phyfician, however, is little dete- 
riorated by fuch circumftances ; for, if he did not make all 
the difcoveries ufually attributed to him, he at leaft reftored 
thofe of the ancientswhich had fallen into oblivion. The 
following is a catalogue of his works. 1. ‘ Obfervationes 
Anatomicg, in libros v. digeftz,”” Venice, 1561 ; one of the 
beit works of the fixteenth century, in which fome of the 
errors which had efcaped his matter, Vefalius, are modettly 
corrected. 2.  Libelli duo, alter de Ulceribus, alter de 
Tumoribus, preter naturam,”’ ibid.1563. 3. “ De Ther- 
malibus aquis, hbrifeptem ; de Metallis et Foffilibus, liber,” 
ibid. 1564; being the fubitance of part of his leGtures on 
Diofcorides, publifhed by one of his pupils, André Marco- 
linus. 4. “ De Morbo Gallico Tra€tatus,” Venice, 1564. 

I 5- “ De 


FAL 


'§. De fimplicibus Medicamentis purgantibus,” ibid. 1566; 
the fubftance of letures in the form of commentary on 
the firft book of Diofcorides. 6. ‘ Opufcula varia,” Pa- 
dua, 1566. 7. ‘ Expofitio in librum Galeni de Offibus,”’ 
Venice, 1570; publifhed by Francis Michini. 8. * De 
compofitione medicamentorum,” ibid. 1570, g. “ De 
parte Medicine que Chirurgia nuncupatur, necnon in 
librum Hippocrates de vulneribus capitis dilucidiffima in- 
terpretatio,” ibid. 1571. 10. ‘“¢ De Humani Corpoiis 
Anatome compendium,” ibid. 1571. 11. ‘¢ Leétiones de 
partibus fimilaribus Corporis Humani,’’ Nuremberg, 1575 ; 
publifhed by Coiter. 12. “Opera genuina omnia, tam 
PiaGica, quam Theorica, in tres tomos diftributa,’’ Venice, 
1584. This work was publifhed at Francfort in 1600, and 
a fupplement, forming a fourth volume, in 1606. But the 
fuperior bulk of this Francfort edition is made up of a col- 
leétion of notes taken from the oral le€tures of the author, 
and which are not in a flyle calculated for publication. A 
work was publifhed at Venice in 1650, entitled ‘ Secreti 
racolti dal Falopia,’? refpeCting which it may be obferved, 
that Fallopio was too candid and communicative to conceal 
any information that might be ufeful to mankind, and that 
this was probably an inftance of the advantages which 
quackery does not fail to take of pofthumous reputation to 
foift its impofitions upon the public. Eloy Did. Hitt. 
Manget. Bibl. Med. Praé. 

FALLOW, a colour of a palifh red, like that of a brick 
half burnt; fuch is that of a fallow deer, &c. 

Faxtow, in Agriculture, fignities fuch land as has been 
repeatedly ploughed over, and expofed to the influence of 
the atmofphere, for the purpofe of rendering it mellow and 
clean from weeds, not being fown, but left to reft after the 
tillage it has undergone. 

But fallows have different names given to them, and are 
of different kinds, according to the purpofes for which 
they are intended, and the mamer in which they are made. 
A naked fallow is that in which the ground is ploughed and 
harrowed at fuitable intervals for feveral times, according to 
the kind of crop that is ultimately to be grown upon it, but 
without being fown till it has lain for fome length of time 
afterwards. A green fallow is that where ‘the land has been 
rendered mellow and clean from weeds, by means of fome 
kind of green crop, fuch as turnips, tares, peas, potatoes, 
&c. In this mode of fallowing no time is loft by the land 
being left idle, or in an unprodu€tive ftate. 

They are alfo fometimes diftinguifhed by the feafon of the 
year in which the bufinefs is either principally or wholly ac- 
complifhed ; hence we have fummer, winter, and {pring fal- 
lows, and likewife further, from their being in particular in- 
ftances only performed in a partial manner, we have baftard 
fallows. They are alfo not unfrequently denominated from 
the particular crops which are grown upon them, or by 
which they are produced; confequently, we have wheat, 
turnip, potatoe, pea, bean, and other fimilar fallows. 

Whatever the nature of the fallow may be, it is of great 
confequence that it be well made. See Farrowinc of 
Land. 

Fattow-Cleanfing Machine, an implement contrived for 
the purpofe of rendering fallows clean from weeds, roots, 
and other. prejudicial matters. It was long fince invented 
by a blackfmith of the name of Aaron Ogden, refiding at 
Athton-under-Line, near Manchetter, in the county of Lan- 

. cafter. It is acomplex unwieldy tool, which has been fu- 
perfeded by thofe of a much more cheap, fimple, and appli- 
cable kind, fuch as rakes, drags, cultivators, &c. By the ufe 
of thele fallows can be rendered not only fixe, but perfedtly 
free from couch, and all other forts of root weeds. But, 


FAL 


befides this, the introduétion of green fallow crops, by 
preventing, in a great meafure, the neceflity of naked or 
fummer fallowing, has contributed to render the ufe of this 
fort of machinery much lefs frequent than formerly. In 
improved hufbandry implements of this nature are of courfe 
feldom or ever employed. A full reprefentation of this 
machine is however given in the ‘* Complete Farmer, or 
General Dictionary of Hufbandry.” 

Farrow Deer. See Derr. 

Farrow-Finch, or Fallow-/mick, in Ornithology, a name 
of the oenanthe, more commonly called the wheat-ear, 
and by fome authors oiffora. See Moracitua. 

Farrow Hounds. See Hounps. 

FALLOWING of Lanp, in Agriculture, is the opera- 
tion or procefs of rendering tillage-ground proper for the 
growth of different forts of crops of the grain or green kinds, 
by repeated ploughing, harrowing, and other fimilar means, 
during the fummer, autumnal, or winter and {pring 
months. 

This is a praGtice whichwas had recourfe to at a very early 
period of the art of hufbandry, and which has prevailed in 
different countries. It was moft probably firft introduced 
and adopted as the means of bringing the more rough and 
coarfe kinds of tillage-land into a ftate proper for the pro- 
duétion of various forts of grain crops, and afterwards con- 
tinued for the purpofe of keeping fuch as had been brought 
into that ftate free from thofe vegetable produ@tions which 
have a tendency to injure and deftroy fuch crops. 

The more frequent introduétion of green crops has fince 
confiderably leffened the neceflity for this practice in dif- 
ferent diltrits. 

It has been obferved, that in the preparation of land for 
the reception of grain or other forts of crops, by repeated 
ploughings and harrowings, or the frequent expofure of 
new and frefh furfaces to the aétion and influence of the at- 
mofphere, a variety of alterations and changes are produced 
in the earthy, as well as other kinds of materials that enter 
into the compofition or conftitution of the foils. The 
heavier or more earthy perticles of the land, by being under 
different circumftances of the air and feafons thus frequently 
ftirred and turned over, are fo effe€tually divided or feparated 
from each other, and broken down, that eveti in moft of the 
ftiffer forts of ground, as well as thofe of the lighter kinds, 
there is a degree of pulverization and mellownefs effe@ed 
that could fearcely have been induced by any other means: 
in confequence of which the portions of vegetable matter 
that are prefent, and that may have been reduced into the 
carbonaceous ftate, with the calcareous, the argillaceous, 
and other earthy ingredients, and fuch metallic fubftances 
as may exift in the condition of oxyds or calces, become fo 
uniformly, and fo extenfively blended and incorporated, and 
the manures that are afterwards applied fo minutely inter- 
mixed with them, that the fibrous roots of the growing 
crops, of whatever nature they may be, are enabled to pe- 
netrate and extend themfelves more fully, and of courfe to 
draw more regular and varied, as well as more abundant 
fupplies of nourifhment.”? And that ‘on account of the 
extreme divifion and pulverization that take place, and the 
great irregularity of furface which is produced in this way, 
the dews and light refrefhing rains that are fo frequently oc- 
curring in the early {pring months are more capable of 
being admitted and diffufed through, and detained in the 
hollows and interftices of the ground, and thus of contri- 
buting powerfully to the fupport of the crops in the more 
incipient {tages of vegetation.”” Alfo, ‘* by the repeated 
turning-in and deftruGtion of different forts of plants of the 
weed kind, much vegetable mucilaginous and faccharine 

matter 


FALLOWING. 


matter may alfo be added, as well as the land improved by 
the putrefactive fermentation that mutt from thefe caufes be 
conftantly taking place.”? It is added, that i: there are 
alfo other modes in which advantages may be gained by the 
repeated turaing over and breaking down of the particles of 
foils, as from much of the atmofpheric air being by fuch 
methods of hufbandry blended with the fine particles of the 
foils, and detained in the numerous hollows and cavities 
formed by fuch degrees of pulverization, a larger proportion 
of oxygen may be fupplied, which, by its umon with the 
carbon and other inflammable materials that are moftly con- 
tained in foils, may produce the carbonic or other acids, 
according to the circumitances of the cafes in greater abund- 
ance, and in this manner aid the growth of vegetables in a 
high degree. And as the water, or moifture that is included 
in large quantities in the pores of foils in fuch powdery 
ftates. may undergo the procefs of decompofition more 
fully, by coming more minutely in contaét with the portions 
of atmofpheric air that are covered up and imprifoned with 
it in them, the fupplies of ammonia or volatile alkali, by 
the combination of its hydrogen with azote, may be more 
regular and copious, as well as thofe of nitre, by the more 
complete union of its fuper-abundant oxygen with fome 
ether portion of the abounding nitrogen, or azote of fuch 
air, And it has likewife been fuggeited, that as the atmo- 
{pheric air confifts, or is conftituted of oxygen, azote, and 
the fluid matter of heat, if the heat that caufes them to 
exit uncombined in the form of gafes be drawn away from 
them by fome other material, while they are confined in the 
eavities of the foil, they may, by their nearer approach to 
each other, combine fo as to produce nitrous acid; or the 
oxygen, in its fluid ftate, not in its aerial one, may more 
readily unite with carbon, and thus conftitute a fluid, not 
an aerial carbonic acid, which is fuppofed to be of great 
utility in promoting the growth of plants. And further, 
that if any procefs of the putrefactive kind be going on 
where atmo!pheric air is in this way confined in the inter- 
“fhices. of the foil, and by the deprivation of its heat is con- 
verted from a gas to a fluid, the azote may combine with the 
hydrogen of the decompoling water, or contribute to de- 
eompofe it, andin this manner form volatile alkali, which, 
like nitrous acid, may, either during the procefs of its 
formation, or after that has been compleated, be of very 
material utility in promoting vegetation, while at the fame 
time the oxygen afforded by the decompofing water may, 
like that of the atmofphere, contribute to the production 
of the carbonic, nitrous, or phofphoric acids; and in this 
way render carbon, phofphorus, and the bafis of nitre, 
capable of being taken up by the abforbent roots of grow- 
ing plants. From the great diminution of bulk that has 
been found from experiment to take place where atmo- 
{pheric air is confined in contac&t with water, it is conceived 
that there may be a decompofition of both the water and 
the air, and a produ@tion of both ammonia and nitrous acid, 
which are known to be beneficial in promoting vegetation, 
or the growth of plants. It is conceived that m thefe dif- 
ferent views the practice of fallowing may in various in- 
-ftances be highly beneficial, notwithitanding the objec- 
tions that have been fo repeatedly brought againft it by 
writers on hufbandry ; but at the fame time it muft be 
admitted that in fome forts of foil it will, for fimilar reafons, 
be much more advantageous and ufeful than in others. 
On the lighter kinds of land, where full and luxuriant crops 
of diferent forts of plants, as turnips, potatoes, &c. may 
be grown, that produce a clofe, thick foliage, and which, 
as has been fhewn by experiment, afford under fuch circum- 
ftances much carbonic acid, which, from its being greatly 


heavier than the common air of the atmofphere, mutt fall 
upon and be mixed with the foil in {uch ftagnated fituations, 
and thus, together with the more conftant moifture that mult 
be prefent in fuch cafes, promote the folution and decay of 
various vegetable matters, and continually add carbonaceous 
and other materials fo as to greatly improve the foils; it 
can but feldom be neceflary. Befides, as in thefe foils, by 
the ufe of the drill, and repeated hand or horfe-hoeing during 
the growth of the crops, the ground may be kept perfettly 
clean from weeds, and ina fine mellow or powdery ftate, 
without the danger of being injured by too much evapora- 
tion and expofure in the way of fallowing ; and likewife in 
foils of the fame nature, that are rich from the frequent ap- 
plications of manure, and in which the procefles by which 
the different nutritious fubftances that have been defcribed 
are formed and prepared, are properly going on, it muft be 
injurious and improper to expofe their furfaces frequently to 
the influence of the air, fun, and rain, as is the cafe in fal- 
lowing, as by fuch means the portion of carbonic acid that 
may exiftin the ftate of a fluid may be made to affume the 
gafeous form, and be more readily diffipated, as alfo the phof- 
phorus and the other materials in their different conditions 
before they form nitrous acid or ammonia. Thus, befides 
the injury that may be done in fallowing fuch forts of land, 
by the carbon and other inflammable materials which they 
contain, combining with the oxygen of the furrounding 
atmofphere, and afterwards by their further union with other 
fubftances fo as to form infoluble compounds, fuch as phof- 
phat of lime and calcareous nitre, as has been ingemioufly 
fuggefted by lord Dundonald, there may be others of not 
lefs confequeénce arifing from the diffipation and lofs of the 
carbonic ornitrous acid, or of volatile alkali in the gafeous 
ftate, as fhewn by Dr. Darwin. 

But that in all the wet bottomed, ftiff, adhefive, and 
clayey forts of foil, which conftitute a large proportion of 
the lands of the kingdom, where, from the clofenefs of their 
textures, and the great tenacity of their particles, bat a very 
flight, or indeed fcarcely any, degree of pulverization has 
been effeGted, the practice of naked fummer fallowing may 
often be highly ufeful and advantageous, not only by the 
great mechanical alteratiuns that muft of neceffity take 
place in them-by the repeated ploughing or turning-up of 
their parts to the influence of the atmofphere, but by their 
admitting the particles of the manures that may afterwards 
be applied to be blended and incorporated with them in a 
more minute and extenfive manrer; and their becoming fo 
perfeGly aérated, as that the different proceffes that have 
been mentioned may take place and properly proceed, fo 
as to form in them fuch fubftances as have been found of 
utility in aiding the growth of crops ; and which could not 
poffibly have been produced without fuch pulverization as 
is the effect of fallowing in the naked method. 

It may be further ftated likewife, that the degree of fri- 
ability and mellownefs that is produced in this way in fuch 
foils has alfo other advantages, fuch as thofe of admitting 
the roots of the growing plants to penetrate them with 
greater facility, and prefenting amore extenfive furface for 
them to draw their nourifhment from. And as in lands of 
thefe kinds there is a conftant tendency to throw up abun- 
dant crops of root and other weeds, it is, perhaps, only by 
the frequent turning over of the foil and the tearing of them 
up by harrowing, as is the cafe in fummer fallowing, that 
they can be effectually eradicated and deftroyed. It is 
principally in this view that the working of fuch foils in 
the early {pring or fummer months becomes fo particularly 
neceflary, as at the period in which the feed is to be put 
into the ground, neither the feafon nor the itate of the wea- 


ther 


FALLOWING. 


ther will admit of their being fufficiently broken down and 
reduced by ploughing, or the weeds to be deftroyed. And 
it may be added, that wet lands, by being turned over during 
the winter feafon, are liable, in many cafes, to become more 
ftiff and adhefive, by which the roots’of the crops muit be 
more limited and confined in their means of acquiring nou- 
rifhment from them. It has been lately well obferved, that 
«when land of a dry gravelly quality sets foul, it may be 
eafily cleaned without a plain fummer fallow; as crops, 
fuch as turnips, &c. may be fubftituted in its place, which, 
when drilled'at proper intervals, admit of being ploughed 
between as often as’ neceflary ; whereas, wet foils, which 
are naturally unfit for carrying fuch crops, muft be cleaned 
and brought into good order by frequent ploughings and 
harrewings during the fummer months.” 
© Indeed it is ftrenuoufly contended by the fame writer, 
that the moft judicious intermixture of crops upon clay foils 
will not preclude the necefiity of a fummer fallow ; though 
it is admitted that it may goa great way in preventing the 
neceflity of its being fo frequently repeated. But another 
Writer, whofe experience has been confiderable, while he al- 
lows that there is no queftion at all of the merit of fallow- 
ing when compared with bad courfes of crops, and who 
thinks, that if the hufbandry is not correét in this refpeat, 
tae fallowift will certainly be a much better farmer than his 
neighbours, contends that there are courfes which will clean 
the fouleft land as well as any fummer fallow, by means 
of plants which admit all the tillage of fuch as fallow. 
sCabbages,’’ he fays, ‘‘are not planted before June or 
July : winter tares admit of three months’ tillage, if til- 
lage be wanted. Beans, well cultivated, will preferve land 
elean, which has been cleaned by cabbages ; andin any cafe 
two fucceffive hoeing crops are,” he thinks, ‘ effective in 
giving pofitive cleannefs. Thefe obfervations are not,” he 
adds, “¢ theory’; they are practice: and it is high time that 
mankind fhould be well perfuaded, that the right quastity of 
cattle and fheep:cannot be kept on a farm, if the fallows of 
the old fyftem are not made to contribute to their fupport. 
There are probably, however, many fituations of clayey foils 
fo exceedingly {tiff and wet, that though turnips, cabbage, 
or bean crops, may be grown upon them, it cannot, from 
the great labour and difficulty of their preparation, and the 
high degree of injury that muft be done in the eating them 
_ or carrying them off the land, be to much advantage, or 
~fuch as to admit of that fort of culture during their growth 
that will keep the ground perfectly clean from weeds. 
» Infuch cafes no courfe of cropping, however judicious, can 
probably be effectual in this re{pe€t; it is indeed well known 
- to fuch praGtical farmers as have had the management of 
foils of this nature, that it is {carcely poffible to be effected 
even by fummer fallowing itfelf. It has alfo been juftly ob- 
ferved, that foils of this defcription are fo frequently, from 
neceflity, ploughed over when wet, that an adhefion and 
foundnefs are produced that cannot be removed without ex- 
‘pofure to the heat of the fummer’s fun, and the pulveriza- 
tion afforded by the repeated operations of the plough and 
theharrow. There is no fort of crop that can in fuch cafes 
fupply the place of fallow, as turnips are highly detrimental; 
and drilled beans, thougl they may anfwer in the way of an 
affitant to fallow, and have the tendency of keeping lands 
clean that are already ina proper condition, it is fuppofed, 
from the neceflity there is of fowing them early, can never 
be beneficially fubitituted for the radical improvement that 
_-is produced by a clean naked fummer fallow. 
> It isy however, added, that even if fuch forts of land 
could be kept perfectly clean and free from weeds by the 
ij dicious jinterpofition of bean, cabbage, or other fimilar 
Vou. XIV. 


crops that mizht be cultivated on them, it is evident that 
the varions beneficial produéts which have been mentioned, 
and which are the refult, in a great meafure, of the perfeét 
pulverization and high degree of aération that re produced 
by means of fummer fallowing, could never be formed in 
fuch an abundant manner as to be of much utility in aiding 
the growth of crops: nor could they’be in fo fuitabie a con- 
dition for the admiflion and extenfion of the abforbent roots 
of the plants that may be cultivated upon them as crops. 

But thowsh thefe circumftances may demonitrate the 
practice of fallowing to be occafionally neceffary and highly 
ufeful on fuch wet, adhefive, clayey foils, as the proper and 
moft advantageous quantity of ftock for the improvement 
of fuch farms can feldom be kept where it greatly prevails, 
the repetition of the practice fhould, in this view, be pre- 
vented as much as poflible, by the cultivation and growth of 
green crops as often-as the lands may be in a flate fer them, 
and they can be had recourfe to with any chance of fuccefs. 
The rata baga, or Swedifh turnip, as being a plant fome- 
what more adapted to wet, ftiff foils, than either the com- 
mon cabbage or turnip, might probably, in fuch cafes, be 
advantageoufly fubitituted as a green crop, and by being 
eaten off in the later {pring mouths, when the ground be- 
came fuficiently dry to bear the cattle or fheep without 
injury, admit of a pea-crop ; after which, the land would 
probably be in a fuitable condition for wheat ; ora crop of 
clover might be taken, and then wheat. But in all fuch 
cafes much mutt depend upon the degree of cleannefs, pul- 
verization and aération, that has been accomplifhed by the 
occafional ufe of fummer fallowing. And as there is much 
variety in the conditions of fuch foils as may occafionally 
require the aid of naked or fummer fallowing, in order to 
render them fuitable for the growth of clean grain or other 
crops; fome, from the nature of their fituations and the 
fub-foils on which they are placed, being more inclined to 
the retention of injurious moifture or wetnefs than others, 
confequently more difpofed to be cold, and to the throwing 
up of large crops of weeds; while others, from the large 
proportion of clayey or tenacious loamy materials that 
may be mixed and incorporated with the pebbly or other in- 
gredients, may be more {tiff and retentive, aud of courfe 
more difficult or more incapable of fufficient pulverization, 
and of admitting the roots of fuch plants as are capable of 
being cultivated’ upon them, to readily eftablifh themfelves, 
and draw from them proper fupplies of nourifhment. And 
befides the varieties of thefe different ftates, there may pros 
bably be others that have not hitherto been well afcertained 
or attended to, fuch as may proceed from the differences in 
the qualities or properties of the clays or loams as they enters 
into or exift in their corepatitions, upon each of which fome 
diverfity in refpe& to the neceflity, repetition, or method of 
conduting the bufinefs of fallowing may depend. The 
correct farmer fhould, therefore, conltantly keep them in 
view, whenever it may be requilite for him to prepare land 
by means of fummer or naked fallowing. 

It is {trenuoufly contended by a late writer. that one great 
purpofe of the fallow fyftem is that of deftroying weeds 
which, in confequence of previous bad management and of 
over-cropping, have increafed to {uch a degree, as to render 
cultivation for grain no longer profitable. Land_being 
allowed to reft for a feafon from yielding a crop, and bei 
repeatedly ploughed, the foil expofed to the influence of 
the different feafons, and at the fame time completely pul- 
verized, its fertility is again fomeivhat reftored, fo that, by 
the application of a fmaller portion of manure than would 
be otherwife neceflary, it is rendered tit for agaia producing 
valuable crops of grain or grafs. It is univecially ackuow- 

P ledged, 


FALLOWING. 


ledged, that all fo'ls, even thofe naturally the moft fertile, are 
capable of being rendered unproduétive by conftantand fevere 
cropping, and that the more improper the modes of cropping 
are, the fooner, and the more certainly, will a comparative 
barrennefs enfue. Hence the propriety of fallowing, where 
imperfect modes of culture are adopted. Frallowing, in what 
may be called the infancy of improvements in agriculture, is 
alfo, it is conceived, eflentially neceflary. If land be greatly 
exhaufted, no matter by what fort of previous mifmanage- 
ment, fallowing is, it is fuppofed, the moft. expeditious, 
the moft effectual, and every thing confidered, the leatt 
expenfive method that can be adopted for reftoring its 
fertility, and rendering it productive. It is the moft 
expeditious, becaufe it is completely done in the courfe of 
one feafon, whereas feveral years of culture, and a great 
additional quantity of manure, would be requilite, were 
any other lefs effectual mode of tillage adopted. It is the 
mott effeGiual, becaufe the farmer has it in his power to 
deftroy every weed, to turn over and expofe the foil to the 
influence of the weather in the different feafons, and alfo to 
level and ftraighten the ridges, drain the land, and remove 
every obftruétion to the introduétion of better modes of 
hufbandry, none of which could be fo conveniently or 
effectually performed between the harveft of one year and 
the feed time of the next. Fallowing is alfo, upon the whole, 
the leaft expenfive method by which the fertility of land 
greatly exhaulted can be reftored, and the only one that can 
be adopted with a certainty of fuccefs, for the removal of 
every obftacle to the introduction of more perfeét agricul- 
ture. Manure operates more powerfully when applied to a 
field that has been properly fummer fallowed than when laid 
on one that has been long under an improper courfe of 
cropping. ‘The returns, after fallowing, will be to a cer- 
tainty greater; and, therefore, although the actual expence 
of fallowing is confiderable, yet the crop that fucceeds is fo 
much greater as to counter-balance that expence, while 
thofe that follow, if properly adapted to the foil, will yield 
the farmer a proper compenfation for his extra trouble and 
expence. In the above ftatement it is obferved, however, 
that the writer had chiefly in his eye the practice of fallow- 
ing as recently adopted in the fouthern parts of Scotland, 
and the principles on which the farmers regulate their con- 
du&, where new and better modes of culture became general. 

It is remarked by an able writer, in the fecond volume 
of «* Communications to the Board of Agriculture,”’ that 
many farmers regard fallowing as the greateft improvement 
that ever was introduced into the agricultural art; by others, 
it is either unknown, or is def{pifed as an unneceflary watte 
of labour, and a facrifice of the produce of the land. Much 
of the contrariety of opinions which prevails on this fubject 
may, he thinks. be accounted for, from the quality of the 
foil on which the farmer operates, or from his local fituation. 
Strong clays require a more frequent repetition of fallow 
than thofe foils that are dry and friable, from containing a 
great proportion of fand. In thofe diftriéts where exceflive 
rains abound duriog fummer, it is feldom convenient for the 
farmer to be encumbered with too great a proportion of 
fallow, as it is often impoflible to get it properly wrought, 
before the land is turned into a mire, if the fineft parts of 
the foil be not wafhed away. In fuch fituations green crops, 
adapted to the quality of the foil, are, in general, the moft 
eligible mode of fallowing. As in fuch diftriéts pafturage 
ought to be the principal obje&, fo this mode of fallowing 
is calculated to provide for the wants of the live ftock in 
winter as wellas in fummer, There is no foil or fituation, 
‘it is {uppofed, where naked fallowing might not be rendered 
lefs frequently neceflary, if not wholly fuperfeded, by 


adopting a proper rotation of crops. Were a drilled green 
or pulfe crop interpofed between every two corn crops, the 
land would always be kept clean and in fine tilth, and a 
much greater value would be extracted from the fame quan- 
uty of manure. As the quality of the foil ought ever 
to be confidered in deciding the f{pecies of fallow for which 
it is befl adapted, fo the quality of the foil ought alfo to de- 
termine the mode by which the fallowing ought to be con- 
du&ed. Some foils ought always to be turned up before 
winter, that their parts may be fplit and pulverized by the 
froft : others fhould not be ftirred until {pring, as exceffive 
pulverization renders them liable to become miry with rain, 
which chills the crop, and they confolidate into a hard mafs 
at the approach of drought. Thus it is more convenient 
to have fuch foils rather broken into {mall pieces than re- 
duced to a fine powder ; but where the objeét in view is a 
drilled crop, it is always advantageous to turn over the land 
before winter, or even to give it a ftirring or two during 
that feafon, becaufe working it in drills afterwards prevents 
the effeéts already ftated. 1 

For land already in cultivation, the great ufes of fallow. 
are, it is conceived, to reduce or preferve the land in a ftate 
of fine tilth, to clean it of weeds, and, by turning it up to 
the air, to caufe a more perfe@t putrefaétion of the anjmal 
and vegetable matters it may contain. This laft effe& is fo 
clearly afcertained, that the moft experienced farmers have 
affured the writer, that land which has been repeatedly 
dunged has been found to yield a much better crop, in 
confequence of a fallow without dung, than from a com- 
plete dofe of dung without a fallow; and this too after the 
productive power of the land had been much exhaufted by 
cropping. But for land that is to be reclaimed from a na- 
tural ftate, or from a rude and imperfe& ftate of cultivation, 
a fallow is always indifpenfably neceflary for various rea- 
fons, and particularly thofe of. affording a convenient op- 
portunity to level the inequalities, and to lay the land in 
the moft proper form for future cultivation. 

And it is ftated by the intelligent authors of the  Agri- 
cultural Survey of the County of Northumberland,”’ that the 
practice of making naked fallows on all kinds of foils, once 
in three or four years, was general through that county, till 
the introduction of turnips; in a few years the fallows of 
the dry-lands were covered with this valuable plant. On 
fuch other foils as were found improper for this root, the 
naked fallows {till prevail with an almoft univerfal opinion 
that it is abfolutely neceflary to the fertility of the land; 
yet there are fome few, they fay, who dare to doubt this long 
eftablifhed doétrine, and prefume to think that naked fallows 
might be difpenfed with in many fituations, by cultivating 
leguminous crops drilled at wide intervals, to admit being 
ploughed or horfe-hoed between ; to which, if proper hand- 
hoeings be added, the land will be as well prepared for 
wheat as if it had been a complete naked fallow, This is 
not, they fay, advanced on f{peculation or theory ; inftances 
can be produced where no naked fallows have been made on 
fields of {trong loam for twelve years, yet they are as clear 
of quickens, couch-grafs, or other pernicious weeds as any 
fields in the diftri€t that have been under naked fallow two 
or three times in the fame period. It may; however, be 
neceflary to obferve, they think that, previous to the adop- 
tion of this fyftem, the land was cleared of quicken or couch 
grafs, by a complete fummer fallowing. 

But though they are diffident in giving a decided opinion 
in refpe€t to the neceflity of fallowing, yet, from obferva- 
tions made on the above facts, they cannot help beiag 
inclined to think that the quantity of naked fallow might 
be very much reduced, and in another century, they fuppofe, 

“| will 


FALLOWING. 


will probably be totally abolifhed, if no fortuitous circum- 
flances arife to check the exertions and {pirit forimprovement, 
which have been fo prevalent of late ycars, and fo generally 
diffufed through that difiic. , 

Inthe Report of the County of Mid-Lethian in Scotland, 
it is ftated, that fallowing is praétifed there not fo much as 
making part of a rotation, as from other cireumiftances, 
which render it fometimes neceflary. ‘Thus when lands are 
rendered foul, from the occurrence of a bad feafon, or barren, 
from too frequent repetition of exhauiting crops, fummer 
fallow is introduced as a corretive, and its effects are always 
falutary. On light or dry lands, however, it is feldom found 
neceflary to fallow ; for thefe can be got into good order 
fora crop of potatoes, or of barley, or of turaip; or even more 
early in the feafon for beans and pe3fe: but heavy or wet 
lands are not fo pliable; and aichanph it is clearly poffible 
to labour them alfo, without fallowing, yet it is found to be 
more profitable to have recourfe from time to time to that 
expedient, and its operation is generally more effective and 
laftiag on fuch foils, fo that it is feldom neceffary to be 
repeated oftener than once in feven years. 

And it is afferted by the author of the “ New Farmer’s 
Calendar,”’ that the practice of fallowing, the miferable 
fub{titute of former times for manure, and the hoe-culture, 
can be no longer necefflary on any foils, under the prefent 
improved ftate of hufbandry. In thofe parts where judi- 
cious cropping has beer fubftituted to fallows, every f{pe- 
cies of produét including the rental, has experienced a won- 
derful increafe, to the certain emolument of aJl parties con- 
cerned, the landlord, the tenant, and the public. The 
fame kind ef land in all refpeéts, whether rich or poor, 
has been proved, in numberlefs inftances, equally, or more 
fruitful under conftant crops than under the fallowing fy{- 
tem, including thofe particular {pecies of foil which it was 
pretended could never be fuccefsfully tilled without fallows. 
How often does it happen that, upon thefe very foils, an en- 
lightened cultivator fhall be found cropping his lands accord- 
ing to the improved pra¢tice, and making larger crops of 
wheat than the furrounding fallowifts; upon the felf-fame 
foil, parted but by the hedge, one man fhall make an ex- 
pentive fallow for wheat, and gain two quarters and a half: 
his neighbour fhall alfo obtain the fame quantity of wheat, 
aftera fallow crop of cabbages or carrots, the acreable pro- 
fit of which fhall far exceed that of the wheat itfelf, and his 
Jand fhall be at the fame time left in the beft heart and 
cleaneft tilth. ‘The writer {peaks of faéts, which he has 
himfelf often witneffed ; and were proofs neceflary, he could 
fill his book with them, drawn from the moft authentic re- 
cords. The advocates for fallowine within his knowledge, 
and he has reafon to believe in general, have contented 
themfelves with mere affertions of the fuperiority of their 
practice, without ever once deigning to make trial of any 
other, or with making only a few defultory and ill-conduét- 
ed effays; after which they have again relapfed, unconvin- 
cing, unconvineed, and unimproved, into their old habits. 
By indolent men like thefe, and by landed gentlemen, who 
are fo ill advifed as to commit the management and the let- 
ting of their farms to perfons totally ignorant of any principle 
of agriculture, is the vexatious and unprofitable fyftem of 
fallowing perpetuated. There feems ever to have been a 
ftriking deficiency both of folid argument and experimental 
proof for theneceflity of fallows. The fallowifts have, in 
te opinion, contented themfelves with fimply afferting that 
their lands will not do without reft, and with exclaiming 
againft innovation and new-faugled pra@tice. If they have 
brought forth any arguments at all, thofe have been geue- 
rally of that well-known clafs which men are wont to ufe in 


the fervice of a favourite hypothefis they have previoufly de- 
termined to fupport. It has, he conceives, been taken for 
granted, and with a confidence fuch a notion never merited, 
that the earth, like afyftem of animal organization, ftands 
in need of reft, and that it may be totally exhaufted by the 
action of perpetual vegetation ; a notion which the earth 
herfelf, by her conftant and invariable habits, has faved us 
the trouble to refute. It may be very properly demanded 
of fallowifts, how it happens that a defeét of this fingular 
kind fhould inhere in their lands exclufively ?- And why 
the pooreft lands in foreign countries, as weil as our own, 
fhould profper under continual cropping? Whence arifes 
the aifference between their farms and their gardens? And 
why do the latter never ftand in any need of refpite, but pro- 
duceexuberantly under perpetual feeding? They are well ma- 
nured and welltilled. Should the garden culture be reject- 
ed asa parallel example, from its prefumed fuperiority, he 
infifts it is entirely without reafon; for the open field has 
the advantage, both in poiat of air, and even the poffibility 
of fuperior tillage, from the improved implements and in- 
creafed population of the prefent times. The earth is def- 
tined by nature to an everlaiting round of vegetation; and 
whilff confined to her fpontaneous exertions, requires no 
aflitance from the hand of man. ‘he feeds of thefe pro- 
du@tions fhe poffefies in her own bowels, and the wafte and 
lofs of fubftance fhe has fuftained are amply returned to her 
in their falling and putrid remains, and in the rains, dews, 
and fat vapours of her atmofphere. ‘Thus produétion, ma- 
turity, corruption, and re-produdtion, run in a neceflary 
and everlafting circle. But if more be required than the 
earth would {pontaneoufly produce, and the fubftance itfelf 
be withdrawn fromthe foil which produced it, an artificial 
amends muft be made for the confequent exhauttion ; hence 
the ufe of tillage and manure. This amends, however, 
being made to the neceflary amount, the vegetable proceifs 
will go on unimpeded, and the land continue to produce 
forever, without demanding truce or refpite. Experiences 
ofa date too ancient for chronology to afcertain have 
evinced the truth of this theory, on foils of every poffible 
defcription. Land, then, of a quality however inferior, 


‘can never want to be fallowed under the idea of giving it 


reit, which it will at the inftant reje& by {pontaneous labour, 
to produce acrop of weeds; and as it muft and will pro- 
duce fomething, that fomething had furely better be {uch 
as will repay the expence of culture. But the truth is 
that, excluding the idea of reft, the general fyftem of 
tillage is fo defeétive, and the operation of that, moit 
ufeful and neceffary implement the hoe, fo much negleét- 
ed, that in the-courfe of two or three crops the farmer 
finds himfelf totally at a ftand. He has been painfully and 
foolifhly cultivating weeds 2s well as corn; the farmer 
has fo far occupied and exhautted his land, as no longer to 
leave either {page or nourifhment for a crop of corn, fuffi- 
cient to defray the attendant expence, exclufive of all ex- 
pettation of profit. He muit, indeed, in this cafe, have 
recourle to a fallow, as the only method now left to extir- 
pate a part of the weeds, that he may again crop his land ; 
and this meafure is at the expence of a year’srent, taxes, and 
labour, to fall as a furcharge in the produét of the fuc- 
ceeding crops. That fuch furcharge is totally thrown 
away, anda pofitive lofs to all parties, is, he contends, irre- 
fragably proved by the new practice ; and if a landlord 
fhould fuppofe that he fpares his lands by making a cove- 
nant for fallows, he alfo ought to take into the account 
that, unlefs he permits the new practice, he can have no 
title to expe& a new rent. 
After fuppofing the following hints and obfervations, 
2 whica 


FALLOWING. 


which are contained in the Agricultural Reports of Stafford- 
fhire and Kent, to be er-oneous, namely, that  fallowing 
for wheat, on cold, wet, or ftrong lands, and on all fuch as 
are unfit for turnips, is abfolutely neceffary ; and that he 
who fhall attempt to manage fuch land without fallowing 
will have occafion to repent his miftake ;” and that as 
“ the mixed foils now in queftion, which are too moift for 
turnips, have a particular propenfity to the protection of 
the root-graffes, fummer fallowing becomes abfolutely ne- 
ceffary, and every attempt to crop without it, for any 
length of time, on fuch land, hes terminated to the injury 
‘of the land, and the lofs of the occupier ;”? the writer con- 
teuds, that, if thefe farmers will be at the pains to fearch 
out of their own counties, they may tnd numerous praci- 
cal refutations of the above dotrines, in the very converfe 
of which he really believes the truth to’refide. He has ne- 
ver obferved cotich to be eradicated by fallowing ; a portion 
only is deftroyed, and a fuflicient quantity of roots-left to 
produce a'crop, which will fpeedily demand another fallow, 
and fo on for ever. Regular periodical fallows may, in 
truth, he thinks, be ftyled the nurferies and hot-beds of 
couch, fince, on lands fubjeé&t to the praétice, we ever {ee 
the greateft quantity of it. Not that he entirely agrees 
with the too fanguing advocates of the hoe, that it will, of 
itfelf, entirely root out couch-erafs; at belt, fach would 
be a long and tedious method, at which, he faid, even Tull 
himfelf hefitated. Neverthelefs, after a good dragging, and 
burning the roots, during a month or two of dry weather, 
to the hoe only we mutt look for their gradual and total ex- 
tinction; and this method he has never known to fail in the 
worlt poffible cafes of couch, colt’s-foot, and other fimilar 
kinds ; with the referve, however, that the lands muft never 
be withdrawn from the hoe culture, whatever be the crop, un- 
til the enemy appear to be totally extinG, which will feldom be 
delayed beyond the third year. [t feems fingular to admit that 
fallowing may be fuperfeded by turnips, and yet not by cab- 
bages and beans, the appropriate hoe-crops of {trong lands; 
furely the latter will bear conftant tillage, at leaft equally 
well with the light and weak. But whilit he contends that 
the earth requires no reft, but rather exercife and good nou- 
rifhment, he would not thence be underftood that fhe 
derives no benefit from ret: all experience declares the 
contrary ; her fpontaneous growth being returned to her 
bofom, this alfo laid open. by tillage to the abforption of 
the fattening dews, there can be no queftion but the is fo 
nourithed and reftored. Allintended to be proved is, that 
the price is infinitely too high for the benefit received, and 
which, in truth, to its fulleft extent, may be otherwife ob- 
tained gratis, and even with a premium annexed. Nor is he 
at all prepared to fay, that thofe ftyled amehorating crops, 
whether carrots, turnips, cabbages, grafles, or what not, are 
fuch, in the fimple and reftri€ted fenfe of the word; that 
they are really the vehicles of nourifhment to the earth, 
like a fallow, or that the putrid fermentation occafioned by 
their fhade enriches, finer, if it really have that effect, them- 
felves are extracting the benefit of it. No, all vegetable 
productions carried off the land, although not in equal de- 
grees, detract, he contends, from the itrength of thevfoil, 
which may be impoverifhed by the fcythe as well as the 
fickle ; yet grafs {urely exhautts it the leaft. Thofe plants 
abounding moft in vegetable gluten, in weight and fubftance, 
are the greateft exhaufters: at the head of them, undoubt- 
edly, wheat ought to be placed ; potatoes, perhaps, next. 
Crops, then, can only be faid to be ameliorating, on the 
feore of their being hoed, and of a confiderable part of 
their produce being returned to the land, in the dung of 
the animals which they feed. Omit the hoe, and fell the 


crop, and, inftead of amelioration you would foon, he thinks, 
find galloping confumption ; and then, if in want of a con- 
venient phrafe, you might fay your land was tired of fuch 
orfach a crop. Even the beft tillage under the fallow-fyf- 
tem, he fuppofes, ftands felf-conviéted of deficiency, fince 
it needs the invariable repetition of that expenfive aid; it 
evinces a defe&t of crops for the fwpport of cattle, of con- 
fequence a defe&t of manure and of hoe-tillage. If the 
fowing of white corn by broad-caft muft be perfifted in, 
there is no poffibility of keeping the land clean (generally 
{peaking) but by the intermixture, in due courfe, of pulfe- 
crops which are hoed; with the aid of which, and a ftriét 
attention to hand-hoeing and weeding the broad-caft corn, 
the neceffity of fallowing will be for ever precluded. It 
will be underftoed, that a fummer’s refpite is neceflary at 
fivit, in order to clear the foil of root-weeds; and after- 
wards, the ufual intervals between the crops, the weather 
being dry, will afford opportunities of again ufing the drag, 
or cultivator, to the fame end. hele occafions always 
being diligently laid hold of, the roots will foon be totally 
dellroyed. As to the feed-weeds, contrary to the common 
cuftom of farmers, thofe ought to be encouraged by all pof- 
fible means af pulverization, to make their appearance, 
that they may be drawn or cut off previous to their bloom. 
Various circumftances in tillage may induce the neceflity of 
an occafional winter fallow, which, by the land being laid 
up clean, will always be beneficial. It is, on the whole, 
concluded, by the practical author of “*Modern Agricul: 
ture,” that the practice of fallowing may, no doubt, be 
adopted with propriety in fome cafes, while a flavifh adher- 
ence to it in every inflance would be highly improper. 

In refpe&t to the manner of performing the procefs or 
operation of fullowing, it fhould always, like moft other pro- 
ceffes in hufbandry, be condu€ted with a due attention to 
the circumftances and qualities of the foil, as more pul- 
verization or breaking down will evidently be required 
where the land approaches to the nature of a perfeét clay, 
than where it has more of the loamy quality ; and where 
the retention of moifture is confiderable, more regard will 
be neceflary to the deftruction of weeds, than where there is a 
greater tendency to drynefs. In moft cafes where the prac- 
tice of naked fallowing is thought neceflary to be performed, 
the molt general method of proceeding is, for the Jand to 
be firft ploughed up in the autumn, a fecond time after the 
barley feed feafon is finifhed, and two or three times, or 
oftener, afterwards, as circumftances may render neceflary ; 
the ground being well broken and reduced by means of 
harrowing in the intervals of the different ploughings. But 
it has been obferved, that “in many diflri@s feldom more 
than three ploughings are given to lands in a courfe of fum- 
mer fallow ; one in autumn, or early in the {pring ; another 
during the fummer; and afterwards the feed-furrow.”? This 
preparation appears, however, it is further contended, ex- 
tremely defective; as in an ordinary feafon it is fearcely 
poflible that with fo few ploughings either the root or feed 
weeds can be completely deftroyed ; and when the fummer 
happens to be wet or rainy, the lands under fuch management 
mutt certainly be ina very bad ftate for receiving the feed- 
corn. It has likewife been long fince judicioufly recom- 
mended, both in the preparation of lands by winter fallow- 
ing, for barley crops, and fummer fallowing for thofe of 
wheat, that when it is firft ploughed up after the harvelt is 
over, (which fhould always be done as deep as poffible,) no 
time fhould be loft in rendering the new-turned-up foil as 
fine as poflible by harrowing ; as repeated trials and atten- 
tive obfervation have fully fhewn, that fuch lands as are 
made fine before the fharp froft and winter rains come on, 

receive 


FALLOWING. 


receive a much larger fhare of their influence than any 
others. But that if the land be left in a rough ftate, there 
is feldom time for the rains and froft to penetrate or affect 
more than merely the outfide of the large clods or lumps 
that are prefent. The outfide may thus, indeed, be’ pul- 
werized, or broken down, but the middle of the lumps, 
wherever they are large, are found nearly in the fame hard 
Atiff ftate, as when turned up by the plough. Hence it is 
evident, that the benefit of the air, winter rains, and frofts, 
on lands thus left, muft be only partial ; and that of courfe 
the harrowing it in the fpring, efpecially when the latter of 
thefe are over, is too late for its receiving the full benefits 
which might otherwife have accrued from them, and the 
power of promoting vegetation not being nearly fo great: 
“Therefere, to make winter fallows as fine as poflible in au- 
ttumn, and ridge them up in that pulverized ftate, is acting 
molt agreeably to nature; the greateft poffible quantity of 
furface being thereby expofed to the atmofphere, and the 
Jand left in the {tate wherein the rains and the frofts are moft 
_ eafily admiffible ; they are confequently more capable of pe- 
netrating and enriching the whole mafs to a much greater 
extent. By this means, too, a larger proportion of atmo- 
fpheric air is involved and incorporated with the mould, and 
of courfe a more perfe& degree of aération effeGted. It is 
contended, that it has been invariably found, that the froft 
penetrates a quantity of earth, formed into a large hard 
clod, only partially, on account of its bulk and hardnefs, 
and that the fame clod broken into four parts would be 
thereby penetrated four times.as much, or, in other words, 
that four times the quantity of earth would be affected, and 
on athaw be pulverized by it: for it is always found, after 
the breaking up of a fevere froft, that all the {mall clods 
crumble eafily into powder, while the large ones are only 
flightly reduced by the crumbling off of a portion of their 
external furfaces. It is fuggefted, that there cannot be 
much doubt but that by reducing fuch ftiff, adhefive foils, 
as require fallowing well, on their being firlt ploughed up, 
great advantages in the way of pulverization may be ac- 
eomplifhed, as in the {pring and fummer months they are 
apt to cake, and become fo hard and lumpy as to be wrought 
with difficulty But in order fully to afcertain the utility 
of this method of preparing fallows, one half of a field of 
ten acres was left as nearly of an equal quality as poffible, 
in the rough {tate after ploughing; while the other was 
made very fine, by harrowing and beating in pieces any large 
hard clods which the harrows could not reduce. Inthe fol- 
lowing {pring it was obferved, that that part which had 
been harrowed was much finer without any additional 
working, than the other could be rendered by repeated har- 
rowings. It is confequently concluded, that upon mott 
forts of itiff, clayey foils, where fullowing becomes necef- 
fary, the firft ploughings fhould be giyen, if poffible, before 
the commencement of the winter featon, and that they fhould 
alfo be well reduced by means of harrowing, in order to 
promote the decay of fuch vegetable matters as may be 
upon the furface of the land, as well as to promote a more 
complete ftate of pulverization and aération of the foil at 
the time. This is often moft ufefully performed by 
gathering up the ridges, as in that way the ground is 
not oply laid more dry, but the furrows more’ effectually 
opened for the draining off of the injurious moifture. 
_ In the fecond ploughing in the fpring, which is generally 
before the crofs-ploughing is given, thefe ridges ought to 
he cloven or turned back again, and after lying a fuitable 
length of time, be well harrowed down for feveral times, and 
occafionally rolled, that fufficient opportunity may be given 
to collect and remove every fort of weed that may be 


brought up to the furface of the ground. After this 
bufinefs has been properly performed, the land may be again 
ridged up by means of the plough, by which it is rendered 
lefs affeéted by wetnefs, and the portions of foil that had 
not been touched in the crofs-ploughing ftirred. In this 
way a perfectly clean fallow may foon be produced in moft 
cafes. It has, however, been maintained by fome writers 
who have had much’ opportunity of examining the matter, 
that ploughing only is neceflary ; the colle&ting the roots of 
the weeds -and removing them being ufelefs and improper. 
But in the ftiffer forts of clayey, wet foils, where we have 
conceived the fallowing fyftem to be chiefly occafionally 
neceflary, it is almoft impoflible to get perfe@tly clear of 
different forts of root weeds in this way, from the cloddy 
manner in which fuch lands break up inthe eperation of the 
different ploughings, the earthy lumps often containing 
many that are not in the lealt degree injured in their power 
of taking root, by the heat to which they have been ex- 
pofed under fuch ploughings of the land. 

In thefe cafes; they can only perhaps be effe€@tually eradi- 
cated and deftroyed, by the high degree of pulverization that 
may be accomplithed’ by means of frequent harrowings and 
rollings;'the weeds being afterwards carefully removed by the 
hand. In this:way there may alfo frequently be a confiderable 
faving of expence by the leffening of the number of plough- 
ings. The froft in the winter months has alfo, as nas been 
feen, amuch more powerful aGtiion where fuch redu@tions in 
the clods of fuch foils have been effeGted. In fuch foils 
there can feldom be any danger of their beiag made too fine 
by operations of this nature, as the feed furrow, when 
given fufficiently deep, conftantly leaves the land lumpy and 
irregular enough for the purpoles of covering the grain, 
and prote&ting the young plants during the feverity of the 
winter feafon. The benefits of affording as high a degree 
of pulverization or finenefs as poffible to the. land in the 
management of this procefs, has been fully fhewn by the 
refults of many well-conducted experiments.. The produce 
of a field of barley and broad clover, one-half of which had 
been prepared in the molt perfe& mode of fallowing, and 
the other half in the common method, on being harvelted 
and kept feparate, was in the followine proportions ; that 
which had been ‘conducted in: the latter way ouly affording 
twenty-four bufhels to the acre, while the former yielded 
thirty-one, ‘and the grain confiderably better in quality. 

There was alfo an equal fuperiority.in the clover crop the 
fucceeding year ; that on the moft perfectly-prepared part 
being heavier by nearly half a toa on the acre. _In addition 
to this, it cannot have efeaped obfervation, that in large 
fields of wheat, where, from accident or other caufes, fome 
portions of them have received more frequent ploughings 
than others, that in thefe parts the crops generally appear, 
for a great length of time, more perfect and promifing thar 
on the other parts. f 

There is another mode of performing this procefs, which 
has lately been praétifed in fome places, which is to plongh 
th: land over firit with a deep, broad, clean furrow, in a dry 
feafon in the autumnal months, leaving it in this fate till 
the early {pring, when, immediately after the feed period, 
it fhould be harrowed down as fine as. it can be made, clear- 
ing off all the couch and other refufe matters at the fame 
time, and confuming them by fire.. Then ploughing the 
land in exaGtly the fame direétion back again, breaking the 
root weeds as little as poflible ; after which letting it be 
well harrowed over-again in the lengthways of the ridges, 
as croffing them would be injurious ; collecting and buraing 
the whole of the refufe materials as before. In this loofened 
condition of the foil, a powerful cultivator or {earifier is to 

4 be 


FALLOWING. 


be immediately paffed in the crofs direction of the ridges 
and furrows to the full depth of the plough, by which 
meaus the roots of the couch and other weeds will in a great 
meafure be drawn out at length, without being much 
broken, andthe lumpy parts be brought to the furface to be 
reduced by the action of the harrows afterwards. When 
not fufficiently broken down and cleared by thefe operations, 
the fcarifier and harrows mult be again had recourfe to as 
before ; and when the root-weeds have been collected and 
burnt, any clods that may remain on the furface may be 
fully reduced by rolling, and afterwards another harrow- 
ing. 

me this way it is found that in the fouleft landa perfe€ly 
clean fallow may be made. In the execution of the bufi- 
nels, however, much depends upon the work being per- 
formed when the land is in a proper dry condition, as when 
wet it cannot be done to advantage. The harrewing fhould 
be fo managed as to have the refufe weedy matters in fuch 
a fituation as not to prevent the whole of the land from 
being operated upon, and as well as the [carifying be exe- 
cuted as foon as poffible after it is left light by the fecond 
ploughing. The fearifier, though an excellent tool for 
this purpofe, cannot indeed perform its work properly, 
except when the foil is in this loofe {tate of mould. Where 
this implement is to be ufed, there fhould never be any crofs 
ploughing made, as that renders it incapable of performing 
its work in the moft effeGtual manner. And where the 
land is inclined to the retention of moifture, it fhould be 
well drained to prevent the itagnation of water upon it, as 
it would thereby be greatly injured during the winter feafon. 
By this method of preparing a fallow, the foil is reduced 
into a fine flate of mould, and rendered perfectly free from 
weeds, without having its parts fo much expofed to the in- 
fluence of the atmofphere as to rob it of a large portion of 
its fertility. 

In Effex, and many other diftriéts where the foils are very 
ftiff and heavy, it is ufual to plough the tallow lands over a 
great number of times, frequently even eight or ten, in 
different direétions, in order that they may be rendered 
perfeétly clean and mellow. In fome cafes the firft plough- 
ing is given deep before Chriftmas, then two clean crofs 
ploughings early in the fpring; after this the land is 
ploughed up into ridges er ftitches of different breadths, 
according to circumiftances, then fplit out again, and laftly 
ploughed back for the feed furrow ; different harrowings 
being praétifed in the times between the feveral plough- 
ings. 

In the fecond volume of «Communications to the Board 
of Agriculture,”? Mr. Headrick {peaks of a mode of fallow- 
ing by drills, invented by Mr. John M‘Kenzie of Glafgow, 
which, he fays, is certainly the beft of any yet attempted by 
the plough, either for levelling cold-bottomed ridges, or 
for pulverizing ftubborn clay-foils already in a level ftate ; 
but it requires confiderable dexterity in the ploughman. 
In performing this operation, the water furrows, he obferves, 
are firlt gone round, and ploughed in on each fide, fo as to 
form a drill, when the third fur-flice from the rut thus made, 
on éach fide is raifed, and thrown upon the fecond: this a 
filful ploughman can do by his eye with great exadtnefs ; 
but if he cannot truft his eye, he may have a crofs fpar nailed 
on the beam of his plough to mark ont the diftance from 
the former rut at which a flice ought to be raifed. As the 
plough only itirs a third of the land by this firft operation, 
it may go over about three acres in one day, laying it all 
dry, and in a condition to be fallowed ever after, in the 
wetteft weather that cattle can work, without any danger 
of pgaching. After the land is thus marked out, the cat- 


tle ever after walk in the ruts between the drills, and hence 
their feet never poach the flirred land. We have then, fays 
he, got the third fur-flice, from the rut at which the opera- 
tion commenced, raifed and laid upon the fecond, while the 
firft and fecond remain unttirred, and the firft is alfo un- 
covered. The plough, in its fecond paflage, throws the 
firft flice upon the back of the third, previoufly laid upon 
the top of the fecond. This converts all the land into red 
earth, and the third paflage of the plough ftirs the remain- 
ing fecond fur-flice, with the third that refts upon it throw 
ing them in the fame direGtion. Thus all the land is ftirred, 
and aflumes the appearance of three-furred drills, the 
equality and neatnefs of which depend much upon the ac- 
curacy of the firft operation in marking them out. The land 
may now be wrought either backwards or forwards, as may be 
neceflary, to bring it to a complete level, the horfes all the 
while walking inthe bottoms of the ruts between the drills. 
The figure annexed, (in Plate Agriculture, Fallow- 
ing) No. 1, is the feétion of a ridge to be levelled, 
or, if the land be already level, it is a bout or ftritch 
of land that has undergone the firft operation of drill fallow, 
If it be a ridge, the water furrows, a, a, are firft plough- 
ed in, fo as to form fingle bout drills; then the third fur- 
flice from the rut on each fide is raifed by the plough, 
and laid upon the fecond, and this is continued until the 
whole ridge or ftritch is marked out. This lays the land 
perfeétly dry, having a rut at every third furrew. Figure 
No. 2 is the fame land, after being twice gone threugh with 
the plough. In this fecond operation the fur-flice, No. 4, 
is ftirred, and all the land becomes red earth; becaufe, 
though No. 2 yet remains unftirred, it was previoufly covered 
by No. 3. Figure No. 3 is the fame land after the third 
ploughing. In this No 2 is ftirred, and the whole foil 
is now moved by the plough. The land now afflumes the 
appearance of three furred drills. If it be now level, the 
drills may be reduced by a brake-harrow, and marked out 
again in fome other direction, fo as to have the effeét of 
crofs-ploughing ; only the direction muft be fuch, that 
the water may be difcharged from them. In this way the 
land may be ploughed in various directions, and wrought in 
drills during the whole courfe of a fallow. This mode of 
fallow, it is obferved, caufes a violent vegetation of weeds, 
becaufe, by ex pofing more furface to the air, it brings more 
of their feeds within that diitance from the atmofpherical in- 
fluence, where their vegetation commences. By ara 
only one fur-flice out of three at a time, every flice has ful 
opportunity of meliorating by the influence of the fun and 
air before another is thrown upon its back ; it alfo renders 
the fallow wholly independent of exceflive rains; which often 
render fallowing impra¢ticable. When the land is brought to 
a perfect level, the weeds fhould be deftroyed by a ftrong 
brake-harrow dragged acrofs the drills This will reduce the 
land toa fmooth furface, in'which ftate it may be allowed 
to remain until more weeds fpring up; but if exceffive rains 
fhould furprife the land in this ftate, a plough can be: fent 
through to mark out new drills as before, which will render 
the whole dry. In fallowing, he fays, crofs-ploughing is 
effentially requifite to cut the roots of weeds in an oppofite 
direGion, and to prefent new furfaces of the foil to the air. 
Now, by this mode of fallow, crofs-ploughing can be ef- 
fedted with greater advantage by drills crofling the former, 
and marked out after the land is laid fmeoth by the brake : 
fuch drills fhould always be fo drawn as to difcharge the wa-~ 
ter. Thus a field may be ploughed in feveral different di« 
rections, always keeping it in drills, and remain, independent 
of the weather. After land is crofs-ploughed in the ordinary 
way, it often happens that excellive rains render it a perfeét 
mire, 


FALLOWING. 


mire, and it is frequently unworkable during that feafon. 
In the fallow by drills, this, the writer thinks, can have no 
place; and fhould the weather be too wet, at the time it 
comes to be ridged, to admit of fmoothing the drills, the 
ridges can be formed of a certain number of drills thrown 
together. In executing this mode of fallow, care fhould be 
taken always to make the furrows clean, fo that no clods 
or earth may fall back and caufe water to ftagnate in the 
ruts. When very high ridges are fuddenly levelled by this 
mode of fallow, it is obvious that the good foil will be 
buried down, as happens in every mode of levelling with 
the plough; but the frefh foil that is turned up, being 
brought in fucceffion within the influence of the atmofphere, 
and always worked in drills, is much fooner meliorated than 
by the method of clofe ploughing. If,, however, the ridges 
be very high, it is fafeft to {plit and reduce them confiderably 
in the courfe of cropping, previous to their being effectually 
- Tevelled. When the levelling at laft commences, it is proper 
to get through as much of it as poflible before winter, 
that the new foil which is turned up may receive the benefit 
of the froft. With thefe precautions high ridges levelled by 


a drill fallow will difcover no inequality in their fubfequent . 


fertility. Itis hardly neceffary to obferve, that in all modes 
of levelling high ridges the old water furrows fhould be 
raifed fomewhat higher than the old crowns of the ridges ; 
asthe foil in the former, being very loofe, fubfides, and if 
not in fufficient quantity would again become a hollow. 

It is further remarked, that, in many parts of the Lo- 
thians, they have a practice fomewhat fimilar to this mode of 
fallow, of ribbing the land that is intended for barley before 
winter fets in. This is done by laying one fur-flice upon 
another, which remains unftirred, and it divides the whole 
land into very narrow drills. Thefe keep it perfeétly dry 
during winter, and admit the froft to the bottom of the foil. 
On clay lands, and fuch as have a cold bottom, this is found 
to be very beneficial, for barley does not thrive orfuch foils 
unlefs they be finely pulverized in the mould. 

This mode of fallowing is probably beft adapted to the 
bringing of fuch lands as have been in the ftate of watte 
into a condition fit for the growth of grain crops. 

When dung is applied on the fallows, it is generally laid 
on, Mr. Donaldfon fays, about the end of Auguit, imme- 
diately after the laft ploughing has been given ; but in many 
cafes, where the foil is naturally good, it is forborne till the 
fecond enf{uing crop, as it is found that the firft crop is in 
danger of being too rank, and of courfe lodged before it is 
ripe, if the land be dunged the fame year that it is in fummer 
fallow. 

It has been remarked, that though the advantages that 
have been ftated to arife from the perfeé& pulverization, 
aeration, and cleannefs, occafioned by fummer fallowing in 
thofe foils where it has been found to be occafionally re- 
quifite, can feldom be fo fully obtained by other methods of 
cultivation; yet as that method is conftantly attended with 
a heavy expence to the farmer, and as many of the benelits 
that are produced by it may be effected by the repeated par- 
tial fallowings that muft occur in the hoe-culture of different 
foris of crops, it fhould be conftantly the aim of the farmer, 
where the climate will admit of it, to leffen the neceflity of 
fummer fallowing even on the wet clayey as well as the light 
kinds of foil, by the judicious interpofition of fuch forts of 
clofe, thick, green crops, as can be grown and cultivated 
on them under the hoe fyitem. This is {till more neceffary, 
on account of the lofs that muit be fuftained from the land 
oftenremaining fucha greatlengthoftime totally unproductive 
where the fallowing procefs is going on, It cannot, indeed, 
be difputed, but that the practice of fummer fallowing may 


be greatly leffened in many diftri€ts by the proper fubftituting 
of green fallows, or what are termed fallow crops, fuch as 
beans, peas, cabbages, tares, and rape for the heavier forts 
of land; and buck wheat, potatoes, and turnips, for fuch 
as are of the lighter kind. It is likewife maintained as a 
faét, that where large and luxuriant crops of thefe prepara- 
tory kinds are grown, thofe by which they are fucceeded 
the following feafon are for the moft part ftill larger, fo 
that the lands are more improved by large crops than fuch 
as are poor. - This amelioration or increafe of fertility has 
been attiibuted to different caufes: as the prevention of 
evaporation from the foil by the fhade produced by fuch 
large crops 3 the putrefaction of the various vegetable mat- 
ters, which may be more abundant after fuch large crops, 
taking place more completely and more effe¢tuaily under 
uch circumftances; and laftly, to the repeated pulveriza 
tion and aération that are produced by the different hoei 
but it is probable that advantages may be derived in each 
of thefe ways, as well’as from the carbonic acid or fixed air 
that is afforded by the fhaded leaves of the plants being de- 
pofited upon or united with the foil. That the melioration 
in fuch cafes muft depend on caufes of this kind there can be 
little doubt, as much of the nutritious properties of the land 
muit obvioufly have been confumed during the growth of 
fuch crops, which muft have been again reftored to it by 
fome fuch procefles. But in whatever manner this effect 
may be produced, as it is conftantly found that land is in a 
better condition, and when turned up ina more friable and 
mellow flate after fuch crops as are large, than thofe that 
are poor and light; it is of courfe evident, that if ground 
can be covered with {mothering crops of the fallow kind, or 
thofe that will admit of frequent pulverization by means of 
the plough or hoe, foas to keep it ¢lean and free from the 
growth of ufelefs plants, it may be more beneficial to the 
farmer, not only for the fake of the immediate crop, but 
alfo on account of the increafe of manure produced by fuch 
means, and the advantageous condition of the land for the 
reception of fuch crops as may be afterwards cultivated upon 
it. In thefe different views, as well as thofe that have been 
already mentioned, the introduCtion of green crops of fome 
fort orother fhould probably be more frequently attempted 
on all defcriptions of foils ; .and it would feem probable, that 
on the ftiff and heavy. kinds of land, from its having been 
found, that in many well cultivated diftri@s, by the srow- 
ing of proper leguminous crops in drills or rows, fo as to 
admit of the ground between them being frequently ftirred, 
either by means of the plough or the hoe, fuch kinds of 
land, after they have been once well cleaned by a fummer 
fallow, may-be kept perfeétly clean and in fuitable tilth for 
the production of good grain crops; they may be much 
more generally had recourfe to than has commonly been the 
cafe: but on fuch forts of land great attention is neceflary to 
introduce fueh kinds of green crops as are adapted to them, 
and that as little injury as poflible be done by the treading of 
animals in the feeding them upon or taking them from the 
ground. But as neither the full effe@s of pulverization or 
aération, nor the complete deftru€tion of root weeds, can 
in fome cafes he fo perfeGly obtained by the cultivation of 
fallow crops as by the making of naked fummer fallows, it 
may be advantageous to the farmer to have recourfe to them 
occafionally with thefe intentions on the heavy and moré 
wet forts of land, as well as thofe that have been injured 
by improper methods of cropping, as is frequently the cafe 
in particular diftis, 

Yet though fallowing may be ufeful and neceffary in 
altering the textures of particular kiads or qualities of foils, 
there are numerous facts that thew, in the moit clear and 

fatisftaftery 


ISS 3 


FAL 


fatisfactory manner, that great injury and difadvantage are 
often the refult of expofing land in its naked ftate too. much 
to the aétion of light and heat, as happens in the fallow 
procefs, and which can only be avoided by having recourse 
to fheltering crops of the green kind. 

FALLUM, infome of our Law, Lexicographers, is faid 
to be a fort of land ; and for proof of this, they quote the 
Monafticon Anglicanum. De duobus acris et yiginti 
fallis in, &c.”? Jacob. But fremthis paflage it would ra- 
ther feem that fallum fignified a meafure* of, land as well as 
acra. Andto this day a fall isa meafure of length in Scot- 
land. 

FALMOUTH, in Geography, a market, and, fea-port 
town in the hundred of Kerriar, and county of Cornwall, 
England, is feated beneath a high hill, on the fouthern 
fhore of a harbour, which has long been noted for the fafe 
accommodation it affords to fhipping in tempeftuous weather, 
having fufficient depth to contain the largeit veilels, and be- 
ing defended by the two caftles of Pendennis, and St. Maw’s. 
About two ceuturies paft, Falmouth confilted of only a few 
fifhing huts, till increafing in population it .was known as 


the village of Smithwick, but at did not, acquire. its, prefent _ 


name till the reftoration, when the king iflued a proclama- 
tion that it fhould, after the 20th of Auguit 1660, be called 
by the name of Falmouth, and granted it a charter of incor- 
poration in the following year, by the defcription of ‘ our 
town of Falmouth.” » By this charter the government was 
vefted in a mayor, aldermen and burgefles ;, and the ptivi- 
leges of amarket and two fairs were granted, ,. The new 
town gradually extended: in 1664 the houfes amounted 
to two hundred ; in 169: they, were three hundred and fifty 5 
and in 1801 they were returned, as four hundred and fixty- 
eight, inhabited by three thoufand fix hundred and eighty- 
four perfons, included within the boundaries of the town. 
Previous to the year 1664;almouth was part of the chapel- 
ry of Budock and parifh of Gluvias ;, but was, by an act 
paffed in that year, feparated and made a diltin@ parifh, 
Such were the origin and growth of Falmouth. Its im- 
provement and progrefs during the laft century, have, in a 
confiderable degree, been conneéted with the eftablifhment 
of the packet-boats here for Spain, Portugal, and the 
Weft Indies. Fromthe facilities thefe veflels have afforded 
to the merchants, of tranf{porting their refpective commodi- 
ties, and receiving returns;in a fhort time,. the commerce of 
the town has very much increafed, and it is now the refi- 
dence of many opulent families. ‘The houfes are principal- 
ly difpofed in one ftreet, nearly a mile in length, and run- 
ning by the fide of the beach. ‘The quay is exceedingly 
convenient, as the water will admit veilels of confiderable 
burthen to land their goods upon the wharf. The cultom- 
houle and falt-office for moft of the Cornifh towns are efta- 
blifhed at Falmouth. Great quantities of gold, both in 
fpecie and in bars, are brought into this port by the packets 
an Spain and Portugal. The pilchard trade has likewife 
been afource of much emolument. Falmouth is fituated 
273 miles S. W. from London : has good markets on Tuef- 
days, Thurfdays, and Saturdays ; and two annual fairs. At 
the eaftern extremity of the town {lands Arwinnick houfe, 
the ancient manfion’ of the Killegrew family. 

On the wettern fide of Falmouth harbour Pendennis caftle 
occupies the brow of a hill, which forms a peninfula be- 
tween the Britifh channel and this harbour, and appears to 
rife from the bay like an ifland. The fertrefs is proudly 
‘exalted ona rock upwards of three hundred feet above the 
fea, and, from its elevated fituation, has a complete com- 
mand over the entrance to the bay. he fortifications are 

“ef anirregular fhape, including an area of rather more than 


‘ 


EyAy L, 


three acres.. On the north, or land front, the hill is defend- 
ed by four cavaliers, mounted with feventy pieces of cannon, 
in excellent order, and ata fhort diflance are fome traces of 
ahornjand crown-work, which was conftruéted in thefime 
of Oliver Cromwell. The banks and ditch of |the, citadel 
ftall remain,-the fituation of which was admirably calculated 
to protect the caftle from. the approach of an enemy over 
the ifthmus. On the eaft face is an half-moon battery.; 
and clofe tothe water’s edge another battery of five ZUNsy 
called the Crab quays, On the fouth the hill flopes to the 
fea, and formsa kind of natural clacis. Within the works 
are. barracks for troops, and various ftore-houles|and maga- 
zines ;. and.in the fouth »part of the garrifon itands. the old 
caftle, built: in the reign of Henry VIII, It conliils 
wholly of granite, and oyer the door-way are the, arms of 
that. monarch. ,The works were afterwards ftrengthened 
and enlarged; by, queen, Elizabeth, but have undergoue 
many alterations and. repairs of late years.) | vol 

On. the eafterm fide of Falmouth harbour, is,St Maw’s 
caftle,, oppofite to. Pendennis, to which it is yery inf riory 
both in fize and fituation, though ereéted neatly:jat| the 
fame time, and by the fame, monarch. The works are 
completely commanded by a hill, which rifes immediately 
behind it.The adjoining hamlet, honoured, with the 
appellation of Borough town, and reprefented. by two 
members, confilts of fcarcely twenty houles, inhabit- 
ed only by a few fifhermen; and has neither church, 
chapel, or meeting-houfe. The chief, magillrate is, the 

ortreye, who. js complimented with the title, of mayors 
Polwhele’s Hiftory, &c. of Cornwall, 4to. Le 

Fatmowtn Harbours on the fouth coatt of Cornwall, 
is a conliderable extent of creeks and inland waters, forming 
a fafe harbour for fhips of the royal navy, and others, the 
fartheft of any in England towards the fouth-weft. The 
towns of Falmouth, Penryn, Tracilian-bridge, Truroy 
Tregony, St. Maw’s, and. others, are fituate near to thefe- 
waters. The eaftern fide of the main harbour is deep and 
commodious for large) fhips,. which go) up, as, far as Kea: 
the weflern branches to Pcrran and Mylor-bridge are flal+ 
low, and only navigable for barges. The, Falmouth 
tram-road conneéts with this harbour at Reflonguet and 
at Pile. 

Fatmourn Zram Road, in Cornwall, is one of thofe 
branches of inland communications which have been cariied 
into effeG& fince our general account of thefe important 
eftablifhments were prefented to cur readers in the article, 
Canau. It,was couftru@ed without an aét of parliament, 
inthe year 1806. at the expence of Meffrs. Fox and Co. ; 
Vivian and Co.; Ralph Allen Daniel, efg. and others, ac- 
cording toa furvey made by Mr. Mofs, an engineer. This 
tram-road has a courfe of nearly ten miles, almofl in a NW. 
direGion; it commences at two.points, viz. the Pile and Re- 
ftonguet fhipping wharfs, in Falmouth harbour, (above) and 
proceeds by a regular inclination, (fteep, inclined. planes 
being akon lea to the copper-mines, near Camborne, 
to which mines a recent tram-road has alio been conitructed 
from Portrath harbour on the north coaft of the county. 
The fhelly fand with which this coaft abounds is now, by 
thefe tram-roads, carried cheaply up into the interior of the 
county, by-which the agriculture thereof cannot fail of 
being much improved, as well as the mines, which thus re- 
ceive coals to work their fteam-engines, aud fend down t cir 
ore for exportation to the coal diftriéts of South. Wi CS 
where it is {melted and manufactured. — — ~ 

Faumoutn, a townhhip of America, formerly including. 
Portland couuty, in Cumberland county, Maine, containing 


3422 inhabitants. It is fituated on Caler bay, 120 mik 
: ENE. 


FAL 
N.N.E. of Bofton, and was incorporated in 1718:— Alfo, 


a townfhip in Hants county, Nova Scotia ; fituated on the 
S.E. fide of the bafin of Minas, oppofite to Windfor, 28 
miles N. W. of Halifax—Alfo, a maritime poft-town, in 
Barnftaple county, Maffachufetts, fituated on the N.E. 
part of the Vineyard Sound, on the weit fide of the bay of 
its name; 77 miles S.E. by S. of Bofton. About 60 vel- 
fels are employed in this town, fome as fithing veflels, others 
coafters, and more than 30 for carrying lumber to the fouth- 
ern ftates, and Weft India iflands. 1t was incorporated in 
1686, and contains 1882 inhabitants. N. lat. 41° 33! 
W. long. 70° 35’.—Alfo, a poft-town in Stafford county, 
Virginia, fituated on the north bank of Rappahanock river, 
almoft oppofite to Frederickfburg. It contains an epifco- 
pal church, and about 40 compact houfes; 23 miles S.W. 
of Dumfries, and 207 fouth-wefterly of Philadelphia. Con- 
fiderable quantities of tobacco are infpected here.—Alfo, a 
town in Lancafter county, Pennfylvania, on the S.E. fide 
of Conawago creek, 20 miles weiterly of Lancafter.—Alfo, 
atown and harbour on the fouth shore of theifland of An- 
tigua ; having Enghifh harbour on the E., and Rendezvous 
bay on the W., and fituated in St. Paul’s parifh, at the 
N.W. corner of the harbour, which is well fortified. N. lat. 
17° 9!.. W. long. 61° 28'—Alfo, a town of Jamaica, 
more commonly called the ‘ Point ;’’ fituated on the S. 
fide of Martha-Brae harbour, and including the adjoining 
villazes of Martha-Brae and the Rock, and containing 
220 houfes. This town and its vicinity have been wonder- 
fully increafed; for in 1771 the three villages of Martha- 
Brae, Falmouth, and the Rock, contained together but 
18 houfes, and the veflels which entered annually at the port 
of Falmouth did not exceed ten. It has fince boafted of 
upwards of 30 capital ftationed fhips, which load for Great 
Britain, exclufively of floops and fmaller craft. N. lat. 
18°31'. W.long. 77° 31'.—Alfo, a {mall low ifland inthe 
Chinefe fea. N. lat. 11°. E. long. 112° 12’. 

FALONICHI, or Firanrxe, a large town towards 
the eaftern coaft of the ifland of Majorca, containing near 
6000 inhabitants, in which the monks of St. Augultine 
have built a handfome monatftery : the land about it is rich 
and fertile. The inhabitants procure more corn than is 
fufficient for their own confumption, and have, befides, 
large herds of cattle, and furnifh the ifland with excellent 
brandy. 

FALOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 50 
miles E, S. E, of Sultanpour. 

FALSA Quinta, Jtal. in Mujfic, falfe sth. 
Semi-DiaPenrve. 

FALSE Riss, in Anatomy, are the five inferior ones on 
each fide, and are diftinguithed from the true ribs by not 
having their cartilages articulated to the flernum. See 
Trunk. 

Fase Bay, in Geography, a bay to the eaft of the Cape 
of Good Hope, and frequented by fhips during the preva- 
lence of N. W. winds, which begin to blow in May, 
and make it dangerous to lie in Table bay. S. lat. 34° 10!. 
E. long. 18° 30’.—Alfo, a bay on the weft coalt of the 
northermoft ifland of New Zealand. S. lat. 36° 33’. 
W. long. 185° 38'. ; 

Farse Cape, or Falfa, the E. point of Falfe bay, E. 
of the Cape of Good Hope. S. lat, 34° 16’. E. long. 
18° 44’—Alfo, a cape, called Falfe Point, on the FE. 
coatt of Hindooftan, at the mouth of the river Mahanada. 
N. lat. 20° 20/,. E. long. 86° 48/.—Alfo, a cape on the 
S. coaft of Hifpaniola, a little W. of Cape Beata.—Alfo, 
a cape on the coaft of Yucatan, in the bay ef Honduras. 
N. lat. 20° 52'. W. long. 87. 45!. 

Vou. XIV. 


See 


F-A L 


Fause Cape Horn, the fouth-weftern point of Terra del 
Fuego. 

Fause J/land, an ifland in the bay of Bengal, near the 
coaft of Ava, N. lat. 18°. E. long. 94° 15/. 

Fause River, one of the mouths of the Ava. 

Fase Alarm, in War. See Avarm. 

Fause Arms, in Heraldry, are thofe wherein the 
fundamental rules of the art are not obferved: as if metal be 
put on metal, or colour on colour. See Arms. 

Faust Aliack, in War. See Atracx, Falf. 

Fase Braye, in Fortification. See Faussesrave. 

Faust Claim, in the Fore? Laws, is where a man 
claims more than his due, and is amerced or punifhed for 
the fame. 

Fause Conception.” See Conception. 

Fase Flower, a flower which does not feem to produce 
any fruit, asthofe of a hazel, mulberry-tree, &c. 

A: flower of this kind does not arife from any embryo, 
and does not knit ; fuch are the male flowers of the melon, 
cucumber, &c. 

Fause Galena. See Buinp and Gacena. 

Farse Gallep, in the Manege. See Garror. 

Fase Imprifonment, in Law, is a trefpafs committed 
againft a man, by imprifoning him without fufficient autho- 
rity ; which authority may arife either from fome procefs 
from the courts of juflice, or from fome warrant from a 
legal officer, having power to commit, under his hand 
and feal, and exprefling the caufe of fuch commitment 
(2 Inft. 46.) ; or from {ome other fpecial caufe, warranted, 
on account of the neceflity of the thing, either by common 
Jaw, or act of parliament; fuch as the arrefting of a felon 
by a private perfon without warrant, the imprefling of ma- 
riners for the public fervice, or the apprehending of wag- 
goners for mifbehaviour in the public highways. (Stat. 13 
Geo. III. cap. 78.) _ Falfe imprifonment alfo may arife 
by executing a lawful warrant or procefs on an unlawful 
day, as ona Sunday, (tat. 29 Car. Il. cap. 7. Salk. 78. 
5 Mod. gs.) or in a place privileged from arretts, as in the 
verge of the king’s court. The means of removing the 
aétual injury of falfe imprifonment are fourfold ; viz. by a 
writ of mainprize, by writ de odio & atia, by writ de ho- 
mine replegiando, and by writ of habeas corpus. The fa- 
tisfaGtory remedy for this injury is by an ation of trefpafs, 
vi &} armis, ufually called ‘an ation of falle imprifon- 
ment ;”? which is generally, and almoft unavoidably, ac- 
companied with a charge of affault and battery alfo ; and 
therein the party fhall recover damages for the injury he has 
received ; and alfo the defendant is, as for all other injuries 
committed with force, or vi & armis, liable to pay a fine to 
the king for the violation of the public peace. 

Fauss Judgment. See Farso Judicio. 

Fause Kee/, ina hip, is a fecond keel, which is fome- 
times put under the firlt, to make the veflel deeper, and to 
preferve the lower fide of the main keel. In our largeit 
fhips of war the falfe keel is generally compofed of two 
pieces, which are called the upper and the lower falfe keels. 
See Kesv. 

Faust Muffer, is when fuch men pafs in review, as are 
not a€iually lifted as foldiers. See Faccort, &c. 

Fass News, /preading of, iv order to make difcerd be- 
tween the king and nobility, or concerning any great mar 
of the realm, is punifhable by common Jaw with fine and 
imprifonment (2 Init. 226. 3 Init. 198.) ; which is con- 
firmed by ftatutes Weitm. 1. 3 Edw. I. cap. 34. 2 Ric. II. 
ftat. 1. cap. 5. & 12) Ric. II. cap. 11. 

Fauss Oath. See Perysury. 

Faust, or Fale Pofiien, in arithmetic. See Position. 

Q Fauss 


Freed 


Faxsy Prophecies. See PROPHECIES. 

Fase Quarters of a Horfe. See Falfe Quarters. 

Faust Relation, in Mufic. In the beginning of coun- 
terpoint, before the ear was tired with confonance, every 
perfect concord, rendered fharp or flat, was called falfe rela- 
tion, “ and abfolutely forbidden.” (See Pepuich, p. 8.) 
Such as the flat sth and fhatp 4th; but at prefent thofe 
intervals produce effects more agreeable to the ear, than in 
their moft perfeét ftate ; even a flat and fharp unifon and 
oGave have been fuccefsfully hazarded by Emanuel Bach, 
Haydn, and Muzart. f 

Fause Roof of a Houfe, is that part between the upper 
xoom and the covering. 

Farse Return. Ona falle return by a mayor, &c. toa 
mandamus, or by a fheriff, &c. toa wnt, a {pecial action 
on the cafe will lie. See Manpamus. 

Farse Root, is that of which the value is negative. 
E. gr. in the equation a* + b’= x", if x be a negative 
quantity as — 5, the root is faid te be falfe ; if it be a poli- 
tive quantity it is called a real or true roat ; if it be the 
root of a negative quantity, it is faid to be imaginary; as 
nh x Se hee ier’ 

Favse Sheat, on board a fhip. See Surat. 

Fause Stem, ina fhip. See Stem. 

Fause Tokens, in Law, isufed where perfons get money 
or goods in‘o their hands by forged letters, or other coun- 
terfeit means. This is punifhable by imprifonment by {tat. 
33 Hen. VIII. cap. 1. By 30 Geo. II. cap. 24. a farther 

enalty is inflitted on thofe who obtain money or goods by 
falfe tokens and pretences. See Cuears. 

Fause Tone, in Mufic. Some call the interval of two 
femi-tones major by this name ; but others more properly 
eall it a diminifhed third. 

Farse Verdid. See ATTAINT. 

Fase Weights. See Weicurs. 

FALSET, from Farserro, Jtal. a feigned voice, an 
eftave above its natural pitch, to fupply the want of fopra- 
nos or feeble voices. ‘ Before the year 1600, when Caf- 
trati were firft employed in the fervice of the Papal chapel, 
at Rome, to fing the foprano, or highelt part, it was the 
euftom to have it performed by Spaniards in falfet.’? San- 
tarelli, But long before that period, in early times of dif- 
cant, the upper part ufed to be fung in falfet. Du+Cange 
derives the word falfet from fau/etum, a term ufed, during 
the middle ages, in the fame fenfe ; and this, he fuppofes, 
from faucibus, whence the high tones of voice proceed. 
Pipeth was fometimes ufed in a fimilar fenfe to exprefs 
piping, or fuch high finging as imitated the found of pipes 
or {mall flutes. 

FALSHOOD, Fatsrry, in Philofophy, an a& of the 
underftanding, reprefenting a thing otherwife than it is, as 
to its accidents; ora falfe enunciation, or judgment of any 
thing. 

The circumftance, as to its accidents, is of abfolute ne- 
eeffity in the definition, becaufe a thing cannot be repre- 
fented otherwife than it is as to eflentials; for ia fuch cafe 
the effence of the thing would not be reprefented ; and fince 
the effénce is the thing itfelf, ic would not be that thing 
which is reprefented, but another. 

There is no falfhood in apprehenfion or fenfation ; our 
ideas of fenfe are all juft and true, fo far as they go; and 
all our delufions arife from our reafonings and conclufions 
from them. 

FALSI, Crimen, in the Civil Law, is a fraudulent 
fubornation or concealment, with defign to darken or 
hide the truth, and make things appear otherwife than 
shey ares. 


FAL 


The crimen falfiis committed three ways. By words, as 
when a witnefs {wears falfely, By writing, as when a man 
frames or alters fomething, antedates a contract, or the 
like. (See Forcery.) And by deed, as when he fells 
by falfe weights and meafures, debafes the coin, &c. 

FALSIFY, in Law, is ufed for proving any thing to 
be falfe. Hence we find 

FALSIFYING a Record, for fhewing it to be errone- 
ous. Thus lawyers teach, that a perfon_purchafing land of 
another, who is afterwards outlawed of-felony, &c. may 
falfify the record, not only as to the times wherei the felony 
is fuppofed to have been committed, but alfo as to the 
point of the offence, But where a man is found guilty 
by verdiét, a purchafer cannot falfify as to the wears 
though he may for the time where the party is found guilty 
generally in the indi€tment, becaufe the time is not mate» 
rial upon evidence. 2 Hawk. Pl. Crown, 459. We allo 
meet with 

Fausrryinc a Recovery. Thus, it is faid, the iffue in 
tail may falfify a recovery fuffered by a tenant for life, &c. 
And alfo the terms of falfifying an attainder, the coin, 
judgment, &c. occur. See the feveral articles. 

FALSO-Borpone. See Faux-Bourpon. Plain mue 
fic, of note againft note, with which the pfalms and can- 
ticles are often chaunted. But the Italians particularly 
{lyle falfo-bordone a masner of finging in three parts, com- 
pofed of a fucceffion of 8ths, 3ds, and 6ths. 


Faxrso Judicio, in Law, a writ which lies for falfe judg~ 
ment, given in the county-court, court-baron, or other 
court, not of record. 

Farso Retorno Brevium, a writ which lies againft the 
fheriff, who has execution of procefs, for making falfe re- 
turns of writs. 

FALSTER, in Geography, an ifland of Denmark, fitu- 
ated at the entrance of the Baltic, S. of Zealand, from 
which it is feparated only by a narrow fea; about 60 miles 
in circumference, very fertile, and abounding in game. The 
principal towns are Nyekioping and Stublebtepiags N. lat. 

° 50’. E.long. 12°. 

FALSTERBO, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the pros 
vince of Schonen, noted for its light-houfe and herring- 
fifhery ; 22 miles 5.S.W. of Lund. N. lat. 55° 24’. 
E. long. 12% 34". 

FALVATERRA, a town of Italy, in the Campagna 5 
15 miles S.E. of Frufinone. 

FALUGA, a {mall ifland in the Mediterranean, near the 
W. coalt of Sardinia; 12 miles S. of cape Argentera.— 
Alfo, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the W. bank of the 
Euphrates, whénce an arm of that river iffues to join the 


Tigris; 25 miles S.E. of Bagdad. 


FALUN. See Fantun. 

Faun, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the lake 
of Neufchatel, near Yverdun. 

Fazun, a word ufed in many parts of France, as the name 
of a particular fort of manure of lands, whichJs dug out of 
the earth, and is no other than fragments of fea fhells 
buried at. confiderable depths, and amafled in prodigious 


ata. 


—" 


FAM 


ftrata in many parts of that kingdom. Thefe they fpread 
upon the lands in the manner of dung; and being as it 
were calcined and very friable, they readily diffolve, and are 
the fineft manure of any for fome foils. 

FALX Crerepevri and Cerenrl, in Anatomy, are two 
portions of dura mater, which feparate certain of the contents 
of the cranium from each other. See Brain. 

' Favx, the fickle-fi/h, in Ichthyology, a {mall fifh of the 
tenia kind, common about the fhores of the. Mediterranean, 
but feidom brought to fale, becaufe of its glutinous nature, 
being wholly converted into a fort of glue when dreffed. It 
is a foft and {mooth oblong fith, and has its name from re- 
fembling a fickle in figure. It is often found an ell long, 
and with that length is not above the breadth of one’s hand, 
It is of a filvery colour, but its back-fin is red. Its eyes are 
Jarge, and its head very ill-fhaped. The common people 
» eall it the marmot-tfifh. 

FAMAGULA, in Geography, a town of New Mexico ; 

50 miles S.W. of Cinaloa. 
. FAMAGUSTA, a fea-port of the ifland of Cyprus, 
formerly called Arfinoe, after the name of the fifter of Pto- 
Jemy Philadelphus, who is faid to have founded it. “It de- 
‘ives its name Famaguita from Amocutta, q. d. built in the 
Jfand, as it isfurrounded by athin fandy earth. It is fituated 
onthe eaftern coaft of the ifland, is built on a rock, and is 
about two miles in circumference. The walls are thick and 
ftrong, and encompaffed by a deep cavity formed out of the 
folid rock, and flanked by twelve enormoustowers. In the 
interior part of the city there are a pharos, three batftions, 
and arampart confifting of two rows of cannon, and alfo a 
‘citadel. It was fortified in 1193 by Guy de Lufignan, 
and poffefied by the Genoefe for near a century, by James 
the Battard, and, laftly, by the Venetians. It has two 
draw-bridges, one towards the land-fide, and another to- 
wards the fea, which latter leads to the harbour, that is 
narrow, and is fhut every morning by a chain fixed to one 
of the ends of the pier. On the eaft it is defended by a 
‘chain of rocks from the impetuous waves of the fea. In 
this place the Lufignans were crowned kings of Jerufalem, 
which cuftom continued till the Genoefe took the city ; 
after which they in{talled themfelves fovercigns, both of 
‘Cyprus and Jerufalem, in the cathedral of Nicofia. In the 
tla century this city was taken by James the Battard, 
after a fiege of three years, ftipulating that the Genoefe 
laws fhould be preferved. In 1490 it fell again into the 
hands of the Venetians, and was governed by a plenipoten- 
tiary. In September, 1570, the bafhaw Muftapha, gene- 
‘ral of fultan Selim, commenced the fiege of it; and in 
April, 1571, encamped near the town. But it was vigor- 
eully defended againft the united forces of the Ottoman em- 
pire by a {mall band of valiant men, till at laft, in Auguft, 
1571, it was compelled to furrender on honourable con- 
ditions, which were batfely violated by Muftapha; who 
caufed the brave Bragadin and his attendants to be 
butchered without merey. ‘The Ottoman army confiited 
of 200,000 men, whilft the citizens capable of bearing arms 
amounted only to 4000. During the fiege, which lafted 
ten mouths, the Turks fired 540,000 bombs; the remains 
- of which are itill vifible in the adjacent gardens and fields, 
and in the ditches which fnrround the city. N. lat. 35° 10'. 
E. long.§3° 30’. 
. FAM-CHAM, a town of China, of the third rank, in 
the province of Petcheli; 25 miles S.W. of Peking. 

FAM-CHAN-POU-HOTUN, a town of Alia,.in the 
kingdom of Corea ; 612 miles E.N.E. of Peking. 

AMARS, a town of France, in the department of the 
North; 3 miles S. of Valenciennes, 


FAM 


FAME, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, is 
well underftood, and the love of it is a principle of very 
powerful and extenfive influence, and needs only proper 
direction and government in order to be as ufeful as it is 
powerful, 

Fame, in Mythology, was one of the ancient divinities. 
Hetiod has defcribed her, but without giving her genea- 
logy. She had an eftablifhed worfhip, efpecially at 
Athens, as we learn from Paufanias (in Attic.) ; and a 
temple, as Plutarch informs us in his life of Camillus. But 
no figures or ftatues can exhibit this goddefs in ftronger 
characters than the pi€ture drawn of her by Virgil : 


«© Now Fame, tremendous fiend! without delay 

Thro’ Libyan cities took her rapid way. 
Fame, the fwift plague, that every moment grows, 
And gains new ftretgth and vigour as fhe goes. 
Firit {mall with fear, the {wells to wondrous fize, 
And ftalks on earth, and tow’rs above the skies. 
Whom, in her wrath to heav’n, the teeming earth 
Produe’d the laft of her gigantic birth. 
A moniter huge, and dreadful to the eye, 
With rapid feet to run, or wings to fly. 
Beneath her plumes the various fury bears 
A thoufand piercing eyes and litlning ears, 
And with a thoufand mouths and babbling tongues 

appears. i 
Thund’ring by night through heav’n and earth fhe flies, 
No golden flumbers feal her watchful eyes: 
On tow’rs or battlements fhe fits by day, 
And fhakes whole towns with terror and difmay; 
Alarms the world around, and perch’d on high 
Reports a truth, or publifhes a lie”? &e. &c. 

Pit’s Eneid, iv. 259, &c. 


Ovid has alfo given a very fine picture of the fame god- 
defs; and fome other poets have likewife exercifed their 
poetical genius upon the fame fubje&t. From all thefe we 
may infer, that Fame, like all the giants, was the daughter 
of the Earth, who, to be avenged of the gods, and of Ju- 
piter in particular, who had thunderitruck her children, 
brought forth this monfter to blaze abroad their crimes, aud 
make them khown to all the world; for Fame fpares nei- 
ther gods nor men. The common reprefentation of Fame 
exhibits her in a flying attitude, founding a trumpet, to de- 
note the furprife, attention, and difcourfe fhe occafions; 
with a flowing tobe, wrought all over with cyes, ears, and 
tongues; the whole upper part of her wings is quite 
ftudded, as it were, with eyes; and Virgil obferves that fhe 
had an eye almoft under every feather. 

FAMES Canina. See Beuinmy. 

FAMIA, or Famren, in Geography, a town of Syria, 
anciently called dpamea, where, according to Strabo, the 
Seleucid had eltablithed the {chool and nurfery of their 
cavalry. The foil of the neighbourhood, abounding if 
pafturage, had no lefs than 30,000 mares, 300 ftallions, and 
500 elephants ; intlead of which the marfhes of Famia at 
prefent fcareely afford a few buffaloes and fheep. To the 
veteran foldiers of Alexander, who here repoted after their 
vidtories, have fucceeded wretched peafants, who live in 
perpetual dread of the Turks, and the inroads of the Aras 
bians ; go miles N. of Damafcus. N. lat. 35°. E. long. 
36° 43’. Volney’s Travels, vol. ii. 

Famia. See Parva. 

FAMILIA, Famity, commonly implies all the fervaats 
beloiging to a particular matter. 

In another fenfe, family is taken for a portion of land, 
wiz. fo much as is fuffigient to maintain one family. 

Qz2 The 


FAM 


The term hide is by our writers fometimes rendered a 
manfe, fometimes a family, and fometimes carucata, or 
plough-land ; containing as much as one plough and oxen 
cuuld cultivate ina year. See Hive. 

Famizia, in Natural Hiflory, a term ufed by authors to 
exprefs a certain order of animals, or other natural produc- 
tions, agreeing in their principal characters, and containing 
numerous individuals, not only different ‘rom one another, 
that in whole fets, feveral numbers being to be colleG&ted out 
of the fame family, all of which have the family character, 
and all fome fubordinate diftinétion peculiar to that whole 
number, or though found in every individual of it, not found 
in thofe of any others. 

It has been too common to confound the words clais, 
family, order, &c. in natural hiftory. But the determinate 
meaning of the word familia feems to be that larger order of 
creatures, under which claffes and genera are fubordinate 
diftin&ions. Among the quadrupeds, the feveral genera of 
the unguiculated creatures agree one with another in many 
general characters common to all; and in which they differ 
from the ungulated animals, which have alfo their feveral 
peculiar characters common to all, and yet different from all 
thofe of the others. Thefe -naturally conftitute certain 
larger divifions into families, and no one would ever break 
through thefe, or bring the cat and the horfe into the fame 
family. 

In the fame manner, in Jchthyology, there are feveral genera 
of fifhes, which agree perfeétly in certain common characters, 
and difagree from all others in them. 

The arrangement of natural bodies into thefe families, or 
general and larger claffes, is of the utmoft ufe to natural 
hiftory, when it is properly done, and the divifions are 
genuine and natural ; when. otherwife, it is hurtful. 

Thefe divifionsof animals into families are of two kinds, the 
one artificial or hypothetical, the other natural. 

In the fyftematic arrangement of organic toflils, particu- 
larly of the relics of the plants of the primary race which 
inhabited this globe or its waters, it is found impracticable 
to afcertain the genera on the principles of Linné, owing 
to the entire abfence of the parts of fructification ; hence 
the families in the arrangement of fuch reliquia by Mr. 
W. Martin (Outlines, &c. p. 187 and 202) anfwer in fome 
degree, to the genera of recent plants, of which the foffil 
remains make but one genus, viz. Phytolithus, which fee. 

FAMILIARS of the Inquifition, perfons who affift in 
apprehending fuch as are accufed, and carrying them to 
prifon, They are aflitants to the inquifitor, and called 
familiars, becaufe they belong to his family. In fome 
provinces of Italy they are called crofs-bearers, and in others 
the {cholars of St. Peter the Martyr ; and they wore a crofs 
before them on the outfide garment. They are properly 
bailiffs of the inquifition ; and the vile office is efteemed fo 
honourable, that noblemen in the kingdom of Portugal have 
been ambitious of belonging to it. Nor is this furprifing, 
when it is confidered that Innocent III. granted very large 
indulgences and privileges to thele familiars; and that the 
fame plenary indulgence is granted by the pope to every 
fingle exercife of this office, as was granted by the Lateran 
council to thofe who fuccoured the Holy Land. When feveral 
perfons are to be taken up at the fame time, thefe familiars 
are commanded to order matters, that they may know nothing 
of one another’s being apprehended ; and it is related, that 
a father and his three fons, and three daughters, who lived 
together in the fame honfe, were carried prifoners to the 
inquifition without knowing any thing of one another’s being 
there till feven years afterwards, when they that were alive 


were releafed by an at ef faith, Geddeg’s Tracts, vol. i. 


FAN 


Pp: a 5s—429. Limborch’s Hift. of the Inquif. by Chandler, 
Pp. 187. 

FAMILY of Curves. See Family of Curves. 

Famiy of Love, in Ecclefiaflical Hiffory, the name of an 
anabaptilt feét, founded in Holland, in 1555, by Henry 
Nicholas, a Weitphalian. This deluded fanatic maintained 
that he hada commiffion from heaven to teach men, that the 
effence of religion confifted in the feelings of divine love; 
that all other theological tenets, whether they related to 
objects of faith, or modes of worlhip, were of no moment ; 
and that it was a matter of perfe@ indifference what opinions 
Chriftians entertained concerning the Divine nature, provided 
their hearts burned withthe pureand facred flame of piety and 
love. Dr. Henry More wrote againtft this fect, in his “Grand 
Explanation of the Myftery of Godlinefs,”? book vi. cap. 
1z2—18. George Fox, the founder of the feét of quakers, 
alfo expofed them, and called them a motley tribe of fanatics, 
becaufe they took oaths, danced, fung, and made merry. 
The principles of this fe€& were propagated in England, 
and produced no {mall confufion. The form of abjuration 
tendered to them, and the fevere proclamation iffued againit 
them by queen Elizabeth, in 1580, may be feenin Wilkins’s 
Concilia Magne Brit. &c. vol. iv. p. 296, 297. 

Famiry J/lands, in Geography, a clutter of {mall iflands 


near the N.E. coaft of New Holland, 12 miles N.W. of — 


cape Sandwich. 


Famity Lake, alake of North America. N. lat. 52° 35'. 
W. long. 93° 20'. 

FAMINE, or Fameng, a {mall country of the Nether- 
lands, in the weftern part of the duchy of Luxemburg, 
on the borders of the bifhopric of Liege; the principal 
towns are Marche and Roche. It is now ceded to France. 

Famine, Port, a fortrefs fituated on the N.E. coaft of 
the ftraits of Magellan, in South America; now neglected 
in confequence of a Spanifh garrifon having perifhed for 
want. In the year 1581, the Spaniards built a town at this 
place, which they called Phillippevilie, and left in it a co- 
lony, confifting of 400 perfons. When our celebrated na- 
vigator, Cavendifh, arrived here in 1587, he found only one 
furvivor, all the others having died through famine, except 
about 23 perfons, who fet out for the river Plata, and were 
never afterwards heard of. Cavendifh called the place Port 
Famine. It is avery fine bay, in which there is convenient 
room for many fhips to moor in great fafety. Here are 
alfo good wooding and watering, and plenty of fifh and dif- 
ferent forts of fowl. The place alfo abounds with wild ce- 
lery. S. lat. 53° 42'. W. long. 71°28’. Variation 2 points 
welterly. 

FAM-TAM-HOTUN, a town of Afia, in the king- 
dom of Corea; 625 miles E.N.E. of Peking. 


FAN, Frasetium, a machine ufed to raife wind, and 
cool the air, by agitating it. 

The effet of fanning ourfelves when warm, in order to 
cool us, though the air is itfelf warm which we drive with 
the fan upon our faces, may be thus explained: the atmo- 
fphere round, and next to our bodies, having imbibed as 
much of the perfpired vapour as it can well contain, receives 
no more, and the evaporation is therefore cheeked and re- 
tarded till we drive away that atmofphere, and bring drier 
air in its place, that will receive the vapour, and thereby in- 
creafe and facilitate the evaporation, and thus contribute to 
cool us. 

That the ufe of the fan was known to the ancients is very 
evident from what Terence fays, 


“ Cape hoc flabellum, et ventulum huic fic facito ;”” 
and 


FAN 
and from Ovid, Art. Amand. 1. 167. 


© Profuit et tenues ventos movifle flabello.’”? 

The fans of the ancients were made of different materials ; 
but the moft elezant were compofed of peacock’s feathers, 
or perhaps painted, fo as ta reprefent a peacock’s tail. 

' The cuftom that now prevails among the ladies, of wear- 
ing fans, was borrowed from the Eait, where the hot climate 
- renders the ufe of fans and umbrellas almoit indifpenifable. 

In the Eaft they chiefly ufe large fans made of feathers, 
to keep off the fun and the flies. In Italy and Spain they 
have a large fort of fquare fans, fufpended in the middle of 
their apartments, and particularly over the tables: thefe, 
by a motion at firft given them, and which they retain a long 
time, on account of their perpendicular fufpenfion, help to 
cool the air and drive off flies. 

In the Greek church, a fan is put into the hands of the 
deacons in the ceremony of their ordination, in allufion to 
a part of the deacon’s office in that church, which is to 
keep the flies off the priefts during the celebration of the 
facrament. é 

Wicquefort, in his tranflation of the embafly of Garcias 
de Figueroa, gives the name fans to a kind of chimneys or 
ventiduéts in ule among the Perfians, to furnifh air, and 
wind into their houfes ; without which the heats would be 
infupportable. What is called a fan amongtit us, and 
throughout the chief parts of Europe, is a thin fkin or piece 
of paper, taffety, or other light {tuff, cut femi-circularly, and 
mounted on feveral little {ticks of wood, ivory, tortoife- 
fhell, or the like. ; ; 

If the paper be fingle, the flicks of the mounting are 
pafted on the leaft ornamental fide : if double, the fticks 
are placed betwixt them. Before they proceed to place 
the fticks, which they call mounting the fan, the paper is 
to be plaited in fuch manner, as that the plaits may be 
alternately inward and outward. , 

It is in the middle of each plait, which is ufually about 
half an inch broad, that the fticks are to be patted; and 
thefe again are to be all joined and rivetted together at the 
other end; they are very thin, and fearce exceed one third of 
an inch in breadth ; and where they are patted to the paper, 
are {till narrower, continuing thus to the extremity of the 
paper. The two outer ones are bigger and itronger than 
the others. The number of fticks rarely exceeds twenty- 
two. The fticksare ufually provided by the cabinet-makers 
or toy-men: the fan-painters plait the papers, paint, and 
mount them. : 

The common painting is either in colours or gold-leaf, 
applied on a filvered ground, both prepared by the gold- 
beaters. Sometimes they paint on a gold ground, but it is 
rarely ; true gold being too dear, and falfe too paltry. To 
apply the filver leaves on the paper, they ufe a compofition 
which they pretend is a great fecret, but which appears to 
be no other than gum Arabic, fugar-candy, and a little 
honey melted in common water, and mixed with a little 
brandy. This compofition is laid on with a fponge; then 
laying the filver leaves thereon, and preffing them gently 
down with a linen ball ftuffed with cotton, they catch hold, 
and adhere together. When, initead of filver, gold ground 
is laid, the fame method is obferved. 

The ground being well dried, a number of the papers are 
well beaten together on a block, and by this means the filver 
or gold get a luftre, as if they had been burnifhed. 

Fan Machine, in Agriculture, an inftrument, or machine, 
contrived for the purcpote of winnowing, or cleaning dif- 
ferent forts of grain, feeds, &c. from the chaff and other 
injurious matters. There are feveral different machines of 


this kind in ufe, It has been remarked by Mr, Donaldfon, 


FAN 


in his Treatife on Modern Agriculture, that wind is effen- 
tially neceflary in cleaning grain, or feed of any kind, 
The hufks, or chaff, being lighter than the feeds which they 
inclofed, ave,by the force of wind, carriedto a greater diftance, 
and thereby a complete feparation takes place. The natural 
action of the winds being fo extremely inconftant, no doubt, 
he thinks, induced the ancients to conftrué inftruments by 
which the operation of cleaning grain was rendered lefs 
difficult and precarious. What thefe inftruments were, ex- 
cept the fhovel for throwing grain from one part of the barn, 
or threfhing-floor, to another, is now uncertain; probably, 
however, the fail-fan, formerly fo commonly uled in this 
country, was among the number. It was not, he conceives, 
till little more than thirty years ago, that any other means 
were thought of in Scotland for feparating grain from 
the chaff, than the aétion of the natural wind operating 
between the two doors of the barn. There a perfon ftood 
for the purpofe of dropping the undreffed grain froma 
kind of {cuttle, or fieve, and in quantities proportioned to 
the force of the wind at the time. About the above period 
the fan, fan-machine, or fanner, was introduced from Hol- 
land, where that kind of machine had been for a confider- 
able time in common ufe, having been firft brought to that 
country from the Eait Indies, where thefe machines had 
been long ufed in cleaning rice. 

The fan, which is the aGting part of the machine, is 
capable of being turned round on its axis with a greater or 
lefs degree of velocity, according to the force of wind ne- 
ceffary to anfwer the intended purpofe. One man works 
the machine eafily by means of a winch, or handle; an- 
other is employed in filling the hopper; and a third in rid- 
dling and laying afide the grain, if not meafured up at the 
time: when that is the cafe, more hands are neceflary. Since 
threfhing-mills, or machines, have been introduced, the fan- 
ners are generally conneéted with, and wrought bv them, in 
place of being fet in motion by manual labour, by which means 
the unthrefhed grain, after entering between the feeders 
of the threfhing-mill, becomes invifible, till it again appears 
in three divifions, each entirely feparate from the other ; the 
grain being forced to one place, the chaff to another, and 
the ftraw to a third, a degree of perfection in regard to 
barn management, the writer fuggefts, which was unknown 
in any other age or country. 

Thefe machines are well conftru&ed in many parts of 
Lancafhire, and other more northern counties, both for being 
employed feparately, and in combination with the threfhing- 
machine. A reprefentation of one is given in the Plate of 
Agriculture. 

Fan Palm. See CHamzrops. 

Fan, Sea. See Gorconta. 

Fan, in Geography, a town of China, of the third rank, 
in Chan-tong; 17 miles N.E. of Po. 

FANAES, an ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft of 
Africa, about nine or ten miles in circumference, alittle to 
the fouth of the Line. 

FANANO, a town of Italy; 18 miles S. of Modena. 

FANATIC, a’ wild, extravagant, vifionary, enthufi- 
aftical perfon, who pretends to revelation and in{piration, 
and believes himifelf pofleffed with a divine fpirit. 

The word is formed of the Latin fanum, a heathen 
temple; for which reafon the Chriftians called all the Gea- 
tiles fanatics; and accordingly the ancient chronicles of 
France call Clovis fanatic and pagan. 

Among the heathens deeeteleed there was a fort of 
prophetic prieits, called fanatici, from whom the denomi- 
nation fince paffed to all the reft. They had their name 
from the Latin /anum, temple, becaufe they lived all to- 

gether 


FAN 
gether in temples. Struv. Antiq. Rom. Synt. cap. 6. 
SEU 
OF this kind, particularly, were the priefts of Ifs, of the 
mother of the gods, of Bellona, and fome others, who were 
ealled: fanatici. In Gruter, p. 312. n. vii. we have an in- 
{cription, wherein one L. Cornelius Januarius is called Fa- 
naticus, AB. ISIS. SERAPIS. ABAEDEM BELLONE. And, 
p. 645. n. vii. Fanaticus de ede Bellonz. i 
What might give occafion to the appellation of fanatics 
avas, that they performed their facrifices in a wild, enthu- 
fiaftical manner; and the appellation has been generally ap- 
plied in modern times to thofe who have made pretences to 
an{piration, aad who have conduéted their worfhip or prac- 
tice in an extravagant and licentious manner. Such were 
ome of the German anabaptifts and Englifh quakers, at 
‘their firt rife, and the modern prophets, Muggletonians, 
‘Behmenifts, &c. And the name fanatics, as well as fectaries, 
shas been often invidioufly applied to diffenters from the 
church of England. 
FANATIO, in our Ancient Cufloms, the fawning-time, 
-or fence-months in forefts. A 
FANBYN, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the 
vprovince of Angermatiland, near the gulf of Bothnia. 
IN. lat. 63° 24'. IE. long. 19°. 
FANCOURT, Samvez, in Biegraphy, was born in the 
«weft of England about the year 1678. Of -his early life 
ave have no account, but in the beginning of the lait cen- 
-tury he was fettled with a congregation of Proteftant dif- 
fenters at Salifbury, a fituation which he was obliged to quit 
-on account of fome change in his fentime::ts. He came to 
Londen, and about the year 1740, or, as others think, 1745, 
‘he fet on foot the firlt circulating library in the metropolis, 
at a fubfeription of a guinea a-year for reading. He after- 
-wards changed the plan, and made the fubferibers pro- 
“prietors; but he was unfuccefsful in almoft all his projects. 
“The public are, however, indebted to him for the firit idea 
of eftablifhments which have been, and {till are, exceedingly 
vafeful to the community ; and we may hope, of great ad- 
vantage to the morals and improvement of almoft all claffes 
of fociety. Mr. Fancourt, after experiencing a thoufand 
changes, which poverty too frequently inflicts, was obliged 
‘to part with his library, and retire to Hoxton, where his 
neceflities were relieved by fome of his brethren till his 
.death, which took place in 1768, when he was in the goth 
syear of his age. Gen. Biog. 
FANCY. See Puantasy and ImaGinarion. 
FANDANGO, the name of a riotous Spauifh dance. 
This is a very ancient national dance; and is fuppofed to 
be that of which Martial fpeaks, when he aims the whole 
force of his inveétive again{ft the wanton dances of Betica ; 
.efpecially of the diftri& of Cadiz, and the voluptuous man- 
ner in which they are performed by the women.  Baretti 
juftly defines it, “a regular and harmonious convulfion of all 
parts of the body.” The “bolero” is an imitation of it, 
but fhortened, modified, and {tripped of all thofe acceflaries 
which give to the fandango fo very free a character. The 
-paffion of the Spaniards for thefe dances is extreme. Ac- 
cordingly, Mr. Townfend, in his ‘¢ Travels,’’ obferves, that 
if a perion were to come fuddenly into a church, or a court 
of juitice, playing the fandango, or the bolero, prietts, 
judges, lawyers, criminals, audience, one and all, grave or 
gay, young or old, would quit their fundtions, forget all 
diftin@ions, and all fet themfelves a dancing. The fan- 
‘dango and bolero are danced in couples, to the found of the 
-guitar, and the noife of caftanets, which the men employ 
swith equal precifion and fportivenefs to mark the time and 
animate their motions, In the bolero the men and women 


FAN 


perform the fame motions, but thofe of the women are more 
lively, more animated, and more expreffive. The fandange 
is graver than the bolero: the fteps are neither fo lively,’ 
nor is their time fo ftrongly marked; they more refemble 
different modes of balancing; but the inflexions of the 
body are more varied, and add to its gracefuluefs. Motions 
of the eyes and features mark all the poltures of this dance 5 
the moft lively expreffion of all the paflions that agitate the 
heart is then exhibited. The fandango and bolero are 
alfo executed in the form of a ballet or a figure dance ; they 
are then danced by eight, four men and four women; and 
at intervals each couple in its own corner goes through all 
the motions of thefe dances: thefe are what they. call « fe- 
quidillas,’”? Thefe dances are ufually performed to the found 
of the guitar, accompanied by the voice of the player, 
The women mark the time very correétly with the heel: 
thele dances are not in general praétifed in genteel fociety. 

FANEGA, a meafure in Spain, containing, in the vi- 
cinity of Carthagena, 3312 folid inches, and weighing a 
quintal, or 102? avoirdapsis: and among the merchants 
54 fanegas are reckoned equal to eight Wiuchefter bufhels of 
2178 folid inches: but upon a rough calculation, two fa- 
negas of grain may be reckoned equal to three bufhels; and 
one fanega of land, being that quantity on which they fow 
one fanega of wheat or two of barley, may be confidered as 
three-quarters of an acre. 

FANFARE, Fr. a kind of military air, or flourifh, ge- 
nerally short and fpirited, either performed by trumpets, or 
by other initruments in imitation of them. The fanfare is 
ufaally founded by two trumpets, accompanied by kettle- 
drums, and, it well executed, it has a certain martial and 
animated effect perfectly fuited to its ufe, OF all the troops 
in Europe, the ee in 1768) were thofe which had the 
beft military inftruments, confequeatly their marches and 
fanfares had an admirable effeét. It is worthy of remark, 
that in the whole kingdom of France there was not a fingle 
trumpet that played in tune; fo that the moft warlike na- 
tion in Europe had the moit difcordant inftruments, which 
was not without itsinconvenience. During the laft war the 
Bohemian, Auftrian, and Bavarian peafants, all born mu- 
ficians, unable to imagine that regular troops had inftruments 
fo falfe and fo deteftable, took all the old corps for new- 
raifed troops, whom they began to defpife, and it is incredi- 
ble how many brave men lott their lives by falfe intonation, 
So true it is, that in preparations for war, nothiug fhould be 
negleéted that occupies the fenfes. Rouffeau. All Europe 
feems now convinced of the wildom of this remark ; and 
all the regiments of every nation have either German bands 
or German matters to initru€t their young mouficians. 

FANFOUE, in Geography, one of the Navigator’s 
iflands, in the South Pacific ocean, about five miles in cir- 
cumference. S. lat. 14° 4’. W. long. 170° 20!. 

FANG, a town of China, of the third rank, in Hou. 
quang; 40 miles S, of Yuan-gang. 

Fano, in Mining, figuifiesa truak or cafe of wood, made 
to convey wind or trefh air down into amine. It alfo fig 
nifies, in fome places, a fleak, or fhelter, to fereen the ore- 
dreflers or miners from wind, orthe dropping of water. . 

FANGOOMBA, in Geograph » atown of Africa, in 
Kaarta... N.Jat..14° 15’. W. long. 70° 30!. ; 

FANGS, or Lee-fangs, in Rigging, a rope faltened to a 
cringle, near the foot of a ketch’s wing-fail, to haul in the 
foot of the fail for lacing on the bonnet, or taking in the 
fail. 

FANIEAUX, a-town of France, in the departraent of 
the Aude. and chief place of a canton in the diftrit of 
Caftelnaudary ;-13 miles W, of Carcaffone, The place 

2 contains 


“. tary. 


FAN 


tontains 1807, and the canton gors inhabitants, ona terri- 
torial extent of 232! kilometres, and in 16 communes, 
N. Tat. 43° 11', UE. long. 2° 47', 

FANIMBOO, a town of Africa, in Bambara. N. lat. 
14° 40’... W. long. 4°. 

FANIONS, in Military Language, {mall flags carried 
along with the baggage. See Frac. 

FANKLE, in Geography, a town of China, of the third 
ranks, in Chan-fi; 17 miles N. E. of Tai. 

FANNA, a town of Italy, in Friuli; feven miles N.N.E. 
of Aviano: 

FANNISSIMA, a town of Japan, inthe ifle of Niphon; 
roo miles N. W. of Jeddo. 

* FANO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra; nine 
miles S. S. W. of Teramo. 

Fano, a fea-port town of the duchy of Urbino, on the 
Adriatic, the fee of a bifhop; furrounded with a lofty wall 
of brick and ditches, with towers at {mall diftances, and 
baftions towards the fea. It.has feveral monaiteries, and 
fome beautiful churches. It was anciently called « Fanum 
Fortune,” from a temple built by the Romans to the god- 
defs Fortune, after the defeat of Afdrubal, on the banks 
of the Metaurus. Here are the remains of a triumphal 
arch, erected in honour of Auguftus, who fent hither a 
colony, called “ Julia Faneltris.”? It was deitroyed by 
Totila, and rebuilt by Belifarius; 16 miles E.N. E. of 
Urbino. N. lat. 43° 52'. E. long. 12° 56’. 

FANOE, or Foenog, a {mall ifland of Denmark, in the 
Little Belt, fituated about two miles S. from Middlefahrt, 
in the ifland of Funen. N. lat. 55° 30’. E long. 9° 43'.— 
Alfo, a {mall ifland of Denmark, near the coaft of Slef- 
wick, in the German ocean, about 15 miles in circum- 
ference, chiefly inhabited by tfhermen. N. lat: 55° 25'. 
E. long. 8? 43’. 

FANPOTEN, a town on the E. coaft of Madagafcar. 
N. lat. 15°45’. E. long. 55° 40’. 

+ FANSHAW, Carr, a cape on the W. coatt of 
North America, and N. fide of Irederick’s Sound, N, lat. 
57° tr. E.long. 226° 44. 

TANSHAWE, Sir Ricnarp, in Biography, was born 
at Ware-Park, Herts, in the year 1608. He iludied at 
Jefus college, Cambridge, and from thence he removed to 
the Inner Temple. Having travelled into France and 
Spain, he was appointed f{ecretary to the embafiy at Ma- 
drid, under lord Afton. In the civil wars he adhered to 
the royal party, and attended the court at Oxford. He 
was fecretary of war to prince Charles, and afterwards 
treafurer of the navy under prince Rupert. He was created 
baronet in 1650, and fent to Madrid to feek a loan for his 
matter. Henext aéted as fecretary of {tate for Scotland, and 
accompanied Charles IT. on his expeditionto England, and 
was taken prifoner at the battle of Worcelter. He was 
foon admitted to bail, and went to the feat of lord Strafford 
in Yorkfhire, where he amufed his leifure by tranflating the 
“ Lufiad.?? The year before the reftoration he repaired to 
the king at Breda, by whom he was knighted, and, after 
his return, appointed mailer of requefts and Latin fecre- 
In 1661, he was elected one of the reprefentatives 
in parliament for the univerfity of Cambridge, and foon 
after was {worn a privy councillor for Ireland. ‘He was 
next appointed envoy-extraordinary. to Portugal, and then 
ambaffador to that court, for the purpofe of negociating the 
King’s marriage with the infanta Catharine. He acted in 
other importan: diplomatic miffiéns, but was at length re- 
called by the king, who was dilpleafed on his figninga 
treaty with Spain... As he was preparing to return, he was 
Seized with a fever, which carried'yiim off at Madrid: in the 


FAN 


year 1666, Sir Richard fuftained an amiable chara&ter, 
and his talents for general ftate affairs was univerfally ac- 
knowledged. He is likewife known as a literary charaéter, 
chiefly by his poetical tranflations. That of “ Guarini’s 
Paftor Fido,’”’ firit publithed in 1646, obtained for him the 
reputation of an elegant and eafy verfifer. He likewife 
tranflated the Lufiad, and fome parts of Virgil and Horace 
with other things. Biog. Brit. 4 

FANSHIRE, in Geography, a river of Madagafcar, 
which runs into the fea, 15 miles S. W. of Fort Dauphin. 

FANTASIA, /ral. Fantasie Fr. an inftrumental com. 
pofition in Mufic, executed at the fame time that it is con- 
cetved. There is this difference between a capriccio and 
a fantafia, that the capriccio is a ftring of fiagular and 
unconnected ideas, produced by a heated imagivation, and 
which may, however, be compofed at leifure; whereas the 
fantafia may be a very regular produétion, which differs 
from written mufic no-otherwife than by being played. 
5 : : Py ape 
immediately fromthe head, and that it no longer exifts after 
performance. \ So that the capriccio depends on the affort-- 
ment and choice of ideas, and the fantafia on the prompti-- 
tude with which it prefents itfelf. It follows that a capric- 
cio may be written down, a fantafia never; for as foon" 
as It 1s: written or repeated it is no longer a fantafia, it-is a 
common piece of mufic.. Thefe were the ideas of Roafleau 
40 years ago, and are now the general ideas of all who 
beftow a thought on the fubje&. But inthe 17th century, 
when inftrumental mufic firft began to be cultivated,. the ac- 
ceptation of the word fantafie or fancy was very. different: 
from the prefent, which on the organ is termed a voluntary ;: 
on the harp or piano forte a.toccata, tocecatina, or prelude. 
to fomething elfe. But of what were termed fantatia, 
previous to the invention of fonatas, quartets, or concertos 
becoming general, the following is the hiitory. The reign 
ot our James the Firft isa very early period in the cultivation 
of mufic, merely inftrumental. The words concerto and. 
fonata feem at this time not to have been invented even in 
Italy : as the Crufea diGtionary gives ‘no inftance of fo 
early a ufe of them in mufic-books. Concento and fuono 
implied nearly the fame tliings in the days of Boceaccio, as 
concerto and fonata fince ; but concertare and concertantr 
were at firlt applied to the union of infruments with voices, 
in motets and madrigals, by doubling the voice-parts. It 
was not till late in the feventeenth century that in{trumental 
pieces, of many parts, began to be called concertos, and of 
few, fonatas. 

The earlief compofitions we have found in Italy, for 
three or more inftruments of the fame {pecies, are ricercari 
and fantafie. But of thefe, none feem to have been printed 
when the elder Doni publifhed the fecond edition of his 
Libreria, 1§57 3 as all the inftrumental mufic that appears 
in his catalogue of mufical compofitions, which had ther 
been publijhed in Italy, are ** Intabolature da organi, et da 
leuto, d’Anton da Bologna, di Giulio da Modena, di Fraha 
cefco di Milano, diJaches Buas, piu di dieci volumi, ela 
continua.”” : 

About the beginning of the feventeenth century madri- 
gale, which were almoit the only compofitions, ia parts 

or the chamber, then cultivated, feem to have been a. 
denly fupplanted in the favour of. lovers of mufic by 2 
paffion for fantafias of three, four, five, and fix parts 
wholly compofed for viols and other inftruments, sathont 
vocal afiltance. And this paffion feems to have arilen from 
the calling in thefe initruments to reinforce the voice-parts, 
with which they played in unifon, in the performance of 
ntotetti and madrigals, thence termed concerteti.. At len oth. 
the initrumental performers difcovered, that both the poetry 
hadi 


FAN 


and finging of the times might be {pared without any great 
lofs or injury to mufical effects ; as the words, if good, were 
rendered unintelligible by fugue, imitation, and multiplicity 
of parts; and the finging, being often coarfe and out of 
tune, could be better {upplied by their own performance. 
Thus vocal mufic not only loft its independence, but was 
almoft totally driven out of fociety ; as the ancient Britons, 
calling in the Saxons to affift them in their conflits with 
the Pits, were themfeives fubdued and forced from their 
poffeffions, by too powerful auxiliaries. 

We are the better enabled to fpeak of the inftrumental 
mufic of this period, by being fortunately in poffefiion of 
feveral confiderable manufcript colleGions of fancies; par- 
ticularly one in fix parts, folio, which had been made for 
the ?Eflrange family, in Norfelk, by the celebrated com- 
pofer of Charles the Firlt’s reign, Mr. John Jenkins, and 
collated with other copies, and correéted not only by him- 
{elf, but by fix or eight other eminent matters of the times. 

Thefe pieces, which confift more of motets, madrigals, 
and innomines, originally defigned for voices, than fantafie 
made exprefsly for inftruments, were the produétions of 
William Bird, Alfonfo Ferabofco, fen. and jun. William 
White, John Ward, Thomas Ravenfcroft, William Cran- 
forde, Thomas Lupo, Giovanni Coperario, and others. 
The ftyle would appear now very dry and fancilefs, in fpite 
of the general title of thefe pieces, Indeed, it would be 
difficult to fele& one of them that would afford any other 
amufement to our readers, than that of difcovering how in- 
genious and well difpofed the lovers of mufic, during the 
former part of the laft century, mutt have been, to extract 

leafure from fuch produétions. 

Notwithftanding the infinite pains that have been taken in 
colle&ting and collating thefe books, they only prove that 
however infipid and debiieable we may think their contents, 
our forefathers were of a different opinion; and that, con- 
temptible as they now feem, they were the beft which the 
firft muficians of the age could then produce. 

There is an infancy in every human produétion that is 
perfeftable. The in{truments to which thefe fantafies were 
adapted were viols of different fizes. (See Bast V10L.) 
The paflages, however, given to thefe feveral inftruments 
at this time difcover no kind of knowledge of the ex- 
preflive power of the bow; and even Orl. Gibbons, who 
compofed fo well for voices in the church, feems very little 
fuperior to his cotemporaries in his produétions for inftru- 
ments. Indeed, his madrigals of five parts, as well as thofe 
of many others, are faid in the title-page to be apt for viols 
and voices: a proof that with us, as well as the ancient 
Greeks, and other nations, there was at firft no mufic ex- 
prefsly compofed for inftruments ; confequently, the powers 
of thefe inftruments muft have been circumfcribed; and 
when this mufic was merely played, without the affiftance 
of the human voice and of poetry, capable of no great effects. 
The fubjeéts of Orlando Gibbons’s madrigals are fo fimple 
and unmarked, that if they were now to be executed by in- 
ftruments alone, they would afford very little pleafure to 
the greateft friends of his produétions, and thofe of the 
fame period. At the time they were publifhed, however, 
there was nothing better with which to compare them, and 
the beft mufic which good ears can obtain, is always delight- 
ful, till better is produced. Air, accent, grace, and ex- 
preffion, were now equally unknown to the compofer, per- 
former, and hearer; and whatever notes of one inftrument 
were in harmony with another, were welcome to the player, 
provided he found himfelf honoured from time to time with 
a fhare of the fubjeét, or principal melody ; which happen- 
ing more frequently in canons, and fugues, than in any 


3 . 


FAN 
other {pecies of compofition, contributed to keep them fe 
long in favour with performers of limited powers, however 
tirefome they may have been to the hearers when con 
ftruGed on dull and barren themes. 

Mufic is fo much a work of art, ftudy, exercife, and ex- 
perience, that every ftyle muft be beft treated, even by men 
of the greateft genius, in proportion to the attention and - 
labour they beftow on that particular fpecies of compofition. 
Orlando Gibbons, who appears to juch advantage as a 
church compofer, is utterly contemptible in his produétions 
for inftruments, of whofe powers he was ignorant. Indeed, 
all inftrumental mufic, but that of the organ, feems to have 
been in a very rude ftate at this time throughout Europe ; 
and, if we except the fugues of Frefcobaldi, all the mufic, 
even for keyed-inftruments, is dry, difficult, unaccented, 
and infipid. 

FANTASTICAL Cotovurs, are the fame with thofe 
called emphatical colours. 

FANTIN, in Geography, a country of Africa, on the 
Gold Coaft, extending about thirty miles along the coatt 
of the Atlantic. Itis bounded by Sabu on the weit, the 
Iron mount, halt a mile below Mawri, being its extremity. 
From the foot of this hill Fantin extends about ter miles 
eaftward along the coaft, having on the north fide Arti 
Agua, and Tongua; Akron on the eait ; andthe fea on 
the fouth. The foil is fertile, producing fruits, maize, 
and palm wine. The European natives have long traded 
here for gold and flaves. But the nativestrade freely with 
interlopers, frequently fhut up all the paflages to the in- 
land countries, and prevent all trade between the Europeans 
and the merchants of the interior kingdoms in gold and 
flaves ; and they have fometimes ftarved the Dutch in their 
forts, till their demands have been complied with. ‘The 
inhabitants are bold, cunning, and deceitful. Their govern- 
ment is ariftocratical ; the braffo, as their chief magif- 
trate is called, leads their armies into the field, and pof- 
fefles the chief power, theugh it is greatly reftrained 
by the old men, who form a national council, the votes 
and aéts of which are entirely independent of the braffo. 
Every town and fub-divifion of the county has alfo its 
chief, who frequently affumes independence, and enters 
on a war with his fovereign and the council of elders. 
Their inteftine divifions are the chief fecurity of their 
neighbours, as they are able to affemble an army of 
10,0co men. hey reckon about gooo fifhermen on the 
coa{t, and their fmall towns are very numerous, The 
capital, of the fame name with that of the province, is 
about twelve miles up the country: and their other 
principal towns and villages are Anamaboa, where the 
Englith have a fort, Adja, or Aga, where the Dutch 
formerly had a fort, Little and Great Cormantin, Agua, 
Laguyo, Tantimqueré, and Manpran. N, lat. 5° ro’. 

FANTOME Corn, in Agriculture, aterm applied to 
fuch thin or light corn as has but little bulk or folidity. 
In this fort of grain there is but a fmall portion of the fari- 
naceous matter. 

FANTONI, Joun, in Biography, a celebrated phyfi- 
cian, was born at Turin inthe year 1675. He ftudied 
philofophy and the belles lettres in the univerfity of his na- 
tive city, and evinced a fuperiority of talent in the rapid 
progrefs which he made. He then paffed to the medical 
claffes, in which he gave farther evidence of his abilities, and 
obtained his degree of do€tor. He was enabled, through 
the liberality of his prince, to vifit foreign feats of learning 
in purfuit of improvement in his art, and traverfe France, 
Germany, and the Low Countries, every where making 
valuable additions to his knowledge. On his return to 

‘Turin, 


FAN 


“Turin, he commenced public teacher of anatomy, and after- 
wards was fucceflively chofen to fill the chairs of theo- 
retical and practical medicine. In the interim the king 
of Sardinia appointed him phyfician to the prince of 
Piedmont, his fon. This office, however, did not inter- 
fere with his labours in the univerfity, where he was 
ftill diftinguifhed near the middle of the fucceeding cen- 
tury, notwithftanding his advanced age. 

The firft publication of Fantoni was entitled ‘ Differ- 
tationes Anatomice XI. Tauri, 1701.’? The fecond 
s* Anatomia corporis humani ad uf{um Theatri Medici ac- 
comodata, ibid. 1711.’ This edition, whichis, in fact, 
a part of the preceding work, relates to the anatomy of 
the abdomen and cheft only. 3. ‘* Differtationesduz de 
ftru@tura et ufu dure matris et lymphaticorum vaforum, 
ad Antonium Pacchionum confcriptz, Rome, 1721.” 
4. “ Differtationes due de Thermis Valderianis, Aquis 
Gratianis, Maurianenfibus, Geneve,’’ 1725, in 8vo. and 
1738 ingto. 5. ‘*Opufcula Medicaet Phyfiologica, Ge- 
neve, 1738.’? This contains likewife fome obfervations of 
his father. 6. ‘ Differtationes Anatomice feptem pricres 
renovate, de Abdomine, Taurini, 1745.”? 7. “¢ Commen- 
tariolum de Aquis Vindolienfibus, Auguftanis, et Anfio- 
nenfibus, ibid. 1747.” 

Fantont, Joun-Baerist, the father of the preceding, 
though lefs diftinguifhed than his fon, was alfo a teacher of 
anatomy and of the theory of medicine at Turin, as well as 
librarian, and firlt phyfician to Vitor Amadeus II. duke 
of Savoy. He died prematurely in 1692, (having only 
attained the age of forty,) in the vicinity of Embrun, where 
the duke, his patron, was encamped, during the fiege of 
Chorges. He left feveral unfinifhed manuicripts, which 
John Fantoni revifed, and of which he publifhed a collection 
of the beft parts, under the title of “* Obfervationes A nato- 
maico medicz felectiores,’”? at Turin, in 169g, and at Venice 
in 1713. This work contains fome ufeful obfervations rela- 
tive to the difeafes of the heart. Eloy. Dié. Hittor. 

FANU, in Geography, afmall ifland in the Mediterra- 
nean ; 10 miles N.W. of Corfu. 

FANUM, among the Romans, a temple or place confe- 
crated to fome deity. ‘The deified men and women among 
the heathens had likewife their fana; even the great philo- 
fopher Cicero erefted one to his daughter Tullia. Mem. 
Acad. Infeript. vol. i. p. 488, feq. 

Fanum Diane, in Ancient Geography, was built, ac- 
cording to Ptolemy, on the banks of the Rhine. Some 
authors have fuppofed that the caftle of Batenitein, now 
Vianen, was erected upon the foundation of this ancient 
temple. 

Fanum fortuna, a town of Italy, in Umbria. See Fano. 

TFanum Jovis, a temple of Jupiter, fituated in Afia Mi- 
nor, near the Thracian Bofphorus and the Syrnzan pro- 
montory. 

Fanum Martis, the denomination of feveral places in 
Gaul. Hence fprung, according to the Notitia Imperii, 
the name of * Pagus I'anomartenfis,”’ given toa great part 
of Hainaut. Thisis probably the place now called Famars ; 
which fee.—Alfo, another place of Gaul, mentioned in the 
Itinerary of Antonine, on the route from Alauna to Conda- 
te Redonum, between Cofedia and Fines, at the limits of 
the Abrincatui. It is placed by M. D’Anville a little 
to the fouth of Conttantia, on the fea coaft, at a place now 
called « Mont Martin.”,—Alfo, another place of Gaul, 

ointed out in the Peutingerian table, between Condate 
ean to the fouth-eail, and Reginea to the north-welt, 
upon the fea-coaft, the principal place of the Curiolelites,— 
Alfo, a place of Italy, iv Etruria, Cluvins. 

»VaQu. XIV. 


FAQ 

Fanum Minerva, atown of Gaul, marked in the Itine- 
rary of Antonine, and placed by M. D’Anville to the 
fouth-eaft of Durocortorum or Rheims, 

Fanum Veneris. See Porrus Veneris. 

Fanum Voltumna, a {mall place of Italy, in Etruria, 
N.W. of Falerii. 

FAN-YUAN, in Geography, a town of Corea; 23 
miles E.S.E. of Koang-tcheo. 

FANZARA, a town of Africa, in Fez; 15 miles S. of 
Salee. ; 

FAON, Le, atown of France, in the department of 
Finifterre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of 
Chateaulin ; 13 miles N. of Quimper. The place contains 
682 and the canton 5,400 inhabitants, on a territory of 95 
kiliometres in 5 communes. 

FAOUE’, or Fouan, a town of Egypt, fituated on 
the weit branch of the Nile, was formerly a fea-port, though 
it is now 20 miles from the fea. When the Nile was al- 
lowed to fillthe canals with its waters, which once fup- 
ported trade and diffufed abundaace ; when boats laden with 
the commodities of Europe and Afia could navigate in 
tranquillity the coaft of Alexandria, without being fubject 
to the fury of the fea and of the “‘ Boghafs,”” Fouzh, which 
was fituated at the entrance of this canal, was a large and 
flourifhing city, where the Europeans had their commercial 
eitablifhments. The Venetians kept a coniul here, and 
merchandize was brought hither by the canal of Alexandria. 
But the fupinenefs of the tyrants of Egypt having fuffered 
the mud to collect 1a the bed of the canals, fo as to obftruct 
navigation, commerce was compelled to abandon the fhore 
of Fouah, and carry its means and its riches to the harbour 
ef Rofetta, where a variety of dangers render its progrefs 
uncertain. Fouah has, therefore, very confiderably de- 
clined from its former [plendour. Belon, who travelled in 
Egypt in 1530, fays, that Rofetta was much fmaller than 
Fouah; but the reverfe has fince taken place. Its con- 
trated limits, the ruined ftateof its ancient ediices, and 
thofe yet ftanding, undermined by want and wretchednefs, 
announce the rapid approach of a general decay. The 
fields, however, that furround Fouah difplay a rich and 
{miling fertility ; while its delightful gardens produce fruits, 
which, on account of their fuperior excellence, are held ia 
high eftimation. Many have fuppofed that this city is the 
ancient Metelis, but Sonnini has placed this town near Ro- 
fetta, conceiving that Fouah was Naucratis, built by the 
Milefians, as itis imagined, in the reign of Pfammetichus, 
and the ccuntry of Athenzus, acelebrated grammarian, who 
remarks that, in his time, there were fabricated in this 
town earthen vafes, the covers of which had the appearance 
of filver. In front of Fouah the Nile forms, in the middle 
of its courfe, an ifland called “ Geziret-el-Dahab,” or 
golden ifland. Fouah is diftant 16 miles S.E. from Rofetta, 
and 70 N.N W. from Caino. N. Jat. 31° 10’, E. long. 31°. 

FAQUET, atown of France, in the department of 
Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriG of 
Pontivy, 18 miles N. of L’Orient. The place contains 2,591 
and ‘the canton 12,0€9 inhabitants, in a territory of 2574 
kiliometres and 7 communes. N. lat. 48° 2’. W. long. 3° 24/. 

FAPESMO, in Lagic, one of the moods of fyllogifms, 
A fyllogi{m in fapefmo has its firft propofition an univerfal 
affirmative, the fecond an univerfal negative, and the thirda 
particular negative. 

FAQUIER, in Geography, a county of America, in 
Virginia, bounded N. by London, and E. by Prince Wil- 
liam 5 abont 55 miles long and 20 broad, containing 12,575 
free inhabitants, and 8751 flaves. It hasa poit-houfe; 51 
miles from Wathington, 


R FAQUIR. 


FAR 
FAQUIR. See Faxir. : 


FAR, in Hor feman/bip, an appellation given to any horfe’s 


‘ight fide: thus the far foot,. the far fhoulder, &c. is the 
fame with the right foot, right fhoulder, &c. 
_ FARA, or Faray, in Geography, one of the Orkney 
iflands, two miles long and one broad, and two miles W. of 
Eday. Inordinary: years.its foil and furface are more than 
fufficient to raife grain for the fupply of its inhabitants. 
N. lat, 59° 4’. W. long. 2° 43'. 

Fara, or Faray, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands, noted 
chiefly for its excellent fheep-paftures; near Rifflay and the 
eaft coat of Waes, which at low ebbs forms one ifland with 
Hoy. N. lat. 58°43!.. W. long. 3° 1/. 

Fara. See Farr ifle. 

Fara, a town of Arabia Felix ; 230 miles W. of Ca- 
them. 

FARAB. See Orrar. 

FARABAT, a Perfian port on the Cafpian fea. This 
port, and Madfhetifar, are fituated on the fouthern coalt, in 
the province of Mafanderan; they are both fmall villages, 
of which Madfhetifar is moft commercial from its vicinity to 
Balfrufch,, capital of the province, where the Ruffians and 
Armenians carry their merchandize. See BatrruscH. 

FARADEESE, atown of Africa, near the ealt coaft of 
Tunis, the inhabitants of which more than a century ago were 
the greateft cruifers and moft experienced mariners of the 
country, thoughnear four miles from the fea, their port being 
a {mall creek in the gulf of Hamam-et; but the fuperior con- 
veniencies for navigation at Hamam-et, and the increafe of 
trade, have, of late years, drawn thither all the inhabitants ; 
x1 miles W. of Hamam-et, and 30 S. of Tunis. Shaw’s 
Travels, p. gt. 

FARAGENOUS Mevunrains, in Geology, according 
to Mr. Kirwan (by others called tertiary), are fuch as have 
refulted from the ruins of other mountains or ftrata, of dif- 
ferent {pecies jumbled together, according to the theories of 
thefe authors. 

FARAHA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, on the 
S. coatt of the Perfian gulf; 2co miles E.S.E. of El Catif. 
N. lat. 25°'7'. E. long. 51° 30’. 

FARAM, one of the fmaller Shetland iflands. 
60° 42'. W.long, 1° 26’. 

FARAMA, a ruined town of Egypt, originally founded 
by the Arabs, and fituated a little to the eatlward of Pelu- 
fium. This town did not long fubfit, for it was deftroyed 
in the 13th century. It had amaufoleum, which fome have 
erroneoufly fuppofed to be the tomb ef Galen, but which in 
reality was that of Pompey, placed by Pliny at fome 
diftance from mount Cefius, in the vicinity of which are the 
euins of Farama, 

FARAMEA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 102. t. 49. 
Juff. 209. A genus, confifting of two {pecies in Aublet, 
whofe fruit is not fufficiently determined. It appears nearly 
related to the Cephaélis of Swartz and Willdenow, Callicocca 
of Schveber, but wants the involucrum. The flowers are te- 
trandrous and four-cleft. Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae, Jui. See 
Caruiicocca. 

FARAN, in Geography, a valley of Arabia, which ex- 
tends from the Red fea to mount Sinai, 

FARANAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlata- 
bad; 36 miles S. of Amednagur. 

FARAND-MAN, in our O/d Writers, a traveller or 
merchant-ftranger, to whom by the law of Scotland juttice 
ought to be done with all expedition, that his budinefs or 
journey be not hindered. ; 

FARANI, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king- 
dom of Ludamar; 30 miles N.W. of Benowm, 


N. lat. 


FAR 


FARANSK, a town of Ruffia, and one of the rg 
diftricts in the government of Viatka, fituated on a rivulet 
falling into the Viatka, 

FARAONTI, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia; 
16 miles S. of Bakeu. 

FARAT, a river of Nubia, which rens into the Red 
fea, N. lat. 21° go', with good depth of water at its mouth. 

FARCE was originally a droll, petty fhow, or enter- 
tainment, exhibited by charletans, or quacks, and their buf- 
foons, in the open treet, to gather the crowd together. 

The word is French, and fignifies literally force-meat or 
fuffing. It was applied on this occafion, without doubt, on 
account of the variety of jefls, jibes, tricks, &c. wherewith 
the entertainment was interlarded. Some authors derive 
farce from the Latin facetia ; others from the Celtic farce, 
mockery ; others from the Latin farcire, to /huff: 

At preient, farce poffeffes a htde more dignity. Itis re- 
moved from the ftrect to the theatre ; and inftead of being 
performed by merry-andrews to amufe the rabble, is now 
acted by our comedians, and become the entertainment of 
the politeft audiences. 

The poets have reformed the wildnefs of the primitive 
farces, and brought them to the tafte and manner of comedy. 
The difference between the two on our ftage is, that the 
latter keeps to nature and probability ; and, in order to 
that, is confined to certain laws, unities, &c. prefcribed by 
the ancient critics. ; 

The former difallows of all laws, or rather fets them all 
afide on occafion. Its end is purely to pleafe, or to make 
merry ; and it fticks at nothing which may contribute to 
this end, however wild and extravagant. Hence the dia- 
logue is ufually low, the perfons of inferior rank, and the 
fable or action trivial or ridiculous ; and nature and truth 
are every where heightened and exaggerated, to afford the 
more palpable ridicule. i 

FARCILITE, in Mineralogy, is a fubftance compofed 
of maffes of ftone, cemented together by a ftony cement. 
See Kirwan’s Geol. Eff. p. 133. 225, and 338. 

FARCIMINALIS Tunica, the fame with allantois. 

FARCIN, Farcy, or Fa/hions, a difeafe in horfes, and 
fometimes in oxen, &c. fomewhat of the nature of a fcabies 
or mange. 

Gefner derives the word from varices, by changing the v 
into a digamma or f. 

The farcin is infe€tious, and fpreads like a true plague. 
Vegetius calls it morbus farcinimcfus. It confilts in a cor- 
ruption of the blood, which fhews itfelf in eruptions of hard 
puitules, knots, or buds (as they are commonly cailed) 
along the veins. Hence they are erroneoufly fuppofed to 
confit in a {welling of thofe veffels. ‘Chefe tumours gene- 
rally burit, difcharging a thin watery matter, and degenerat- 
ing into foul {preading ulcers. The contiguous glands are 
ufualiy inflamed and {wollen from an abforption ef the poi- 
fon that occafions the difeafe. This difeafe fometimes 
makes its appearance iv diffufed fwellings of the hind legs, 
or other parts of the body. The moft common caufe of 
farcy feems to be contagion, either from a glandered’ or far- 
cied horfe; for, according to Mr, White (Treat on Vete- 
rinary Medicine, vol.i.), there can be no doubt that thefe 
difeafes will reciprocally produce each other. Whence we 
may conclude, that they both originate from the fame poi- 
fon, producing different effets, according to the parts on 
which its noxious influence is exerted. Its effeéts, how- 
ever, are partial; the internal parts of the nole are more par- 
ticularly liable to be affeéted by it: the fkin is likewife very 
fufceptible of its a€tion; and when the diforder has con- 
tinued long, fo that the poifon has produced its full effect, 

4 the 


FARCIN, 


the lungs do not iefeape the contagion, The farey, fays 
Mr. White, ‘maybe either confticutional or local. If glan- 
derous matter, er ‘the'matter taken!from a farcy-ulcer, be 
applied to the fin, when the cuticle has been abraded, a 
chanere or foul ulcer is produced, which is diftinguifhable 
from all others by its peculiarly foul appearance, the edges 
becoming thick, and the difcharge confifting of a thin and 
rather glutinous matter. It generally fpreads rapidly, and 
never looks red or healthy. The ablorbents or lymphatics 
about the ulcer become inflamed and fwollen from an ab- 
forption of its poifonous matter. Thefe fwellings are com- 
monly miftaken for veins, and hence it has been inferred that 
the blood-veffels are the feat of the difeafe ; the glands like- 
wife, to which thefe lymphatics lead, become inflamed 
and enlarged ; at length {mail tumours or buds appear in 
the courfe of thefe abforbents, which are {mall abfcefles 
arifiag from the inflammation of ‘thefe veffels. Thus far, 
fays Mr. White, the difeafe is /oca/, and the couftitution un- 
tainted : at length, however, the poifon, which has been 
arrefted by the glands, iifinuates itfelf into the circulation, 
and infe€ts the whole mafs. ‘Fhe internal parts of the nofe 
are generally firft attacked ; the next part that is affefted is 
ufually the fkin, on various parts of which  farcy-buds’’ 
appear, and degenerate into foul fpreading ulcers ; at length 
the bones of the nofe become carious or rotten ; and, finally, 
the poifon falls upon the lungs, and foon terminates the 
animal’s fufferings. Sometimes the progrefs of the difeafe 
is very rapid, and in a fhort time deftioys the horfe; at 
other times it is remarkably flow, and continues for a 
long time, without fenfibly affecting either the appetite or 
f{trength. 

In the firft flage of the farcy, while it is local, a cure may 
be eafily accomplifhed, and topical applicatiuns will be fuf- 
ficient to remove it. If the atual cautery be freely applied 
at this time, fo as to deftroy all the poifoned parts, the 
difeafe will be completely eradicated, and the chancre con- 
verted into a common fore, which will affume a red health 
appearance, and the cure may foon be completed by the ap- 
plication of digeftive ointment. But if the difeafe has been 
negleéted, or not perceived at its firft commencement ; if 
the lymphatics be enlarged or corded (as it is termed by the 
farriers) ; and if the neighbouring glands fhould be fwollen, 
the cure is much lefs certain. Some of the poifon may, in 
this cafe, have got into the circulation, though its effets 
have not been vifible. In this flage, however, the chan- 
‘cre may be completely cured by the aétual cautery, or 
other ftrong cauttics; and if the poifon fhould not have 
-paffed the glands, the cure will be radical; but if, on the 
contrary, the fmalleft portion of the poifon fhould have in- 
finuated itfelf into the blood, the whole mafs will be poi- 
foned, and the fymptoms will be fuch as have been already 
‘deferibed. When the firft appearance of the farcy has been 
‘negleGed, it will be advifable to give.a ball, formed of mu- 
riate of quickfilver 1 {c., powdered anifeeds 10z., and an 
f{vrup, once, twice, or three times a day, if the horfé’s 
ftrength will admit of it, reftraining its effe& upon the 
“bowels or kidnies by meaus of opium ; at the fame time it 
-will be neceflary to keep up the horfe’s ftrength by a liberal 
allowance of corn. Malt has been found ufeful on thefe 
‘oceafions. During this courfe of medicine the horfe mutt 
be warmly clothed, have regular exercife, and never be fuf- 
-fered to drink cold water. ~ Some have recommended verdi- 
gris in this difeafe ; but Mr. White has had no opportunity 
-of obferving its effect. ‘The balls above-mentioned: have 
proved fo efficacious, that-he has had feldom any occation for 
‘trying other remedies; but they thould be ceutinaed for 


two or three weeks after every fymptom has difappeared, or 
elfe the cure will feldom be permanent. 

1t is not improbable ‘that the farcy, as well as the glan- 
ders, may fometimes occur fpontaneoufly ; or at leat, in 
many cafes, it may not be traced to any affignable caufe ; 
and yet it might have arifen from conta@ with poifonous 
matter, though the mode of communicating it has not been 
afcertained. With refpeét to that kind of farcy which ap- 
pears in/the form of diffufed {wellings of the limbs or other 
parts, Mr. White is of opinion that it feldom originates from 
infeétion, and does not often depend on the aétion of the 
glanderous matter, being merely common cedematous {well- 
ings, fuch as accompany the greafe. Hence we may ace 
count forthe efficacy that has been fometimes attributed to 
purgatives and diuretics, as remedies for the farcy. When 
large abf{cefles are formed in confequence of farcy, they do 
not require any particular treatment, but the horfe’s ftrength 
flould be fupported in fuch cafes by means of corn and 
mait. Some have fuppofed that the farcy depends altoge- 
ther upon debility ; and ‘hence medicines of the tonic or 
ftrengthening kind have beex recommended for its removal. 
When the ciftemper becomes inveterate, Gibfon recom- 
mends the following mixture, viz. half a pint of linfeed 
oil ; oil of turpentine and nitre, of each three ounces ; tinc- 
ture of euphorbium and hellebore, of each tio drams ; the 
foldier’s ointment, or oil of bays, two ounces; oil of 
origanum, halfan ounce; double aqua fortis, half an ounce ; 
when the ebullifion-is over, add two ounces of Barbadoes 
tar. With this mixture rub the tumours and corded 
veins once in two or three days, opening a paflage to the 
matter iffuing from the ulcers, if they are choaked up, with 
a {mall hot iron, and deftroying with vitriol the proud flefh, 
which may be kept ‘down by touching with oil’ of vitriol, 
aqua fortis, or butter of antimony. Dr. Bracken recom- 
mends the mercurial ointment for rebbing the cords and 
tumours ‘before they break, in order to difperfe them; and 
when they are broke, to drefs the fores with equal parts of 
Venice turpentine and quickfilver. “Mercurials have been 
likewife given internally in various ways; two ounces of 
guickfilver divided with an ounce of turpentine, and made 
up into four balls with diapente and gum guaiacum, of each 
two ounces, and fufficient quantity of honey, have been 
fucceisfully given in the quantity of one ball twice a aveek ¢ 
but when mercurials are adminiftered either internally or 
externally, gentle purgatives fhould be interpofed to prevent 
a falivation, 

The water-farcin, which is a kind of dropfy, proceeds 
from a horfe’s feeding on low watry grounds, and in pits or 
holes where the grafs grows above the water; for the 
horfe in pieking’out the grafs licks up the water, which 
occafions him to {well under the belly or chaps. 

The water-farcin is of two kinds: one produced by a 
feverifh difpofition, terminating on the fkin; and the other 
a true dropfly, in which the water is not confined to the 
belly and limbs, but it is found in different parts of the body, 
where a great number of foft {wellings appear, whith yield 
to the preffure of the finger. The firlt fpecies may be 
relieved by flight {carifications in the infide of the lee and 
thigh with a fharp penknife; but in the other {pecies 
the water mult be difcharged, and the crafis of the blood 
recovered ‘by a purge given every week or ten days, and 
immediately after the firlt the following balls: take of 
nitre, two ounces 5! fquills powdered, three drams, or half 
an ounce ; camphor, one dram, and a fufficient quantity of 
honey to’ bring them ‘of a due confiltence for balls. Thia 
ball Thould be given ‘once a day, and wafhed down witha 

R2 hors 


FAR 


horn ortwo of the following drink: take of black hellebore, 
frefh gathered, two pounds: wath, bruife, and boil it in fix 
quarts of water, till it is reduced to four; ftrain off the 
liquor, and pour on the remaining hellebore two quarts of 
white-wine ; place it in a gentle heat, and let it infufe 
forty-eight hours ; ftrain it off, and mix both together, and 
give the horfe a pint of it night and morning. When the 
horfe begins to recover, complete the cure by giving him 
half a pint of the following infufion every night and morning 
for a fortnight, and let him fait two hours after it: take 
gentian-root and zedoary, of each four ounces ; chamomile- 
flowers, and the tops of centaury, of each two handfuls ; of 
Jefuit’s bark, powdered, two ounces; of juniper-berries, 
four ounces ; of filings of iron, half a pound; infufe the 
whole in two gallons of ale for a week, fhaking the veffel 
often. 

We have in the Philofophical’ TranfaGtions an account of 
a horfe being cured of this difeafe by hemlock, The dif- 
covery was accidental ; the matter of the horfe, riding near a 
place where hemlock grew abundantly, fuffered his horfe 
to eat greedily of it, and he became better from that time, 
and in a few days was wholly cured. We generally efteem 
hemlock a poifon; but befides this proof of its falutary 
effect, it is well known that its feeds are eaten by fome birds, 
particularly by the buftards, in very great quantities, with- 
out any harm. 

FARDAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro- 
vince of Segeftan ; 155 miles S.W. of Zareng. 

FARDEL of Land, in Rural Economy, is aterm which, 
according to fome, fignifies a fourth, but which Noy afferts 
to be only the eighth part of a yard-land. See Yarp-Lanp. 

FARDING-Baa, a term fometimes ufed to fignify the 
firft {tomach of a cow or any other ruminant animal. It is 
chiefly employed by farriers. 

FarpinG-Deal, or Farding-Land, in our Ancient Cuffoms, 
fignifies the fourth pert of an acre, now called a rood. In 
the regifter of writs we have alfo denariata, obolata, folidata, 
and librata terra, which mutt probably rife in proportion of 
quantity from the farding-deal, as an half-penny, penny, 
fhilling, and pound, rife in value; on which footing obolata 
mult be half an acre; denariata, an acre; folidata, twelve 
acres ; and librata, twelve-fcore acres. 

Yet we find viginti ibratas terre, vel reditus; Reg. fol. 
94. a, and 284. d. where librata terra fhould feem to be as 
much as yields xx s. per annum; and centum folidatas ter- 
rarum, tenementorum, et redituum, fol. 249. a. Others 
hold oblata to be but half a perch, and denariata a pereh. 

FARDINGDEL, was the fourth part of a yard-land, 
or of a plough-land, according to Spelman. See Farvev. 

FARE, a voyage or paflage, or the money paid for pafling 
by water, &c. 

Fox the fares of hackney coachmen, watermen, &c. fee 
Hackney-CoacuEs. 

Fare of Pigs, in Rural Economy, a provincial mode of 
exprefling the number of pigs which a fow brings forth at 
one time. See Farrow. 

FAREHAM, in Geography, a market town in the 
hundred of that name, and divifion of Portfdown, in Hamp- 
fhire, England, is-fituated at the north-weftern extremity of 
Portfmouth harbour; and owes its chief importance to its 
vicinity to that naval eftablifhment, its principal trade and 
manufaGtures being thofe of facking and ropes for fhipping, 
of which it fupplies great quantities to the dock. The town 
is well built ; has a parifh-church and two meeting-houfes. 
The civil government is vefted in a bailiff, two conftables, 
and two ale-conners, who regulate all matters relative to 


FAR 


weights, meafures, trade, &c. Veffels of large burthen are: 
built at the quay. During the fummer feafon this town is 
much frequented for the purpofe of fea-bathing : and a 
commodious bathing-houfe has been lately erected. Fare- 
ham is 72 miles diftant from London: has a good market 
on Wednefdays, and an annual fair well fupplied with. corn, 
cheefe, hops, kc, The population report made to parlia- 
ment in the year 1801 was 555 houfes and 3030 inha~ 
bitants. 

FAREL, Wirtiam, in Biography, the fon of a gentle- 
man in Dauphine, in France, was born in the year 1489. 
He diftinguifhed himfelf at the univerfity of Paris for rapid 
proficiency in the ancient languages, and though brought up- 
with the Papifts we find him preaching the principles of the 
reformed religion at Meaux, in the year 1521. ‘Two years 
afterwards a perfecution was commenced by the Francif- 
cans againft thofe whom they chofe to fingle out as heretics ; 
among thefe was Farel, who, to provide for his own fafety, 
fled from France. He retired to Strafburg, where he was 
acknowledged as a brother by Bucer and Capito, as he was 
by Haller, G@colampadius, and other eminent reformers in 
Switzerland. At Bern he publicly defended his opinions, 
in fet thefes ,againft the doétrines and practices of the Catho- 
lics, till he excited fo much oppofition as obliged him to 
quit the place. He now undertook the reformation of 
Montbeliard, and was very fuccefsful in the attempt, but 
his zeal was too nearly allied to intemperance to produce all 
the effeé&t that his talents were capable of commanding. On 
a proceffion day, he tore from the hands of the prieft the 
imageof St. Anthony, and threw it into the river; which had 
well-nigh coft him his life, and which, among other aéts of 
violence, led Erafmus to think and to {peak flightingly of 
him. His friend GEcolampadius was the means of mode- 
rating his temper, by ferioufly expoftulating with him on the 
fubject in an epiftolary correfpondence. ‘* Men,” faid he, in 
one of his letters, “* may be led, but will not be driven by 
force. Give me leave to fay you do not feem in every re- 
{pect to remember your duty, you were fent to preach, not 
torail. Pour on wine and oil in due feafon, and demean 
yourfelf as an evangelift, and not as a tyrannical legiflator.”” 
Farel travelled from place to place in the character of a re= 
former ; and from many of the fcenes of his exertions and 
labours he was driven by the bigotry and fanaticifm of the 
times. At Neufchatel and Geneva he exercifed the office 
of paftor; and at Metz he planted a church, and obtained 
numerous profelytes, but he and his followers were obliged 
to fly from that city, and take refuge in the abbey of Gorze, 
where the count of Furftenberg took them under his pro- 
tection. Their enemies were, however, more powerful than 
their friends ; they befieged them in their afylum, and 
obliged them to furrender upon a capitulation. Farel ef- 
caped and returned to Neufchatel, where he refumed his 
labours with much affiduity. In 1553 he was obliged to 
appear at Geneva, to anfwer a charge brought agaiuft him 
that would, if true, have affeéted his life, but, according to 
Calvin, it was an infamous fabrication, in return for his 
zeal in reproving public vice. At this time Farel, with 
utter inconfiftency of charaéter, and to his own eternal dif- 
grace, affilted in the perfecution and murder of Servetus. 
In 1558 he married ; and in 1565, as he was on a journey, 
he was taken ill and died, being about 76 years of age. He 
was diftinguifhed for an undaunted fpirit ; for a command- 
ing voice, and for a powerful eloquence. His writings are 
neither numerous nor important. They confit of thefes: 
difputations, and fome practical treatifes. Bayle. 

FARELAINS, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in 

6 the 


FAR 


the provinee of Entre Duero é Minho; fix miles N.E. of 
Villa de Condé, 

FARELLA, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea. 
S. lat.o° 48’. E. long. 104° 27’. 

FARELLON Svucio, a {mall ifland in the Spanith 
Main, wear the coaft of Darien. N. lat. 9°? 43’. W. long. 


> 40!. : 

FAREN, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Swedes 
to a fifh peculiar to their country. It is of the genus of 
the cyprini, and is diftinguifhed by Artedi by the name of 
the yellow-eyed cyprinus, with thirty-feven bones in the 

inna ani. See Cyprinus. 

FARESKUR, in Geography, atown of Egypt, on the 
eaft branch of the Nile; feven miles S. of Damietta. 

FAREWELL, Care, a cape on the S.W. coalt of 
Eaft Greenland. N. lat. 59° 38’. W. long. 42° 45’.— 
Alfo, a cape on the N.W. coait of Tayai-Poenammoo, the 
fouthern ifland of New Zealand. S. lat. 4o° 33’. W. 
leng. 186. 

FARFANA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; five miles 
W. of Balaguer. 

FARFARA, a name given by fome of the ancient 
Botaniffs to the plant we call colt’s-foot, from the river 
Farfarus, a river of Italy, mentioned by Ovid as remark- 
able for its fhady banks, which afforded a very large quan- 
tity of this plant. Pliny mentions this plant with much 
confufion, calling it alfo farfano and farfugio, and forgetting 
that he had before defcribed it under the name of tuffilago 
or belchion. See Tusstraco. 

FARFRUGUM, a name by which fome authors have 
called the caltha paluftris, or marfh-marygold. 

FARGEAU, S?. in Geography, a town of France, in the 
department of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton in 
the diftriét of Joigny; 25 miles S.W. of Joigny. The 
place contains 2095, and the canton 6632 inhabitants, on a 
territory of 257: kiliometres, and in feven communes. N. 
Jat. 47° 38’. E. long. 3~ 10’. 

FARIAH, a town and province of the country of Balk, 
on the borders of Perfia; go miles W. of Balk. N. lat. 
36° 8':  E. long. 63° 40’. 

FARJAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 
75 miles S.W. of Hamadan. 

FARIBE, a town of Africa, in the country of the 
Foulahs, on the Senegal. N. lat. 16° 45’. W. long, 
14° 34’. 

FARIDABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in the foubah 
of Delhi; 18 miles S. of Delhi. 

FARIGLIANI, a fmall ifland near the eaft coaft of 
Sicily. N. Tat. 37° 35! EE. long. 15° 15’. 

FARILA, atown of Sweden, in Helfingland; 39 miles 
N. of Hudwickfwall. 

FARILHOENS, two {mall iflands in the Atlantic, near 
the coaft of Benguela. S. lat. 12° 35'. 

FARIM, a town of Africa, and capital of a province or 
kingdom of the fame name, belonging to the Papels, on the 
river St. Domingo. N. lat 12° 10', W. long. 14° 30’. 

FARIMA, or Bansyu, a province of Japan, on the 
S. coaft of the ifland of Niphon, abounding in manufac- 
tures of filk, cloth, paper, &c. 

FARINA, in Agriculture, a term frequently ufed to 
fgnify the fine mealy fubftance afforded by pounding 
or grinding different forts of grain. It is very preva- 
lent in wheat, conftituting, ina great meafure, the flour 
from which bread is made. It is found to partake fome- 
what of the nature of gum, but has confiderably more 
tafte, is more fermentable, and greatly more nutritious. It 
ie likewife abundant in many vegetables, being moitly de- 


FAR 


pofited in certain parts of them, apparently for the purpofe 
of being more beneficially accommodated tp their nourifh- 
ment and jupport. Many of the bulbous and other roots, 
as well as thofe of the potatoe, briony, &c. and fuch as af- 
ford different preparations, as falep, caflava, &c. contain a 
large portion of white fecule, which greatly refembles, and in 
reality poffeffes, the properties of farina, The leguminous 
clafs of plants, as peas, beans, &c. are alfo found to abound 
in this fort of matter. The largeft quantity of this materiat 
is, however, met with in grains, 23 wheat, barley, rye, and 
oats, which are in confequence of it denominated farinaceous 
grains. It likewife abounds in rice, and other plants of the 
fame kind. 

When only flightly examined it feems to be a fubftance 
of a homogencous nature ; but from a€iual experiment it is 
found to be a compound, conftituted of three different parts, 
which are eafily feparable. Where it is taken from wheat, 
this is eafily fhewn by fimply forming a paite with a quan- 
tity of it and cold water, and then fufpending it in a bag of 
muflin, or other fimilar cloth ; afterwards letting fall on it 
a ftream of cold water from a height, the containing bag 
being occafionally fqueezed in a gentle manner: the water 
in its defcent conveys away with it a very fine white powder, 
which may be received with the water ina veffel placed 
below, underneath the bag. This procefs is continued until 
no more of the white powder comes off, which is fhewn 
by the water that paffes through the bag, ceafing to havea 
milky colour. The operation being completed, the farina 
is found to be feparated into three diftinét fubftances: the 
glutinous, or vegeto-animal part remains in the bag; the 
amylum, or {tarch, is depofited at the bottom of the water, 
which has been received in the veffel placed below the bag: 
and the mucous matter is held difflolvedin the water from 
which the ftarch has been depofited, and is capable of being 
brought to the confiltence of treacle, by evaporating the 
water in which it is held in the ftate of folution. 

It is likewife found, that thefe feveral different parts 
vary greatly in their fenfible and chemical properties. The 
vegeto-animal part has a whitifh grey colour, being a te- 
nacious, duétile, elaitic matter, partly poffeffing the texture 
of animal fubftances. When diftilled in a retort it yields, 
like all animal matters, a true volatile alkali; and its coal 
affords no fixed alkali. It is not only infoluble, but even 
indiffufible in water; both which are fhewn from its re- 
maining in the bag after long continued lotions or wafhings. 
Like gums, it is foluble in alcohol, in oils, and in ether ; 
but is infoluble in water, and yields on diftillation produ€ts 
very different from thofe afforded by gums. It is confe- 
quently of an animal nature, and would feem to approach 
nearer to the coagulable lymph of animals than to any other 
fubftance. The fixed alkali, by means of heat, diffolves 
the vegeto-animal gluten; but when it is precipitated from 
this folution by means of acids, it is found to have loit its 
elafticity. The mineral acids, and efpecially the nitrous, are 
likewife capable of diffolving the vegeto-animal part of 
farina, The amylaceous, or ftarchy matter, forms the prin- 
cipal part of the farina. As already noticed, it is that 
fine powder which is depofited from the water which has 
pervaded the entire farina: it is of a greyifh white colour, 
but is capable of being rendered much whiter by making it 
uncergo a certain degree of fermentation. Starch is inca 
pable of folution in cold water, but in hot water it forms a 
tranfparent glue: hence the neceffity of employing cold 
water in feparating it from the vegeto-animal part. When 
diftilled ina retort, it affords an acid phlegm; and its coal 
yields, like other vegetables, a fixed alkaline falt. Avs ftarch 
conititutes the greate{t part of the farina, it is probably te 

chie 


FAR 


chief nutritious conftituent principle in bread. The iu-— 


cous, or rather mucofe-faccharine matter, is only in a very 
{mall proportion in bread. Upon undergoing diftillation it 
is found'to prefent the fame phenomena asfugar. The ufe 
of this matter feems to be that of producing the vinons fer- 
mentation ; and it is not improbable but that the making of 
good bread may depend on a proper proportion of ‘the 
three different parts that have been already fhewn; the 
vinous fermentation being promoted by the mucofo-faccha- 
rine part, the acetous by the flarch, and the putrid by the 
gluten vegeto-aniinal ; confequently, that from the different 
degrees or ftates of thefe feveral {tages of fermentation the 
qualities or properties of good bread may in a great meafure 
be derived. See Breav. 

Befides this, it is found from a€tual experiment, as well as 
long experience, that thofe fubftances which abound molt in 
farina, are the mo{t expeditious in fattening different forts 
of animals, as hogs, poultry, &c. and at the fame time af- 
ford that fort of tat which 1s the moft firm and folid in its 
nature; hence it is found neceffary in moft cafes to feed 
out animals of thefe kinds with fome material that contains 
it in a pretty large proportion. 

Farina Fecundans, in Botany. 
Plants. 

Farina, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the north coaft 
Of “Tunis: GN lat. 39° 426° 1. lone. 10% 35. 

FARINAGIUM, in Rural Economy, aterm which was 
formerly employed to fignify the toll of meal or flour. 

FARINELLI, Carto Broscuti, peEtTTo, an Italian 
opera-finger, whofe voice and abilities feem to have furpafi- 
ed the limits of all anterior vocal excellence, was born at* 
Andria, in the kingdom of Naples, in 1705. He learned 
the Grit rudiments of mnfic of his father, according to his 
own account, and finging of Porpora, who generally accom- 
panied him wherever he went. In 1722, at the age of 17, 
he went from Naples to Rome, with his maiter, then en- 
gaged to compofe an opera for the Aliberti theatre, in that 
city ; where, during the run of an opera, there wasa ftruggle 
every night between him and a famous player on the trum- 
pet, ina'fong accompanied by that inftrument: this, at 
firft, feemed amicable, and merely fportive, till the audi- 
ence began to intereft themfelves in the contelt, and to take 
‘different fides. After feverally {welling outa note, in which 
each manifefted the power of his lungs, and tried to rival 
the other in brilliancy and force, they had both a {well and 
‘a fhake together, by thirds, which was continued fo 
long, while the audience eagerly waited the event, that 
both feemed to be exhaufted ; and, in fa&t, the trumpeter, 
wholly {pent, gave it up, thinking, however, his antago- 
nift as much tired as himfelf, and that it would be a drawn 
battle ; when Farinelli, with a fmile on his countenance, 
fhewing he had only been fporting with him all this ime, 
broke out all at once in the fame breath, with freth vigour, 
and not only {welled and fhook the note, but ranthe mott 
rapid and difficult divifions, and was at lait filenced only by 
the acclamations of the audience. From this period may 
be dated that fuperiority which he ever maintained over all 
his cotemporaries. Here he continued with Porpora till 
1724, when he firft went to Vienna. In 1725, he per- 
“formed at Venice in Metaftafio’s firft opera of ** Didone 
Abbandonata,” fet by Albinoni. After this he returned 
to Naples, where he performed with the celebrated female 

“finger Tefi, ina ferenata compofed by Haffe. In the early 
part of his life he was diltinguifhed throughout Italy by 
‘the name of “the boy.”? In 1726 he fung at Milan, in 
“ Ciro,’ an opera fet by the elder Ciampi. In 1727, he 

~ performed at Bologna, with Bernacchi, in an opera fet by 


See Fecunparion of 


FAR 
Orlandini. Th ‘1728, he went'to Vienna a fecond ‘time ; 
and afterwards returning to Venice in autumn, he fung 
with Fanftina, jaft*returned from England, in Metaitafio’s 
« Ezio,” fet by Porpora. Herehe continued ‘two years, 
performing, in'1729, with Gizzi aud Nicolini, in Semira- 
mide Riconofciuta,” fet likewife by Porpota, and in ‘* Ca- 
to,”? by Leo: andin 1730, with Nicolini and Cuzzom in 
Haffe’s celebrated opera of “ Artaferfe,’’ in which’he firft 
appeared in England; and’in * {dafpe,’’ fet by his brother 
Riccardo Brofchi. Whierever he went his powers were're- 
garded as miraculous ; but he told the author of this article, 
that at Vienna, where he was three different times, and 
where he received great honours from the emperor Charles 
VI.an admonition from that prince was of more fervice to 
him than allthe precepts of his matters, or examples of his 
competitors for fame : his imperial majeity condefcended to 
tell him one day, with great mildnefs and affability, that in his 
finging he neither moved nor flood fill like any other mortal ; 
all was fupernatural. ‘ Thofe gigantic ftrides, faid hes 
thofe never-ending notes and paflages (ces notes qui ne finif- 
fent jamais) only furprife, and it 1s now time for you to 
pleafe ; you are too laviih of. the gifts’with which nature 
has endowed you; if you wifh to reach the ‘heart, you 
muft take a more plain and fimple road.” Thefe few 
words brought about an entire change in his manner of fing- 
ing : from this time he mixed the pathetic with the {pirited, 
the fimple with the fublime, and, by thefe means, delighted 
as well as aftonifhed every hearer. In the year 1734, he 
came into England, where every one knows who heard, or 
has heard of him, whatan effeét his furprifing talents had 
upon the audience ; it was extacy ! rapture ! enchantment ! 

In the famous air ** Son qual Nave,’’ which was compofed 
by his brother, the firlt note he fung was taken with fuch 
delicacy, fwelled by minute degrees to fuch an amazing vo- 
lume, and afterwards diminifhed in the fame manner, that 
it was applauded for full five minutes. He afterwards fet 
off with fuch brilliancy and rapidity of execution, that it 
was difficult for the violins of thofe days to keep pace with 
him. In fhort, he was to all other fingers‘as fuperior as the 
famous horfe Childers was to all other running-horfes; but 
it was not only in fpeed, he had now every excellence of 
every great finger united. Inhis voice, ftrength, fweetnefs, 
and compafs ; in his fiyle, the tender, the graceful, and 
the rapid. He poffeffed fuch powers as never met before, 
or fince, in any one human being ; powers that were irre- 
fiftible, and which mutt fubdue every hearer; the learned 
and the ignorant, the friend and the foe. 

As general and indilcriminate praife would convey to 
the mind of a mufical reader no diltinét ideas of the powers 
of this extraordinary finger, it will be neceffary to difcri- 
minate the {pecific excellencies of which he feems to have 
been poffeffed. 

No vocal performer of the laft century has been mote 
unanimoufly allowed by profeffional critics, as well as ge- 
neral celebrity, to have been gifted with a voice of fuch un- 
common power, f{weetnefs, extent, and agility. Nicolini, 
Senefino, and Caréftini, gratified the eye as much by the 
dignity, grace, and’ propriety of theiraétion and deportment, 
as the ear, by the judicious ufe ‘ofa few notes within the 
limits of a {mall compafs of voice; but “Farinelli, without 
the affiitance of fignificant geftures or graceful attitudes, 


“encharited and aftenithed ‘his shearers by the force, extent 


and melliiluous tonés of the mere organ, when he had no- 
thing to execute, articulate, or “exprefs. But though du- 
ting the time of his finging hewas as motionlefs asa ftatue, 
his voice was {fo aétive, that no intervals were too clofe, too 
wide, or too rapid for his’ execution. It feems as ifthe 

compolers 


FARINELLTE 


compofers of thefe times were unable to invent paflages 
fufficiently difficult to difplay his powers, or the orcheftras 
to accompany him in many of thofe which had been com- 

ofed for his peculiar talent. And yet, fo great were his 
Heat tia and delicacy, that he was never known, while 
he was in England, to exclaim, or manifeft difcontent at 
the inability of the band, or miftakes of individuals by 
whom he was accompanied. He was fo judicious in 
proportioning the force of his voice to the {pace through 
which it was. to pafs to the ears of his audience, that 
in a {mall theatre at Venice, though it was then moft 
powerlul, one of the managers of the opera complained 
that he did not fufficiently exert himfelf—<« let me then,” 
fays Farinelli, «* have a larger theatre, or f fhall lofe 
my reputation without your being a gainer by it.” 

@n his arrival here, at the firft private rehearfal at 
Cuzzoni’s apartments, lord Cooper, thea the principal 
manager of the opera under Porpora, obferving that the 
band did not follow him, but were all gaping with won- 
der, as if thunder-fruck, defired them to be attentive ; 
when they all confefled that they were unable to kee 
pace with him: having not only been difabled by afto- 
nifhment, but overpowered by his talents. This band was 
fmall, confilting only of Carbonelli, Mich. Chrift. Fett. 
ing, Wualentine Snow, afterwards ferjeant-trumpet, and 
Mr. Vezan, a dancing-mafter, who was likewife a fteady 
and excellent concert-player on the violin, and conftant- 
ly employed whenever Carbonelli or Feiting was the 
leader. 1t was from this worthy man that we had this 
anecdote. 

There was not one of all Farinelli’s excellencies by which 
lie fo far furpaffed all other fingers, and aftonifhed the 
public, as his mefla di voce, or {wells which, by the na- 
tural formation of his lungs, and artificial economy of 
breath, he was able to protract to fuch a length, as to 
exeite incredulity even in thofe who heard him; who, 
though unable to deteét the artifice, imagined him to 
have had the latent help of fome inftrument by which the 
tone was continued, while he renewed his powers by re- 
fpiration. 
~ With thefe talents he went into Spain in the year 1737, 
with a fulldefign to return into England, having entered 
into articles with the nobility, who had then the manage- 
ment of the opera, to perform the enfuing feafon. In his 
way thither he fung to the king of France at Paris, where, 
aceording to Riccoboni, he enchanted even the French 
themfelves, who at that time univerfally ebhorred Italiaa 
mufic; but the firft day he performed before the king and 
queen of Spain, it was determined that he fhould be taken 
into the fervice of the court, to which he was ever after 
wholly appropriated, not being once fuffered to fing again in 
public. A penfion of near 3coo/. a-year was iettled on 
him for life. 

- He faid, that for the firft ten years of his refidence at the 
court of Spain, during the life of Philip V. he fung every 
night to that monarch the fame four airs, two of which 
were compofed by Haffe, «* Palido ~il fole,” « Per quefto 
dolee Ampleffo,”? and ‘* Ah, non lafciami no, bell idol 
mio,” by Vinci: we forget the other, but it was a mi- 
nuet which he ufed to vary at his pleafure. He was ,ho- 
noured with the order of St. Jago by his firft royal matter. 
OF the manner in which he {pent his time fome idea may 
be gathered from what we have already related : the lovers 
of anecdotes might, indeed, be gratified with innumerable 
particulars concerning the effects of his amazing talents, if 
anecdotes were not below the dignity of Jexicography; one 
or two, however, that do honour te his heart and natural 


difpofition, we hope our graver and more critical readers 
will excufe. 

It has been often related, and generally believed, that 
Philip V. king of Spain, being feized, with a total dejeGtion 
of f{pirits, which made him refufe to be fhaved, and rendered 
him incapable of attending council, or tranfaGting affairs of 
ftate, the queen, who had in vain tried every common expe- 
dient that was likely to contribute to his recovery, de- 
termined that an experiment fhould be made of the effeéts of 
mufic upon the king her hufband, who was extremely 
fenfible to its charms. Upoa the arrival of Farinelli, of 
whofe extraordinary performance an account had been tranf- 
mitted to Madrid from feveral parts of Europe, but parti- 
cularly from Paris, her majelty contrived that there fhould 
be a concert in a room adjoining to the king’s apartment, 
in which this finger performed one of his moft captivating 
fongs. Philip appeared at firft furprifed, then moved ; and 
at the end of the fecond air made tue virtuofo enter the 
royal apartment, loading him with compliments and careffes ; 
afked him how he could fufficiently reward fuch talents ; af- 
furing him that he could refufe him nothing. Fariuelli, 
previoufly inftructed, only begged that his majefty would 
permit his attendants to fhave and drefs him, and that he 
would endeavour to appear in council as ufual. From this 
time the king’s difeafe gave way to medicine: and the 
finger had all the honour of the cure. By finging to his 
majelty every evening, his favour increafed to fuch a degree, 
that he was regarded as firft minifter; but what is fill 
more extraordinary, inftead of being intoxicated or giddy 
with his elevation, Farinelli, never forgetting that he was a 
mufician, behaved to the Spanifh nobles about the court 
with uch humility and propricty, that inftead of envyiug 
his favour, they honoured him with their efteem and con- 
fidence. One day in going to the king’s clofet, to which 
he had at all times accefs, he heard an officer of the guard 
curfe him, and fay to another that was in waiting * ho- 
nours can be heaped on fuch fcoundrels as thefe, while a 
poor foldier, like myfelf, after thirty years’ fervice, is unno- 
ticed.”” Farinelli, without feeming to hear this reproach, com- 
plained to the king that he had neglected an old fezvant, and 
procured a regiment for the perfon who had fpoken fo harfh- 
ly of bim in the anti-chamber ; and in quitting his majetty 
he gave the commiffion to the officer, telling him that he 
had heard him complain of having ferved thirty years, but 
added, **you did wrong to accule the king of negleGing to 
reward your zeal.’? 

The following ftory, which is lefs ferious, was frequent- 
ly told and believed at Madrid, during the firft year of Fa- 
rinelli’s refidence in Spain.- This finger, having ordered a 
fuperb fuit of clothes for a gala at court, when the taylor 
brought it home, he afked him for bis bill. « I have made 
no bill, fir, fays the taylor, nor ever fhall make one. In- 
{tead of money,’’ continues he, “I have a favourto beg. 
I know that what I want is ineftimable, aad only fit for 
monarchs; but fince I have had the honour to work for a 
perfon of whom every one {peaks with rapture, all the pay- 
ment I fhall ever require will be a fong.”? Farinelli tried in 
vain to prevail on the taylor to take bis money, At length, 
after a long debate, giving way to the humbie intreaties of 
the trembling tradef{man, and flattered perhaps more by the 
fingularity of the adventure than by ail the applaule he had 
hitherto received, he took him isto his ninfic-room, and 
{ung to him fome of his moft brilliant airs, taking pleafure 
in the aitgnifhment of his ravithed hearer; aod the more he 
feemed furprifed and affeted, the more Favinelli exerted 
himfelf in every {pecies of excellence. When he had done, 
the taylor, overcome with extacy, thanked him in the mett 

rapturous 


FARINELLI. 


fapturous and grateful manner, and prepared to retire, 
« No,” fays Farinelli, “ I am a little proud; and it is per- 
haps from that circumftance that I have acquired fome {mall 
degree of {uperiority over other fingers; I have given way 
to your weaknefs, it is but fair, that, in your turn, you 
fhould indulge mein mine.’ And taking out his purfe, he 
infilted on his receiving a f{um amounting to nearly double 
the worth of the fuit of clothes. 

After the death of Philip V. his favour continued 
under his fucceflor Ferdinand VI., by whom he was 
dignified with the order of Calatrava in 1750; but then his 
duty became lefs conftant and fatiguing, as he perfuaded 
this prince to have operas, which were a great relief to him: 
he was appointed fole director of thofe fpectacles ; and had 
from Italy the beft compofers and fingers of the time, and 
Metatftafio to write. He fhewed mein his houfe four of the 
principal fcenes in Didone and Netette, painted by Amico- 
ni, who accompanied him firft into England, and then into 
Spain, where he died. 

When the late king of Spain afcended the throne, he 
was obliged to quit that kingdom, but his penfion was {till 
continued, and he was allowed to bring away all his effects. 
The furniture of his houfe was very rich, as it was almoft 
entirely compofed of the prefents which he had received 
from great perfonages. He feemed very much to regret 
the being obliged to feek a new habitation, after having 
lived twenty-four years in Spain, where he had formed many 
friendfhips and conne¢tions that were dear to him; and it 
was a great proof of the prudence and moderation of his 
charater, that in a country and court, where jealoufy and 
pride are fo predominant, he continued fo long to be the 
king’s chief favourite, a diftinétion odious to every people, 
without the leaft quarrel or difference with any of the 
Spaniards. 

When he returned into Jtaly in 1761, all his old friends, 
relations, and acquaintances, were either dead, or removed 
from the places where he had left them ; fo that he had a fe- 
cond life to begin, without the charms of youth to attach 
new friends, or his former talents to gain new protectors. 

He faid that Metaftafio and he were twins of public fa- 
vour. Their firit acquaintance began at Naples, where Fa- 
rinelli performed in Metaftatio’s firft dramas, in ** Angelica,” 
1723, and in * Didone,’’ 17243 in ‘ Siroe,’”’ at Venice, 
1725, and 1726. They feem not to have met again till 
Metaftafio was fettled at Vienna, where Farinelli was en- 
gaged three feveral times, and where they faw each other 
for the laft time in 1733, from which period their affeGion 
continued with undiminifhed ardour to the end oftheir lives. 
The letters of Metaftafio to this vocal phenomenon and 
worthy charaéter are all preferved from the year 1747, to 
the laft ufe which the poet made of a pen, in 1782. No- 
thing need be added here to his public profeffional character ; 
but in the letters of Metaitafio, publifhed in the memoirs of 
his life, the numerous and imprefflive eulogies of that excel- 
lent and refined moraliit, and judge of the human heart, 
exalt his private virtues and conduct through life to an un- 
common pitch of excellence. During his refidence in Spain, 
we were curious to obtain information concerning the life of 
this portentous performer : we had accounts from the high- 
eft authority of his modefty, humility, and benevolent pro- 
penfities, during his fplendid refidence at Madrid, while in 
the meridian of reyal favour, invefted with wealth, honours, 
and influence, fufficient to excite every fpecies of envy, 
hatred, and malice, in all the orders of fociety. Yet fo 
found were his intelleéts, fo fage and judicious his condué, 
that he cannot fo properly be faid to have efcaped the fhafts 
of envy, as to have prevented their being fhat at him. Of 


almoft all other great fingers, we hear of their intoxication 
by praife and profperity, and of their caprice, infolence, and 
abfurdities, at fome time or cther; but of Farinelli, fupe- 
rior tothem all in talents, fame, and fortune, the records 
of folly among the f{poilt children of Apollo furnifh not 
one difgraceful anecdote. In one of Metaftafio’s letters to 
his Caro Gemello, (his dear twin,) as he always called Fari- 
nelli, he fays, ‘ the Spanifh minifter -plenipotentiary, don 
Antonio di Azlor from your court is arrived, and pleafes 
extremely here; not only my auguft patrons, but the no- 
bility and the whole corps diplomatique. He has an agree- 
able ferioufnefs in his afpe&t, an opennefs in {peaking, and 
fo noble, courteous, and judicious an addrefs, that we hope 
he will worthily and nfefully fuftain the chara&ter with which 
heis honoured. He is interrogated by every one concern- 
ing yourfelf, a3 all are folicitous about what is moft dear to 
them ; and all are extremely pleafed with his anfwers. He 
affures them that your profperity has not in the leait altered 
the fweetnefs and moderation of your charaéter. A rock, 
according to ancient and modern examples, extremely difk- 
cult to avoid; and much more amidit the favours, than 
the perfecutions of fortune. He has afflured them that 
though elevatedto fuch an enviable fituation, you have not 
anenemy. ‘T’o obtain forgivenefs, (Metaftafio adds,) for 
fuch profperity, I can eafily conceive how wife, how 
difinterefted, and how beneficent muft be your condu@. 
I congratulate you on thefe ineftimable charaéteriftics, 
which are your own, and not the gifts of fortune ; and I 
congratulate myfelf for having known and loved you, before 
you had given fuch illuftrious proofs of your eftimable and 
amiable qualities.” 

In one of the poet’s letters to Farinelliin 1752, when at 
the zenith of his favour and fortune, he fays, “ I have feen, 
for a fhort time, count Efterhafi, after his return from Ma- 
drid, and have found him fullof you. He regards you as 
ahero, and has defired me to tell you fo; which will 
oblige me likewife to love you more than ever. At this laft 
affertion I cannot help laughing ; but I own, that to hear 
you thus praifed, affords me the fame pleafure as if it was 
myfelf: fo much does our old, true, and reciprocal friend- 
fhip feem to have united us together, and confolidated our 
interefts. God preferve you, our dear Gemello, and infpire 
others to think as you do.” 

«“ What I {peak and write to you, my dear friend, 
is what I think, not what I fay; and I do not write all, 
left 1 fhould be thought by thofe who are not ac- 
quainted with me one of the common worfhippers of 
your fortune : which I only love in you, as an inftrument 
by means of which you difcover the good qualities of your 
heart: among which 1 muft, for my own luke, enumerate 
the admirable conftancy of your friendfhip.”” 

Again, in 1756, he fays, “at length our noble and worthy 
Monfignor Migazzi, arch-bifhop of Vienna, is arrived here 
from Madrid. I have put his patience to extraordinary trials, 
with my numerous and minute queftions concerning your 
health, way of life, friendfhip for me, and the public approba- 
tion which you have fo well contrived to merit. He went fo ar 
as to tell me, that, confcious of your heroic conduét in cir- 
cumttances fo feducing, he might venture to canonize you 
without the fear of oppofition. Figure to yourfelf, if you 
can, how fweet fuch mufic muft be to the ears of y our moft 
faithful and affeGtionate Gemello.”’ 

Thefe are inftances of. the ftrength of his head during 
profperity ; we fhall give two or three examples of his for- 
titude, when ‘fallen from his high eftate.”” In 1758, he 
loft his great patronefs and judge of his’ worth and talents, 
the queen of Spain: and, ia 1759, her confort Ferdig 

VI. 


FAR 


VI. who being fucceeded by Charles III. his brother, the 
late king of Spain, who hated mufic, and would not fuffer 
the found ofa voice or an inftrement to be heard in his palace, 
ordered him to quit Madrid, and return to Italy ; but not 
to his own country, Naples, whither it was his wifh to re- 
tire ; but from fome caprice, never clearly explained, though 
his penfion was continued, he ordered him to {pend the re- 
mainder of hisdays at Bologna. Upon his firft lofs, Me- 
taftafio in condolence fays: ‘¢ The death of fo’admirable a 
queen, and her royal confort opprefled with grief for fo ir- 
reparable a lofs, are objects for a difinterelted fervant, 
obliged, honoured, and tull of affeGtion and gratitude like 
yourfelf, that mutt inevitably plunge your mind‘in an aby{s 
ofdefolation. I know not what to fay zo you, my dear 
friend, equal to what I feel for you. Yet I have no doubt 
but that you, who have fhewn the world how capable you 
are of refifting the flattering {miles of fortune, will know 
how to fupport adverfity ; and that your prudence will not 
wait for the affiftance of neceflity, to manifeft wifdom and 
Chriftian refignation.”” And on the death of his royal pa- 
tron Ferdinand, in 1759, he begins his fecond letter of 
condolence in the following manner; ‘ Yetterday was deli- 
vered to me your letter of the fecond of Auguft, from 
Villaviziofa: and though tinétured with the gloomy colour 
reflected from your painful fituation, it was great confolation 
to me to find, that, with your feeble ftate of health, you 
have had fufficieut vigour to refit fo tremendous a fhock. 
The fatal news of your beneficent king having been deli- 
vered from his fufferings, arrived at Vienna four days before 
your letter. Itis tobe hoped that the melanckoly {tate in 

\ which he long remained without the leaft chance of recovery 
diminifhed the violence of a blow which mutt have been ex- 
pected, and which delivered a poor prince from the painful 
exiftence in which he languifhed. And yet, with all thefe 
folid reafons, I judge, my dear Gemello, by the emotions 
of my own heart, what your’s muft be ; but I promife myfelf 
much more from your virtue than mine; becaufe the exam- 
ples of moderation with which you have fo long furnithed 
the world in the midft of the moft intoxicating frmiles of 
fortune, give usaffurances of your meeting her frowns with 
equal fortitude. Be of comfort, my dear Gemello: in- 
conftancy in human affairs is the univerfal condition on 
which we live, asevery mortal knows by wocful experience. 
No misfortune, however, can rob you of the praife of not 
fuffering yourfelf to be feduced or dazzled by the blaze with 
which you were fo long furrounded.” 

The death of his partial patrons not only deprived him 
of his importance at that court, but feems to have bereaved 
him of all comfort during the reft ofhis days. Ina Ictter of 
Metaftafio to him in 1763, we find the following teitimo- 

-ny of his refignation to his fate. “ I now begin to difeover 
that my beloved Carluccio is as fuperior to the frowns, as he 
-has hitherto been to the fmiles, of fortune. I pronnfed 
myfelf this heroifm from you: and was certzin that your 
-greateft difficulty was knowing how to fet bounds to the 
tender exceffes of your good heart, and gratitude. Now 
time and reflection have rendered you matter of yourfelf, it is 
fit, my dear friend, that you fhould enjoy that {weet tran- 
‘ quillity, which is fo juftly due to your toils and condu&.” 

In 1764, “his guide, philofopher, and friend,’’ fays, 
your laft letter of the sth inft. really confoled me. 
From the ferenity and pleafantry with which it is coloured 

‘from the beginning to the end, I conceive that you are 
at length arrived at the fecret of wiping from your mind 
‘that curfed foot with which it has fo long been difco- 
loured. I congratulate you on your fuecefs, in an enter- 
F prife which borders on a {pecies of heroifm of which fo few 


Vou. XIV. 


FAR 


are capable; We have an infinite number of great nen, 
who are venerated as models of knowledge and prudence, 
who have funk under eataftrophes much lefs violent than 
yours. Happinefs, therefore, attend my dear Gemello ! 
who has proved himfelf as much fuperior in adverfity az 
profperity, and who knows how to eftimate human felicity 
better than thofe who call themfelves philofophers ; and ie 
in no want of {cholaftic jargon to enable him to ftand firm 
and motionlefs inevery gu't of wind. Heaven blefs and 
keep you in this wife and placid ftate for at leaft half a cen- 
tury. 

In 1773, ina letter to a Bolognefe lady who had boafted 
of her acquaintance with Farinelli,. he fays: ‘ your partis 
ality, madam, for my dear Gemello, the cavalier Brofchi, 
is 2 new motive for the encreaie of that efteem which I have 
always had for you: as his excellent difcernment aflures me 
of the merit of thofe perfons with whom he is in habits of 
intimacy. And Tenvy youboth that mutual enjoyment of 
each other’s company, at which I can never afpire.”?” And 
in 1779, in a letter to the fame lady, the venerable bard 
fays <« you have obliged me extremely my dear fignora 
Giacinta, by honouring me with the continuance of “your 
correfpondence, and affuring me of the affe€tionate remem- 
brance which my dear and refpeéted friend fig. Carlo Brof- 
chi retains for me, which I return with a mutual and moft 
conttant reciprocation. I love and efteem him as much as it 
is poflible for a man to be loved and efteemed, who has fo 
far furpaffed all his peers, not only by his excellence in the 
charming art which he profefled, but by the uncommon 
virtuous qualities ef his mind, which have rendered him 
amiable, and admirable, in every fituation into which for- 
tune has thrown him. 

We have dwelt with more pleafure on the virtues of this 
extraordinary vocal performer; as we fear they are more 
rarely found in muficians than great talents. Poffeffed of 
irrefiftible powers of pleafing, they muft be regarded as 
{poiled children of nature and of the public; who in their 
vital voyage, ‘are not only ignorant how to fail before the 
wind, but how to tack, without lofing their fteerage.” 
However, if fuch {plendid fortune as Farinelli’s has hap- 
pened to but very few mortals, there have not been wanting 
in{tances of great vocal powers being united with found in- 
telle&ts, prudence, and good conduét, of all which we may 
fafely venture to fay that Pachierotti was eminently poi- 
feffed. ‘ 

FARINOLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in 
Abruzzo Ultra; 11-miles S. S. E. of Teramo. 

FARIO, in Zoology, a term for falmon when about half 
grown, after it is paft the ftate in which it is called a falar, 
and before itis of the fall growth. 

FARIS, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province 
of Comis; 30 miles S. E. of Biftam. 

FARLEE, a town of Bengal; 8 miles Ny of Ranga- 
matty. 

FARLES, a river of North Wales, which runs inte 
the Irith fea; 4 miles W. of Crickaeth. 

FARLEU, in Rural Economy, is a term ufed formerly, 
in the weft of England, to fignify the money paid by 
tenants in lieu of heriot:. It is frequently underitood is 
fome manors of Devonfhire to be the beft goods, as heriot 
is the beft beaft, payable on the death of a tenant. 

FARLOF, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the 
province of Schonen ; 6 miles N. of Chriftianftadt. 

FARM, in Agriculture, a term which formerly fig- 
nified a imall mefluage or diftri@ in the couatry, comprifing 


a houfe, land, and other conveniencies, which was hired: 


oy taken by leafe, either in word or writing, under a certain 
S yearly 


» 


FARM. 


yearly rent or charge ; but which at prefent may be defined 
'a certain portion of ground cultivated by the proprietor or 
tenant in different methods, according to the nature of the 
land, for the purpofe of deriving profit from it. Thefe 
leafes were differently denominated in different diftricts or 
places ; hence, in the more northern parts of the kingdom 
they were frequently termed tacks and fermehalis ; while 
in fome parts of the fouth they had the title of wikes. 

The word firma, ferm, or farm, in corrupt Latin, fig- 
nified a place which was inclofed or fhut in; whence it has 
been aflerted by Menage, that in fome diftriéts or pro- 
vinces they term ¢cloferie, or clofure, what in others is called 
ferm, or farm. 

By Skinner and Spelman the word farm is, however, de- 
rived from the Saxon term fearme, or feorme, which fignifies 
vidius, food or provifion, as the tenants and country people 
anciently paid their rents in viétuals, and other neceffaries of 
life, but which was afterwards converted into the payment of 
certain {ums of money. Hence a ferm was originally a place 
which furnifhed or fupplied its owner or lord with provilions. 
The Normans likewife diftinguifhed between farms which 
paid in kind, as in provilions, and thofe which paid in mo- 
ney, denominating the former fimply ferme, or farm, while 
the latter were called blanche ferme, or white farm. The 
Jatter of the above writers has likewife fhewn that the word 
firma anciently fignified, not only what is now called a farm, 
but alfo a feaft or entertainment which was given by the 
farmer to the owner, proprietor, or landlord, for a certain 
number of days, and at a certain rate, in confideration of 
the lands, &c. which he held of him. Thus in the laws of 
king Canute, the term fearm is by Lombard rendered 
vidus ; and we have likewife reddere frmam unius nedis, 
as well as reddebat unam diem de firma, which evidently de- 
note provifion for a night and day, the rents about the time 
of the conqueft being all referved in provifions. This cuf- 
tom is aflerted to have been firft altered under the reign of 
the firft Henry. 

There is a {tatute, the 21 Hen. VIII. cap. 18. in which 
it is ena&ted that no parfon or {piritual perfon fhall take 
farms or leafes of land, on pain of forfeiting ten pounds per 
month, &c. 

And by the 25 Hen. VIII. eap. 13, and the 32 
Hen. VIII. cap. 28. no perfon whatfoever fhall take 
above two farms together, in the fame parifh, under the 
forfeiture of three fhillings and four-pence a week. 

In confidering the nature of farms, it is evident that 
there muft be different forts, from the different methods 
in which they are cultivated or employed. Where the 
principal part of the land is under the plough they are 
termed arable farms ; but where the fattening ef cattle or 
other forts of live ftock is more immediately the obje&, 
they are diftinguifhed by the title of grazing farms ; where 
the chief intention is the obtaining different forts of animal 
products, fuch as milk, butter, and cheefe, they are deno- 
minated milk, cheefe, and butter, or dairy farms ; and where 
the two fyftems of arable and grafs management can be com- 
bined, they are called mixed, or convertible farms. As 
‘manure mutt be had im order to render farms of any kind 
produtive, the laft fort may probably, in general, be con- 
fidered as the moft advantageous. And in addition to thefe, 
where hay is the principal object, there are grafs or hay 
farms; and where live ftock is. chiefly reared, cattle or 
breeding farms. 

Moft of the ancient writers on hufbandry, who lived 
in warm climates, or countries where the heat and morte. 
ure of the air had fenfible, and frequently very dan- 
gerous effects: on the health of the inhabitants, were. very 


particular in their direftions for the choice of farms or ef- 
tates, and of the [pots whereon houfes fhould be built, fo 
as to avoid the inconveniences arifing from the climate, or 
from the quality or fituation of the ground. But though 
the temperate air which we enjoy ia this ifland renders fuch 
direétions lefs neceflary, yet, as feveral places in it are fickly, 
and as, even in the moft healthy fituations, many houfes and 
villages are built upon the leaft healthy fpots, it muft be of 
confiderable advantage to thofe who can make their choice 
to know what foils and places ought to be avoided ; and of 
fuch as are already fixed to be acquainted with the means 
of correcting thofe inconveniences which cannot be totally 
remedied. The Romans had generally pleafure as well as 
profit in view, when they bought or ftocked a farm, and 
therefore they laid it down as a rule, that no degree of fer- 
tility fhould tempt a man to purchafe in an unhealthy coun- 
try, nor the pleafanteft fituations in a barren one. ‘ Buy 
not too haltily,”” faid the wife Cato, * but view again and 
again the purchafe you intend to make ; for if it be a good 
one, the oftener you fee it the better it will pleafe you. 
Examine how the neighbouring inhabitants fare; let the 
country it lies in be a good one, the ways to and from it 
good, and the air temperate; let your land, if you can 
choofe your fituation, be at the foot of a hill, facing the 
fouth, in a healthy place, where a fufficiency of labourers, 
of cattle, and of water, may be had ; let it be near a flou- 
rifhing town, the fea, or a navigable river, or bordering 
upon a good and well-frequented road ; let the buildings 
upon your ground be {trong and fubftantial; do not rafhly 
condemn the methods of others.” It is beft to purchafe 
from a good hufbandman, and a good improver, where it can 
be done. 

But, befides the healthfulnefs of the fituation, three other 
things fhould be particularly attended to in the choice of a 
farm or eftate; thefe are, the air, the water, and the foil. 
The air fhould be pure and temperate, the water wholefome 
and eafily come at, and the foil rich and fertile. The know- 
ledge of the healthinefs of the air is, as lerd Bacon ob- 
ferves, difcoverable rather by experiment, than by reafon or 
conjecture. Te examine the moilture of the air before a houfe 
is built, wool, or a fponge, may be hung up in the place 
and afterwards compared with fome of the fame, expofed 
in the fame manner, and at the fame time in another place. 
According as they gain more or lefs in weight, the air is 
more orlefs humid. ‘lhe air is liable to greater alterations 
from heat and cold in fome places than in others; and as 
that inequality in the air is an enemy to health, the moft 
equal fhould be chofen. This is eafily determined by the 
thermometer, and by viewing the fituation of the place ; 
for the intermixture of hills and valleys, though plealing to 
the eye, may be held fufpected as to the lengthening of life, 
becaufe of the variations of heat and cold. 

It may be added, that the ancients were likewife parti- 
cularly attentive to the quality of their water, and to the 
eafe of coming at it. They advifed bringing into the farm- 
houfes the water of fuch fprings as never dried up ; or, if 
there was no fuch {pring within the farm, to bring running 
water as near to it as may be; or to dig for well-water, 
not of a bitter or brackifh tafte. If neither of thefe was 
to be found, they directed large cifterns to be provided for 
men, and ponds for colleéting and retaining rain-water for 
cattle. They efteemed that running water to be the beft 
for drinking which had its fource in a hill; {pring or well- 
water from a rifing ground was deemed the next bett; 
well-water in the bottom of a valley was held to be fufpi- 
cious ;, and marfhy or fenny water, which creeps flowly on, 
was by them rightly looked. upon as the: wort. of all. 


That 


FARM. 


That water is known to be wholefome which has no mineral 
in it, is perfectly clear, has no tafte or fmell, depofits no 
flimy fediment, (ised no fpots or incruftation when boiled 
in copper or brafs veffels, and which boils pulfe in a very 
little time. Ass {pring and well-water pafs through beds of 
fand, gravel, or {mall ftones, thefe clear it of all impnrities, 
unlefs there be mixed with them fubftances which are folu- 
ble in water. If any mineralis mixed with the water, it is 
unfit for the farmer’s ufe. If it be hard, it is thereby ren- 
dered unfit for wafhing, and fome other culinary ufes. This 
is the kind of water which gives flefh boiled in it a red co- 
Jour. But even the hardeft water may be eafily ,rendered 
perfe@ly foft, and fit for any ufe by mixing with it a fmall 
portion of pot-afh, or fixed alkali, or, for want of thefe, 
the afhes of any burnt frefh vegetables, fuch as the boughs 
of the afh-tree, fern, &c. 

_ And in refpeét to the goodnefs of the foil, it fhould be 
judged of from a minute examination and comparifon of dif- 
ferent circumftances, fuch as the appearances of the trees, 
hedges, crops, and different plants that are produced upon 
it, as well as from its particular nature and colours. 

On the Proper Size of Farms.—In regard to the confider- 
ation of the proper fize of farms, it may be remarked that 
® is not propofed to decide as to the precife number of acres 
which conftitute what is generally denomiaated a proper 
fized farm. The perfon who attempts to do fo will, it is 
fuppofed by a late writer, be involved in difficulties from 
which he will find it impofflible to extricate himfelf; while 
his hypothefis mutt be liable to fo many objections, as to 
evince, in the cleareft manner, that without confidering the 
fubje& in various points of view, it is impoffible to form 
even a general conclufion. This fubje@, which, though 
apparently fimple, involves a great variety of particulars, 

. may probably be beft elucidated, by explaining how far large 
and {mall farms are advantageous or otherwife to the pro- 
prietors, the occupiers, andthe nation in general. There 

- 18 probably no point within the range of hufbandry which 
has, however, caufed more ferious altereations and difputes 
with theoretical agriculturitts and fpeculative political eco- 
nomifts, than that of the fize of farms. By fome it has 
been flrenuoufly contended that they fhonld be altogether 
{mall ; while others have maintained, with equal pertinacity, 
that they fhould be large, and others again have fuppofed 
that they fhould be of various fizes, reftricting the largett to 
a certain number of acres. But all fuch plans are obvioufly 
of an impra@icable nature. In a country where the capital 
and means are fo various, it muft evidently be of great ad- 
vantage to have farins of very different fizes, both in refpeét 
to extent of Jand, and that of rent, or annual value; as, by 
this means, the honeft and indultrious labourer in hufbandry 
may be properly accommodated, and by degrees become 
wealthy and independent; while at the fame'time the ex- 
pert, ingenious, and improving cultivator, who poffeffes ex- 
tenfive capital and information, may not be difappointed 
in embarking in fuch undertakings of this kind, as may 
amply repay his fuperior fkill, capital, and induftry. The 
nature of the management of a diltri&, as well as that of 
the foil, fhould likewife, in fome meafure, regulate the fize 
_ of the farms. Thus, where fheep-walks prevail, or the 
grazing fyftem is extenfively purfued, they fhould be large ; 
but where the plantation or orchard praétices are followed, 
they fhould be {mall. Both in the ftiff, wet, and hard dry 
clayey foils, the farms fhould be large, that the farmers may 
have fufficient ftrength to work them at the proper feafons, 
which is very feldom the cafe when they are {mall. But the 
free, deep, medium foils, which are wrought with much 
lefs difficulty, may anfwer well in fmall farme, 


Large Farms ~—t has been fuggelled by a late writers 
that if the introduétion of improvements in cultivation, and 
the breeds of the different fpecies of live flock, are objects 
of importance to the proprietors of the kingdom as indivi- 
duals, large farms mutt be confidered by them as beneficial. 
As individuals, alfo, they muft experience other advantages 
from large farms. The extent of capital employed in ftock- 
ing and cultivating thefe farms infures a regular and prompt 
payment of the rents. Building and repairing farm-houfes 
on fuch farms, although confiderable at firft, is not fo heavy 
an annual charge as on fmall farms; while the expence of 
inclofing and fub-dividing does not amount to one-tenth part. 
It was fortunate, the writer thinks, for Britith farmers, as 
wellas for Britifh hufbandry, that proprietors adopted the 
refolution of letting part of their eftates in large farms. 
By that means men, poflefling every requifite for conftituting 
them good farmers, turned their attention to the cultivation 
of the foil, and the introduétion of every improvement con- 
nected therewith ; and, in very many inftances, have not 
only been fo fuccefsful as to maintain and educate their fa- 
milies in eafe and comfort, but alfo to acquire fuch fortunes, 
as to render them independent proprietors : a circumftance 
that mutt give fincere fatisfaétion to every liberal mind; as 
from the fervice they have done in promoting the intereits 
of agriculture, they are well entitled to enjoy the fruits of 
their induftry. In regard to the community large farms, 
the writer fays, muft be confidered as favourable in feveral 
re{pects. On what farms, he afks, in Norfolk, have tur- 
nips been cultivated, and ufed to the greateft advantage ? 
On what farms in the Carfe of Gowrie in Scotland has the 
cultivation of grain been moft fuccefsfully carried on? In 
Leicetterfhire, where have the greateft improvements in 
the different breeds of live flock been effeéted? In the 
counties of Northumberland and Berwick, where have 
improved breeds of ftock been moft generally united with 
fkilful culture? Every perfon who has travelled through 
thefe diftriéts, with a view of procuring agricultural inform- 
ation, mutt, he thinks, anfwer, On large farms. 

It is from large farms alfo that the towns are principally 
fupplied with the great articles of grain, fat cattle, and fheep 
of the belt quality. And as farms of this fize are kept in 
the higheit ftate of cultivation, of which the lands are faf- 
ceptible, and managed with the feweft number of hands ; 
the greateft quantity of produce that can be fpared from 
the like extent of land neceffarily goes to market. To the 
occupiers of large farms it is alfo chiefly owing that the fup- 
ply of the towns in thefe incifpenfible articles is fo regu- 
larly kept up. If thefe farmers could not afford to keep 
their grain and fat ftock on hand, till thofe of the poorer 
tenants were difpofed of and confumed, the markets would 
either be over-itocked at particular feafons, and entirely 
empty in others; or, what is equally bad, the articles 
would get into the hands of a few dealers, who, by mutual 
confent, might raife the price to any extent they pleafed, 
notwithftanding any aéts of parliament againit foreitalling, 
that could poffibly be framed. 

There is one particular defcription of farms which ought 
to be taken notiee of here ; thete are in fome places called 
Led-farms, in others, Grafs-farms. Many farmers rent 
one or more large farms in different parts of the country, 
which are managed by an overfeer. Thefe are, the writer 
conceives, for the intereft of the proprietor, becaufe he ge- 
nerally receives a higher rent than could be afforded, were 
the farmer’s family to be maintained trom the profits of any 
of them alone: a great proportion being allo allowed to 
remain in grafs, the lands muit be in an improving ftate. 
The farmer, after paying the extra rent, aud the wages of 

S2 an 


FARM. 


an overfeer, till retains that proportion of profits which 
renders the tenting of fuch farms an object to him; but, 
when it isconfidered that the farmer’s clofe attention to 
minute particulars in the management of a farm is abfo- 
lutely neceffary to make it to the higheft degree profitable, 
it is by no means clear, that the greatett produce which 
fuch farms are capable of yielding goes to market. The 
great, and indeed the only folid objeG&ion againft large 
farms is, in his opinion, the confequent depopulation of 
the country. "This, it will be generally acknowledged, is 
a moft ferious evil, and ought to be guarded againft as 
much as poflible. The remedy, however, in Scotland, it 
is conceived, is eafy, and in many places adopted; namely, 
by building cottages onthe outfkirts of the farnmas, and 
luring ploughmen who are married, and have families. 
Thefe men are allowed grafs fora cow, and a {mall quantity 
of ground for cultivating grain, potatoes, and garden-ftuff, 
in part of their wages: Were this plan generally intro- 
duced in both kingdoms, the grand objection againft large 
farms would, the writer conceives, be in a great meafure 
removed ; the defcription of inhabitants would, no doubt, 
be changed, but the population would fuffer no material 
decreafe, and, at the fame time, nearly an equal quantity 
of free produce would find its way to market, as in any 
other cafe. 

The intelligent author of the correted Report of the 
County of Chefter likewife contends for the fuperior ad- 
vantage of large farms on the following grounds. ‘ Twenty 
or thirty acres of land cannot, fays he, in the nature of 
things, furnifh full employment to a farmer; nor is the 
profit which they afford by any means adequate to the com- 
fortable fubfiftence of a family: a man, therefore, who en- 
ters upon a farm of this defcription, muft either have fome 
other occupation, to which he direéts a great fhare of his 
attention ; or muft unavoidably be fubjected tu poverty, and 
all its concomitant diftrefs. In either of thefe cafes, the 
difpofition of the land cannot but be regarded as unfa- 
vourable to. the general intereits of agriculture; in the 
former, farming being made an object of fecondary confi- 
deration, and frequently being very imperfe€tly underftood, 
the cultivation of the land is feldom carried to its practica- 
ble length, and, confequently, a certain proportion of pro- 
duce is virtually loft to the community ; in the latter cafe, 
the evils refulting from a farm of this defcription are {till 
more decided in their nature; fince it will be generally ad- 
mitted that no fpecies of occupation can be beneficial in its 
confequences to the country at large, which is not fo to the 
individual immediately concerned in it. The fame reafoning 
will apply equally to farms of forty or fifty acres: where- 
ever theextent of land is not fufficient to furnifh full em- 
ployment to the farmer, and a comfortable fubfiftence to his 
tamily, a certain portion of perfonal exertion muft neceflarily 
be loft, and the confequences muft be unfavourable, whether 
confidered individually, or in a national point of view. 

«¢ Another ferious obje€tion to {mall farms may be ground- 
ed on the difficulties they oppofe to general improvements in 
agriculture. A farmer, entering upon thirty or forty acres, 
very frequently with a high rent, and little or no capital, 
cannot be expected to make any material improvement on 
his land, or to attempt experiments in cultivation, which 
are probably, expenfive in the firft inftance, and uncertain 
in the refults they may afford. All that he can do is to 
purfue the old-beaten track ; to force out of the ground the 
payment of his rent, anda bare fubfiftence for his family, 
and fortunate may he efteem himfelf if he fucceeds fo far 
as to do this. On the other hand, the man who farms a 
eonfiderable extent of land can purfue with vigour any 


new modes of agriculture that appear likely to be attendo® 
with beneficial effeéts ; the poffeffion of a competent capital 
enables him to undertake, and put into execution, any 1m- 
provements of which his farm is fufceptible, till by thefe 
means his lands are brought to the highett ftate of fertility. 
The opportunity which is afforded him, of making one 
department of his farming economy fubfervient to another, 
is an additional advantage which the farmer on a fmall 
fcale cannot carry into effect to any great extent. The 
latter too muft neceflarily expend on his land a quantity of 
capital greater in proportion than is required in a farm of 
more confiderable fize ; he muft have his cart and horfes, 
his plough and his harrow, and every other agricultural im~ 
plement, as well as his neighbour, though he has only 
thirty acres, and his neighbour eighty or a hundred. Re- 
verting then to the well-eftablifhed, and, indeed, felf-evident 
axiom in political economy, that capital is moft advantage- 
oufly employed, when, with a given quantity, the largeft 
proportion ef produce is the refult; it feems {carcely to 
admit of a doubt, that large farms are, in this point of view, 
greatly more beneficial to the nation at large, than thofe of 
{mall extent only. 

“‘ The principal objeGions to large farms are, he fays, 
founded on the tendency, which, as already noticed, it 
is aflerted, they haye to diminifh the population of the coun- 
try, and to increafe the price of provilions. It is obvious, 
however, he thinks, that both thefe objetions cannot ftand 
their ground at the fame time. If the population of the 
country be diminifhed, while the produce of the ground is 
increafed, or even while it remains the fame in point of 
quantity, itis clear, that no increafe in the price of provifions 
can take place ; on the contrary, it would be natural to ex- 
pect a very confiderable reduGtion in this refpeét. As thefe 
objections againit large farms may, however, be urged indi- 
vidually, it is proper that a diftin@ anfwer fhould be given 
to each of them. With refpe& to its influence on popula- 
tion, it cannot be denied that the confolidation of feverak 
{mall farms into one of larger extent might have the imme- 
diate effeGt of throwing a number of individuals out of em- 
ploy; many of whom, from the inadequate demand for la- 
bour of other kinds in the country, would be neceflitated to 
have recourfe to emigration. But this effet could be of 
only temporary duration. If, in confequence of the dimi- 
nifhed number and increafed fize of farms the improvements 
in agriculture became more extended, and its general ftate 
more flourifhing, it can fearcely be doubted but that the ul- 
timate effeét in this change in the difpofition of the land muft 
be favourable to the population as well as to the profperity 
of the country. The immediate effeéts of the adoption of 
improved modes of cultivation, and of the increafed quantity 
of produce from a given proportion of capital, mult be a 
diminution in the price of provifions. As a neceflary con- 
fequence of this the price of labour mutt likewife be dimi- 
nifhed ; or, to fpeak in more general terms, an increafed va- 
lue would be given to the circulating medium; a circum- 
{tance highly favourable to'a country, as it regards its com- 
mercial and manufacturing connections with other nations, 
The equalizing nature of commerce would, indeed, in pro- 
cefs of time, reftore this value to its accuftomed level ; but 
the impulfe which had been given, meanwhile, to induftry 
of every kind, could not fail to infure internal profperity, and, 
confequently, an increafe of population to the country. If 
this reafoning be accurate, there appears, {ays the writer, no 
grounds for doubting that the enlargement of farms, to a 
certain extent, at leaft, would be productive of effential be- 
nefit to. the real interefts of the nation; a trifling diminu- 
tion in population might, perhaps, indeed be the immediate 

6 refult 


FARM. 


refult of the meafure in queftion; but that the ultimate 
confequences of its operations would be injurious in this re- 
fpeét does not appear probable. 

“ The objection which has been urged againft large 
farms, as tending to enhance the prices of provifion, feems 
equally void of validity. The grounds of this objeGtion 
are, that, by the enlargement of farms, the competition 
which exifts between {mall farmers would be in a great mea- 
Ture loft, and a fpirit of monopoly introduced in its ftead. 
In anf{wer to this, it may be fufficient to afk the fimple 
queftion, why may not this competition, efteemed fo advan- 
geous to the country, take place among farmers who hold 
two, three, or four hundred acres of land, as well as among 
thofe who hold thirty or forty ? That this is contrary to ex- 
perience the writer can by no means allow. Wherever mo- 
nopoly has been the immediate caufe of an unufual high 
price of corn,. or other neceffaries of life, it muft, he con- 
ceives, have been practifed on a much larger f{cale than could 
be done by any combination of farmers in the country. {n 
fact, a very flight confideration muft prove the futility of 
any objeétions to large farms vefted on thefe grounds. 
Suppoling, for the fake of argument, that the farmers in 
one county or diftri€t fhould combine to keep their 
ftocks out of the market, and thus to raife the price of pro- 
vifions; is it at all confiftent with probability to fuppofe 
that the farmers, in the neighbouring diftri€&s, would favour 
this {cheme, by retaining their individual ftocks; on the 
contrary, is it not more likely that they would immediately 
come forward to fupply the deficiency in the market, and 
thus counteract the defigns of their more avaricious neigh- 
bours? Indeed it appears a point fo clear, that the fame 
competition of interefts muft exift among large as well as 
among {mall farmers, that the writer apprehends no con- 
¢lufion can be deduced from this circumttance which will 
not apply with equal force to both cafes. If then this 
competition renders provifions cheaper where the farms are 
fmall, will it not have precifely the fame effet where they 
are of large extent ? And does it not appear highly probable, 
that a very confiderable diminution of the price of provi- 
fons would be the confequence of the general enlargements 
of farms in the kingdom? This, as was {tated before, mutt, 
im the natural courfe of things, be the immediate effet of im- 
proved modes of cultivation, and of an increafed quantity 
of produce from a certain given expence of capital.”” The 
able writer does not here by any means contend for an in- 
definite extenfion of the fize of farms ; but merely fuggefts 
that thofe of three or four hundred acres are fuperior, in 
point of advantage, to individuals and the country, to thofe 
of from thirty to fixty acres. 

Small Farms.—It is contended by the firft of the above wri- 
ters that thefe are, no doubt, advantageous to the proprie- 
tors, in fo far as the greateft number of Britifh farmers are 
poffeffed only of flender capitals ; and therefore, when fmall 
farms fall out of leafe, feveral candidates immediately appear. 
The operations on the farm being for the moft part con- 
duéted by the farmer’s own family, the expence of hired 
fervants is faved, and he is thereby enabled to give a higher 
rent than could otherwife be done, without changing the 
imperfect fyftems of agriculture, too commonly praétifed on 
farms of this defcription, The advantages in favour of the 
proprietors are, however, probably fully counterbalanced by 
the imperfe& modes of cultivation above alluded to: the 
advitional expence to which they are fubjeGed by upholding 
farm-houfes on an eftate let in {mall farms; to which may 
be added, the very great extra charge which muft unavoid- 
ably be incurred in inclofing and fub-dividing an extenfive 
tract of land into fmall fields. It is, no doubt, for the 


intereft of fuch tenants, that there fhould be a great number 
of fmall farms. The limited extent of their funds, and 
their knowledge and influence in the feale of fociety, would 
put ittotally out of their power to embark in large under- 
takings of this nature ; and if all proprietors were to adopt 
the refolution of letting no farms under a certain fize, then 
people, as often happens, would be forced to turn their atten- 
tion to fome other employment, by which they could main- 
tain their families. Ina national point of view, {mall farms 
are, the writer thinks, undoubtedly advantageous. Large 
cities and towns are confefledly inimical to the increafe of 
opulation, and would, in time, be in a great meafure without 
inhabitants, but for the conitant and regular fupply which 
the country furvifhes. Small farms are not only in favour 
of population, but of the moft valuable fort of population ; 
as, in confequence of the fhare of education which many of 
them obtain, the children of fuch farmers become valuable 
acquifitions to the artift and manufactures. If, fays the 
writer, {mall farms were entirely abolifhed, a great part of 
the occupiers muft retire to towns, and engage in fome 
branch of manufa€tures. At the commencement of every 
war our manufactures receive a fhock, from numbers of 
hands being called off to ferve their country in our fleets and 
armies. Were this fupply to be drawn chiefly from the 
towns, which in this cafe would certainly happen, what 
then would be the ftate of our manufaétures, that great prop 
of national profperity ? In a word, it is owing, in no {mall 
degree, to the diftribution of fo large a fhare of the country 
into fmail farms, that the proper equilibrium of popu- 
lation between the towns and the country fo neceffary to be 
preferved, is maintained. It is true, that owing to the 
number of perfons of which the families of this clafs of 
farmers are generally compofed, and the imperfe& manner 
in which the lands are too frequently cultivated, a very 
fmall proportion of the great article of bread-corn goes to 
market. But the no lefs neceflary articles of milk, poultry, 
eggs, and, in many cafes, fuel, are furnifhed to the inhabitants 
of the towns and villages in much greater quantities from 
half a dozen of fmall farms, than from one of fix times the 
extent. To this lift may alfo, the writer thinks, be added 
butter and cheefe, with a few exceptions only, where dairy- 
hufbandry is praétifed on a large feale. It would, the 
writer conceives, be extremely difficult to determine which 
of the fizes of farms before mentioned are in every point of 
view moft beneficial, There is, however, as has been al- 
ready noticed, no occafion to hefitate in deciding, that a 
variety in the fize of farms is not only for the intereft of all 
concerned, but abfolutely neceffary for the profperity of 
the ftate. Were the farms all f{mall, the population of the 
country would exceed the due proportion of the towns, and 
the’ quantity of provifions which it would be neceflary to 
import would be itnmenfe. If the country was wholly dis 
vided into large farms, and unmurried’ ploughmen princi« 
pally employed, as'is the cafe at prefent, the towns would 
be gverftocked with people ; and unlefs the prices of cheefe, 
butter, milk, eggs, poultry, fuel, &c. were advanced, fo 
as to make it an object to that defcription of farmers to fend 
them to market, a very fcanty fupply would be furnifhed. 
The diverfity in the fize of farms in the ifland is, fays the 
writer, no doubt in favour of, and mult be agreeable to, the 
farmers ; for, as they differ in knowledge and enterprife-as 
much as in the extent of their capitals, they will naturally 
confider that farm as of the moft proper fize which is upon 
the whole beit fuited to their particular circumftances and 
fituations. Farms of the largeft extent, the management! 
of which a farmer is able himfelf minutely to fuperiatend, 
muft neceflarily prove the moft profitable; therefore, “a 
the 


FARM, 


the knowledge, enterprife, and capitals of farmers all alike, 
large farms would be confidered by them as of the moft 
proper fize. There is, however, no view of the fubje&, 
by which it will be found that any one fize of farms would 
be generally advantageous. On the contrary, it is clear, 
the writer thinks, that the greater variety there is in the 
extent of farms, provided that variety is general over every 
diftriG in Great Britain, the more extenfively will the gene- 
yal interefls of the nation at large be promoted and brought 
forward. , 

In confidering the controverfy refpecting large and {mall 
farms, Mr. Marfhall remarks, that thofe who are in favour 
of the firlt are chiefly men of public {pinit, who have turned 
their attention to agriculture; and having found, or per- 
ceived, that farms of magnitude, conduéted by men of judg- 
ment, fpirit, and capital, abound in corn and cattle of the 
higheft qualities, have concluded, he thinks, without any 
further examination, that all farms fhould be large. Thofe 
{upporting the latter pofition, with equal pretentfions for the 
public good, confift, he fuppofes, of minor gentlemen, the 
clergy and other profeffional men, tradefmen, and others in 
middle life, who live in towns; and who, finding the prices 
of poultry, eggs, and other good things, greatly enhanced 
of late years, imagine that the modern enlargement of farms 
mutt be the caufe, confequently call out loudly for a divi- 
Gon.of large farms ; in order, it may be inferred, that arti- 
cles of luxury may become plentiful ; not regarding, or per- 
haps not knowing, what an expenditure ph ness men’s food 
is occafioned by the rearing and fattening o poultry. The 
fame barley, or other grain, which has been ufed in rearing 
and fattening a fowl, to fupply one dith of an epicure’s 
dinner, would have furnifhed a labourer’s cupboard with 
bread for feveral days. But admitting what is obvious, 
that farms of magnitude, cultivated by wealthy and filful 
men, furnifh the markets with a greater proportion of the 
common neceflaries of life, than {mall ones in the hands of 
poverty and ignorance, it is but common prudence to exa- 
mine into the «ffeéts which would follow a general enlarge- 
ment of farms, to be managed by wealthy men; and to 
conceive how the markets would be fupplied, under fuch a 
regulation, before it be carried into effeét. If at prefent 
(1801), when the country centains farms of all magnitudes, 
and cultivators of all defcriptions, there is a general cry 
againft farmers, for keepiag back their corn from market, 
what evil and outrage might not be expected’ were all the 
lands of the kingdom in the hands of the wealthy ? Ifthe 
prices of grain after harveft fhould not meet their expecta- 
tions, they would, in confequence, defer to threfh out more 
than for their own ufes. And although they might have 
caufe of repentance the enfuing fummer, this would not 
relieve the diltrefles of the famifhed poor in the mean time ; 
while, onthe contrary, were all the farm lands of the country 
in the hands of the needy, the reverfe would be the confe- 
quence. Prefently after harvett, the produce would be 
hurried ‘to market too faft for the confumption, and the 
furplus would neceffarily fall into the hands of dealers, who, 
befides referving.on all occafions an allowable profit, would 
have it in their power to fix their own prices during the 
fummer months. Of courfe either of thefe extremes would 
be productive of ferious evil. What the community require, 
with re{pect to farm produce, is to have the markets regu 
larly fupplied by the growers, the immediate producers, 
whether of vegetable or of animal food ; without its pafling 
through the hands of middle men unneceflarily. Hence 
it is evident, that to obtain a regular fupply of the corn 
market by the growers themfelves throughout the year, 
cultivators of different defcriptions are requilite; needy men, 


who want an immediate fupply of money, after harvelt, to 
pay fervants’? wages and Bt cicelonas rents; men without 
affuence, who threfh out their corn in the winter months ; 
and opulent, purfe-proud, fpeculative men, to fupply the 
markets during fummer and early autumn. And this moit 
defireable order of things the country happily enjoys at 
prefert in a confiderable degree, Nay, even admitting that 
the higher claffes, who refide in towns, are entitled to the 
indulgence of luxuries out of the produce of lands, we. full 
perceive the propriety of a gradation of farms; inafmuch 
as it furnifhes large farms to feed the poor, and {mall ones to 
pamper therich. Though, ina general view of the country 
in this point, no great alterations are requilite; yet, when 
examined in detail, it admits of fome improvement. There 
are diftri&ts which abound too much in {mall farms, others 
in large ones, and fome in farms much too large for accu- 
rate management in any way. And if the fubjeét be viewed 
in the light of good government, and the permanent welfare 
of the country, a fimilar gradation in the fizes of farms ap- 
pears to conform with mght reafon. The tenantry of a 
country may be faid to occupy the wide {pace in fociety 
which intervenes between labourers and men of landed pro- 
perty ; and furely they ought to form a regular chain be- 
tween them. But make the farms of the country either 
uniformly large, or uniformly fmall, and a number of links 
would be wanting. Inthe former cafe, partacularly, a wide 
breach or chafm would be formed, a void {pace between a 
numerous peafantry and their petty lords; a ftate of civilized 
fociety this, which has no foundation either in reafon or 
found politics, which require a regular gradation from the 
peafant to the prince, and from the higheft to the loweft in 
fociety ; fuch a one as we fortunately find in this country at 
this time. And viewing the fubje& in a moral light, the 
prefent order of things appears to be nearly right, If farms 
were either uniformly large, or uniformly fmall, induftry, 
frugality, and emulation (the dinews and nerves of fociety, ) 
would, among the lower clafles in agriculture, lofe their 
ftimulus. If a farm feryant or a labourer faved a few pounds, 
or had fifty or a hundred pounds left him, he could not 
employ them in his own line of life. He would either diffi- 
pate them, live on them as an idler, or carry them into 
fome other line of bufinefs. Whereas at prefent, at leait 
in diflri@s in which farms of the [maller fizes ftill abound, 
there are many inftances of fervants of the loweft order 
rifing to affluence, merely by the help of their own indutiry, 
frugality, and a natural fpirit of emulation, cherifhed and 
led on by the gradation of farms, 

But as /arge and /inail are merely comparative terms, the 
extent of largenefs, or greateft fize, is the chief confidera- 
tion; and this depends, in fome meafure, on the nature of 
the lands to be occupied, and the particular plan of manage- 
ment to which they are fubje&ted. For it may be fafely 
affumed, that no man ought to eccupy more land than he 
ean perfonally {uperintend. But in a diftriét applied to 
fheep-walks farms of fize are required; efpecially in a bleak 
or open country, where they require a conftant attendance. 
A fhepherd will take care of two or three hundred fheep as 
well as of a {maller flock. And an adtive fheep farmer, who 
knows his bufinefs, may well fuperintend feveral fhepherds. 
Hence, ina paflage of country applied wholly or principally 
to iheep-farming, individual holdings of more than five hun- 
dred pounds a-year (eftimated according to the prefent value 
of money) appear to be politically admiffible. Alfo in 
marth land diftri&s, applied to grazing, farms of magnitude 
may be admitted. The occupier in this, as in the former 
cafe, has only one obje& ; and like a manufacturer of a par= 
ticular article, or a man conduéting one particular branch 


FARM. 


of trade, he may extend his bufinefs to almoft any limits, 
But, that in diftri€s and fituations in which the arable and 
grafs-land management mix, or ought to intermix, the cafe 
is very different. For here not only markets, and the ma- 
nagement of ftock of various kinds require attention, but 
the feafons, or even a fhower, may fruftrate the beft laid plan, 
and render the matter’s prefence neceffary to accurate ma- 
nagement. Here fervants, and workmen of various employ- 
ments, working animals, and implements, call for hourly 
attendance in the field; while the different departments of 
the home-ftall demand almoft conftant fuperintendance, equal- 
-ly to guard againft negligence and difhonefty ; in the winter 
‘feafon more efpecially ; co fee that every grain of corn, and 
every handful of fodder, is applied to its proper ufe; and 
that no wafte, even of manure, is fuffered to take place. 
During the fpring and fummer months the corn farmer’s 
time and attention are more required in the field; to fee 
that every perch of ground he occupies is applied to fome 
profitable purpofe, or is put under a courfe of preparation 
for future crops; as well as to defend exilting crops from 
enemies, whether animal or vegetable; to protect them 
equally from domettic ftock, vermin, and weeds. In harveft 
his conftant and a€tive exertions are called for; not only 
to preferve his ripened crops, as much as in him lies, from 
injury by the weather, but from fpoil and wafte, by the 
careleffnefs of work-people in the various operations which 
they muft neceflarily undergo. And in autumn his moft 
ferious thoughts are wanted to look forward to the general 
management of the enfuing year. All thefe attentions, and 
innumerable others, the public have a right to expeé from 
the occupiers of lands, in a country whofe appropriated lands 
‘have been found by many years experience to be infufficient, 
under the prefent imperfeét ftate of agriculture, to fuppl 
its inhabitants with the common neceflaries of life. Thus, 
feeing the weight of care and forethought which every fuffi- 
cient hufbandman has to fuftain, we may venture to conclude 
that there are few men who have attention and aétivity 
enough to manage politically more than five hundred acres 
of hand, in a ftate of mixed cultivation, and worth, according 
to the prefent rental value of Jands, five hundred pounds a- 
year; even though they lie compactly round one central 
farmery. It is not here meant that there are few men who 
are able to manage more than soo/. a-year with profit to 
themfelves. Many a man gets rich with three times the pro- 
'perty under his care; and lying perhaps in three diftinét 
farms. But no wonder, for he may be faid to be receiving 
three men’s incomes, with only one family to maintain. If, 
through the inaccuracies and inattentions of management, he 
lofe even half what two other occupiers would have gained, 
ftill he is doubling his own income, by holding three initead 
of one farm. He gets two profits, and the community 
lofe the third.’” 
It is further fuppofed that a farm of 5o0o0/. a-year, which 
is compofed of inferior lands, as thofe which are worth ten 
 fhillings an acre, is too large for one man to manage politi- 
cally. A thoufand acres lie too wide for one fet of farm 
offices. The great length of carriage of crops and manure, 
and the travelling of plough-teams and workmen of every 
-defcription to diftant grounds, occafion a wafte of labour, be- 
fide the wafte of ground by lengthened roads and drift 
ways, and the injury done to itock by a length of drift. 
And no man can fuperintend two home-fteads with political 
-aceuracy. But to excite emulation, and to encourage men 
of capital, education, and fpirit, to enter into, and perfevere 
‘in the profeffion ; to {ludy its higher departments, and take 
the lead in praétical improvements, a {mall proportion ef 
corn farms of five hundred pounds a-year may be politically 
I 


eligible. It may be added that the lower extremity termi- 
nates in the cottage and its cow ground; which may be fet 
down at five pounds a-year. This, however, is a fort of 
farm which, like that of five hundred pounds a-year, ought 
to be kept within bounds as to number, this being of the 
two the leaft political; unlefs as the loweft ftep of the lad- 
der of emulation. Thus, in a public light, it appears that 
the fizes of farms on lands of good quality, and adapted to 
mixed cultivation, ought to extend from thofe of five pounds 
to thofe of five hundred poundsrental value. But that the 
proportional number towards each extremity ought to be 
{mall. For to the writer’s mind it appears evidently, that 
it is from farms of the middle fizes, as thofe of one to three 
hundred pounds a-year, the community receive the greateft 
proportion of the common nece flaries of life. It is chiefly 
among the cultivators of farms of thefe fizes that we find 
the three principal requifites of good hufbandry, namely, 
capital, fill, and induftry. On farms below thefe fizes, the 
firtt, and frequently the fecond, is wanting ; and‘on thofe of 
higher magnitude the laft is apt to be deficient, 

On Laying cut Farms.—In this bufinefs there is confidera- 
bly more difficulty than is generally fuppofed. But it has beer 
{tated by a late able writer on landed property, that much 
depends on the natural and acquired circumftances of the 
different lands or eftates. The fituation, the foils, the pre- 
fent ftate of occupation or fyftem of management, and the 
prefent fize of the farms, require to be maturely ftudied, and 
duely weighed, before any effe@ive fteps can be fafely taken. 
It is an arduous tafk to alter <he arrangement or general eco- 
nomy of an eftate with profit and credit to its proprietor ; 
even when the whole is rented at will, or from year to year. 
Where leafes exift, difficulties are increafed ; and the day of 
improvement is placed at a greater or lefs diftance. Never- 
thelefs, a man who has at his heart the permanent good of 
the eflate which he poffeffes will look forward, and concert 
plans for its future improvement and welfare. And as an 
ellate which is judicioufly laid out into compaét farms, of 
fuitable izes, is worth confiderably more by the year than 
one of the fame intrinfic valne, whofe lands tie {cattered and 
intermixed in farms of improper fizes, he will not fail to fet 
on foot a plan of reform, which requires nothing but atten- 
tion and perfeverance to be accomplithed. The firft atten- 
tion required is to ftudy its natural charaGers, to view it as 
ina ftate of nature, and without inhabitants : marking the 
elevation and turn of its furface, whether it confilts of moune 
tain, upland, vale, or water-formed lands, and afcertaining 
at the fame time its foils, fub-{trata with regard to their ab- 
forbency or retentivenefs ; thus determining to what ufes its 
feveral parts are adapted, whether to theep-walk, or grazing 
saeunety meadow lands, or mixed cultivation. Having 

urveyed the fheep-walk and grazing ground, he fhould 
trace the natural and fortuitous lines of the culturable lands ; 
as the feet of iteep hills, the ridges of uplands, large rivers, 
public roads, &c. &c. thefe being data which cannot well 
be difregarded. Where'a blank is given, fuch asan extent 
of newly appropriated lands, to lay them out into what may 
be termed natural farms, of fuch fizes as will bring the moit 
permanent rent at the leaft expence of buildings, yards, pri- 
vate roads, drift ways, and fences. And to this end the moft 
natural, or eligible fites for farm-fteads, are to be fought for 
with attention ; laying to thofe which are the moi eligible 
fuch lands as by natural fituation, and natural quality, belong 
to them. Thus laying out the lands to the beft advantage ; 
and producing farms of different fizes; thereby inviting good 
farmers, with different capitals, to fettle upon the eftate 
The principal requifites of a home-ftall, fora farm in mixed 
cultivation, are fhelter and water, for domettic purpefes as 


well 


FARM. 


wellas forthe ufe of yard ftock ; with fome permanent grafs 
ground below the yards, to receive the overflowings of the 
dung bafons, that nothing of manure may efcape or be lott 
from the premifes. Where lands lie in a fhelving fituation, 
ut is generally defirable to have the home-ftead near the mid- 
way of the flope. Thus gaining a centrical fituation, and 
having lands above as well as below the yards; fo that nei- 
ther the whole of the crops, nor the whole of the dung, 
may require to be drawn againit the hill at a bufy feafon. 
A dip or fhallow valley, witha natural f{tream falling down 
it, and with lands in the lower part of it, which are capable 
of being converted into watered mowing ground, is in 
general a defirable fite fora home-ftead. 

However, when an eftate is already inhabited, and laid 
out into farms, with the farm-fteads fixed, and the buildings 
fubftantial, it requires much thought and fome time to make 
great alterations, either with credit or profit to its proprietor. 
Where the lands of different farms lie fcattered and inter- 
mixed with cach other, as they too frequently do, either 
through circumftances that were unavoidable perhaps at the 
time they took place, or through improper indulgencies to 
favourite tenants; or through the ignorance or negligence 
of managers; or the lefs pardonable defign of thofe who 
have had an intereft in the diffentions which the intermixture 
of lands feldom fails to create ; fomething may generally be 
done towards leflening or remedying the evil; even where 
parts of an eftate are under the temporary alienation of 
leafes ; through the means of amicable exchanges between 
tenants. This is afpecies of improvement which ought to 
be feduloufly attended to by the managers of eftates, as 
lands which lie compact and convenient to the home-tftall 
are worth confiderably more to an occupier than thofe of 
the fame intrinfic value, avhich are {cattered at a diftance, fo 
that by this fort of exchange a two-fold advantage comes 
home (or will come at the expiration of the leafe or 
leafes) a clear income to the proprietor; befide rendering 
the management of the eftate more eafy and pleafurable. 
And in cafes where the entire eftate is rented from year to 
year, the confolidation of farms may be effected with. Jefs 
difficulty, and the two-fold advantage be immediately en- 
joyed. 

It is advifed, in order to condu& the bufinefs of a general 
arrangement, regulation, or reform of an eftate which is al- 
ready laid out into farms, with fall effect, to fludy it as a 
blank, in the manner as if it were in a wild or unappropri- 
ated ftate ; to afcertain its natural or moft eligible home- 
fteads, and the lands which, by fituation, belong to them ; 
then to examine the.exilting farm-{teads, buildings, roads, 
drift ways, and inclofures, and by duly confidering the 
aggregate of faéts thus adduced, to endeavour to make 
out fuch a plan of improvement as will fecure the greateft 
clear and permanent rent, at the leaft expence, without driy- 
ing from the eftate the deferving part of the exifting te- 
nantry. Anda plan of reform being fixed, let the intended 
farms be outlined and coloured on a general map of the 
e{tate ; and this done, let each be feparately delineated on 
a {mall map fuited to the pocket, that the propofed ar- 
rangement may be continually under the manager’s eye, 
whether in the bufinefs-room or upon the eftate. This 
method of conduéting a plan of reform, which has been re- 
peatedly experienced, is equally applicable to an eftate 
which is wholly at will, and to one which is partly under 
leafe ; every favourable opportunity being taken as the 
leafes fall in, to carry the plan into execution, always keep- 
ing it in view from the time it is formed; and, in ae 
quence, letting down buildings, or repairing them in a tem- 

‘porary way, where they will not be wanted, and keeping 


them up, in a fubMantial manner, where they will he 
eventually required. And where the farms are too large, 
or the farm-lteads very imiproperly placed, but where the 
exifting buildings are yet in a {ubitantial {tate, it requires to 
be calculated whether the increafe of rent by the propofed 
alteration will pay {ix per cent. for the money required to 
be laid out in making it, taking, however, into the account, 
the fuperiority of new buildings. The eveéting of an entire 
range of farm-buildings, with the requifite appendages, is 
an undertaking which, in private economics, demands ma- 
ture confideration. There are cafes, however,” in which it 
may be efieGed with profit, and many in which it may be 
done with credit and refpeétability to thofe employed. 

Where the farms are too fmall, fintable aggregations 
fhould be made, and each of thefe be coloured on the maps as 
one farm, the alterations being afterwards made as circum- 
ftances may direét; preference being ever given to the mott 
deferving managers, and every fair opportunity taken to 
difmiis che undeferving. By this ealy means, giving the 
mott impreflive leffon on good management to the tenantry 
of the eitate, the belt effects are produced in this way. . 

But it is to be further remarked, on the fubjeé& of lay- 
ing out farm-lands into fuitable tenements, that although 
compacinefs of form and centrality of home-ftall are always 
defirable, they are not the only objects te be attended to. 
The fpecific qualities of the lands of the eltate are another 
fubjcét of confideration. If the lands of an eftate are na- 
turally adapted to different purpofes, as cool ftrong lands, 
fit for perennial mowing-grounds, e{pecially if they can be 
profitably watered, and dry uplands that are fuitable for 
mixed cultivation only ; a portion of each ought, according 
to long-eltablifhed ideas, to be included in every farm: a 
principle this, however, which is generally deftruétive of the 
compactnets of form. And amore modern opinion is, that 
perennial grafs-lands are not at all neceflary to profitable 
farming, cultivated herbage and roots being equal to all the 
wants of modern hufbandry. Neverthclefs, where a {uit of 
meadow and pafture grounds can be properly united with 
arable lands, it will generally be for their mutual benefit to 
unite them. This, Fontan is to be done by a general ar- 
rangement, not by making up disjointed farms with lands 
lying in diftin@ and perhaps diitant parts of a parifh, as we 
not unfrequently fee. For the extra carriage of crops and 
manure, or the unneceffary and injurious drift of ftock, and 
the waite of manure thereby incurred, together with the 
mifchiefs arifing from {tock being left at a diftance from the 
eye, and the time lot in paffing, on every occafion, between 
dikinét parts of a {cattered farm, eventually fall on the pro- 
prietor. In faé&, where an eflate confilts of arable lands of 
different fub-itrata, fo that fome parts are retentive of moif- 
ture and others not, it ought to be the aim of the planner to 
include portions of each in every farm, in order that each 
occupier may have a regular fucceflion of employment for 
his teams in a moift feafon, and in order that, whether the 
fummer proves wet or dry, he may not be deftitute either of 
grafs or herbage. And in diltri@s of a mixed nature or, flrata, 
where a variety of lands are found, this, by due attention, 
may not unfrequently be done, without much deranging 
the compactnefs of the farms, or the central fituation of the 
home-fteads. 

In laying out the particular fields of a farm, it muft de- 
pend greatly on the fituation, foils, and the fyitem of huf- 
bandry to which they are the moft fuited. There are, how- 
ever, certain points or principles that deferve attention in 
the bufinefs. The great benefit of having a water-meadow 
below the farm-ftead has been already feen. But whereia 
fufficient breadth of land cannot be commanded in that fitu- 

ation, 


FA 


ation, to become an object as a mowing-ground, to be 
watered fuperficially, the yard liquor may be expended with 
profit on a{maller plot, converted to a farm garden ground, 
to be watered by means of parallel trenches, formed acrofs 
the flope or defcent of the ground to receive it, in the man- 
ner defcribed below, thus conveying the nutritious particles 
which have efcaped from the dung-yards immediately to the 
fibrils of the plants while growing, or to the bafe of the foil 
into which they are required to ftrike. And on every farm 
in which there is not a iufficiency of watered garden ground, 
a garden field of fome acres for the culture of green herbage 
and roots with the plough, for horfes, cattle, and {wine, as 
well as for culinary purpofes, ought to be laid out near the 
farm-yard. A paituring paddock or two near the houfe is 
likewife a requifite appendage to a home-{tead ; as a faddle- 
horfe pafture, and as a hofpital ground for fick or ailing 
ftock. 

And dairy-grounds, where the dairy is a principal objeét, 
ought, in like manner, to be laid out near the houfe, and 
open into the lobby, green, or milking-yard. But the mea- 
dows or perennial mowing grounds may be laid out at a 
diftance with better effect, as it is always convenient to ftack 
hay in the field of its growth; and if not wanted near the 
{pot, it may generally be brought home, with lefs inconve- 
nience and expence, at almoft any other time than amid the 
buftle and hazard of hay-harvett. 

Arable lands, on the contrary, cannot lie at a diftance 
with propriety; as, in this cafe, not only the crops and 
manure require a length of draught, but the time taken up 
by the plough-teams in pafling to and fro, is a further incon- 
venience. Nor fhould the pafture grounds for working 
ftock, whether oxen or horfes (where thefe are paftured), 
be far from the home-ftall. But thofe for ftore cattle and 
fheep may lie at a diftance with lefs impropriety. Wood- 
lands, fuch as coppice-grounds, may alfo lie at a diitance. 
‘The writer thinks it clear, from this fort of diftribution re- 
quiring much of the land contiguous to the farm-ftead, that 
there is an impropriety in very large farms, and an advan- 
tage in farmeries being centrically fituated. 

In the bufinefs of laying out arable lands, the number of 
fields muft conftantly be regulated by the plan of manage- 
ment preper to be purfued, and by the fize as well as the 
nature of the lands of the farm to be laid out. Where, as 
jutt noticed, lands of oppofite qualities, as thofe which are 
retentive of moifture, and thofe that are abforbent and 
open, are contained within it in fufficient quantity, two fets 
of arable fields fhould be laid out, that the works of tillage 
and femination may not be liable to be interrupted by a 
fhower, and that the ftock of the farm, be the feafon wet 
or dry, may not be diftreffed for pafturage. Likewife on a 
large farm, the lands of which are uniformly abforbent, and 
confequently adapted to the turnip hufbandry, it is proper 
to have more than one fet of arable fields, in order that a 
fufficient choice of contiguous or near fields may be had, 
ever which to diftribute the turnip crop (where this mode 
of hufbandry is pratifed) and thereby prevent an unnecef- 
fary length of carriage. But on rich retentive lands, in 
fituations where an ample fupply of extraneous manure can 
be procured, or where fuch lands are united with marfh and 
meadow grounds, to furnifh a fufficiency of hay and pattur- 
age, without the affiitanee of the arable lands, one {et of 
arable fields may be fufficient ; four or five fields or divifions 
being all that are neceflary, at leaft on a {mall farm. But 
that on the generality of Englifh farms, on which a number 
of manure-making {tock are neceflary to be fupported by 
the arable lands, a greater diverfity of fields is required ; as 

in this cafe it is neceflary that the lands fhould lie fome 


Vout, XIV. 


R M. 


years in a flate of cultivated herbage, between each coarfe 
of arable crops, according to its nature, and the time it will 
lie profitably in a ftate of grafs, as two, three, four, or five 
years. Confequently, if the arable rotation occupy the 
land four years (taking three crops of corn with a fallow- 
crop, or fallow intervening), the number of arable fields re- 
quired for one fet will be fix, feven, eight, or nine. How- 
ever, much depends in aH cafes not only on the nature of 
the land, but on the calcareous and other extraneous ma- 
nure, which may be procured, in greater or lefs quantity, in 
almoft every fituation of a farm. 

It may be obferved, that the fizes of arable fields may 
feem to be given in the number. But ona large farm, ina 
bleak fituation, and on which it is proper to keep a nume- 
rous ftock, it may often be found requifite to fub-divide the 
arable divifions, not only for the fake of fhelter, while the 
lands lie in the ftate of herbage, put for the convenience 
of feparating and fhifting ftock. Hence it is incumbent 
on the planner of a farm to weigh well the various circum- 
{tances that belong to it, as on thefe only the true fize and 
number of arable fields can be calculated. Even the thape 
of an arable field is not a thing of arbitrary choice. It 
ought to be regulated by the fhape of the farm, and by the 
roads and water-courfes running through it, as well as by 
the nature of its lands, the turn of its iurface, and its afpect 
orexpofure. A perfeét fquare, or long {quare, is a defirable 
fhape, where circumitances will admit of it. Crooked lines 
and irregular figures are inconvenient in the operations of 
tillage, and fhould of courfe be avoided. Two fides at 
leaft ought to run parallel to each other. And it is equally, 
or more defirable, that each field fhould have a uniformity 
of foil and fub-foil, as on thefe depend the ufes te which it is 
applicable; and it is at once unpleafant and unprofitable to 
have different parts of the fame field under feparate courfes 
of management. Yet where the natural line of divifion is 
very irregular, it is improper to follow implicitly all its 
windings. The planner ought rather to draw a judicious 
line between the two, and the cultivator to alter the quali- 
ties of the lands, which happen to be unnaturally fevered, 
by draining, manuring, and other neceflary means. 

And the direétion of the fields fhould be the fame as that 
in which the land ought to be ploughed for a crop, pro- 
vided it be compatible with the given lines of the farm. On 
a level furface, or on one which is gently inclining, the di- 
rection of the beds of retentive lands that require to be laid 
up in round ridges ought to be nearly north and fouth; in 
order that the crops on either fide of them may receive equal 
fun, and ripen evenly, Confequently, in this cafe, the 
fences which form the two longer fides of the quadrangle 
fhould take that direction. But where the furface is fteep, 
this principle of dire&tion mui give way to another of greater 
utility. If the land is retentive, and the foil requires to be 
laid up into round beds, acrofs the flope, the direction of the 
ridges-muft be guided by the face of the flope; and the 
fences, on the general principle, ought to take the fame 
direétion ; obferving, in this cafe, where circumftances will 
admit, to let the fences wind to the right of a perfon ftand- 
ing on the brink of the flope, and facing towards it; as the 
beds ought to take that dire€tion for the greater eafe in 
ploughing them. And where the face of a hill is fteep, and 
the land abforbent, the foil requires to be turned down- 
wards of the lope with turnwreit or Kentifh plough ; and 
the fences to be directed by the natural lines of the hill as 
much as poflible. 

In laying out cow ean, grazing grounds, or other pe- 
rennial patture grounds, regard {hould be particularly had to 
water. And wherever good water is naturally found, ox 

can 


FARM, 


can be convenicutly brought by art, to that point, a patture 
ground ought to tend, in order to enjoy the neceflary fup- 
ply as much as poffible. 

And in laying out water-meadows, where they are fituated 
on floping grounds, or the higher fides of which adjoin ta 
upper lands, the main conductor (where a proper fall from 
the fource of the water will admit of it) ought to define 
the outline of the meadow on that fide; and the fence whieh 
feparates the meadow lands from the dry grounds ought 
to run immediately along the upper fide of the water-courfe; 
the two thus becoming natural guards to each other. But 
within an extended flat, or au extent of gently fhelving 
meadow-grounds belonging to different proprietors, and 
where deep ditches are required to be funk ov the upper 
fides of the fences, to drain the lands that lie above 
them, the plan here recommended would be improper. But 
in the fituations defcribed above it is perfectly eligible, 
and eught not, in ordinary cafes, to be departed from. And 
in concluding his obfervations on this interefting branch of 
rural economy, the intelligent writer fuggefts, that in re- 
ard to drift ways and private roads, where a public road 
runs through a farm, the more diftant fields ought, under 
ordinary circumftances, to run into it, to prevent the inte- 
rior of the farm from being cut up unnecellarily by car- 
rlages, ar poached by ftock, or laid wafte by unneceflary pri- 
vate roads and drift ways, which increafe the number of 
fences, and are made and kept up at confiderable expence. 
And where public roads do not prefent themfelves, private 
lanes are Inghly requifite, efpecially within large farms. 
It is obvious that all thefe circumitances require to be care- 
fully confidered by thofe employed in shisttort of bufinefs, 
‘And it is faggeited by the writer, that whether in laying 
out an eftate or a farm, it is prudent to go repeatedly over 
the ground, with a map of unalterable data in one hand, and 
a litt of defiderata in the other; and with the leading prin- 
ciples of the att in the mind, but without any pre conceived 
rencral plan in view; ever letting the particular circumitances 
ef the lands to be laid out determine the true poitits 
to be fixed, and the proper lines to be drawn ; acquiring 
corre ideas of outline by enlarged furveys ;. and by more 
minute examinations, adjufting particular points. In this 
way favm lands may be laid out in the moft eafy and con- 
venient methods for the purpofes of their occupiers. 

The nature of the fences, which may be moft advan- 
tarcoufly had recourfe to-under particular circumftances, 
will ‘be more fully confidered and explained in fpeaking 
ef fences and inclofing, See Fence, and Incrosine of 
tand. 

On hiring and flocking Farms,—Whatever the nature of 
the farm may be, there are a variety of circumftances 
which require to be particularly weighed and confidered be- 
fore it be finally engaged by a tenant. The author of 
« Modern Hufbandry” has remarked, that when a farmer 
has oceafion to hireia farm, he fhould be equally careful toexa- 
mine, on the one hand, all the advantayres which it enjoys, and 
on the other, all the difadvantages to which it is fubjeéted. 
By making a juft eftimate of both, and by comparing the 
relult with the rent demanded, can he only be able to form 
a correét opinion refpe@ting the equity of that demand. 
In making this eflimate, he fhould difcard equally from his 
mind that over-cautious prudence which is difpofed to doubt 
of every probable advantage that may infure fuccefs, and 
that too adventurous temerity which is apt to overlook, or 
at leaft to leffen, real difadvantages, fuch as no future exer- 
tion of his can poflibly overcome. The value of land, fays 
he, depends no lefs on its fertility, whether occupied in 
tillage or paflure, than on its fituation in regard to markets. 


For this reafon, an arable farm, in the vicinity of a larve 
town, is worth a higher rent than one of an equal fize and 
quality in a remote part of the country. For the fame 
reafon, namely, a fuperior advantage in regard to markets, a 
fheep or ftore-farm in the north of England yields a higher 
rent to the proprietor than one (but for the difference of 
fituation) of frmilar value in the north-weft of Scot- 
land. In rentimga farm, one general rule ought, he thinks, 
always to be attended to, namely, fixing on good lands, 
Over the kingdom at large, the rents paid for farms of this 
defcription are in general reafonable, when compared with 
what 1s commonly paid for thofe of more indifferent foils: 
The author of the © New Farmer’s Calendar,”’ however, well 
remarks, that it can obvioufly very feldom happen that a 
tenant, in want of a farm, can have the i of 
choofing precifely that kind of foil and fituation which 
may be deemed the mot advantageous ; in general, he muft 
content himfelf with fuch as chance to be’ unoccupied ; and 
thefe chances, in fruitful parts of the country, have never 
been of late years, and fince the vaft enhancement in price 
of all the fruits of the earth, very numerous. But the 
Superior advantages of natural fertility and facility of culti- 
vation are too plain to admit of queftion or argument: and 
nothing is more clear than the preference which ought to 
be given to good land at the advanced price, fince the culture 
of barren land is infinitely more expenfive, and the rifk of crop 
nearly double: and what is of great force, frem the influence 
of cuftom and local circumftances, the price of land in the 
moft fruitful counties is frequently as low as of that in 
diftricts of far inferior fertility. An attentive obferver, 
although net very converfant in the principles or praétice 
of hufbandry, can fearcely, he thinks, be deceived as to the 
general nature and degree of goodnefs of foil upon afarm; a 
comparifon with the neighbouring farms, and their average 
products, will be a fufficient guide. Wherever, fays he, is 
found confiderable depth of mixed foil, even if natural. 
fertility be deficient, art and culture will remedy the defect, 
and fully reward the labours of the hufbandman. On the 
other hand, the moft fhallow and ftony lands, from a natural 
richnefs'in their light moulds, may be wonderfully produc- 
tive. The luxuriance and deep verdure of the » the 
{pontaneous growth of white clover, the tallnefs and fruit- 
fulnefs of the hedge-wood, particularly hazel, the large fize 
of the timber, and the height and fubtlance of the ftraw, are 
all common indications ofa ftrong and fertile foil: plenty of 
weeds, particularly thiftles, although a popular, he fears, 
is but an equivocal fign, fince the moft barren land will‘alfo 
produce fpontaneoufly abundant crops of thofe. It is 
much more prudent for a farmer, he thinks, to wait and look. 
forward, than to engage himfelf upon a miferable barren 
tract, where the certainty or promife can be of nothing but 
everlaiting labour and expence :: {uch mutt be the cafe upon 
foils which are naturally poor ; at the fame time of infufficient 
depth, and abounding with flint or fhingles upon fandy 
wattes, parched april cold, acid, iron clays, boggy or 
poachy lands, to or from which there is fearcely acce{fs or 
paflage during the winter months, Some fuch traéts we 
have in England; and of thofe held in hand an opu- 
lent and well-fkilled proprietor can make a far greater 
annual profit than can be drawn from the labour of aneedy 
and miferable tenant. The moft profitable purpofes to 
which thefe eftates can be devoted are, he conceives, the 
growth of wood and of live-ftock. A farmer who aims 
at obtaining his profits with the lea(t poflible. trouble and 
rifk, and without the burden of much live ftock, muft pro« 
eure a rich light land-farm, with a fandy loam; on fuch a 
fituation, without a moderate capital, and the example a 

2 . § 


FAR YM. 


his neighbours before his eyes, ke may, he thinks, fet himfelf 
down in contented indolence, and yet grow rich. The cafe 
is widely different with him who engages with a {trong 
clay, or, in the improvement of an exhaufted or infertile 
foil; this will find an ample feld for the moft ftrenuous ex- 
ertions, direéted by a fair portion of agricultural flcill, and 
ought to entertain no hope of very confiderable fuccefs with- 
out the aid of a full ftock of cattle. Thefe obfervations are, 
he {ays, by no means intended to damp the ardour of afpir- 
ing hufbandmen, who aim at raifing a fortune and a name 
by the improvements of low priced land; for although, 
from the irregularity of rate fer acre above hinted, the 
rent of land is feldom the prime caufe of good or ill fuc- 
cefs, yet cheapnefs is a material confideration, when money 
is to be expended in gradual improvement. A farm at four 
or five fhillings per acre, poflefling within itfelf, or its vi- 
cinity, the permanent means of amelioration, will turn out a 
mine of wealth in the hands of an able cultivator, who, in 
the courfe of half his leafe, will bring it to a level of fertility 
with the high-priced kinds of land. 

There is, the-fame writer remarks, another point which 
merits attention, which is, the manner in which the farm 
wa$ formerly cultivated. If it has been exhaufted and run 
out by over-cropping, and requires fencing, draining, re- 
pairs of houfes, lime, marle, &c. all which are to be effected 
at the tenant’s expence, the rent payable to the landlord 
in fuch a cafe ought, he juftly obferves, to be very mode- 
rate, in comparifon to what the tenant could, with equal 
propriety, afford to give, were he to enter on the leafe 
when the farm was in a high ftate of cultivation and im- 
provement. 
confiderable than the generality of proprietors or farmers are 
difpofed to allow. For inttance, a farmer who enters to the 
pofieffion of a farm in a high {tate of cultivation, enters 
immediately to the greateft returns which that farm is ca- 
pable of producing ; while he who enters to a farm which 
had been previoufly exhaufted by improper management, 
finds himfelf under the neceffity of expending large fums 
on the improvement of it; when, at the fame time, 
his returns for the firlt few years are probably inadequate 
to the expence incurred in carrying on even the ordinary 
operations. In the one cafe, the farmer enters, from the 
begianing of his leafe, on the receipt of his annual profits, 
moderate as they may be ;. and in the other, he is finking a 
large fhare of his capital, for which his returns mutt at beft 
be flow. If this lofs of capital and intereft, the additional 
expence of cultivation, and the inferiority of crops for the 
firlt feven or eight years are fairly calculated, it will, he 
thinks, be found that the farmer who, under thefe circum- 
ftances, pays twenty fhillings the acre for a leafe of nincteen 

ears, has as high a rent upon the farm, ee the whole 
heate, as the other who pays nearly double the fum. 

One other particular of great importance ought, he fays, 
to be mentioned, namely, the poe See a of renting a larger 
tarm than the capital which the farmer pofleffes will properly 
ftock and improve. When this happens, the tenant puts 
it out of his power to adopt the proper plans by which he 
could turn the farm to the greateft poffible account. He 
becomes cramped in carrying on the ordinary courfe of 
bufinefs, and is frequently obliged to difpofe of his crops 
at an under value fer ready money; and therefore cannot 
purchafe lime, marles, or other means of improvement, which 
are not to be had without the expenditure of confiderable 
fums. Although it will not hold in every cafe, yet it may 
be afforted as a good. general rule that, in the improved parts 
of the kingdom, four pounds per flatute acre is a moderate 
fum for ftocking a farm, without including the expence 


The difference here is, he fays, much more: 


of buildings, repairs, fences, drains, &c. ‘If, therefore, a 
farmer fhould be fo imprudent as to rent a farm of oue 
hundred acres when his capital does not exceed 2-0/. he 
mutt be fortunate indeed in times and feafons if he has not 
occafion to repent of his temerity. 

And by the fame author it is obferved, that it is doubtlefs 
a found general maxim for a man to hire no more land than his 
capital is amply fufficient to flock; the difadvantages and 
dangers of a want of money, in all concerns, are too 
common and well known to be for a moment infifted on; 
the farmer had indeed better be fomewhat fhort than 
burdened with too large a traét of land; for in the latter 
cafe, if he be jxdicious and mafter of his profeffion, he 
may well employ his furplus capital in a fuperior and 
garden-ftyle of cultivation, and as a dealer in live-ftock. 
But it is yet a grating thing to an induftrious man to 
refufe a promifing bargain, particularly of the low-rented 
kind, on account of ifs extent, the very confideration which 
muft animate his hopes; and when fuch a one has made 
the leap, inftead of the common method of aiming at 
the culture of the whole in a flovenly, infufficient, and un- 
profitable manner, it would probably be much the fafett 
plan to crop only fuch a portion of the farm as his means 
would compafs with good effeét, fecking but to pay the 
rent and live, and, by dint of frugal and perfevering induitry, 
to make an annual addition, until, in procefs of time, the 
whole farm fhould be in a flourifhing itate of cultiva- 
tion. 

The writer cannot forbear, he fays, inthis place, copying an 
important remark from Mr. Young, which, in truth, he has 
repeatedly feen verified. Farmers frequently adopt no other 
rule refpecting the rent they will give than mere cuitom, 
nor attend to aay other criterion of eftimating the worth 
and qualities of land, than that of the good or ill fuccefs of 
the laft occupant ; than which there can fcarce be a more 
fallacious method of forming a judgment. He has known 
many farms, on which fortunes might have been obvioufly, 
and afterwards were really made, lie untenanted, and taken 
afterwards with the utmoft apprehentfion, purely becaufe an 
ignorant, wretched, and needy tenant had failed therein. 
Many fine farms may now be pointed out, on which the old 
tenants ftarved, and brought their families to the work- 
houfe, at feven fhillings an acre; whilft their fucceffors 
(times {till the fame, or worfe) made their fortunes by 
being rented at eighteen. It is a cruel difgrace, or rather 
a very laughable piece of burlefque, for a man, pretending 
to common difcernment, to regulate his judgment and his 
conduct from motives like thefe. If fair land be offered at 
a fair rent, it is well; if an additional rent be demanded, 
and a man, after the niceft ferutiny, both a@ual and pro- 
bable, can difcover money’s-worth in the terms, he mult be 
unwife to forego the occafion. Some landlords, from a 
magnauimous and princely f{pirit, have fuppofed it beneath 
their dignity to raife their rents; and certain tenants, mif- 
taking the nature of this bounty and the queftion in general, 
are eae averfe to the very idea of any advance, not 
confidering that it is a queftion of property, ard that land- 
lords, as well as tenants, have all pollible right and reafon to 
make a fair advantage of the growing profperity of the 
times. Thofe men ivho are averfe to a diftant removal, by 
which they might obtain a far fuperior fituation, from the 
fingle contideration of prefent lofs in the difpofal of their 
ftock, do not, the author thinks, well underitand their own 
intereft. A  prefent trifling lofs, which the farmer's cir 
cumitances can well bear, ought not to weigh againit a 
permanent and growing profit ; this motive, however, con- 
fines many a farmer to a poor and barren fpot; men are, 

2 abfolutely 


BN VAR AES 


abfolutely afraid of fair calculation, as they often are of 
their beft friends. 

In the examination of a bargain, he obferves, the objec- 
tions may be of a two-fold nature; fuch as may be held in- 
fuperable ; or fuch as may admit of compenfation, either in 
proportional abatement of price, or in the goodnefs of the 
profpect. As to the firft, on perceiving them, a man in- 
ftantly turns his back on the bufinefs. In his ideas, tithes 
taken in kind ; a number of common carriage-ways, or paths, 
and the lands interfeGted by other property; far diftant 
markets, and roads impaflable in winter, are objections of 
that clafs; and granting pecuniary compenfations can be 
made, there can be none found adequate to the anxiety of 
mind which muft be inevitably fuffered in fuch a fituation. 
Of thefe defeéts, with which a perion is content to put up, 
he ought to have a very correct eftimate, that he may really 
know when an offer is made deferving of his acceptaace ; an 
important point, where many contra¢ting parties fail, 
Every practical man knows that in bargaining, as in angling, 
there is a critical moment, a time to ftrike, which may never 
return. ‘The heads already enumerated will furnith ‘matter 
for an eftimate in writing, taken on the aétual furvey. 
Thence will appear the fums neceffary to be expended, and 
the dedu€tion of rent, or other recompence, fuch expeuditure 
will fairly warrant. In this eftimate, the ftate or nature of 
the fences fhould be well contidered, and alfo the injuries 
done by game in fome initances in particular fituations. 

It is on the whole concluded, that the farmer who intends 
to hire a farm, fhould confider whether the land be rich and 
fertile, and the climate favourable ; as well as whether the 
farm be well fituated in regard to markets; properly ac- 
commodated as tu houfes; has eafy accefs to lime, marle, 
and other manures; and whether the price of provifions be 
fully on a par with the rate of labour. 

Having adverted to thefe different circumftances, and fully 
pointed out the advantages of a perfeét. examination of the 
foils, fo as to afcertain their natures and qualities, as to {tiff- 
nefs, moifture, expofure, levelnefs, flope, ftonynefs ; what 
draining, manuring, fencing, &c. may be wanted; and 
ltkewifle the roads, diltance of markets, prices of commodi- 
ties, labour, the {tate of tithes, and poor rates ; Mr. Young 
advifes that one general rule in hiring a farm fhould not be 
overlooked by the farmer, which is, to fix on good land, aud 
he can fearcely give too much for it; but that, for poor 
foils, the leait rent is fometimes too high to be confiitent 
with profit. By poor foils, however, are not to be under- 
ftood fuch as have acommand of lafting manures, that work 
gyeat improvements; nor walte-lands, which, under that 
falfe denomination, are often found the mott profitable of 
all. It is fuppofed that the found, mellow, rich, putrid, 
crumbling, fandy loams, are of all foils the moft profitable ; 
fuch as will admit tillage foon after rain, and do not bake 
on hot gleams of fun coming after heavy rains, when finely 
harrowed ; fuch land is better worth forty fhillings an acre, 
than many foils deferve five. 

Next the {tiff loam, which is neareft allied to brick earth ; 
this, till drained, is in general an unkindly foil, without 
plenty of manure. 

It is known in winter by being very adhefive upon walk- 
ing over it; is long in drying, even where little or no water 
js feen upon it; for which reafon it is generally late in the 
{pring before it can be,ploughed. When quite dry, it breaks 
up neither fo hard and cloddy as mere clay, nor near fo 
crumbly and mellow as good loam. If it be in ftubble, it is 
apt to be covered with a minute green mofs. There are 
many varieties of this foil, but all agree in moft of thefe 
circumftances, and in being what the farmers eall poor, 


cold, hungry Jand- When hollow-ditched, and greatly 
manured, it yields any thing ; but thofe who hire it fhould 
forget neither of thefe expences. 

The gravelly foils are numerous in their kinds, and very | 

difficult in their natures. Warm, dry, found gravelly loams, ~ 
are eafily diftinguifhed in winter. ‘hey admit ploughing all 
winter through, except in very wet times; always break 
up in a crumbly ftate of running moulds; and if ina ftubble, 
will dig, on trial by the fpade, in the fame manner. If 
under turnips, it may be perceived by walking through 
them, that it will bear their being fed off. But the wet 
ceid f[pungy gravel is a very bad foil; it is known in winter 
by the wetnefs of it; and in fpring, Ly its binding with: 
hatty fhowers. It rarely breaks up in a crumbly ftate, or 
fhews a mellownels under the fpade. Very expenfive drains 
greatly corveét its ill qualities ; but it requires a prodigious. 
quantity of manure to fertilize it. And other gravels are 
io fharp and burning, that they produce nothing except in 
wet fummers; but fuch are known at any feafon of the 
year. 
" And the fand-foils are as various as the gravels, and are 
all eafily difcoverable in their natures. The rich red fand: 
is, it is believed, as profitable a foil as any in the world. 
It has at all fealons a dry foundnefs, and at the fame time 
a moifture without wetnefs, which fecures crops. even in. 
dry fummers. The fpade is fufficient to try it at any fea- 
fon of the year. ‘he light fandy loam is likewife an ad-: 
mirable foil ; it will bear ploughing like the preeeding,, all: 
winter long, and appears quite found and mellow when 
tried with the fpade. If it le under a winter fallow, the 
beft way of judging of its richnefs is to remark the {tate of 
the furrows, and the degree of adhefion in the foil Stiff. 
land, being dry and crumbly, is a great perfeGion ; and 
fand, being adhefive, is an equally gsodfign. Confequently 
when the farmer views a light fandy loam, whofe found 
drynefs is acknowledged, he may prefume the foil is rich,. 
in proportion to its adhefion. Where it falls flat in powder,. 
and has no adhetfion, it is a mere fand. The white chalky 
marm is often cold and wet, will not bear gloughing in. 
winter, unlefs the weather be very dry or frofty ; runs. 
exceflively to mortar, with a heavy fhower when in a pul- 
verized ftate. Itisacold foil of little profit, is is fuppofed,. 
except with peculiar management. It is believed to anfwer 
beft when laid down in a dry itate to faintfoin. The 
farmer is advifed to lay it down as a maxim, that ftrong,. 
harfh, tenacious clay, though it will yield great crops of 
wheat, is yet managed at fo heavy an expence, that it is» 
ufually let for more than it is worth. Much money is not 
often made on fuch land. The yery contrary foil, a light, 
poor, dry fand, is very often indeed in the occupation of men. 
who have made fortunes. Some permanent manure is: 
ufually below the furface, which anfwers well to carry on 5. 
avd fheep,. the common ftock of fuch foils, is the moft pro-. 
fitable fort he can depend on, 

All the ftiff forts of foils are viewed to moft advantage- 
in winter; the general fault of them is wetnefs, which 
is in the greateft excefs at that feafon of the year. If the 
fields be level, and the water ftands in the land, notwith-- 
ftanding the furrows are well ploughed and open, itis a fign: 
that the clay is very {tiff, and of fo adhefive a nature, as to 
contain the water like adifh. It is likewife probable, that 
draining may prove infufficient to cure the natural evil of 
fuch land. This kind of foil likewife fhews itfelf in the 
breaking up of ftubbles for a fallow; a very flrong draught 
of cattle is then necefflary to work it. It breaks up in 
vaft pieces, almoft as hard'as iron. When it is worked fine, 
it will run like mortar, with a heavy {pring or fitmmer 

8 fhower, 


FARM. 


fhower. Thefe foils will yield very great erops of beans 
and wheat, &c. They mutt, like others, be cultivated by 
fomebody ; but it is advifed to have nothing to do with 
them, where it can be avoided, nor ever to be captivated 
with fecing large crops upon the land, for the farmer does 
not fee at the fame time the expences at whieh they are 
raifed. Peat, bog, moor, and fen, in many variations, are 
yéry profitable ; but the expences of improvement demand 
2 calculating head. The vicinity oi lime or marle is here of 
great importance. 

In grafs lands the marks for judgment are differgnt. 
They are, in the writer’s opinion, beift examined by attend- 
ing, firft, to the circumftances in which they are moft defi- 
cient ; and then to fuch as are in their favour. The more 
feafons grafs-fields are viewed in the better, though any one 
is fufficient for a tolerable judgment. One great evil 
attending thefe lands is, that of being too wet; the figns 
of which can never be miftaken or overlooked in any feafon 
of the year. In winter it is at once perceived by walking 
on them; atalltimes of the year by the herbage which 
generally abounds on them, fuch as rufhes, flags, and a 
great quantity of mois; and aifo by the colour of the 
grafs, which is moftly blue at the points; fometimes of a 
dirty yellow hue, and always coarle. If the foil be the 
firft defcribed, ftiff clay, and the furface level, the evil 
will be very difficult of cure; if of the other fort of 
clay, or ftiff loams, draining will have great effects in im- 

roving it. 

Grais-fields on gravelly foils are, if the gravel be tharp, 
very apt to burnin dry fummers; but they give great and 
{weet crops in wet ones, provided that the land be a gravelly 
loam. An adfolute gravel fhould never be under grafs. 
A farmer fhould not, however, regret having a pafture or 
two of this fort in his farm, as they are of excellent ufe in 
winter for feeding fheep and lambs on with turnips or other 
food of the fame kind. 

With regard to the low meadow lands, whatever the foil 
may be on the banks of the rivers and brooks, they are in 
general good, but often fubje& to the misforcune of being 
overflowed in fummer, which not only ruins crops of hay 
before they are cut, but carries them away, perhaps when 
juft made. And many grafs-fields on all foils confift of fo 
bad an herbage, as to be of little value. Made up of weeds, 
and the worft and coarfeft of grafies, if a landlord will not 
allow fuch to be ploughed, the farmer fhould minute down 
the rent accordingly. ‘This fault is vifible at all feafons, 
and cannot be eafily miftaken. Buta river that does not 
overflow, running through a farm, is a very favourable cir- 
cumitance, as it indicates a probability of all the grafs- 
frelds being well {upplied with water for cattle, and other 
animals. 

Befides the circumftance of well proportioning the fize 
of the farm to the extent of capital as already noticed, 
there are feveral others which fhould be well confidered in 
frxing upon farms, fuch as their being compact and conve- 
nient in the fields, which are too often overlooked by farm- 
ers who are about to rent land. If they attended to it as 
auch as their profit required, we fhould, the writer thinks, 
fee landlords reforming their eftates, in this particular, 
more than many do at prefent. There is not, it is fup- 
pofed, amore expenfive, perplexing circumftance in a farm, 
than that of the fields being in a ftraggling, difconne&ted 
_fituation. The difadvantages are obvioufly numerous and! 
Rriking. 

- The covenants of leafes fhould likewife be well attended 
to, as landlords are very often tenacious of thofe which 
they have ufually inferted in them ; fo that a farmer, when 


he approves of a farm, and agrees to the rent, may not find 
the conditions of tenure propofed to him, fuch as are 
compatible with his intereft, his defigns, and with good 
hufbandry. The merit or reafonablenefs of covenants muft 
always be confidered in comparifon with the nature of the 
farm. It is for want of this confideration that unreafonable 
covenants are ever propofed- And thefe prohibitions are 
often foolifh, but fometimes admiffible : they muft depend 
on-local circumf{tances, which fhould be well weighed by 
the farmer before he makes his decifion. 

The afcertainment of rent is a highly important part of 
the bufinefs of hiring a farm, though the circumftances al- 
ready ncticed precede it, asthe rent muft ina great meafure 
depend on them. The chief point neceffary to be here con- 
fidered is the combination of rent, tithe, and rates in one 
fum. It is advifed that the farmer, knowing the capital 
intended to be invefted, fhould eftimate the intereft of it at 
not lefs than to per cent. and then calculate the expences 
and produce; the former, being deducted from the latter, 
will leave that {um which he can afford to pay in thefe three 
forts of rent. And further, deducting the tithes and rates, 
the remainder will be what he can afford to pay to the land- 
lord. Where rent is calculated in any other way, it muit 
be erroneous and deceitful, amd not by any means to be de— 
pended on. 

On the bufinefs of ftocking farms, the fame able writer 
has likewife fuggefted many ufeful hints and directions. He 
confiders the advantage to be derived from the occupation 
of land to depend fo much on the farmer commanding the 
requifite capital, that it is extremely neceflary for the young 
beginner to be well advifed on fo effential a point. If he 
be fixed in bufinefs by fome experienced relation, he will 
not, of courfe, want the proper inftru€tion ; but as many 
adventurers, as they may be called, are every day making 
efforts to try their fortune in the culture of the earth, and 
many gentlemen taking farms into their hands,. fometimes: 
without fufficient confideration of the neceflary expences, 
it may not be improper to confider a few points concern- 
ing this bufinefs. Thirty years ago, the fum which was: 
ufually appropriated to the ftocking of a farm, varied 
from three to five pounds the acre; and it wasa general 
idea, that the latter fum was fufficient for any farm, part 
arable, and part grafs, of no uncommon fertility. Rick 
marfhes were, of courfe, excluded in the calculation, and. 
light fteck farms were often itocked for three pounds. the 
acre. But thefe matters are now greatly changed: rents are 
much increafed ; tithes are compounded at a higher rate of 
payment ; poor rates are enormoutly rifen ; all forts of im- 
plements comprehended in the article wear and tear are 
thirty or forty: per cent. dearer; labour is: in many dif- 
tri&s doubled; the prices of cattle and fheep, as well as 
all other forts of live ftock, are greatly advanced; fo that 
at prefent, the fame farm which at that period would have 
been very well ftocked, and the firft year’s expences pro- 
vided for, at the rate of five pounds the acre, would now de= 
mand nearly from feven to eight pounds the acre. Butit is to 
be remembered, thatin all fuch eftimates.it is neceflary to, 
{uppofe that every tool bought in is new, and that the live 
ftock be good of the fort, as well as that the firft year’s ex- 
pences be provided for, though a portion of the crop may come 
in before the whole payment is made. Itis ftated that a man 
cannot be at his eafe if he do not provide in this manner ;. nor 
will he be able to make that profit by. his bufinefs with a 
fmall capital, which will attend the employment of a larger. 
By proft the writer would be underitood to mean a-per 
centage on his capital, which is the only fatisfaGory way of 
eftimating it. If, by ftocking a farm with five pounds the 

acres 


FARM. 


acre, he makes feven or eight per cent. profit; and by 
ftocking in the proportion of eight pounds the acre, he 
makes ten per cent. (and this difference will, it is believed, 
often be found); it muft be fufliciently apparent that the lofs 
by the fmaller ftock is a very ferious evil. It will depend 
much, it is fuppofed, on fituation and local circumftances: 
the benefit of procuring manures, or litter; to make dung, 
may, in fome places, be very great, in others much lefs ; but 
not to be able to profit by every favourable opportunity 
that may attend the {pot on which a farmer is fixed, mutt 
be highly difadvantageous to him. To irrigate land is an 
expentive operation ; but to omit or peitpone it for want of 
money for the undertaking, is to lofe, perhaps, the capital 
advantage of a farm, Cafes of this fort might be greatly 
multiplied ; and there is not one that does not call on the 
farmer for an ample capital to obtain the greateft poffible 
beneft. 

It is hinted, that of all the different forts of farms thole 
af the warren kinds are hired and flocked with the {mallett 
capitals; but there are maifhJands in different diftriéts, and 
efpecially in Lincolnfhire, which are ftocked at the vatt 
yate of more than thirty pounds the acre. And the ge- 
neral annual expence of many hop plantations rifes to thirty 
pounds, and the capital to more than fixty pounds the 
acre. 

In general, for ftocking, according to the modern prin- 
ciples of hufbandry, not lefs than from eight to ten, or fif- 
teen, pounds the acre can be neceflary ; and in fome cafes, 
where improvements are to be made, confiderable more will 
be required. 

It is fuggefted, that if the farmer is not capable of 
making ten per cent. on his capital, he muft either haye an 
indifferent farm, there muft be bad management, or the 
times muft be greatly againft him. It is juitly fuppofed 
that he fhould make from twelve to fifteen per cent., and 
that fome farmers make more, even when the price of corn 
% not in any way extravagant. 

Thefe direétions fhould be well weighed and confidered 
by thofe farmers who have had but lit:le experience, be- 
fore they enter upon the ferious bufinefs of hiring and 
flocking farms. 

It has been remarked, in refpe& to the advantages of dif- 
ferent forts of farms, by the author of the ‘¢ New Far- 
mer’s €alendar,’? that were it demanded of him generally, 
what is the moft advantageous application of ‘Tana he 
fhould be inclined to anfwer, that of dairying, or feeding 
a large number of cows for the produce of butter; but with 
the referve, that the bufinefs be conducted with great va- 
riation from the common modes. The dairy-man mutt 
himfelf bea perfect judge of the live ftock which he enter- 
tains, and they be of the improved {pecies : no bad milkers 
muft be kept, nor indeed any kept too long; the profit of 
grazing mu{t come into the account, and of pig-feeding to 
a much larger than the ufual extent. The winter provifions 
for the cows, both green and dry, muft be fo ample as to 
equalize the produce of butter, in money, at leaft, with that 
ef the fummer, and it will be clearly advifeable to have a 
gonfiderable breadth of land under the plongh. If this, 
however, be the moft profitable, it is, no. doubt, he fays, 
the moit troublefome fcheme of hufbandry. The next in 
point of profit is, he thinks, two-thirds arable, and one- 
third grais; the moft adantageous winter feed, provided, 
and cattle enough of the beft kinds kept to furnifh annually 
from twelve to fifteen loads pes acre of rich compoft. This 
may prove more profitable than if all the laud were grazed, 
fince it is to divide the rifk of markets between corn and 
cattle ; and large crops of the former may of right be ex- 


pected where the quantity of manure fhall have been fo lihes 
ral, A family which cultivates a parcel of land, with. the, 
prudent view of inereafing its income and domeftic comforts, 
fhould keep, he fays, a {mall dairy, with two or three breeds 
ing fows, a {mall flock of fheep, fome tame rabbits, and a 
few hives of bees. It fhould uot be forgotten to ftock a 
fith-pond ortwo, if there be fuch convenience. The plan, 
will alfo, he thinks, admit of the fattening a few bullocks 
annually. 

Hay-farms and grazing-farms arg obvioufly, he fays, at« 
tended with the leaft trouble. Hay-farming is, however, 
by no means the molt profitable branch of hufbandry, as it 
hes under the con{tant difadvantage of incapacity to feed) 
live ftock to any good purpofe; hence much after-grafs is, 
annually wafted. Granting a hay farmer has fattened a 
lot uf beafts, they muit, he obferves, be late in the feafon, 
when beef is ufually cheap, and he cannot keep them until 
after Chriftmas, for fear of injuring his future crop of hay, 
which is his grand dependance. As to grazing, however 
profitable or void of trouble it may be, he would adyife, 
every perfon to be cautious how he enters into it to any 
great extent, unlefs he fhall have previoufly acquired a con- 
fiderable knowledge of live ftock. Mott bailiffs know much 
worfe than nothing at all of the matter. In the common 
advice given on the head of breeding animals, aptitude of 
fituation and room have always been very properly infilted 
on; but the confideration, the moft impertant, perhaps, of 
all others, hath hitherto been negleéted, which is, aptitude- 
in the: breeder himfelf for the undertaking, without which, 
we will venture to affirm, no adequate fuccefs ought to be 
expected. A man ought to be poffeffed of much fenibility 
for the brute creation, with a confiderable {pice of the 
mania of improvement, who fets up fora breeder. In hie 
daily or weekly bible-excurfions, he muft be fure never to 
forget the book of Job, He mutt enter fully into the fpirit 
of a thoufand little niceties, both of judgment and practice, . 
which it would take a good velume to deferibe. e mutt 
find a pleafure in never-ending care and folicitude, and keep. 
a perpetual watch. On fuch conditions a breeder, he thinks,: 
will acquire wealth and fame. The generality of cultiva-, 
tors, whatever may be their fituation, had, perhaps, better 
purchafe their live ftock ready made. With redpeét to fat- 
tening animals for market, the greateft difficulty, in hie, 
opinion, occurs with pigs, as is fufficiently manifelt from. 
the accounts of our numerous experiments, The Englifh- 
of the matter is, he thinks, that the butinefs requires a cor- 
rect judgment both of that fpecies of flock and of the 
markets. . 

But whatever be the nature of the farm, it is obvious 
that it can never be cultivated to the greateft poflible adyane 
tage without having the fecurity of a fair equitable leafe.. 
See LEAsE. 

And on the conduting or management of farms, it is, 
obferved by the fame author, that it has always been the; 
fathion to lay much {trefs on the difference between the gen- 
tleman and the labouring farmer, and to allow a decided fue 
periority to the latter, nay, even to deny all poffibility of the. 
former deriving profit from the practice of hufbandry. - 
The matter has, he thinks, been impraperly ftated, Noe. 
thing can be more true than that the man, whether gen- 
tleman or farmer, who determines to remain ignorant of 
his bufinefs, and who indolently fuffers himfelf to be 
cheated through the nofe, will have a fair chance to be evere 
laflingly unfuecefsful. But grant the gentleman a mode- 
rate portion of the fcience of agriculture, and a decent com- 
petency of activity and refolution, and he conceives the 
balance will preponderate even heavily on his fide, whatever. 

may 


FARM. 


may be the quantity of lands, from a cabbage-garden to a 
farm of a thoufand acres, The perfonal labour and fuper- 
intendance of the mere common farmer, in the old beaten 
track, can never, he thinks, ftand in competition with the 
advantages of the new hufbandry, ef the moft productive 
kinds of live ftock, of an ample portion of manure, and of 
the garden cleannefs of the hoe-culture. Agriculture, 
viewed in a trading Hicht, perhaps makes as ample a return 
for the ufe of money as any domeftic concern whatever ; 
and although fuch be not the general cultom, it is ealy 
‘enough of proof, that very great capitals, to the amount of 
‘twenty, thirty, or forty thoufand pounds, and upwards, 
might be fafely and pro{peroufly employed upon an extentfive 
farm. The cultivator of two thoufand acres, who fhould 
fully ftock according to the principles of the new huf- 
bandry, breed and fatten his own cattle, confuming all his 
fpring-corn at home, bacon his hogs, and meal his own 
wheat, would find occafior, he fays, for fums of very high 
account. His articles being all thofe of the firft neceflity, 
and being without the obligation of allowing credit, the 
profits would be more certain, and the rifk lefs, than in any 
mercantile concern. In what, he afks, confifts the new huf- 
bandry, fo often quoted by agricultural writers without a 
definition? In alloting certain portions of an arable farm 
to the purpofe of fummer and winter feeding a ftock of cat- 
tle, fufficient, with their dung, to manure and fertilize the 
whole of the land; in eradicating, as far as poffible, all ufe- 
lefs vegetation with the hoe; in the ufe of the various im- 
proved or newly-invented implements, for the purpofe of 
expeditirg or abridging labour; and in the judieious fe- 
leétion of domeftie animals. The ufage of the old huf- 
bandry (too generally prevalent indeed, he fays, at this 
hour) is to place very little dependance on the profit of 
live ftock, to feed very few, excepting thofe animals abfo- 
tutely neceflary for labour, to rejeGt the hoe-culture, per- 
haps altogether, to foul the land by repeated corn-crops, 
and to clean it partially and infufficient!ly by fummer-fal- 
lows, or feed in its foul ftate for a temporary ley. 

There is, fays the fame writer, a falfe pride amongft 
farmers of inferior property, which demands examination, 
if not correction. A man will make any fhift, even to the 
neglect of the important advantage of purchaling cattle 
im the autumn, rather than fell his oats during harveit, 
er his wheat at Michaelmas. His importance is much 
diminifhed, unlefs he can make a capital dilplay of 
ftacks: but fair and impartial calculation alone mutt be 
his guide in this cafe, who purfues his real interett. 

Farm Buildings, in Rural Economy, are {uch buildings 


and offices as are neceflary for carrying on with convenience : 


the various concerns and purpofes of a farm. It is evident 
that the nature and extent of fuch ereétions, as well as their 
peculiarity of conftruétion, mutt be very different, accord- 
Ing to the difference of farm management which is required 
to be carried on with them. However, in general, a much 
greater extent of {uch buildings will be neceffary where the 
farms are of the arable or cern kind, than where they are 
fimply of the dairy, grazing, and hay or grais kind. Though 
the extent of buildings, even for thofe of the firft of thefe 
forts, may be greatly retrenched by having recourfe to the 
threfhing-machine, and the beneficial praétice of {tacking 
the grain-in proper yards, with fuitable {taddles for the pur- 
pofe, and at the fame time the expence of fuch ere&tions be 
confiderably reduced by having‘fimply fhed-buildings initead 
of thofe of a more finifhed kind, which are mottly in ufe, 
while the convenience to the farmer will be nearly the fame. 
There is, however, one circumftance to be here: particularly 
regarded, which is, that whatever the defcription of the 


farm may be, the extent of the buildings fhould conftantly 
be amply fufficient for the various ufes of it. 

The meft ufual defcriptions of buildings which are 
wanted on farms, are thofe of farm-houfes, barns, fabless 
granaries, cow-houfes, cattle-/beds, calf-pens, dairy-houfess 
hog-ftyes, root-houfes, fraw-Sbeds, chaff-houfes and bins, cart- 
ledges, harnefs-rooms, tool-houfes, work-hops, poultry-houfess 
pigeon-houfes, and beeftands. See thefe feveral heads. 

There has been confiderable diverfity of opinion among 
writers on rural economy concerning the moft proper diltri- 
bution of buildings of this fort, and the pointis yet far from 
being decided. It is, however, obvious that it muft be 
different in fome degree, according to the peculiar nature 
of the farm, and the way in which the bufinefs of it isto be 
managed. 

In arable farms, or thofe which are chiefly under the 
plough, the principal things wanted, in regard to diftribu. 
tion, are that the farm-{tead and buildings fhould have a 
centrical fituation, in vefpeét to the ground, being a little 
elevated if poffible, and near the principal market-road. If 
contiguous to a brook or fmall river, it may be an advan. 
tage in the fupplying of water, as well as turning different 
forts of machinery. 

On pafture farms, efpecially thofe of the fheep kind, but 
very few buildings are requifite ; nor where they are of the 
dairying, grazing, or breeding forts, is there any neceffity 
for their being numerous. In their diftribution the con- 
venience of roads and water fhould be particularly attended 
to. 

Jn miced farms, or thofe which are partly of the arable 
and partly of the grafs kinds, the diftribution of the build- 
ings fhould be pretty much the fame as on thofe of the 
perfectly arable fort, only perhaps fomewhat fewer in 
number. 

On family, or eite farms, which are another kind of 
mixed farms, calculated for the convenience of perfonal re, 
fidence, uniting the pafture for breeding, rearing, and occa- 
fionally fattening animals, as well as the keeping of milch 
cows, and growing meadow-hay, with the arable Jand for 
the fupplying of artificial fodder, grain, roots, different 
kinds of vegetables, green-food for foiling, &c. The va- 
riety of buildings fhould here be confiderable, fo as to fuit 
the different purpofes of the farm, having the principal of 
them, or what may be called the farmery, conveniently con- 
tiguous to the family offices, but at the fame time effectu- 
ally fereened from the refidence, being likewife well con- 
nected with all the different parts of the farm, and, if poffi- 
ble, placed fo as to have the advantages of wind and water. 
This fort of farm has been well defigned by Mr. Loudon in 
his ‘* Treatife on Country Refidences.”? 

The fubje& of the proper diftribution of farm-buildings 
is fully entered into in an able paper in the firit volume of 
Agricultural Communications to the Board. The writer 
there confiders the conftruétion, arrangement, and jituation 
of thefe buildings as fo important to the practical farmer, 
as to merit the fulleft attention of the rural economift. It 
is {tated, that on a judicions combination of thefe points the 
convenience and facility of carrying on his different opera- 
tions in a great meafure depend. Yet the examples of 
farm-offices being erected either on a commodious plan or 
with any thing of judgment in the fituation, are extremely 
rare. Indeed, fays the writer, whether we view this fubje@ 
as relating: to the landlord, the tenant, or the public at 
large, it appears highly interefting. To the landlord it isa 
matter of confiderable moment, a part of his rents very often 
depending upon it; for it is natural to fuppofe that a tenant, 
efpecially ona long leafe, would give more for-a farm i 
houfe 


FARM. 


Aoufe and offices were commodious, than if they are fo mi- 
ferably deficient as moft farm-offices are. He would even 
be the mcre readily induced to take a farm on that very ac- 
eount ; and thus the landlord may often lofe a good tenant, 
merely by not having proper accommodation for him. He 
has heard farmers declare, that they would willingly agree 
to pay five per cent. or more on the expences laid out on 
commodious buildings, over and above the rent of the farm, 
rather than occupy for nothing thofe they at prefent pofiefs, 
and that they would, befides, undertake to be at the ex- 
pence of every ordinary repair during the continuance of their 
leafe. How then, fays he, can a landlord lay out a few 
hundred pounds to better purpofe than to accommodate his 
tenants, if he gets not only five per cent. on the money thus 
laid out, (but provided his buildings are very complete) 
perhaps as much additional rent as will amount to five per 
cent. more. He is well convinced that the great expence 
of erecting new farm buildings in the ufual way is a 
very material obftacle to altering the prefent form; for 
there are few landlords, he fuppofes, who would choofe to 
lay out five or fix times the rent of a farm in new accommo- 
dations for that farm, if by propping and patching they can 
at a {mall expence make the old buildings anfwer. When, 
fays he, we hear of s5oo/. being expended in building a barn 
on a {mall farm of about roo/. rent, as is the cafe in fome 
parts of England, and 1000/. laid out on a farm-houfe, it 
is no wonder that landlords are cautious of engaging in fuch 
buildings, and it cannot be fuppofed that tenants would be 
mad enough to do fo. Hence, perhaps, is the principal rea- 
fon why the generality of farm-houfes and offices are in fo 
ruinous a condition. But when farmers can be perfuaded 
that fuch enormous barns are unneceflary ; that their cora 
can be kept much more fecure and lefs hable to injury in a 
well-aired rick-yard, and that if they have juft room enough 
in their buildings for all the common purpofes of the farm, 
no more is requifite; alfo, that a neat, {mall commodious 
dwelling-houfe is fully more comfortable than a large difmal 
one; then we fhall find, he thinks, that landlords will more 
readily agree to accommodate their tenants ; and that inftead 
of thofe gloomy, prepofterous, ruinous buildings, now a 
‘difgrace to almoft every part of the kingdom, we fhall be- 
hold neatnefs and uniformity combined with every neceflary 
accommodation, which will afford not only pleafure and 
comfort to the occupiers, but a beauty and an ornament to 
the country atlarge. ‘That this may be accomplifhed at a 
very moderate expence, he hopes to be able to prove. So 
far as any general rule can be given upon this fubjeét, and al- 
lowing for circumftances and the variation of prices, he is 
fully perfuaded by the obfervations he has made in different 
parts of the kingdom, that, in general, one year’s rent of the 
farm, ifnot under 7o/. (or at moft two) is amply fufficient 
for building every accommodation neceflary upon that farm, 
exclufive of the dwelling-houfe ; and that one year’s rent is 
enough to build a dwelling-houfe on all farms not exceeding 
4oo/. a year (in many fituations lefs may do) ; and, la‘tly, 
that 5co/. are fufficient fora dwelling-houfe, and 1900/. 
for offices on a farm of any extent. It is likewife obferved, 
that in building new farm-houfes and offices, a great faving 
of expence willaccrue, by making ufe of all the ferviceable 
materials in the old buildings, where fuch buildings are, and 
it will aftonifh many (provided they are fairly dealt with) 
who have been accuftomed to thofe large, unneceflary, and 
expenfive buildings commonly ufed, at how {mall an expence, 
comparatively {peaking, a new fet of offices, or houfe may 
be built, having the advantages of fuch materials near the 
{pot. Workmen, in general, are much averfe to ufing old 
materials, efpecially carpenters, who, rather thanrun the rifk 


of touching a rufty-nail with a hatchet or faw, will put their 
employer to the expence of fome hundreds of fuch tools, by 
condemning the old, and advifing him to purchafe new tim- 
ber. 

To a tenant, the conftruGtion and arrangement of his farm- 
buildings is a matter, he fays, perhaps of more importance 
than even to a landlord. After all his toils and labours, and 
the many anxious and fleeplefs hours he has pafled before his 
crop has come to maturity, if his offices are nfufficient, or 
improperly conftruéed, he ftill runs the rif of many in- 
conveniences, and even reallofs. The fecurity of his grain, 
the labour, and the value of his horfes, and other cattle, the 
fafety and duration of his implements, are all dependent on 
the perfection or imperfection of his offices. By arranging 
them judicioufly (a matter very little attended to), a great 
deal more labour may be obtained from his fervants, and 
every operation on the farm will be carried on with more 
facility and difpatch ; for, if a barnis fet down here, a fta- 
ble there, a cow-houle or feeding-houfe in another place, all 
without rule or order, and as if chance had fet them down, 
much unneceflary labour will be occafioned, and a great deal 


. of time loft in carrying provender to the cattle, and in keep- 


ing them fo clean and dry as is neceflary towards their 
health and prefervation. 

Farm-buildings, as has been already remarked, fhould 
always, he fays, be proportioned and con{truéted according 
to the fize and produce of the farm ; which, in fettling their 
dimenfions and arrangement mutt be particularly taken into 
confideration. If, for example, the _< is adapted entirely 
to grazing, very few buildings will be neceflary, except 
fome fheds, and thefe will be in ufe chiefly during the win- 
ter fealon, temporary ones being often erected in the fields 
for the fummer. On farms where cattle are houfed only in 


winter, or in fuch farms where more buildings are ufed in 


winter than in fummer, a great expence in roofing may be 
faved in cattle-fheds by erecting walls only, or having  pil- 
lars or pofts placed and framed in fuch a manner as to fupport 
peafe, hay-ricks, or any other fort of ricks that ate not in- 
tended to be taken down till the {pring or fummer. This 
will not only anfwer the purpofe of an excellent warm roof, 
but willbe a very good fituation for building fuch ricks. 
If, however, the farm is entirely for grazing, as before fup- 
pofed, there may not be a fufficiency of ricks, unlefs of the 
fodder for the cattle, to make fuch temporary roofs. In 
that cafe the fheds mult of courfe have permanent ones, 
which may be of the cheapeft conftru@ion. Or, if there 
fhould be a fufficient number of boards about the farm, as 
is fometimes the cafe, they may be laid loofely on, to ferve 
as a roof to the fheds, till wanted for other purpofes. ~ 

Buta dairy farm will require a different fort of accommo- 
dation, being in general compofed partly of the grazing and 
partly of the arable kind. The cow-houfes muft be propor- 
tioned to the number of cows ufually kept, with every other 
accommodation for carrying on the dairy bufinefs, whether 
as a cheefe or butter farm. Small ftables, and a {mall barn, 
are fufficient for fuch a farm. 

But in anarable or corn farm, which generally partakes of 
beth the other forts, the buildings muft be more aumerous, 
and fuited, in fome refpeét, to all thefe different purpofles ; 
the {tables in proportion to the number of horfes or cattle 
requifite for labouring the farm ; the cow-houfes, and feed- 
ing houfes, according to the number of cows generally kept, 
and cattle fed; the barn and granary according to the ex- 
tent of arable land, together with all the other ufual aceom- 
modations for breeding young horfes or cattle, for hogs, 
poultry, &c. all which mutt be particularly confidered of, 
while planning the farm offices and buildings. 


However, 


FARM. 


“However, fince thé invention of threfling-mills, a moft 
Material alteration may, he conceives, be made in the con- 
ftruétion of farm-buildings, particularly in barns. The 
tedious and laborious operation of threfhing with the flail 
made it neceffary to have the barn large enough to hold a 
great quantity of corn in the ftraw, or at leaft to contain a 
whole ftack at once; and, befides, to hare it fo lofty as to 
give fufficient height for railing the flail. This is by no 
means neceflary where there is a threfhing-mill, for as the 
mill, if properly conftruéed, will threfh the corn as fatt 
as taken in, it is unneceflary to throw in the whole ftack at 
ence, or what remains of it in the vick-yard, if any, may 
be covered with a tarpawling, or painted canvas for that 
purpofe, a thing that every farmer ought to have, heing of 
effential ufe either in cafe of a fudden fhower in harvett, when 
building a ftack, or hay-rick, or of leaving one unfinifhed 
at night, or any othertime. A threfhing-mill not requiring 
fo lotty a barn as a flail, a very convenient granary or ftore- 
room may be obtained above the mill, which, in the common 
way, could not have been had. In fhort, the advantages of 
a threfhing-mill are fo numerous, that no farm producing 
1000 or 1209 bufhels of grain annually fhould, he thinks, be 
without one of them. See Granary, and THRESHING- 
Machine. - 

It is further obferved, that when the plans of any farm- 
buildings are finally determined on, there are many prelimi- 
nary confiderations neceflary to be attended to, previous to 
the commencement of the work. Such are the fituation with 
refpeé& to the quality of the air, the water, materials for build- 
ings, accefs and expolure, the foil for laying the foundations 
upor, the beft method of conducting the drains, together 
with the expence of completing the whole of them. 

‘An ancient hiltory we are told, the writer fays, that the 
Romans were fo very attentive and careful in the choice of 
a good and healthy fituation, that they would not even en- 
camp upon a {pot of ground till they tried various experi- 
ments to afcertain if it was fufliciently healthy. How much 
more neceflary then is it, fays the author, to afcertain the 
falubrity of a place deftined for more permanent purpofes. 
In general, where a choice of fituation can be had, thefe 
four things fhould, he thinks, be particularly attended to; a 
pure and temperate air, the water wholefome, and eafily 
come at, the foil dry, and the place centrical, and of ealy 
accefs. No buildings whatever require thefe qualifications 
more than farm-buildings: yet, in general, it would appear 
that they had been totally difregarded. How often do we 


~ fee farm-buildings and barn-yards placed in the very wortt 


fituation ina whole farm; in low, marfhy, boggy fpots, al- 
mott inacceflible to man or beaft, and fit only for a refort for 
frogs and wild-ducks. Perhaps too, within a little diftance, 
a fine dry wholefome fituation might have been obtained ; 
for there are few farms of any contiderable-extent in which 
a tolerably good fituation for building may not be found 
fomewhere. If drynefs and purity in the air are fo defirable 
and requifite for the fite of a dwelling-loufe, how much 
more (if poffible) are they neceflary for farm-offices and 
barn-yards. If thefe are placed in a damp and humid f{pot, 
the farmer’s whole crop runs the rifk of being rendered ufe- 
lefs and unfaleable, however dry and well conditioned he 
may have brought it from the field ; for if the place to which 
he brings it is damp and unwholefome, his grain will foon 
acquire a foftnefs, and perhaps muttinefs, very injurious to 
its value. On the other hand, if the fituation is dry, his 
rain will pot .only improve and keep in better order, but 
in general it will be of a better quality, and confequently 
worth a better price at the market or other place of fale. 
In the bufinefs of fixing the arrangement of a new fer of 
Vou. XIV, 


farm-buildings, the firft thing to: be taken into confidera. 
tion, after chocfing the fituation, is the nature and produce 
of the farm. From thefe may be judged the different kinds 
of accommodation that will be neceflary. For exam- 
ple, every farm mutt have, rft, a dwelling-honfe; 2dly, a 
barn fuitable to the extent of arable land on the farm, either 
with or without a threfhing-mill, but always with one, if 
poffible ; and it fhould be ‘endeavoured to place it fo that 
it may go by water, if a fupply can be had ; 3dly, ttables, 
the dimenfions of which muft be determined according to 
the number of horfes neceffary for the farm; 4thly, cow, 
houfes, or’ feeding-houfes, or both, according to the num- 
ber of cows and cattle ; and fo on, till the whole accommo- 
dations neceflary, and their dimenfions, are fixed upon, 
Hawing afcertained thefe, and the fituation for building oa 
being alfo fettled, the ground mutt be carefully and atter- 
tively viewed; and if not very even, the different levels 
mutt be obferved, and the beft way of condutting all the ne- 
ceflary drains, aud carrying off all-fuperfuous mozfture. 
Alfo the belt fituation for dung and urine pits, or refervoirs, 
which wiil, in a great degree, afcertain at ouce where the 
cattle-honfes and ftables fhould be. 'Thefe being fixed on, 
the barn fhould, he obferves, be as near them as poffible, 
for the convenience of carrying ftraw to the cattle ; and the 
barn-yard fhould be contiguous toe the barn. Ifa granary 
is refolved on, that fhould alfo be near the barn, or over it ; 
as likewife the ftraw-houfe, which fhould be clofe to the 
barn, Thefe main points being determined on, the others 
will eafily be found; always obferving this rule, to con- 
fider what is the nature of the work to be done about each 
office, and then the eafieft and leaft laborious ‘way to per- 
form that work fo far as it is conneéted with other offices. 
In cafe this fhould not be fufficiently explicit, he thall fup- 
pole, by way of illuftration, the fituation of a feeding-houfe 
is to be confidered of. ‘The nature of the work to be per- 
formed here is, bringing food and litter to the cattle, and 
taking away their dung. The place from whence the 
greateft part, perhaps, of their food and all their litter comes 
isthe bayn ; therefore the feeding-houfe fhould be as near 
the barn as poffible. Ifturnips, or other roots, or cabbages, 
make a part of their food, the moit commodions way. of 
giving thefe mult be determined on; whether by havin 

a root-houfe adjoining the cattle-houfe, and that ‘filled oc- 
cafionally, or by having a place to Jay them down in, near 
the heads of the ftall from whence they are thrown in at 
holes in the wall left for that purpofe. The eafieft method 
of clearing away the dung mutt alfo be confidered, accord- 
ing to the different plans mentioned when defcribing cow- 
houfes, cattle-fheds, &c. See Cow-houfe, and CaTTLie 


Jfoed. 7 


And the fame general rule being obferved in determining 
on the fite of all the other offices or accommodations, toge- 
ther with a careful examination of the ground to be occue 
pied (upon which the arrangement of theroffices ia a great 
meafure fhould depend), any perfon converfant in rura! af- 
fairs, who attends to thefe particulars, and can lay down his 
ideas in advawing, may, he thinks, eafily direét the plaoning 
and building of a very commodious fet of offices. With 
re{peét to the fite of the dwelling-houfe, in addition ta 
what has already been faid, it may be remarked, that, al- 
though a houfe, being fituated in the middle of a regular 
front is, in fome points of view, the molt pleating way, 
and in many fituations perhaps the beit, yet, unlefs the 
ground and .other circumftances in every ref{pect favour 
{uch a.difpofition, he would not invariably adhere to it; 
for it may often happen, he thinks, that amiuch better fitua- 
tion fax the dweljing-houfe may be obtained at a little dil 

v tarce 


FARM. 


tance from the offices, and a pleafing uniformity enough be 
' obferved in them at the fame time, 

In fome cafes, and for fome kinds of farms, it may be 
particularly neceffary to have the houfe fo placed in re- 
f{peét to the offices and farm-yard as to admit of their be- 
ing conitantly infpected, and the labour which is to be per- 
formed in them to be perfeétly attended to and fuper- 
intended. 

A late writer on “ Landed Property”’ has, however, well- 
remarked, that the particular requifites of a farm-ftead are 
as various a3 the intentions of farms. A fheep-farm; a 
grazing-farm ; a hay-farm; a dairy-farm, and a farm under 
mixed cultivation, may require different fituations and dif- 
ferent arrangements of yards and buildings. On a farm of 
the laft fpecies, which may be confidered as the ordipary 
farm of this kingdom, the principal requilites are conceived 
to be fhelter, water, an area or fite fufficiently flat for yards 
and buildings, with meadow land below it, to receive the 
wathings of the yards, as well as found pafture grounds 
above it for a grafs yard and paddocks ; with private roads, 
nearly on a level, to the principal arable lands; and with 
fuitable out-lets to the neareit markets. Where the firft of 
thefe is wanting in the defired Gtuation, it may in time be 
‘fupplied by plantations and mound fences. And where 
there is not a natural fupply of water, a well, water.cellar, 
er artificial rill may furnifh it. And grafs lands are eafily 
produced in almoft any fituation ; and by the help of en- 
riching water, or by manure and patturage may in moft be 
rendered perennial. 

From what has been advanced it is conceived evident 
‘that no general plan can prevail, even on what may be 
emphatically called an Engli/h farm, compofed of arable 
‘meadow, paiture, and wood lands. ‘The plan of the farm- 
ftead mutt ever be moulded to the main obje& of the farm, 
whether it be corn, the dairy, rearing cattle, fattening cattle 
or fheep; as well as to its fize; for although the fame 
‘or nearly the fame fpecies of conveniences are required on a 
{mallas ona large farm of the fame intention, the number 
may be lefs ; and the arrangement be made on a more fruzal 
plan. But in this, as in every other matter of arrangement, 
the firft thing to be done is to afcertain the particulars to 
be arranged, which for a farm of the mixed kind or under 
“mixed hufbandry may be thus enumerated ; rift, a fet of farm 
buildings adapted to the intended plan of management, as a 
dwelling-houle, barns, flables, cattle fheds, cart fhed, &c.; 
zdly,a Pe eR common to the buildings, and contain- 
ing a receptacle tor {tall manure, whether arifing from ftables, 
cattle-fheds, hog-fties, or other offices, together with feparate 
‘folds or ftraw yards, furnifhed with appropriate fheds for 
particular ftock, in places where {uch are required ; 3dly, a 
refervoir or catch-pool, fituated on the lower fide of the 
‘buildings and yards, to receive their wafhings, and colleét 
them in a body, for the purpofe of irrigating the lands 
below them ; 4thly, a corn yard, convenient to the barns; 
and a hay yard, contiguous to the cow or fattening fheds ; 
‘gthly, a garden, and fruit ground near the hovfe ; 6thly, a 
{pacious grafs yard or green embracing the whole, or the 
principal part of the conveniences ; as an occafional recepta- 
tle of ftock of every kind; as 4 common patture for fwine, 
and a range for poultry ; as a fecurity to the fields from 
ftock, in ftraying out of the inner yards, and as an anti-field, 
er lobby, out of which the home-grounds and drift-ways may 
‘be conveniently entered, for different purpofes. 

With regard to the diftribution and arrangement of thefe 
objects, in order to make it with good effe@, sreat caution, 
fudy, and patience are required ; that the moft may be made 
of given circumftances. An accurate delineation: of the 


4 


fite which is fixed on requires to be drawn out on a feale; 
the planner ftudying the fubje& alternately upon the paper 
and on the ground to be laid out; continuing to fketch and 
correét his plan, until he has not a doubt left upon his mind ; 
and then to mark out the whole upon the ground, in a 
confpicuous and permanent manner ; before the foundation 
of any particular building be attempted to be laid. It may 
be ealily conceived by a perfon who has not turned his 
attention to this fubje&, that there muft be fome fimple, 
obvious, and fixed plan to proceed upon. But feeing the 
endlefs variety in the mere dwelling places of men, it is 
not to be wondered at, if a ftill greater variety of plans 
fhould take place where fo many appurtenances are required ; 
and thefe on fites fo infinitely various: nor that men’s 
opinions and pratices fhould differ fo much on the fubje&, 
that on a given fite no two praétical men, it is more than 
probable, would make the fame arrangement. ‘There are, 
however, certain principles which no artiit ought to lofe 
fight of in laying out buildings and conveniences of this 
defeription, The barns, the ftables, and the granary, 
fhould be under the eye, fhould be readily feen from the 
dwelling houfe. And the prevailing idea at prefent is, 
that the feveral buildings fhould form a regular figure, and 
inclofe an area or farm-yard; eitheras a fold for loofe cattle, 
or where the {talling of animals is practifed, as a receptacle for 
dung ; and the moft prevalent figure is the fquare. But 
this form Mr. Marthall fuppofes more defeétive than the 
oval or circle, the angles being too fharp, and the corners 
too deep. Befides, the road-way, neceflary to be carried 
round a farm-yard, in order to have a free and ealy paflage 
between the different buildings, is inconveniently lengthened, 
or made at greater expence. The view of the whole yard 
and buildings, from the houfe on one fide of it, is likewife 
more confined in fome refpeés. 

The able author of the work on “ Landed Pro- 
perty” had formerly, he remarks, fuggefted the plan of a 
polygon, or many-fided figure, oran irregular femi-o@agon, 
with the dwelling houfe and the ftables on the largeit fide, 
having ranges ofeattle-ftalls oppofite. But he has fince formed 
one on the complete oftagon, the dwelling-houfe being on 
one fide, and the entrance, gateway, and granary oppolite, 
the remaining fix fides being occupied by itables and cattle- 
fheds, with a broad.way dipping gently from the buildings, 
and furrounding a wide, fhallow dung-difh, which take up 
the reft of the area of the yard. This is offered as a hint 
to thofe engaged in laying out and directing buildings of this 
fort, which they may adapt to the particular nature of the 
fite or fituation of fuch as they are about to ereét. But it 
is fuppofed not effentially neceflary to follow any particular 
form or figure. The fides may have a greater or fhorter 
length, according to the nature of the fite, and the inten- 
tion of the builder. The fite fhould, if poflible, be nearly, 
but not quite level ; the principal yard being formed acrofs 
the defcent ; having the barn on the higher, and the ftables 
on the lower fides ; as in this way the barn, ftack-yard, 
flraw-yards, cow-italls, and dwelling-houfe will have a dry 
fituation ; while the road that leads into the yard, and to 
the carriage-fheds, will be on the level ground, which is the 
mott {uitable and proper. 

In regard to the dwelling-houfe, the fituation which is the 
moft advantageous mutt in fome meafure be direfted by the 
extent or fize of the farm. Where it.is fmall, for the pur- 
pofe of the labouring farmer, it may be placed at the north 
end of the yard, facing into it, and be approached through 
it. Asthe kitchen is the chief room in which he refides 
when at home, and in which his wife performs moft of her 
domeftic bufinefs, the yard, the buildings, and the Rock 

in 


FA 


in the yard, will be conftantly under the eye. But in an 
exteniive farm, where a yard-man is kept to attend the 
flock in winter, aud where the houfe-work is moitly done 
in the back-kitchen and dairy-room in the fummer, and 
when the farmer is defivous of entertaining his friends with 
2 more agreeable pro{pect than a farm-yard, the houfe may 
occupy the fouth end of it, facing into the garden, and 
have a feparate approach in front. It is, however, fug- 
gefted, that the firlt mode of dittribution gives a defirable 
fhelter to the yard, while the latter leaves it expofed to the 
north winds, which blow through the entrance and open 
earriage-fheds. In either cafe, it is fereened from the ealt 
winds by the barn and cattle-fheds. It is alfo of advantage 
to have the houfe fronting to the fouth, in order to give 
coolnefs to the dairy buildings. But fince the introduction 
of threfhing machines, in the place of threfhing floors, the 
barn is become quite different, requiring another form, ar- 
rangement, and fituation. One end of it fhould, in thefe 
cafes, be placed towards the farm-yard, inftead of the fide, 
which is proper in the contrary circumftances, the other 
end being towards the itack-yard, to which it fhould 
be conneéied, with a rail-way for removing the corn ugon 
to it, having a lean-to-fhed and ftraw-yard on the fides 
where they may be requifite. ‘Thefe barns fhould be large 
enough to contain a good quantity of grain at a time, for 
threfhing out in wet weather, when little elfe can be done, 
See Barn, Farm Yard, and Turesuine Aachine. 

It is further fuggefted, that the {mall angular room- 
fteads between the ranges of fheds may be formed into con- 
venient places for containing fodder, roots, &c. and for the 
keeping of calves, &c. &c. There fhould likewife be a 
receptacle for the ftall manure, which fhould be properly 
formed and connected with the {lalls by proper drains, and 
a refervoir for the reception of the yard liquor, where it 
cannot be turned upon the land below, which in many 
cafes is of but little confequence to its improvement. 

But the arrangement and coune@tion of buildings of this 
fort, as relating to different defcriptions of farms, may proba- 
bly ke better and more readily underftood by an examination 
of the annexed plates. 

In Plate X11. (Farm) on Agriculture, is given a full re- 
prefentation of the neeeflary farm buildings for carrying on 
grafs and dairy hufbandry ona middling feale. At jig. 1. is 
fhewn the plau and elevation of a houfe where the grafs, hay, 
or other fimilar fyftem of farming is purfued. Fig. 2. is the 
ground plan of the fame; and jig. 3. difplays the ar- 
rangement or diftribution of the feveral out-buildings or 
offices. 4 

The expence of completing a fet of farm buildings on 
this plan would, at prefent, where materials are pretty 
much at hand, be from four to five hundred pounds. 

At fg. 4. in the fame plate, are exhibited the plan and 
elevation of a houfe of this nature, where the chief fyftem 
purfued is dairying :. fig. 5. explains the ground plan; and 
at fig. 6. the diftribution of diferent neceflary offices is 
difplayed. —. 

On this plan, as there are fewer out-buildings than in 
the former cafe, a fet of proper farm-offices, with the 
heule, would probably coft from three to four hundred 
pounds. 

It mutt, however, be remarked, that the convenience 
or diftance’of materials, muft render the difference of ex- 
pence inthe buildings very confiderable in both thefe cafes. 

Andin Plate XLV. (Farm) on Agriculture, ave fhewn 

: pe and elevations of farm-buildings, where the fy{tem of 
iufbandry is of the corn, or of the mixed kind, and. the 
farms of a middling extent, 


4 


RM. 


Fig. 1. is the plan and elevation of the ‘houfe ;' fig: 2. 
the ground-plan of the fame ; and fg. 3. the diftribution of 
the various out-buildings. 

This plan may, in mott cafes, be finifaed for the fum of 
from fix to feven hundred pounds. 

At fig. 4. are the plan and elevation of a farm-houfe and 
buildings of the latter kind. 

Fig. 4. is the elevation of the houfe; fg. 5. the 
ground plan ; and fig. 6. affords.a view of the fituation and 
arrangement of the feveral neceflary offices. 

If finifhed on this plan, the expence would be fron 
feven to eight hundred pounds. 

The materials, in conftruGting buildings of this nature, 
fhould always be of the beft kind, as durability is a prin- 
cipal object. See Taam Yard. 

Farm Houfe, is that fort of building which is attached 
to, and con{tructed for, the purpofe of carrying on the dif- 
ferent operations, and general bulinefs of a farm. It fhould 
be fo contrived as that the neceflary work may be performed 
with the greateft eafe and convenience. The writer of a 
paper in the firltvolume of * Agricultural Communications 
to the Board,’’ has fuggeited, that howfes of this fort fhould 
not only contain every conyeniency for a family, but have a 
degree of neatnefs and uniformity, which, if properly ma- 
naged, will coft no more than a dull, irregular building. It 
was long fince remarked by Columella, that ‘a farm houfe 
fhould be fomewhat elegant, to give pieafure to its poffeffor, 
and to allure the wife to take delight init. It fhould be 
built on ‘the moft healthy {pot of the farm, in a temperate 
air, fuch as the middle of a hill commonly enjoys, where 
it is neither ftifling in the fummer, nor expoted to the rage 
of winds and ftorms in the winter.’”” At prefent other 
circumitances moitly regulate its fituation, See Farm 
Buildings. r 

The fize of a farm-houle fhould be regulated by that of 
the farm, according to a late writer, although not fo ftriQly 
fo as the other buildings; a parlour and kitchen, with 
dairy, clofets, end other conveniences below flairs, and the 
upper ftory divided into bed-chambers, are probably fuf- 
ficient accommodation for any farmer’s family. Thefe may 
be conftruéted or enlarged according to circumilances, or 
to'the inclination of the proprietor; but it is better to give 
a little more room than necefiary, than not to give enough. 
None of the buildings about a farm, he fays, admit a greater 
latitude of econftru€tion than the farm-houfe ; for fometimes 
a very {mall houfe may do for a very large farm: at other 
times it would require a pretty large houfe in a {mall farm, 
according to the fize of the farmer’s family, and, perhaps, 
to the fituation in life he has been accuftomed to; tor there 
are many very refpeétable and worthy farmers whofe man- 
ners and converfation entitle them to the beft accommoda- 
tion ; and it fometimes happens that a landlord will con- 
fider this, and build a eee for the. farmer inflead of the 
farm. There is fomething, he remarks, fo pleafing in the 
appearance of neatnefs and cleanlinefs about a dwelling- 
‘houfe,, that even a itranger, tranfiently pafling by, cannot 
help being pre-poffeffed with a favourable opinion of thofs 
within. He paflis along with the idea fixed in his mind of 
profperity and happineds prefiding within the walls. How 
different, fays he, the fenfation felt on viewing a contrary 
fcene; a houfe difmal and dirty, the doors and walls fur- 
rounded and befpattered with filth of all denominations, and 
fragments of broken difhes, and dirty dairy uteniils {cat- 
tered in all directions; a fcene which mutt imprefs oa the 
mind the idea of mifery and miimanagement, and a con- 
tempt for thofe flatterns who can fufler fuch beaflinefs; 
for ip fuch cafes it is generally the female part of the 


U2 family 


FARM. 


family who has the merit or demerit of domeftic appearances. 
And how eafy a matter_is it to conttitute the difference; a 
little care and attention isthe whole fecret. It adds greatly, 
the writer thinks, to the beauty and neatnefs of a dwelling- 
houfe, to have a little plot of garden-ground or fhrubbery 
before it : this not only contributes to keep every thing neat 
and clean in front, but is often eafier managed than a garden 
behind. After feeling the pleafure and fatisfaction of keep- 
ing this plot in good order, every weed that appears vifible 
from the windows will be confidered as a: nuifance, and 
pulled up accordingly. So great an antipathy to weeds may 
thus be raifed in the farmer’s breaft, that his efforts for 
their deftruétion may even be extended to the fields ; and 
by thefe fimple means a flovenly farmer may, he conceives, 
be fo completely reformed, as not to fuffer a weed to be feen 
on his farm. 

It is ftated that large windows add greatly to the cheer- 
fulnefs of afarm-houfe ; the fafhes being placed as near the 
outfide of the wall as poffible. ‘The reverfe of this is, he 
fays, a glaring deformity in moft houfes in the northern 
parts of the kingdom. ‘There the windows are fo f{mall, 
and the fathes placed fo deep in the walls, that it gives the 
moft difagreeable gloominefs to the whole building. - This 
is faid to be done with an idea of preferving the fafhes from 
the weather, a moft egregious miftake. ‘The fafhes are, 
perhaps, mare liable to injury by being deep in the walls, 
than by being placed near the outfide, for they receive full 
as much wet, and are not fo foon dried again. 

It is, the writer fays, a common practice, and, with 
many, a general rule, to build the farm-houfe adjoining to 
the offices. Where the fituation will not admit of a better 
arrangement, or ina {mall farm, to fave a few roods of 
building, this may be done ; but in general it is better to 
build the dwelling-houfe, and any other buildings with 
chimnies in them, a little way detached from the mics of- 
fices, not only on account of the danger arifing from fire, 
but of the difagreeablenefs (perhaps unwholefomenefs) of 
living in a dung-hill, or in the midit of cattle and fwine. 
If, fays he, a farm-houfe, for the fake of uniformity, is 
to be built adjoining the farm-yard, there fhould bea con- 
fiderable length of wall at each end of it to unite it to the 
offices. But it is certainly better to make the houfe at a lit- 
tle diftance from the wall of the yard; and whether that dif- 
tance is ten feet, or fifty feet, there can be little or no dif- 
ference with refpeét to convenience. At the fame time 
it is by no means advifeable that the farm-houfe fhould much 
exceed fifty or fixty yards from the offices, as there might 
unqueltionably fome inconvenience arile if beyond that dif- 
tance. In the annexed plans of farm-houfes four things 
are particnlarly attended to in their conftruGtion, fimplicity, 
uniformity, convenience, and cheapnefs. In delineating 
fuch buildings, therefore, there is not, the writer thinks, 
that latitude given for a difplay of thofe archite€tural orna- 
ments, which ina higher {phere of buildings are fo pleafing 
to the eye, and fo truly beautiful when di/pofed by the hand 
of a fkilful archite&. Such ornaments are unneceffary in 
farm buildings, and are therefore entirely omitted. At the 
fame time a [tri attention to uniformity is particularly ob- 
ferved ; and although the windows are, in general, made 
fomething. wider in proportion to their height than is per- 
mitted by the rules of archite&ture, in order to anfwer the 
purpofe of giving as much light as poffibie, (the chief ufe of 
windows, ) it is, however, hoped, that no very great or of- 
fenfive deviations are made from thefe rules, even in that 
cafe. ‘The accommodations are calculated to be as conve- 
nient as poffible in the family way; and by making the 
ground-floors at leaft fixteen inches, or two fteps, above the 


level of the ground, and taking proper care to lay thofe 
floors, a great deal of that dampnefs, and confequently un- 
wholefomenefs, fo often complained of, will, he conceives; 
be guarded againft and prevented. 

Many people, the writer fays, prefer. gable-ends, as in 
Jig. 4 Plate XV.(Farm) on Agriculture. For his own part 
he is, however, of opinion, that hip-roofs, and the vents with- 
in the buildings, are generally preferable. ‘The hip-roof re- 
quires no more materials; and the gable-ends ‘not only oc« 
cafion more expence of building, but an unneceflary addition 
of weight upon the end walls. Vents built within-fide the 
houfe are lefs liable to fmoke than when in an outlide wall; 
befides, they contribute generally to keep the houfe warm, 
for they aét as flues, and diffufe their heat, in fome degree, 
all over the building. It mult be obferved, that the prin- 
cipal walls are all delineated, of the thicknefs of two feet, 
that being confidered as the beit thicknefs for rough ftone 
walls. Where the ftones are good, and of a proper form 
for building, or where bricks are ufed, the walls may, no 
doubt, be thinner; but, when too thin, the heat of the 
fun in fummer, and the coldnefs of the external air in win- 
ter, have fo difagreeable an etfeét, by penetrating through, 
that it is beft to err on the fafe fide, and to make them of a 
good thicknefs. This is one of the greatett inconveniences, 
he obferves, of brick buildings ; for in general brick walls 
are fo thin, that thefe effects are moit fenfibly felt both in 
the fummer and winter feafons. At 

And by making the different apartments and other di- 
vifions and conveniences no larger than neceflary, the leaft 
poflible expence will, the writer fays, be incurred. The 
dimenfions of thefe fheuld be proportioned according to 
the fum intended to be laid out. Very frequently a good 
plan is thrown afide merely on account of the expence of 
putting it in execution ; whereas, it fhould be confidered, 
that, by eontracting the rooms, and the building in general, 
the fame plan may be executed accordingly, whatever 
expence may be determined on. The plans given may 
therefore be varied in fize, till of fuch dimenfions as will 
coft no more than the fum allotted for that purpofe. For 
thefe reafons, eftimates of buildings, in a general view, are, 
the writer conceives, really of lefs importance than mott 
people imagine, there being hardly two counties in the 
kingdom where the fame plan can be executed at the fame 
expence. Even in the fame county, and in the fame parifh, 
the expence will often vary confiderably, according to circum- 
ftances. The diltance frony materials, the quality and price 
of thofe materials, the goodnefs or badneis of the roads, 
the nature of the foil to be built on, and, confequently, the 
expence of the foundations, the price of labour, the feafon 
of the year, and even the ftate of the weather, all tend to 
make a difference in the expence of building. It is, there- 
fore, hardly poflible to make a correct eftimate, unlefs the {pot 
intended for ere€iing the building is known and examined ; 
and an incorrect eitimate is much better tobe omitted. Some 
people, the writer remarks, will pretend to make an eftimate 
without even inquiring into thofe circumftances which 
mutt regulate the expence, knowing that when the fum they 
mention is expended, their employer will not ttop the build. 
ing on that account. It is beft, therefore, to be cautious in 
dealing with fome people, unlefs they will contraé for the 
fum eftimated. : 

But in fome parts of the country, it is obferved, a houfe 
built on the plan and of the dimenfions {hewn at fig. r. in 
Plate XV. (Farm) on Agriculture, may be completed for 
about 7o/. or 80/.: while in other parts it may colt r5o0/. or 
more; confequently, it would tend only to miflead, by {tating 
either the one or the other as an eftimate of fuch a building. 


At 


oe | dee 


| YA 
At Ay. 5. inthe fame plate, is the plan of a farm-houle alfo 


ona larger feale. Yet tocommence a building, without know- 
ing previoufly the expence it will coft, fhould at all-events be 
avoided, as being almoit a-certain opening for impofition. 
The beft way, therefore, to afcertain this, is to choofe a 
plan: if the propofed building is not of that extent or im- 
portaice to require the aid of an architect, employ any per- 
fon converfant in thofe matters, whofe fidelity can be relied 
on, to examine the-ground, and to confult with different 
tradeimen concerning the expence at which they would un- 
dertake to execute their re{pective parts; a pretty correc 
eftimate may, the writer: fays, thus be obtained. Or the 
plan may be laid before different mtelligent tradefmen, and 
their eftimates required, and afterwards examined into, not 
only as to the charge made, but the manner of executing 
the work; tor it is not always the loweft eftimate that is to 
be preferred. If in either cafe the fum fhould amount to 
more than is propofed to be jaid out, the dimenfions of the 
plan, and the manner of finifhing fome of the parts, may 
be altered, till it is found that it may be executed for about 
the fum propofed by the perfon who intends to build. 

Andit has beenremarked by the author of “* Modern Agri- 
culture,” that, ia regard to the fhare of expence and trouble 
which proprietors aud tenants in general ought to be fub- 
jeGed to, in ereéting farm-houfes, all leafes fhould contain 
a claufe, by which the proprietors become bound to be at 
the expence of materials and workmanthip, to the extent of 
a {tipulated-fum, rather above than below two years’ rent. 
The tenants fhould not only undertake the carriage of mate- 
rials, without making any charge for fo doing, but alfo 
become bound to keep the houfes in good order, and to 
relinguifh them equal in value at the expiration of the leafe, 
or to pay any deficiency, as the fame may be determined 
by proper tradefmen, mutually chofen for the purpofe. 

‘It is fuggefted that it has been a common practice in fome 
parts of Scotland, (which ought to be introduced every 
where, )-to bind tenants to infure their houfes from any 
damage by fire. This claufe in leafes is attended with 
another good confequence, the tenants generally infuring 
their ftock and houfe-furniture at the fame time ; fo that 
when any accident happens, they are faved from the ruin 
which otherwife mutt neceflarily enfue. 

- But the farmer’s capital, it will readily be acknowledged, 
ought to be employed in flocking and improving the farm, 
rather than in ere€ting howfes; therefore, it is certainly bad 
policy in the landlord to divert that capital from thofe 
channels in which it ought to flow freely, and without in- 
terruption. On the other hand, the circumitance of the 
tenant being obliged to maintain the houfes in good condi- 
tion during his leafe, and to leave them of equal value at his 
removal, would induce him to pay pwoper attention that 
the houfes be fub{tantially built, and that every neceflary 
repair be completed in proper time, and in the moilt 
effeGual manner,- When repairs only are necefary on the 
entry, they ought to be promoted at the mutual expence 
of the parties. “he proprietor fhould advance the requifite 
fum for materials and workmanfhip, and the tenant perform 
all the carriages. A clanfe fhould alfo be introduced into 
the leafe, by which the landlord may have a right to exe- 
cute repairs, provided they are deemed requilite by proper 
tradefmen, fent to infpeét the houfes, intimation’ thereof 
being made a reafonable time before to the other party. 
This, it is thought, would prevent that heavy load of ex- 
pence which proprietors are frequently fubjected to when 
tenants remove, and a mutual intereft in the prefervation of 
the buildings would be formed between the proprietor and 
tenant. he tenant, although lable to, pay for frequent 


‘ x 


R M. 


partial repaits, would avoid the expenditure of large fums ; 
and, if bound to leave the houfes equal in value to what 
they were when he entered, as he cet tainly ought to be, the 
landlord would feldom be put to the expence of large fums 
wh the ere€tion of new buildings of this nature. 

The elevation, ground, and chamber plans of a farm- 
houfe upon a fmall feale, calculated for a farmer where he 
lives with his fervants, are reprefented at figs. 1, 2, and 3, 
ia the plate mentioned above. It may be divided on the 
ground floor, as in fig. 2, where a is the entry; J, the 
kitchen which fhould have an oven at 4, when requifite ; 
c, afmall apartment off the kitchen, in which a bed may be 
placed, or it may ferve the purpofe of a ftore-room, &c. ; 
d, the farmer’s private room, or parlour ; ¢, the dairy, or it 
may be at c, if thought preferable; f, the hen-houfe, or 
which may ferve for keeping or laying up fmall tools, fuch 
as fpades, fhovels, rakes, mattocks, &c. 

And at gg, in fig. 3, is the chamber floor, which is 
only divided into two bed rooms in the plan, but may be 
further divided where neceflary ; 4, is a pigeon-houfe over 
the neceffary. The dimenfions are marked on the plan, but 
may be varied to fuit particular circumftances and fitua- 
tions. 

The reprefentation of the elevation, and two ground - 
plaus of a farm houfe on a larger feale, which by fuitable 
modification may be proper for a farm of any extent, is 
given at figs. 4, 5, and 6, in the fame plate. In the 
plan 5, it is divided into a, the principal entry ; 2, the par- 
lour ; ¢, the family bed room ; d, the kitchen; ¢, the dairy ; 
Jf; the pantry and cellar; the three latter being attached to 
the back part of the houfe by a continuation of the fame 
roof downwards. By only permitting the cielings to be 
feven and an half or eight feet in light, fome {mall bed- 
rooms. may be provided above them, having a few fteps 
down from the floor of the front rooms, or a few fteps up 
from the firft landing place. ' 

In many places farm-houfes are conftrn&ed on this plan. 
And the earl of Winchelfea, at Burleigh, has one ereéted 
in nearly a fimilar method; but in it the back-door of the 
kitchen enters into a brew-houfe and wath-houfe ; the fire 
place and copper being behind the kitchen vent. : Beyond 
this brew-houfe is a place for holding fire wood, &ce.; in 
the back wall of which are openings to feed the fwine at. 
In the kitchen is an oven; and below the grate an exe 
cellent contrivance for baking occafionally, but chiefly em- 
ployed for the purpofe of keeping the fervants’ meat warm. 
It confilts of a plate of caft iron, with a door fimilar'to that 
of an oven. ; 

The up-ftairs part is divided in the front into two good 
rooms, and into.two fmall ones on the back part, but may 
be-ealily further fub-divided where neceflary. 

-And at fig. 6. is fhewn another mode of dividing the 
ground floor of the elevation fg. 4, in which a is the 
parlour; 4, the kitchen ; c, the clofet ; d, the dairy ; «, the 
pantry; f, the coal-houfe; g, the poultry-houfe; 4, the 
pig ftye, which has an opening to the kitchen ; i, the back 
entry. The chamber-floor may be divided likewife, where 
it is requifite, into two good bed rooms, and a light clofet 
capable of holding a bed, or in any other way that may be 
thought more convenient. It would be ealy to introduce 
a variety of other elevations and plans for conftra@ing farm- 
houfes upon, with perhaps other conveniences than thefe, 
but in detached fituations from the houfes: thefe examples 
may; however, be fufficient for affording hints for erecting 
them fo as to fuit farms of all extents and deferiptions. 

Farm Lands, ia Agriculture, fuch lands as are in the 
occupation of tenants, or held in the flate of farms. 

Farme 


Vanm-Jfanager, a perfon who has the overlooking and 
directing of the bufinefs of a farm: the fame as bailiff, and 
land tleward. See Barrire and Lanp Srewarp. 

‘The proper overlooking and managing of a-farm 1s a 
butinefs of much greater difficulty and importance than is 
generally fuppofed. It will demand the whcle attention and 
time of the perfon who engages in it; and muff, in fact, 
conftitute his principal amufemert, as where he is apt to be 
drawn off by other purfuits, it feldom goes on well. In 
order to proceed in it with eafe and ‘convenience, it is 
proper that he fhould keep a conf{tant look out to the bu- 
finefs which 1s to be performed, as unlefs this be well at- 
tended to, he will be frequently liable to error and miltake ; 
and much will often be lett undone which ought to have 
beenexecuted. It is effential that he look forward to the 
bulinefs of cropping for feveral years, to that of team la- 
bour for fome months, and to hand labour for a few weeks, 
as the feafon of the year may direét. In this he will be 
greatly affitted by the keeping of a proper lit of the feve- 
ral fields of the farm, with the crops they have feverally pro- 
duced for different years palit, and the manurings which 
they have each had. 

From this lift, the arrangement of crops which are to be 
cultivated the enfuing year fhould annually be made out in 
the autumn, clafling the fields according to the purpofes 
for which they are defigned ; as by this means the quanti- 
ty of each fort of crop willbe fhewn, as well as the extent 
of paiture ; confequently the amount and ftrength of team, 
and other labour, be fully pointed out, in order to be duly 
provided for; the different crops be put m im proper time ; 
and the fummer tock be apportioned with exaétnefs. 

In the fame, or other lilt, memoranda fhould likewife be 
kept of the works to bedone directly and in fucceflion, in 
every department of the bufinefs, fo that every thing may 
proceed in the moft regular and proper manner, and nothing 
be overlooked. 

In conducting the execution of the work, whatever the 
nature of it may be, caution and firmneis are highly requi- 
fate, as well as an invariable attention, never to at- 
tempt too much, or to begin any fort of undertaking 
in the way of improvement, without the greateft probability 
of finifhing it in due time. 

Befides the above, there ere feveral other points in which 
the good management and correct conduct of this fort of 
farm-fervant is fhewn, as: 

In keeping the farm-yards and buildings in neat or- 
der, and perfect repair, as well as free from all forts ef 
obitructions to the bufinefs which is going on in 
them. 

In taking care of the va ious private roads of the farm. 

Tu preferving the fences in geueral good repair, and tak- 
ing proper care of the young hedges, as well as of the 
timber raifed in them. 

In feeing that the gates faften in a proper manner, and 
prevent the ftraying ot loofe tlocke 

In taking care that drains and water courfes are kept pro- 
perly open, for the effe€tual difcharge of fuperfluous 
water. 

During. the fummer feafon the watering places of live 
ftock fhould be well attended to; as well as the itate of 
the pattures, and tue proper fhifting of the pafturing 
flock 

The weeds in the grafs' lands, as well as in the tillage 
grounds, fhould allo be carefully regarded, to fee that not a 
thiftle blows, or any other fort of weed ripens its feed, 
either in the open parts, or the borders or banks of 
them, 


In the winter feafon live flock becomes the chief objeé& 
of the mavager’s attention, not only to take care that they 
are properly fupplied with fuitable fodder and water ; but 
that they have fufficient fhelter and convenient refling 
places. 

And the watering of grafs lands is another matter which 
deferves particular regard from the farm manager at this 
period of the year. It is, however, a fort of work which 
requires nice attention in its performance. 

There are iikewife various other points of farm manage- 
ment which may be equally deferving of regard by the per- 
fon employed in direéting the bufinefs of a farm, though 
of much lefs importance than thofe which have been no- 
ticed. 

While the work of the farm is carrying on in the fields, 
it is the province of the manager to be frequently with the 
work people, to fee that his directions are properly attend- 
edto, the different operations executed in a proper manner, 
aid the neceflary difpatch obferved in performing them. 
He mutt be frequently pafling from one fet of work people 
to another, keeping a {teady eye upon the various kinds of, 
work which are going on, and direéting fuch additional aid 
as may feem_ requilite in particular cafes, efpecially where, 
team labour is performing, in order that the whole bulinefs. 
may be conduéted in the mofl profitable way. 

In directing the work of teams, an even fteady pace’ 
fhould be inculcated, bothin the view of the animals, and 
the labour which they are to perform, as hurrying them ne- 
ver anlwers any good purpofe. On particular oceafions it 
may be requilite tohave recourfe to as much expedition as 
poffible, in which cafes the example of the manager, and 
the holding out of fuitable rewards, where neceflary, may 
be the moft proper incentives to exertion. Under all cir- 
cumi{tances, lazinefs and trifling fhould conftantly be held 
in the utmoit deteitation and contempt by the director of a 
farm, as being equally fraudulent with that of little pilfering 
And their {trong reprobation has not unfrequently an ufetul 
effect on the farm labourer, 

The proper regulating and dire&ting of farm fervants, and | 
thofe work-people who are employed, form an extremely 
difficult part of the manager’s duty. The beft method is 
probably that of encouraging fuch as are good by every, 
proper means, and never fuffering bad ones to continue, It 
is always the beft policy to pay good wages, and have the 
beft workmen that the fituation affords, ‘as thefe are often 
fixpence or a fhilling a day better than ordinary ones, though 
no diftinétion has been made by cuftom in refpect to the . 
prices in thefe cafes. It is of great advantage for the ma- 
nager of afarm to keep a proper diftance between himlelf 
and the work-people under him, without deftroying that , 
freedom of opinion, concerning the works carrying on, 
which is, in fome inftances, effential to their proper perform~- 
ance. In the directing of work-people, the rule with him 
fhould be, in no cafe, to find fault, without occation, or to . 


_commend without reafon ; as good workmen cannot Brook 


the former, or bad ones be mended by the latter. Real 
faults fhould not, however, be overlooked, but the work- 
men be told of them in a proper way, according to theirnae . 
ture; and where the cafe demands it, let fuch ftrong lan- . 
guage be made ufe of as may aroufe them to due exertion. 
A great deal, however, depends upon the orders of the ma- , 
nager being conveyed to the workmen ina proper way 3 as 
where they are given in a loofe, incorreét manner, it is not 
to be fuppofed that they can be perfe&tly executed. It is 
difficult to explain farm-works in words, fo as to be fully 
comprehended by workmen, and where it is done by the | 


_ medium of another perfon, inaccuracy is certain, It confe- 


quently 


FARM. 


quently becomes effential for the manager to give his orders 
perfonally, and when it can be done, “even upon the fpot, 
to fuch workmen as are to execute them, as he can there 
fully explain himfelf to them, and where neceflary, affitt 
them in fetting out the works. The able manager, there- 
fore, conitantly attends in perfon, in beginning new works, 
and where they are out of the common line of hufbandry, 
remains with the workmen directing them, and returns oc- 
cafionally to them, until be finds them completely in their 
work, as, without fuch attention, much time and labour 
would often be thrown away. ‘ 

Thefe, and various other reafons, render it neceffary that 
a farm manager fhould be perfectly converfant with every 
fort of agricultural bufinefs and operation, as well as with 
the nature and management of ail kinds of tools and 
machinery, as, where this is not the cafe, the work of the 
farm can never be properly directed, When he is deficient 
he mult of courfe endeavour to perfect himfelf as {peedily 
as poflible by iaceffant practice. Without fome degree of 
perfection in this way he cannot be able either to detect 
or correct indifferent wark-mén, or know when to be fatis- 
fied with fuch as are good, as they will not bear to be found 
fault with improperly. It is only by fuch means that he can 
be enabled to difcera when the bufinefs of the farm is 
executed in a proper manner. 

In his dealings, and general intercourfe with other perfons, 
the farm manager fhould be fcrupuloufly attentive to 
punétuality and the keeping of clear accounts, as upon 
thefe his character willin a great meafure depend. 

Where the tranfmiffion of the accounts of a farm are 
required at ftated periods for the ufe of the proprietor, the 
following method may be adopted. 

Firlt, A weekly account of labour, with a journal of the 
works which are going on, each day, and fhort notices of 
~ fuch tranfactions and occurrences as may have taken place 
during the above period, and are of ufe to be known. 

. A proper form for this purpofe is neceffary to be provided, 
_ which confifts of eight columns, ruled in a perpendicular 
manner- on a large fheet of paper. The firft for containing 
the names of the teams and work-men, and the lait fora 
money column. 

The fix intervening columns are for receiving the different 
works of the fix days of the week. 

Acrofs thefe columns are drawn horizontal lines, the 
uppermott being wide, to receive the works of the feveral 
teams, whether of oxen or horfes: the reft, of ordinary 
fize, for thofe of each fervant or workman ; their feveral 
employments, each day, being entered on the lines which 
lead from their refpective names; and the day’s wages of 
labourers in the money column, at their terminations. 

Secondly, A monthly account of receipts and difburfe- 
ments; including the weekly payments for labour; and 
fhewing the balance of money in hand at the end of each 
month. 

Thirdly, An annual account current, confifting of the 


feveral totals of the twelve monthly accounts ; including: 


the manager’s falary ; which fhews the {late of the account 
at the end of the year. 

Fourthly, A granary account, fhewing the feveral quan- 
tities of grain of different kinds threfhed out, with the 
e{pofal or expenditure of every part or parcel-of the fame. 
And a fiinilar account of every other fort of marketable 

roduce. 
*. Laftly, An inventory account, taken at the clofe of each 
year by perfons appointed forthe purpole by the proprietor ; 
containing every thing of value on the farm, as live-ftock, 
crops, manure, implements, Kc. And a general report of 


the ftate and condition of the farm, as well as a lift of out. 
ftanding debts and monies due on the day of fettlement. 

By ftriking the balance of the whole, the profit or lofs 
of the farm will be fatisfa@orily fhewn. 

Farm Offices, a term frequently applied to the different 
out-buildings which become neceffary in the management- 
ofa farm. hey are of very different defcriptio:s aceord= 
ing to the nature of the management which is to be carried 
on; andit isa very effential point, as has been feen already, 
that they be diftributed in a proper and convenient 
manner for the fort of bufinefs which is to be performed in 
them; as by fuch means much time and labour may be 
faved to the farmer in the preferving of his produce, as 
well as in the foddering aud taking care of his live-itock. 
See Farm-Buildings and Yarm-Yards. 

Farm-Servant, is that fort of fervant which is eneaged 
in the performance of fome part of the neceflary bufinefs 
ofafarm. Thefe fervants are of various deferiptions, as 
bailiffs, ploughmen, yard men, &c. There ave likewife cow- 
men, dairy-maids, &c. 

In the hiring, or engaging of all forts of fervants for the 
purpofe of farming, great care and circum[peétion are necef- 
fary to afcertain that they are fully competent to the execu- 
tion of the fort of work which they wih to undertake, as, 
where this is not the cafe, much injury may arife to the 
farmer from their improper condu& or example. And as 
much of the improvement of agriculture mutt neceffarily de- 
pend upon them, they fhould be kept in a regular manner, 
and with a proper degree of fubordination, in order that 
they may be ready to perform whatever is properly required 
of them by the matter or his bailiff. Without this the 
bufinefs of a farm cannot go on with propriety, or in a bene- 
ficial manner to the propnetor. The number should like- 
wife be well-proportioned to the nature and extent of the 
farm, as well as the work to be performed, as the lofs is 
confiderable where this is not the cafe. 

By the author of the «© New Farmer’s Calendar,”? it has 
been noticed that Old Michaelmas is the ufual time for 
hiring farm fervants throughout the country ; but he ac- 
knowledges himfelf entirely of Mr. Marfhall’s opinion, that 
it is one-of thofe cuftoms which ought by all means to be 
changed for a better. Michaelmas brings with it a great 
preffure of bufinefs of every defcription ; and te be looking 
after fervants at that time, or even to admit new ones, en- 
tirely unacquainted with your peculiar methods and m&nage- 
ment, is extremely inconvenient. Old Chriitmas, as a fea- 
fon of more leifure, would furely, he fays, be a more proper 
period for this affair. As to farming-fervants, the beit 
counfel he is able to give is, for an employer to receive no 
known thief or idler, to give the greatett poflible encourage- 
ment, to overlook trifles, and to truft implicitly to no man’s 
honefty or induftry, but to put both to the fevereit teit 5 
fo fhall he have a choice of the beft labourers in the coun- 
try, and enjoy the profitable reputation of the belt matter. 
Ina fmall concern a farmer may himfelf fuperintend his 
whole bufinefs ; but a gentleman-farmer, or the cultivator of 
an extenfive tra, particularly if managed in the more va- 
ried ityle of the new hufbandry, will, he contends, require 
a bailiff, and over-lookers, in proportion to the extent of the 
butinefs. The bailiff of a gentleman who cultivates a hun- 
dred acres of land for his convenience or amufement will 
have leifure to work himfelf, which is impoflible, or rather 
totally out of queftion, with one who has extentive bufire!s 
to fuperintend, fince that alone, if he be induitrious, will 
take up his whole time, early and late. In very large buli- 
nefs, a bailiff will need occafional lookers-on under lem. 
AV bailiff ought to havechad fome years experience ef 

leat 


FARM. 


leaft the common methods of hufbandry and gardening, of 
the management of all kinds of live ftock, and of buying and 
felling ; he fhould be able to keep common accounts; in 
fhort, he muft be fomething, either from nature or habit, 
above the common labourer. But then he mutt havea bai- 
liff over him ; and fuch mutt be the proprietor of the bufi- 
nefs, unlefs he rather choofe to mfk the confequence. As 
to entrufting thefe upper fervants with buying and fell- 
ing-corn and cattle, he would advife no perfon to do it, ex- 
cept, indeed, thofe whofe fituation is fo elevated that fuch 
engagements might be thought inconvenient and improper: 
fill it is no derogatioa from the honour of a prince to be 
well-informed of market-prices, and to be able, by infpeétion, 
to form a judgment of the worth of cattle. He dwells a 
little on this head, he fays, becaufe he has feen too 
much: both of the grofs ignorance and iniquitous collufion 
of bailifis and managers in bargaining, It is a common 
faying, “ Oh! your mafter is a gentleman, he don’t want 
to get money, but we mutt live !”” Indeed it is no wonder 
that gentlemen fo often farm their own eltates to lofs, con- 
fidering the fottifh, ignorant, and knavifh inftruments which 
they employ under the name of bailiffs. It 1s recommended 
by fome, to-vett a bailiff with full power of difeharging 
.the {grvants and labourers ; the propriety of which he is 
rather inclined to difpute. Invefted with fuch a- power 
there is no check upon his condu&t; whereas, were this 
particular made matter of reference to the principal, all 
neceflary information on both fides would come out. One 
of the firlt qualifications of a bailiff is, the writer fays, to 
haye a mind perfeGtly indifferent to all prejudice in favour 
of the old fyitem of hufbandry ; and where things are upon 
an extenfive or improving-{cale, it ought to be an invariable 
maxim to receive no fervant or labourer who will not 
politively agree to follow direétions; in default of which, he 
ought inflantly to be taken before a jultice of the peace. 
He has known feveral initances of a combination among the 
ploughmen not.to work without their accuftoned number 
of horfes,&c. See Bairirr and Lasourer. 

The author of the “ Minutes of Agriculture’’ has, many 
years ago, on the moft mature calculation, ftated the an- 
nual expence of a man fervant, maintained in the houfe, to 
be not lefs than thirty-five pounds, and that of a bey not 
lower than twenty-three pounds, fuppofing the yearly wages 
of the former to be ten pounds, and thofe of the latter three 
pounds. Now, fays he, the expence of a day-labouring 
man for the whole year, were he. to work every day, would 
not be more than twenty-feven pounds ten fhillings, which 
makes a difference of feven pounds ten fhillings, again 
Keeping a man in the houfe by the year, and that of hiring 
one by. the day. And that of a boy is {till more in propor- 
tion, as the expence of a day-labouring boy for a whole 
year, allowing him to work every day, is only thirteen 
pounds, which makes a difference of ten pounds, or more 
than three-fourths of the boy’s day-wages. In thisaccount 
no deduétion is made in the daily pay for raimy days ; 
confequently, the impropriety of keeping plough-boys 1 
the houfe is confidered very obvious ; aud though it may 
be convenient to have the carters about the houfe, the coa- 
venience is not conceived to be worth the annual fum of 
ten pounds feven fhillings. It is, therefore, advifed to put 
a woman into a cottage within a {mall diftance of the farm- 
yard, totake fuch fervants as lodg-rs, and to keep in the 
houfe no more farming fervants than a buitler and a yard- 
man. It is abfolutely neceflary to have fomebody about a 
farm-yard in cafes of emergency; but the above two are 
quite fuficient, as the carters in the adjoining cottage will 
be nearly as handy as if they were in the houfe. Such a 


meafure can, however, only be loeal, though the hint may 
have ageneral tendency. It is probable that the farmer who 
keeps ue accounts may imagine he faves money by boarding 
his fervantsin the honfe; but if he keep them in the luxus 
rious manner in which fervants of this fort in general ex- 
pect to be kept, he will be greatly miftaken. The farmer 
who fits at the head of his kitchen-table may, indeed, with 
out doubt, feed his men much cheaper than a perfon whe 
eats in a feparate room; yet the ebfervation is juft, that 
one fed by his matter cofts the community as much as two 
who provide for themfelves ; for difcharge a grumbler, one 
who pretends to be diffatisfied, though in faét only fatiated, 
and he wiil return to his bread and cheefe with, perhaps; 
equal health and equal happinefs. He dits down to his 
matter’s table with a refolution to eat voracioully of the 
bet, to do himflf juftice; but at his-own table. eats 
{paringly of tue meaneft, to fave his money; felf intereit 
being his motive in both cafes. 

The rife that has fiuce taken place in the expence of 
fervants, in every partof the country, has led to ttill fewer 
being kept in the houfes of the farmers, But in this there 
is allo confiderable difadvantage; they are lefs obedient ta” 
their matters, lefs in need of characters when they change 
their fituations, are lefs cheaply kept, confequently raife - 
the price of labour, and liable to the lofs of much time, 
from being out of employ. LBebdes, they have more 
opportunities of drinking and aflociating together, by 
which combinations are apt to be formed for preventing 
the introduétion of new implements or new modes of hui- 
bandry. Aad great inconvenience is often experienced from 
the irregular manner in which they come to werk, or their 
not coming at all. The fervant who lives on the farm 
is likewife much more interelted in getting forward with 
the work which is neceflary to be done than the mere day« 
labourer; and there is much lets inducement for him ta 
carry away different articles: with which he is entrafted, as 
cora, hay, &c. from his not being able to keep any fost of 
animals to confume them. flesh 

It has been dtrongly advifed by an able writer on rural 


economy, to employ aétwve young men as much as 


in performing farm work, efpecially during the hay and 

harvett feafons, as a few fuch as are idle and fluggith 

foon {poilall the others. Mix,” fays he, “twoor three 

old women, or two or three boys, with a company of men, 

and the eflect will be very foon vifible; for the men will 

foon conform to the ways of either the old women, or the 

playfulnefs of the boys, It is not prudent to employ many 

women with the men; and nething but neceffity cansexcufe 

it. Two women, after the firlt or fecond day, willdo as 

much work as half a dozen alone. If it be neceflary or 

convenient to employ a number of both men and women, 

it is but. common good management to keep them feparate; : 

with this exception, which may be laid down as a maxim; 

namely, one man among women, and one woman amon 

men. A crutly conceited old fellow will check the goi- 

fipping of the women; and it has been remarked that 

raking after a young weach has animated as much as a gal- 

lon of ale. ‘Iwo are dangerous ; they breed contention, 

and rather retard thaw accelerate. ‘Phe moft yaluable fer- - 

vant in harvetit isa good carter, It is neceffary to coms 

mon management, that he fhould be able, willing, and cares 

ful. LEvery pitch of hay and corn, mai fpeaking, 

pafles twice through his hands: he loads and unloads, which 

are the two moit laborious tafles of harveft; he drives the 

team backwards and forwards; if he loiters by the way 

the field-men or flack-men muft ftand idle; if he fpill or- > 

overtura his load, ov if he break his waggon, or fet his . 
horfes, x 


FARM. 


horfes, the arrangement of the day is broken; and, per- 
haps, the damage done by the lofs of time rendered irre- 
parable by the next day’s rain. A good carter will not fuf- 
fer his wazgon to be over-loaded. The field-men, too, that 
is, the pitchers aud affittant loader, fhould be young and 
ative, and well matched with the carter.”” 

It has likewife been fuggefted, that the managing fervant 
of a farm fhould be attentive toa variety of other points 
and circumttances, in direéting the bufinefs of it. Nothing, 
it is contended, contributes more to facility and fatisfaGion 
in it than a forecaft toward works which are to be done. 
A mifcarriage is ever to be dreaded as a mifchief ; and, 
when it is brought on by a want of forethought, it brings 
with it a degree of difcredit, and a train of unpleafant re- 
flections, which four every enjoyment. ‘This fort of fer- 
vant, it, is hinted, fhould have a forecaft toward crops for 
three or four years, toward team labour for as many months, 
and fhould look forward with the view of hand labour for 
fome weeks, according to the feafon of the year. And in 
order to bring the matter to a degree of certainty, it is 
highly requifite to make out a lift of the fields or parcels 
of land of which the farm confifts, with the crops which 
each has borne for fome years back, together with the ma- 
nurings which they have feverally received, in order that 
the future treatment of each may be decided upon with 
proper accuracy: and every autumn to form, by the af- 
fiftance of fuch lifts, an arrangement of the crops that are 
intended for the enfuing year, claffing the fields or pieces of 
land according tu the purpofes for which they fhall be in- 
tended; thus afcertaining the quantity of each crop, whe- 
ther arable or grafs, as well as the quantity of ground in- 
tended for pafture, in order that the quantity of team la- 
bour may be diftin@ly forefeen, the required {trength be efti- 
mated from time to time, and the feveral crops be fown in 
due feafon ; and, in order that the ftock of the enfuing fum- 
mer may, in due time, be properly apportioned to the in- 
tended quantity of pafture ground, as well as that the 
works of fummer and harveft may be conftantly before the 
eye, and proper hands be engaged in time to perform 
them in feafon. And a fort of memorandum lift is advifed 
to be kept of the bufinefs to be done immediately or in im- 
mediate fucceffion, whether in relation to crops, or to any 
other concerns of the farm, that nothing may efcape the 
memory ; and that the moft requifite may be brought for- 
ward firft, or another which is more fuitable to the itate of 
the weather. In this, as in other bufinefs, the principal 
objeé&t to be aimed at is that of infuring fuccefs, which 
is not only profitable to an employer, but fatisfactory to 
the perfon employed. Whereas, a mifcarriage injures at once 
the property of the one, and the character, as well as the 
peace of mind, of the other. Hence a farm manager ought 
to engage in a work, whether of improvement or ordinary 
practice, with caution, and to proceed in it with attention 
and firmnefs. A ftanding rule refpeGting this main object 
of management is, not to attempt too much; and never to 
begin a work without a moral certainty of being able to 
finifh it in due feafon. 

It may be obferved, that, befides the common work of a 
farm, as the culture and harvefting of crops, the rearing and 
fattening of live ftock, and the bufinefs of markets, there 
are many other objets of attention which ought to be con- 
ftantly kept in the mind, or the mind’s way, of a manager, 
as on them the difference between good and bad, between 
correct and flovenly management very much depends ; fuch 
as keeping the home-{tall in repair, and free trom impedi- 
ments, attending to private roads and drift-ways, keeping 
up fences every where in thorough repair, attending parti- 


Vou. XIV. 


cularly to young hedges, and to the rearing of hedge row 
timber, the feeing the gates {wing clear and catch with cer- 
tainty, equally to preferve them from injury and to prevent 
loofe flock from going aftray, the attending to drains and 
water-courfes, to fee that fuperfluous waters have free pal 
fage to their proper outlets, and that they be readily dif 
charged ; and that in fummer ftri& attention be paid to 
drinking-pools and other watering places of ftock, as well as 
to the itate of pafturage, and the fhifting of pafturing-Lock; 
likewife to weeds, as well in grafs grounds as in arable lands, 
to fee that not a thiltle blows, nor any other weed matures 
its feed, either in the areas or on the borders of fields. And 
in winter much care is neceffary not only to fee that the 
flock are regularly fupplied with proper fodder, but that 
fufficient fhelter and comfortable refting-places are afligned 
them. At this feafon, too, the watering of grafs lands 
fhould be attended to, as much as the nature of the fitua 
tion will admit ; and to the accumulation of manure an un- 
remitted care fhould be beftowed the year round, as much 
depends upon it. On the whole, the performing thefe and 
other objects with propriety requircs repeated examinations 
of every part and particular under his care, committing to 
his memory whatever demands his more immediate attention ; 
fo that whether he is on the {pot, or arranging his plan of 
operation in the hour of leifure, it may be prefeut to his 
mind, and take its proper courfe. 

The bufinefs of a managing fervant, during the time of 
work, lies in the field, in executing the plans he has formed, 
in pafling from one fet of work-people to another, not more 
to fee that the different operations are rightly performed 
with proper difpatch than to order any required ailiftance 
(to the teams efpecially) in order that every part of the ma- 
chine may be kept in profitable motion. In the ordinary 
operations of hufbandry, and on common occaiions, a iteady 
even pace fhould be recommended, equally for the good of 
the working animals and the work which they are perform. 
ing ; yet there are times when quick difpatch is neceflary, 
and then it is his duty to encourage good {peed by his ex- 
ample, and by promifes of reward, if the occafion require it. 
At all times, asd on every occafion, idlenefs is a crime 
which ought not to be fuffered to pafs with impunity. It 
is a direct fraud ; and a manager fhould guard againft it 
with the fame care and affiduity as againft pilfering. A day 
labourer, who idles away an hour, robs his employer of an 
hour’s wages ; and thereby injures him as much as if he 
were to fteal a faggot of equal value. This is a truth 
which requires to be deeply impreffed on the minds of la- 
bourers, as the impreffion has been known to have had a 
good effet. It is, however, juftly obferved, that the right 
ordering of fervants and work-people is a difficult branch of 
moral duty, and which forms an important part of that of 
the mazager of a farm. They require to be treated accord- 
ing to their refpe€tive merits; encouraging good ones by 
extra wages Or other rewards. Some men are worth double 
the wages of others, as day-labourers ; yet cuftom makes no 
diftinGion between them in this refpe&t! Hence t) 
priety of engaging the beft workmen the country affords, 
and retaining tuem by civil treatment and fuitable encou- 
ragements, The managing fervant fhould contilantly keep 
his work-people at a proper diftance, without deltroying 
that free communication of opinion refpecting the work ia 
hand, which, on ordinary occafions, every intelligent work- 
man fhould be allowed. A itanding rule of coaduct in the 
ordering of workmen is, never to find fault without occa, 
fion, nor to commend without reafon. Good fellows will 
not brook the former, nor will bad ones be mend 
latter. Butit is right to habituate workmen 


pro- 


d by the 
1 general to 


be 


FARM. 


be told of their real faults; firft in the mildeft terms the oc- 
cafion will admit of, referving the warmth of temper for 
extraordinary occafions ; and then it is prudent to fting them 
with keen, rather than to load them with heavy wurds, to 
endeavour to ftir up their pride rather than their malice or 
refentment. Much of the fmoothnefs and uniform fuecefs 
of bufinefs depends on the manner of communicating orders 
to workmen. If orders be loofely or inaccurately given, 
it is unreafonable to expe that the execution of them 
fhould be faultlefs. It is difficult to explain bufinefs in 
words with fufficient accuracy to ruftic workmen ; and if a 
third perfon is fuffered to intervene, errors are inevitable. 
The managing fervant fhould therefore make a point of 
giving orders in perfon, and, if poffible, on the {pot, to the 
men who he means fhall execute them. ‘Then he can ex- 
plain himfelf to them intelligibly and fully, or affit them in 
marking out their work, ‘T’here is always danger in merely 
verbal orders, and ina meffage certain mifchief. It fhould 
be a conftant rule with him to fet his men to a frefh work 
in perfon; and if it be out of the common way of hufbandry, 
to ftay by them or dire&t them with his own hands, and 
return to them again and again until he finds them com- 
pletely in their work. In this view, as well as for other 
reafons, this fort of fervant fhould be mafter of every im- 
plement, tool, and operation belonging to his profeffion ; 
and if he fhould find himfelf deficient in any particular, he 
fhould practife it, day by day, until he make it familiar to 
him: or how is he to correét a bad workman, or to know 
when to be fatisficd with a good one, who, knowing when 
he is right, will not bear the reproaches of ignorance? He 
has no other way of fecuring the efteem and attachment of 
good workmen, and of finifhing in a workman-like manner 
every thing that he undertakes, than by making hinfelf 
matter of bis bufinefs ; without which little fatisfaGtion will 
arife from it to himfelf, or profit to his employer. And in 
the general principles of condu@, in his dealings and inter- 
courfe with other meu, punGuality is one of the moft effen- 
tial. Method is the beft affiftant of punétuality ; and clear 
accaunts are fome of the beft refults of method. Thefe 
fhould invariably be kept with accuracy, and be fent to the 
proprietor in weekly, mouthly, and annual periods, fo as to 
fhew the daily ftate of the work, the monthly ftate of re- 
ceipts and payments, and, laftly, the whole ftate of accounts 
and balances. In this way a variety of evils and errors are 
checked and guarded againtt: 

There is a great variety in the methods of engaging and 
employing farm-fervants. In mo{t of the more northern 
counties it is the cultom to hire them by the year, in 
which cafe they commonly live in the houfe. But in many 
of the fouthern diftri&s this is not the cafe, they being 
nearly, if not wholly, in the fituation of day-labourers. 
And this method, though by no means to be commended, 
for the reafons already noticed, feems on the increafe, 
probably owing to there being fomewhat lefs trouble in the 
family. There are likewile different cuftoms in the manner 
of employing them. In Surrey it is moltly an eftablifhed 
rule for every man in the harveft feafon to work by the acre, 
or the month, and not by the day. Where a labourer is 
conftantly employed through the year, he expeéts in the 
harvelt to be conftaatly employed in mowing, reaping, and 
other works of this kind, by the acre; or to have his 
harveft month ; that is, an advance of wages certain,, wet 
or dry, daring that length of time, commencing when it is 
the moft fuitable to the farmer. ‘This is a convenient piac- 
tice, as they are always at command in cafes of emergency, 
and nothing but the continuance of rain till the barns are 
empty can render them burdenfome, In many other. dif- 


tri€is, practices fomewhat fimilar are found to prevail, and 
have an equally beneficial tendency. In thefe cafes they are 
not allowed, in general, to regard any particular hours in 
the work, though in other cafes the hours of labour are 
moftly in the {ummer from fix in the morning to fix at night, 
and in winter from the time that it becomes light until it is 
dark. 

The rates of wages are fo very different in different 
places, that it is almoft impoffible to reduce them to any 
order; but in moft diflricts they may ftand fomewhat as 
below. 


Men. Wages. Former. Prefent. 
Ploughman . . . +), 10to 16 Ts ta 25 
Carter or waggoner . . . 8 to 15 15 to 20 
Bailiff or yard-man . . . . 8 to 14 14 to 16 
Boyars VP Saree ane! ot as eos 8 to 12 

Women. ; 
Dairy-maidhe Ree Sree “eee ortanee Io to 14 
Under dairy-maid . . . . 3to 4 5 toy 7 


Thefe wages are exclufive of bed, board, and wafhing 
in the houfe. In molt of the-northern counties they have 
been nearly doubled in the courfe of the lait twenty years. 
And in thofe of the fouth the rife has been equal in molt 
places, but in fome confiderably more, 

Many fuggeftions have been offered by writers on rural 
economy, in regard to the means of regulating the rate of 
wages of farm-fervants and labourers, but hitherto, per- 
haps, with little fuccefs. Inthe ‘ Agricultural Report of 
the Board, for the Weft Riding of Yorkhire,’’ it is ftated 
that the only mode of making them proportional to the nfe 
or fall on the value of money and provilions, is, to pay them 
in kind; that is, with a certain quantity of corn, as the 
parties may agree, which, at all hazards, infures them a com- 
fortable fubjiftence, and prevents them from a daily or 
weekly vifitation of the markets. Where they are paid in 
money, it is fuppofed to expofe the thoughtlefs and in- 
attentive to a variety of temptations, but that when paid 
in kind they cannot raife money to gratify the whims of the 
moment. It is hinted, that in thofe counties where this 
mode of payment has been long eftablifhed, the ploughmen 
and labourers are on the whole better fed, live more com- 
fortably, and rear healthier children, than in thofe parts 
where, from being paid in money, the currency of the ar- 
ticle facilitates the expenditure, and prevents them from 
laying by a ftock of provifions for their f{upport, when out of 
work, from accidents or diftrefs. In the part of the country 
where the writer refides nearly the whole of the farm- 
fervants are paid in this manner. They have a certain 
quantity of grain; maintenance for a cow, fummer and 
winter ; a piece of ground for planting potatoes, and raifing 
flax upon; and whatever fuel they require driven gratis. 
Thefe, with the privilege of keeping a hog and a few hens, 
enable them to live, and bring up their families in a com- 
fortable manner; and while their income is confiderably lefs 
than people of their ftation in other parts, they are on the 
whole better fed, better dreffed, and enabled to give a better 
education to their children. Placed under thefe circum- 
ftances, they are a refpectable fet of men; and for frugality, 
faithfulnefs, and induftry, they will bear a comparifon with 
their brethren in apy quarter. It is confequently advifed to. 
introduce a fimilar method of paying farm-fervasts into this 
diftri@, which, although it might at firft be attended with 
fome difficulties, would contribute to the public good, 
and to the advantage of the labouring peafantry in various 
refpects. The writer of the ‘ Report for the County of 
Hereford,” has likewile fated, that if a certain proportion 

between 


oy 


FARM. 


between the price of labour, and the average price of wheat, 
could be fixed by law, fo as to render the applications for 
parochial relief neceffary only in cafes of very large fami- 
lies, of unufual illnefs, of fcanty feafons, or any other real 
emergency ; the meafure, it is prefumed, would be honour- 
able to the country, would ftimulate induftry and fidelity, 
check difkonefty, and endear to their native foil a nume- 
rous clafs of ufeful perfons. 

In attempting any plan of this nature, various difficul- 
ties, both of a local and general kind, would prefent them- 
felves, which no fcheme that has yet been brought for- 
ward, fo far as we know, feems to have fufficiently pro- 
vided againit. 

Farm Servant?s Rooms, the buildings or other places 
where fervants of this kind fleep and lodge. Thefe rooms, 
efpecially where the farms are large, fhould always, if pof- 
fible, be quite diftin@ from the houfe. Where the farms 
are of much extent, and confequently a great number of 
fervants wanted, particularly where they are unmarried, 
fuitable and convenient rooms for fleeping in, and where 
they find their own provifions, for preparing and. drefling 
them in, are not merely requifite, but of confiderable ad- 
vantage to the farmer, as well as the men, as they fave 
much time, which would otherwife be loft, in going to their 
meals ; belides keeping them together in a fober, fteady 
ftate, ready for their different employments. Inthis way, 
too, the fervants are a great deal more comfortable, and 
live far more cheaply than when they go te the public- 
houfes to eat their meals, as is much the cafe in the more 
fouthern parts of the kingdom, and by which their man- 
ners too frequently become depraved, their conftitutions 
enfeebled by intoxicating liquors, and much ufeful time 
often loft to their employers as weil as themfelves. 

But inconveniences of this kind are probably the beft 
guarded againft by having fuch fervants, when it can be 
done, in the houfes of the farmers, in which cafes the 
eating-rooms for them fhould be fo placed as that a facility 
may be given of overlooking them. But the rooms for 
lodging in fhould, at the fame time, be quite detached and 
diftin@&, as being the fafeft and moft proper when con- 
trived in that way, as fuch perfons are frequently carelefs 
and negligent of their candles and fires, befides being irre- 
pate in other parts of their conduét. In whatever fituation 
uch rooms may beerected, it is effential that the ground- 
floors fhould be formed of ftone, brick, or fome other in- 
combuttible material, while the upper ones are laid with 
platter, as in fome of the midland diftriéts. Or, as being 
more readily laid, brick in fome cafes may be had recourfe 
to. See Froor. 

Farm-Yard, in Agriculture, is the area or plot of ground, 
on the fides of which the farm buildings are erected, and 
which for the moft part adjoins, or is connected with, the 
houfe, It is the fpace of ground that comprehends the hve 


ftock, and in which they are foddered, the dung prepared, 


the tools laid up, and the various neceffary operations of the 
farm executed, It is a matter of the utmoft importance to 
the farmer to have thefe yards conveniently formed and ar- 
ranged, as, where this is the cafe, there is a confiderable 
faving of both time and labour in performing the different 
kinds of work in them. Yards of this kind have very dif- 
ferent fizes, fhapes, and diftributions of their buildings, ac- 
cording to their fituations and other cireumftances. One 

rincipal obje& fhould conftantly be, that of giving the 

odder which is to be confumed, of whatever fort it may be, 
a progreffive courfe from the ep or ftack-yard, 
through the cattle-houfes and fheds to the dung-ftead, with- 
/ut incurring unnecefiary labour in carrying it different ways. 


And another point that fhould be particularly attended to 
is, that all the different materials which are converted to the 
ufe of animal food fhould pafs from the kitchens, dairies, 
and other places, to the hog-ftyes or other convenient places 
of confumption for them. By a nice attention to the diftri- 
bution of the buildings, in forming fuch yards, many other 
advantages and facilities may likewife be given to yards of 
this defcription. 

The author of «* Modern Agriculture” has remarked, that 
a farm or foddering yard ona {uitable plan is well known 
to be an highly requilite appendage to all fuch farms as are 
well regulated, and is confidered as indifpenfable by the moft 
enlightened farmers. Where the farm buildings are ereéted 
in the {quare form, the court yard ought to be paved to the 
extent of nine or ten feet from the bottom of the walls all 
round. The earth fhould be excavated from the remainder, 
fo as to form a hollow towards the centre. hen a thick 
coat of gravel, or, what is better, chalk, thould be laid over 
the whole, which would anfwer the double purpofe of 
keeping the place dry, and facilitate the fhovelling up the 
rotten dung. Care fhould alfo be taken to have proper 
drains to carry off {uperfluous water, in order that the yard 
be kept dry. It would be very advantageous to have a 
pond for the reception of this fuperfluous water, which 
fhould be fo placed as to flood any of the adjoining fields 
at pleafure, during the proper feafon. 

By the writer of the “ New Farmer’s Calendar,” it is 
obferved, that it would be nugatory to hold forth about 
afpect, ftraight lines, or right angles, in the formation 
of a farm-yard ; fuch confiderations will ever be poftponed 
to thofe of local convenience ; it will be fufficient to infift, 
that the fpace be ample and properly divided, the offices 
fofficiently numerous and commodious, and the whole 
fheltered on every quarter. In the arrangement of the 
offices, namely, the dwelling, barns, ftables, cattle-houfes, 
and fheds, the material objeéts ought to be fuch a pofition 
as may contribute to convenience, and the abridgment of 
labour, as already noticed, and at the fame time afford the 
largeft poffible proportion of fhelter; this laft, however, 
muft obvioufly, the writer thinks, gives way to the former 
confideration ; and, as a fubftitute, all the vacant places or 
expofures may be well barricadoed with a lofty, warm, and 
fubftantial fence. Mr. Marfhall’s idea, of an angle of the 
buildings prefenting to the north, by which pofition the 
two fides would afford fhelter in the moft material points, 
from the north-weift to the north-eait, is, he thinks, happil 
conceived. Refpeéting the number of yards, no precife 
rule can, he fays, be expeted any farther than to ftate, 
that, in the fmalleft concern, a divifion is neceflary, and in 
thofe of greater magnitude two main yards, with ap- 
pendages for ftacks and other purpoles, conveniently fitu- 
ated, will properly defcribe the home-ftall. A barn feems 
the natural divifion of two yards, fince it will ferve the 
common purpofes of both. 

The defeription of the plan of a farm-yard is afterwards 
offered to the attention of the farmer. A circle of fufficient 
extent being marked out, and the area properly levelled 
and hollowed in the centre, the whole of the needful farm. 
buildings of every defeription, barns, granaries, milk houfe, 
{tables, ox and cow-houfes, pig-ityes, ftore-rooms, and 
fheds, are to be erected around, in the moft convenient 
order in point of ufeful contiguity, and with reference to 
fhelter in the coldeft expofures. The area being fo fpacious 
that the buildings will not completely furround it, every 
vacancy is to be filled up with a good fence; with or with- 
out a lean-to and roof, as a fhed. Asmany of thefe fheds as 
are required may be run up againit any of the buildings, 

Xz that 


FARM. 


that none of the cattle of the fold need be abroad, or feed 
in the rain or fnow. Divyifions and fub-divifions may be 
made at will, with hurdles, faggots, or poits and rails, for 
the purpofe of every requifite feparation of itock. The 
number and pofition of the entrances to be regulated by 
Jocal convenience, the gates being boarded to render the 
‘fecurity complete. The ftack-yard mult be formed without 
the circle, the corn-ftacks being placed within the leatt 
diitance poflible of the barn or threfhing-machine; thofe of 
hay and ftraw in an equal degree of convenient proximity 
to the backfides of the ftables and cattle-houfes. It is 
obyious that the back parts of the buildings will afford con- 
venient walls for fheds or ere€tions of any kind, fhould a 
very large ftock or peculiar circumftances render it neceflary 
to fold a part without the circle ; the communication, or 
rather the whole fyllem, may, it is afferted, be rendered 
complete, by furnifhisg all the principal buildings with 
entrances for cattle backwards, as wellasin front. In the 
invefligation of this {cheme, however, it will eafily be per- 
ceived, that a mere pedantic literal adherence to the figure 
of a circle, to which every other confideration mult yield, 
is not. fo much intended, as a generally round compaét in- 
clofure ; neverthelefs, it feems that the nearer the figure 
approaches to a true circle, the lefs will be the wafte of 
ground and expence in fencing. Although not abfolutely 
neceflary, it would be a point of great convenience, it is 
fuppofed, for the backfide of the dwelling-houfe, confifting 
of the dairy and other out-offices, to forma part of the 
fold-yard circle. The wafh of every kind from the kitchen 
and dairy fhould be faved, with the utmoft care, and led by 
proper finks and pipes into a capacious under-ground 
ciftern, from whence it may be pumped into the hog- 
troughs, the ftyes being placed within a reafonable diftance 
for the fake of that convenience. Adjoining the dairy 
fhould be found the cow-houfes and fatting-houfes for oxen ; 
the pig-ftyes next ; between the flyes and the ox-ftalls is a 
handy fituation for a boiling and wafhing-houfe, in which 
an oven alfo, or kiln, is an excellent convenience. The 
lofts above the different offices might, it is fuggefted, com- 
municate by doors through their feveral partitions, with the 
granary, threfhing- mill, and barn, affording the convenience 
of wheeling facks of corn, or chaff, to every part. Room 
above or below muft be afforded likewife for hay, potatoes, 
cabbages, and every other article of provifion of that {pecies. 
In feeding {talled oxen, to approach them at the head in- 
ftead of the feet is much the beft method; for which end 
a gang-way, fufficient to admit a large barrow, may be left 
between the wall and their head-boards, thefe being made 
to flide. Such is the practice of feveral diftill-houfes which 
feed oxen; and it has been recommended, where cattle feed 
at racks appending to the barn-fide, to have fliding boards, 
through which the threfhers may puth the itraw, without 
having to quit the bara, in order to replenifh the racks. 
A chaff-houfe fhould be conneéted with the barn; and we 
will fuppofe the oppofite range, whether ftables, fheds, 
ftore or cattle-houfes, to have an appropriate fhare of thofe 
conveniences of conneétion already flated, that as little wafte 
as poffible may be made of time, labour, and materials in 
executing the farm-yard bufinefs. 

And it is farther fuggefled, that, in an extenfive farm, 
where it is ever inconvenient and expenfive to cart manure 
to the diftant grounds, the great convenience of out-ftalls 
appears very ftriking. It is not meant to infinuate that 
there are never any out-yards upon large farms, but that 
they are not in general enough attended to, fo as to render 
them ef fufficient utility. A yard of this defcription, 
well fenced in, might, it is fuppofed, contain a cottage 
for a labourer and his family, a itable for a plough-team, 


with fheds for ftraw, cattle, and fheep; but threfhing in 
diftant barns is imprudent ; and of two evils it would be the 
leatt to cart the ftraw from heme, ftacking or houfing it at 
the out-ftalls. Thefe different hints deferve to be well con- 
fidered by the proprietors of farms before they begin to ereét 
farm conveniences of this kind. 

There are likewife a few other obje¢ts that demand par- 
ticular regard in forming new farm-yards. A great variety 
of opinions have been offered in regard to the nature of the 
fituation for receiving the ftall and yard manure, it being by 
fome confidered the beft on a furface which is perfe&tly /evel ; 
while by others it is conceived better where this is a little 
raifed; and by others again, who are very numerous, the 
hollow is, on the contrary, decidedly fupported as the bet. 
And to this laft the author of the treatife on ‘* Landed 
Property,’’ is, from long experience, inclined to afford his 
affeut. But though he thinks it fhould be hollow, it does 
not follow that it fhould be deep. Its principal ufe, befides 
that of holding the dung, being to bring the rain water 
falling within the yard into the {tate of flagnation, and to 
let it pafs off fuperficially, fo as to prevent any thing of a 
ground current from carrying away the dung, either ina 
ma{s, or thick fluid condition; merely fuffering the more 
watery particles to run off into a refervoir or receiver, con- 
ftructed for the purpofe of preparing or preferving them 
for being made ufe of afterwards. It is fuggeited, that two 
feet on the lower fide, or deepefl part, may be a mean depth; 
the bottom of the walte water channel being laid fix or eight 
inches lower.than the rim of the hollow or bafon; the depth 
of water that it can contain, when free from dung, cannot 
be more than fixteen or eighteen inches, and as it is neceflary 
to good farm yard management, that as foon as the dung 
colleGted duriag the winter feafon has been removed, that 
fome fort of earthy materials fhould be depofited evenly over 
the bottom of the bafon, for the liquid matters to operate 
upon, and bring into a ftate of manure, throwing upon 
them all the different fubftances that can be brought toge- 
ther in the courfe of the fummer and autumn; by which 
means, from the bafon being nearly filled up at thefe periods, 
the dung collected during the winter will be raifed and fup- 
ported out of the way of water, whichis fuppofed by fome 
to prevent the converfion of the different fubftances into 
manure. It is evident that fuitable drains muft be formed 
from the ftalls of the different Jarge animals, as well as from 
the pig-ftyes, and other buildings, where any fort of ftock 
is fed and kept, to the hollow or bafon, in order to convey 
the; liquid matters; the mouth of the outlet channel being 
well fecured from being choaked up, by piling the dung up 
to a great height above it ; a fuitable well or pit being pro- 
vided and kept ready for the reception of the fuper-abundant 
liquid to filtrate and difcharge itfelf into. When the farm 
has land of the grafs kind lying in a {uitable manner below 
the level of the yard, on which the overflowings of fuch 
bafons may difcharge themfelves, every part of the dung 
yard may have a fhelving direction towards the receptacle. 
But, in other cafes, it fhould not receive any more water 
than is fupplied by the atmofphere, which may eafily be 
effected by elevating the rma few inches above the fur- 
rounding furface of the yard, which muit be occafionally 
freed from the matters depofited upon it, by removing them 
into the bafon. In thefe cafes the water falling on the furs 
face of the yard fhould be conducted to a catch pool to 


depofit its ufeful materials, orto a drain made in a convenient . 


manner for the purpofe : and that falling upon the buildings 
be difcharged, without paffing through the bafon ; except 


there fhould be a greater want of liquid than folid mae , 


hure. 


From the very flow progrefs which yard manure is found 


& A RM. 


to make towards the proper {tate of maturation, in the 
open air, during the winter feafon, even when piled up in 
the dryeft fituation, in confequence of its being conftantly 
faturated with moifture and expofed to a cool atmofphere, 
the plan of having the receptacle for the dung of a long 
{quare form, fo as to be covered with a roof to wholly pro- 
teét it from rain water, and defend it from cold, has been 
fuggefted, and long fince ftrongly enforced by the Board of 
Agriculture. It is fuppofed that by thus giving it the 
means of paffing into the ftate of fermentation during the 
winter months, its converfion into manure would be benefi- 
cially expedited for application to thofe crops which are 
put in in the fpring. But it has not yet been fully fhewn 
whether the advantage would be adequate to the expence 
of fuch buildings, and the additional trouble of depofiting 
and removing the manure. It deferves, however, to be af- 
certained by careful trials, though it is a method that cannot 
be yet fafely advifed for the common farmer. 

It is a yery material objeé& to prevent, as much as poffi- 
ble, the wafte of farm-yard manure, which takes place at 
prefent in moft places; this may perhaps be the moft ef- 
fectually done by piling it up in the fituation and manner 
which has been already noticed, and detaining the depofi- 
tions of the liquid parts in fuitable receivers, making col- 
leGions of other proper matters where it can be done with 
propriety. It has been fuggefted that the having only a 
refervoir for farm-yard liquor is of vaft confequence in thefe 
cafes, even where there are no lands proper for letting the 
contents upon; particularly where it is provided from time 
to time, as noticed above, with fuitable floorings of good 
mould or other matters, for abforbing the fediment which 
is let fall from the liquor, when in this flagnant con- 
dition. 

In a dry feafon, when the liquid part is wholly removed 
by evaporation, the rich compott thus left fhould be carried 
out and {pread on the grafs lands which are under the f{eythe, 
as foon as poffible after the crops have been removed from 
them. The benefit of a receiver of this fort, whether 
formed for carrying on irrigation, or for collecting the muddy 
fediment, will,\it is fuppofed, be in proportion to its fize, and 
the expence of making it in a given fituation will be ina 
fomewhat fimilar ratio; and will moftly pay in an ample 
manner for being made. For if one which cofts ten pounds 
increafe the annual produce of hay only one load, a tenant 
may, it is {uppofed, well afford to pay fix pounds per cent. 
for the ufe ar it. It is further flated, that on a floping 
wavy furface, a refervoir of this kind may be formed at a 
very trifling coft in comparifon to its utility. And the 
form or fhape of it is confidered as of no coniequence, pro- 
vided, when it is defigned for irrigation, it be fupplied with 
a valve, that when full, the water may be let off in a fuffi- 
cient body to be diftributed evenly, and with proper effect 
over the furface of the land. 

All thefe points fhould be fully attended to in forming 
new farm-yards, in order that the greateft poffible faving of 
manure may be made. 

It has been juitly remarked by a late writer on modern 
hufbandry, that where the farm buildings are without or- 
der or conneétion with each other in the yards, as is too 
commonly the cafe in many parts of the kingdom, the dung 
is moftly thrown on fpaces of ground allotted for the pur- 
pofe oppofite to the doors of the ftables, cow-heufes, fheds, 
&c. where it is allowed carelefsly to remain ; its more va- 
lable particles, in the mean while, being exhaled by the 
influence of the weather till the return of the feafon, when 
it is ufually laid on the lands. If the houfes happen to be 
fituated on an eminence, the dung lying in fmall quantities 


is drained of all its moifture. If, on the other hand, they are 
placed in a hollow, the dung is for the moft part allowed to 
remain foaked in water. In either cafe its quality muft be 
greatly impaired, and its ufefulnefs in promoting vegetation 
much lefs than when, by proper attention, all the effence is 
retained. The advantages refulting from well-conftruéted 
farm or foddering yards are, therefore, the writer conceives, 
various and important. By means of them the quantity of 
dung is much increafed, and the quality rendered fuperior : 
for thefe reafons, he is of opinion, that the advantages of 
pofiefling proper accommodation for the cattle on the farm 
are more than fufficient to counterbalance the expence in- 
curred in creating them. He f-c's himfelf warranted to ftate 
this opinion, not merely becauf« it is his own, but becaufe 
it is confidered as well-founded by many intelligent farmers 
in both kingdoms, with whom he has converfed on the fub- 
je&. The difference muft indeed be obvious to every intel- 
ligent reader who is at all acquainted with thefe matters. 
Where proper houfes and other accommodations are ereted, 
the dung is colle€ted into one mafs, the varicus forts care- 
fully mixed together, and the fuperfluous water carried off 
by proper drains; by which means it retains its properties, 
and muft confequently become ufeful, and its effects con- 
{picuous, when applied for the purpofe of invigorating the 
foil. Whereas, when the dung is allowed to remain in {mall, 
detached loofe heaps, the moft valuable parts are.either 
drained off or evaporated ; fo that what remaius is compa- 
ratively of little value. Although it will be readily admit- 
ted, that an active and induftrious farmer who labours under 
the inconvenience of having too few farm. offices, and thofe 
improperly fituated, may, by his fuperior attention, lay up 
as great a ftore of dung, of a good quality, as his lefs affi- 
duous neighbour, who is better accommodated as to houfes ; 
yet, whoever makes this the fubjeét of general invef¥ization 
will find reafon to be fatisfied, that on all occafious where 
the proprietors, by liberal arrangements with their tenants, 
afford them the requifite accommodation for their horfes 
and cattle, there the farm yard dung is in general in greater 
abundance, and of a richer quality. 

There has been confiderable diverfity of opinion con- 
cerning the form of a farm-yard, that affords the greateit 
convenience, fome contending for the fquare, others for the 
circular, and not a few for the augular or many-fided form. 
It is evident, however, that the fhape mutt conftantly mate- 
rially depend on the nature of the fituation and other cir- 
cumitances which are conne&t2d with it. The fquare form 
was that formerly mott in efleem ; but this has lately given 
way to thofe of the circular and many-fided forms, as af- 
fording a greater number of conveniences, and more room in 
the fame extent of building. 

The following two plans of farm-yards are of the fquare 
form, and have been found highly ufeful and convenient in 
atual practice. The firft is ftated, by the author of the 
“ Chefhire Agricultural Report,” as being on the farm of 
Broom-fields, belongits to fir Peter Warburton. The build- 
ings are conitruGted of ftone, which. was obtained from a 
quarry in the vicicity, and the whole of them covered with 
flate. The ground plaa of all the various buildings and 
conveniencics are fhewn at fg. 1. in Plate XVI. on Agri- 
culture. Here Mr. Becket, the prefent occupier ef ‘the 
farm, has availed himfelf of the opportunity afforded him by 
a gentle defcert in the ground from the front of the heufe, 
to convey a fmail ftream through the yard over the meadows 
below the buildings, by which aa uncommon degree of ver- 
dure and lixuriance has been produced, which fully demon- 
itrates the benefit which has been derived from the praétice, 

The latter is defcribed in the ** Parmer’s Magazine,”’ as be- 

I ing 


FA 


ing conftrnced by David Hunter, efq. at Efmount, in the 
county of Forfar, in North Britain; and the plan of 
which is reprefented at fi. 2, in the fame plate. In this 
A, A, are ftone troughs for the fattening beafts to eat out 
of; being formed of hewn pavement, as well as the divifions 
which -are arched below ; by which contrivance they can 
all be rendered perfectly clean, by pouring water into the 
welternmoft, and making ufe of a broom as it is difcharged at 
the contrary end. BB, is the groove or hollow behind the 
animals, which receives the dung and urine, and which laft 
is difci.arged at the opening C, in the ealt wall into a 
wooden {pout D, which is moveable at pleafure, fo as to 
depofit it on any earthy material that may have been pre- 
vioufly laid down for the purpofe, by which means a great 
jncreafe of manure is made for futureufe. E, E, E, are three 
fmall vents made in the north wall for letting off the moifture 
produced by the breathing of the cattle, by which the timber 
is greatly preferved, and the animals prevented from fweat- 
ing too much or being too hot ; their breath being lighter 
than the atmofpheric air requires this fort of ventilation to 
expel it. TF, a {mall door in the eaft corner, where there is 
a room and bed for a cattle man, that he may be at hand, in 
cafe of need. G,G, two doors to the fouthward ,through 
which is an eafy conveyance for the dung and dirty litter 
into the dung court, in which H, H, are fheds for containing 
your wintering ftock. II, the fhed for holding turnips 
or other roots, as well as the ftraw and hay that may be 
-requifite. K, the door, which is fufficiently wide to back 
the carts in, and in which the roots are topped. LL, is 
a roomy dung-ftead, for depofiting earthy or other fub- 
ftances, for receiving the difcharges of the farm-yard, 
ftables, and diflerent ftalls and fheds. MM, is a raifed 
caufeway, which ranges all along the feeding ftalls and weft 
fide of the dung court, 

The great advantages of this conftruétion of farm-yard 
and buildings are ns of keeping the cattle more clean, 
letting them have their food in a {weeter ftate ; and thereby 
thriving better; and the preferving of a much larger pro- 
portion of the dung and urine of the animals. Belides, in 
this way there are other advantages in having the turnips 
or other roots brought from the field without watte, while 
they can be topped and the tops confumed green ; in their 
being laid in with lefs labour and trouble ; and in there be- 
ing no neceffity for ufing them ina frofted or improper con- 
dition. y 

This is an excellent plan where the praétice of ftall- feeding 
cattle is to be carried on. 

The two farm yards which are reprefented in Plate XVIT. 
on Agriculture, are formed on the angular or many-fided, 
and the circular plans, and are calculated for farms of con- 
fiderable extent, and under mixed cultivation. Fig. 1. is 
the reprefentation of an ufeful one of the former defcription ; 
and at fig. 2, is the delineation of one of the latter kind. 
They are either of them capable of being varied fo as to 
{uit particular intentions. See Farm-Juildings, and Farm- 
ffoufe. 

Farm-Yard Dung, is that fort of manure which is col- 
leéted and raifed in the farm-yard from the difcharge and 
treading of different forts of live ftock. It confequently 
confifts of the dung and urine of all kinds of cattle, horfes, 
hogs, and other animals, intermixed with litter of various 
deeentont, and fometimes other forts of more earthy ma- 
terials. It isthe moft abundant and ufeful manure that 
the farmer has the command of. From its nature, and the 
manner in which it is formed, it is evidently a compoft or 
compound fubftance, though different in fome refpeéts from 
-thofe heaps of manure which are ufually denominated com- 


R M. 


pofts by farmers. Every opportunity fhould be taken to 

increafe, as much as poffible, this highly ufeful material, by 

colleGting and depofiting different kinds of proper matters 

in the ftallsand farm-yards, which fhould be fuitably formed 

for receiving them. See Comros®, Manure, and Farm- 
‘ard, 

Farm-Yard Manure, is a term frequently applied to the 
manure which is railed and provided in the farm-yards. See 
Comrost, Farm-Yard Dung, and Manure. 

Farm-Yard Management, in Rural Economy, is that fort 
of management which relates to the bufinefs and operations 
of the farm-yard. In order to augment and procure as 
much manure as-poffible, the farm-yard fhould contitantly be 
kept covered with fome earthy material, on which the dung 
and urine of the cattle may aét, and with which they may 
be combined, and thus increafe the quantity of the manure 
heap. Good mould, peat earth, and the {crapings of roads 
and ditches, are highly proper for the purpofe. Where 
there is a pit or referyoir for the reception of the urine and 
other liquid matters from the yard, it may be fo placed as to 
ferve two yards, and may be bottomed with rammed clay, 
and its fides plaftered with fome compofition which will 
make it retentive. Into it may be fhot as much ditch earth 
or other fubftances as it will properly hold, without caufing 
an overflow ; and, inftead of pumping the liquor out ir the 
end, as has been bith es it is probably better to fhoot 
in earth fufficient to wholly abforb it, afterwards carting 
the whole away to the compoft-hill, which is believed to be 
the eafier method of the two. Upon the bottom, in the 
yard, the layer of manure earth is te be {pread to the thick. 
nefs of a foot, if poffible, throughout the whole area, the 
quantity in the centre, or drain, being increafed two or 
three fold, as having the greater part of the moifture to im- 
bibe. ‘The whole mult be kept fufficiently littered, that 
the cattle may not poach in the earth with their feet. The 
above, or fome method of fimilar effeé, for the prefervation 
of articles fo precious to the farmer as the dung and urine 
of his cattle, one would fuppofe, a late writer fays, fo fim- 
ple and obvious, that common fenfe could never mifs it, 
How ftrange then is it, that we fee fuch beneficial meafures 
generally negleéted, and that by men who have it in their 
power to compafs them, and who pretend to be fenfible of 
the value of the meafure? How many hundreds of farm- 
yards are there either mere bogs, or with bottoms which 
abforb and devour the mofl valuable part of the manure, or . 
with a defcent towards a pond, a road, or a ditch, where it 
runs off, to be in part or totally diflipated and lof? But 
what is ftill more fingularly abfurd is, that a pond or drain 
fhall fortunately {top the groffer part of this wafte, and yet 
it fhall be fuffered to accumulate for years unobferved and 
untouched! This is by much too frequently the cafe. 

With the view of promoting ftill more the purpofe men- 
tioned above, from every ftable or cattle-houfe, a drain, it is 
obferved, will be neceffary, in order to conduct the urine to 
the proper receptacle; not a mere common gutter, in which 
the liquid finks or itagnates, keeping a conftant puddle at 
the heels of the animals; there ought to be a grating, or 
fink-plate, to every two ftalls at leaft, which, with the 
drain itfelf, fhould always be kept free and pervious. The 
entrance to the chief cattle-houfe is ufually over a pavement 
of convenieat wicth. ‘The dung from the different houfes 
muft, both for convenience and prefervation fake, be ftowed 
near at hand; for, fhould it be wheeled into the area, it 
would be trodden to waite, that is to fay, either bound 
down too hard, or too much fcattered, inftead of which it 
may be at once placed in a ftate proper for fermentation and 
putrefaction. Either flight pits may be made oppolite P 

the 


FA 


the ffable door, and bottomed with marle or earth, or the 
dang may be made up in clumps or hills; in both which 
cafes the nice and fcientific cultivator may, if he pleafe, 
cover with ftraw or ftubble, in order te prevent exhalation, 
and to promote the putrefactive procefs. The heaps 
growing to an inconvenient bulk, an auxiliary dung-hill 
muft be pitched in the neareft fituation; thus, in acertain, 
perhaps fufficient, degree, with attention and a little inge- 
nious contrivance, the dung may be preferved from ex- 
pofure to the external air. In cafe of its too great aridity 
or drought, in the hot feafon, and with the view of re-pro- 
ducing B icitation, no method is better, the writer fup- 
pofes, than to ftirinto the heap mud, weeds, flop of any 
kind, or foul water from ponds, ditches, and other fimilar 
places.. Others, however, advite that the manure raifed in 
the fold-yards fhould be wholly removed from them every 
fix or eight weeks, and thrown up into heaps, in order that 
fermentation may be more fully carried on, in confequence 
of the more free admiffion of air and moifture, as by fuf- 
fering it to continue longer in fuch places it is liable, from 
the exceffive treading of the cattle and other forts of live 
ftock, to become fo hard, in particular parts, as to prevent 
the regular procefs of converfion from going on; and in cafe 
of the feafon becoming dry for fome length of time, to un- 
dergo decay in a partial manner only, which is very difad- 
vantageous to the farmer. On this principle, therefore, the 
practice fometimes had recourfe to, of turning over the ma- 
nure in the farm-yards, in the verna! feafon, when the wea- 
ther is dry, and the dung fo compa& and deftitute of 
moifture as te require being cut and removed in large lumps, 
is evidently wrong, as by blending the dry parts with the 
more moift ones, the procefs of decay is greatly checked 
and retarded, and the forming of good manure prevented. 
The lighter and more evenly the heaps of the materials 
can be thrown together, the more quickly they take on 
heat, decay, and become good manure. And if the ma- 
nure of feveral different forts of animals be blended toge- 
ther, {uch as that of hogs, neat cattle, and horfes, it is fup- 
pofed by fome to’be fo much the better, the fermentation 
proceeding more rapidly. 

It is confidered by many a very improper practice to have 
this fort of manure, in a {tate ready for application, any 
great length of time before it is wanted, as was formerly 
much the cafe ; as the moft rich parts of it are continually 
going off by evaporation and folution, and of courfe the 
itrength of the manure much leffened. 


Where this fort of manure is to be formed from the roots. 


of different kinds of weeds and other plants, and various 
coarfe vegetable productions, a much greater length of 
time will be required to bring it into the condition of good 
manure, than would otherwife be the cafe. 

Te has been the fubjeét of difpute, the writer noticed 
above fays, whether or not it be preferable, in point of in- 
tereft, to keep cattle enough to confume all the ftraw as’ 
meat, without any being allowed for bedding: the affirma~ 
tive, he thinks, not improbable ; but it is a length in cattle- 
feeding to which few will be difpofed to proceed: But to 
go upon the fuppofition of fodtering abroad, nothing can 
be move plain than the benefit-derived to cattle from warm 
littering and fhelter ; and it is equally obvious, that young 
and growing flock thrive much better in the-range of a 
yard, than whew confined in a ftalk being» alfo much’ more 
agreeable to their natural liking, This idea extends to 
ftore-pigs, which are- almoft’ indifpenfable in a ry as 
gleaners of what would be watte to every other defcription 
of animals. Some are for confining all cattle to the houfe 


throughout the wivter, and even recommend the expence. 


R M. 


of entirely covering in the yard with a roof of deal board?, 
a greater premium, im his opinion, for the perfeGiion of 
dung, than fuch perte¢tion, if attained, would ever repay. 
In cafe of a very large ftock, it would be to incur no flight 
rifks of contagion. It‘would be to run into the extreme of 
the continental pratice, where they exceedingly injure the 
health of their cattle by too clofe houfing, ftifling heat, 
and hot watery flops. Theirs and our common fyfem 
form, he thinks, two extremes. He has long alfo, been 
decidedly of opinion, that fheep are equa!ly entitled to the 
benefit of the home-fold with any other defcription of ftock, 
and that they will repay it in an equal proportion: they 
mutt, however, be folded apart from the other cattle. By 
keeping yards properly formed for them, well littered down 
with ftraw or other fuitable matters, and having them put 
into them during the night, vaft flores of excellent manure 
might be formed. Where deer are kept they might alfo be 
had recourfe to in’ the fame way with’ gréat benefit in the 
view of manure. 

Great care and attention are requifite in the management 
of every kind of ftock in the farm-yard, as well in refpe& to 
the proper foddering of them as the keeping of them clean. 
Each fhould be performed with great regularity and exai- 
nefs. The farmer fhould himfelf make frequent examina- 
tions, and fee that all the different defcriptions of ftock go 
on in a proper manner, and that nothing is neglected by the 
fervants who are employed in the yard bufinefs. 

The prefent mode of managing farm-yard manure, pre=- 
vious to its being laid on the land, is ftated by a late writer 
to be in almoft every part of the kingdom, where regular 
farm-buildings have not been ereCted, extremely negligent 
and improper, and fuch as calls loudly for reform. This 
will appear more efpecially neceffary, he thinks, when we 
reflect on the fmall number of farms that are properly ac- 
commodated with farm-offices, compared with thofe that= 
are deprived of neceflary accommodations in this refpec. - 
We mnit, then, perceive that the evil, in regard to the mif- 
management of farm-yard dung in Great Britain, is as ex 
tenfive as it is ferious. The lols of manure in this way muit 
be prodigious all through the country. Reform has, how- 
ever, begun to take place in moft of the improved diftri@s, 
and will, no doubt, be gradually introduced into the others, 
as the advantages of it become better underftood. See 
Manure, and Farm-Yard. 

Farms, Letting of, is the cuftom, praGice, or bufinefs 
of getting, or providing them with fuch tenants as are pro- 
per and adequate to the cultivation. and management of 
them. This is evidently a matter of great confequence to 
the proprietors, -as their advantage depends materially upon 
hoth, in fo far as their rents and the improvement of theic 
lands are-concerned: It of courfe behoves them to a@ with 
confiderabié attention in the adjufting-of the bufimels» Thers 
are feveral different methods of managing itjas by»public aue- 
tion, the higheft bidder being the tenant; by ticket or 
written propofals, the higheft offer having the farm; aud 
by the afking of more rent-than the farm is worth, fo as to 
clofe with the perfon- promifing the largeit reat, without 
regarding his qualifications or fitnefs as a tenant. 

The two firit methods are eafy and convenient {Gr obtain- 
ing tenants for farms, where the owners or minagers of 
them are not’ well acquainted with the «value of the 
lands, or the qualifications of the tenants. And where: the 
filly imprudent cuftom prevails on eftates of letting the ma 
nager have a profit on leafes or agreements for-farms, this 
manner of letting them becomes ftill mere agreeable, as it is 
three to one that either the farms are let too dear, or that’ 
the tenants are unequal to their management ; confequent!» 


7 there. 


FAR 


there is a fair profpe& to the drawer of the leafes of their 
being to be re-let inthe courfe of avery few years. Fur- 
ther, if he have not only a handfome profit upon every pair 
of leafes, but is allowed or accuftomed to take fees of entry, 
the prolpets are fill more bright and promifing. And 
where, in addition to thefe, there is a further profit on deeds 
of diftrefs and furrender, how can a perfon be blamed who 
has probably a large family to fupport, for letting farms by 
auclion or by propofals; or for agreeing with an  adven- 
turer, or with any man as ignorant as himfelf of their real 
value, for more money than they are worth; or for fcrew- 
ing up the tenants in poffeffion to rents they can never pofli- 
bly pay ; when he knows, perhaps, that by fo doing he 
fhall not only enhance his income, but gratify his employer. 
It is juflly fuggefted that it is the employer not the agent, 
who, under this falfe principle of management, is playing 
the lofing game!  LExceffive rents are only nominal. 
They look well on a rent-roll while they have a right to 
{ftaud there. But if the arrears of rent be received through 
the diftrefs and ruin of the tenant, the injury done to the 
eltate, not to mention its lofs of character, is to be deducted 
from the nominal rent. At length, when the lands are 
completely exhaufted, the buildings let down, the gates 
and fences broken and deftroyed, the water courfes choaked 
up, and the roads impaffable, the tenant, fays Mr. Marfhall, 
runs off, and the farm lies unoccupied, a very blank in the 
rent-roll. Such, he contends, is the impropriety of this 
method of proceeding in the tenanting of theeltates. To 
the life tenant of an eftate, who has no intereft whatever in 
the remainder, and whofe life is worth but a few years’ pur- 
chafe, fuch a mode of proceeding might claim, he fuppoles, 
a fort of juttification. But that, in the poffeffor of an heredi- 
tary property, which is expected to defcend to the fon and 
fon’s fon, fuch an improvident practice becomes, he fays, 
altogether irrational. It might be deemed an aé of folly 
in a young man; and of cruelty as wellas folly in one of ri- 
per years ; whofe fucceffor might thereby be involved in 
perpetual difficulty ; and his own memory in confequence 
be fhrowded in difgrace. The writer, in hts various exami- 
nations and reviews of the different departments of the king- 
dom, hasfeen much mifchief and mifery refulting from this im- 
provident and impolitic plan of management in the letting 
of farms. 

It is ftrongly fuggefted, that if the intimate connection 
which fubfifts, which muft -fubfift between owners and oc- 
cupiers, be well confidered, and how much the intereit of 
the former depends upon the condué of the latter, it is but 
common prudence to be {crupulonfly nice and attentive to 
the choice of tenants. And as in every fituation there is 
at all timesa fair rental value, or market price, of lands, as 
of their produéts, there appears to be only one rational 
and eventually profitable method of letting a farm, which is 
that by fixing the rent and choofing the tenant. As in this 
mode there is the greateft chance of fecuring proper tenants, 
efpecially in fo far as the good cultivation of the land is 
concerned and the due payment of the rent. 

FARMER, aterm which fignifies a perfon whofe bufi- 
nefs is the cultivation and management of farm lands, and 
the feveral kinds of live ftock neceffarily conneéted with 
them, as well as the different products which are afford- 
ed from both. Farmers may be ftill further diftinguifh- 
ed, according to the nature of the farms, and the forts 
of management under which they are conduéted, into 
arable, grazing, dairying, and hay or grafs farmers. 

The farmers of this country may now probably be di- 
vided into two claffes, the large and the fmall, which 
differ very materially in their habits and opinions. The 


FAR 


views and notions of the latter are moftly narrow and 
confined, in confequence of the want of education, re- 
fulting from their fituation in fociety, which does not 
permit them to improve themfelyves 10 any high degree. 
It is perhaps on this account that farmers of this fort 
are fo backward in admitting any innovations on the 
methods of hufbandry to which they have been accuftom- 
ed: incapable of perceiving the benents that might be 
derived from propofed alterations, they are too apt to 
adhere to the prattices which they have received from 
their anceftors, and to tranfmit them unchanged to their 
potterity. Their habits having been formed to fome par- 
ticular fyftem or practice, they centinue to purfue it 
with a blind unvarying attachment. 

On the contrary, the large farmers, having their minds 
more enlarged by education, are much more intelligent, 
and actuated by a more judicious and rational fpirit of 
improvement. It is to the influence and exertion of this 
valuable clafs of farmers that moft of the improvements 
which have lately been made in bufbandry in this coun- 
try are to be afcribed. They have likewife contributed 
in a very material degree to the extenfion and fpread of 
that fpirit of invefligation and experiment which, while 
regulated by judgment, cannot fail of leading to the 
moft important and ufeful refults. 

But a late writer on agriculture has arranged the farmers 
of this country under the following feveral claffes or heads : 
ut, the king ; 2dly, the great proprietors and country gen- 
tlemen; 3dly, yeomen, and farmers properly fo called; 
4thly, pofleffors of {mall farms ; 5thly, cottagers, including 
different defcriptions of people who cultivate {mall farms, 
and a few acres adjoining towns and villages; and, 6thly, 
the unproduétive clafs of hufbandmen. 

It is fuppofed that in regard to the firft, it will not be 
denied that the governments of modern Europe have hi- 
therto encouraged the towns in preference to that of the 
country ; andin fome meafure deprefled agriculture in or- 
der to advance manufaéturing and commercial induftry, 
While, on the other hand, the government of the immenfe 
territory of China encourages agriculture more than all 
the other arts; infomuch, that the condition of a farm 
labourer in that country is faid to beas fuperior to that of 
an artificer, as with us itisinferior. Itis not believed dif- 
ficult to trace thefe different fyftems of policy to the fame 
fource, however apparently inconfiitent they are in them- 
felves. The increafe of commerce and manufactures in the 
different kingdoms of Europe has always been attended with 
an increafe of revenue to the ftate, and which, in confe- 
quence of being brought more fpeedily, and with lefs ex- 
pence into the exchequer, than that ariling from agriculture, 
becomes thereby more advantageous ; while the fovereigns of 
China derive the greateft part, if not the i of 
their revenue from the produce of the foil. From thefe 
oppofite fyftems of political eooneraiy another might, 
it is imagined, be ettablifhed, infinitely better calculat- 
ed to promote the interefts of the nation, by afford. 
ing the means of fupporting a more numerous popu- 
lation than is poffible to be done by adhering to either 
of the former. Were agriculture, manufactures, and 
commerce alike encouraged, they would all profper in. an 
equal degree ; and though the revenues ariling from the. 
former might not be fo well calculated to anfwer any fud~ 
den exigence, yet experience has proved, that, in this king- 
dom, they form the moit {ure and permanent refources of the 
ftate, asis evident from the land and malt taxes, excife onale, 
beer, British f{pirits, cyder, perry, leather, candles, andal- 
mott every other-article produced inthe country. ; 

If 


FARMER, 


If this propofition be well founded (and it is prefumed it 
will not be controverted), it mutt give the moft fincere 
fatisfaction to every lover of his country to fee that the 
fovereign of this great kingdom, which has rifen fo high in 
fame among nations for the extent of its manufactures and 
commerce, has, like another Cato, turned his attention to 
the cultivation and improvement, of his native foil, and 
thereby done more for the encouragement of agriculture 
than could probably have been effected by any other means. 
‘The example which his majefty thus holds out for the imi- 
tation of the higher claffes of his fubjets canuot, the writer 
thinks, fail to be attended with confequences highly bene- 
ficial, as has been eminently teftified by the meritorious ex- 
ertions of his grace the duke of Bedford and many others ; 
while the attention of the other branches of the fegiflature 
will naturally be turned to the formation of fuch laws and 
regulations in favour of thofe who practife this moft ufeful 
art, as will in all probability tend in a very great degree to 
the further improvement of the country. 

It is flated, that on his majefty’s farm, and under his 
perfonal attention, farm-houfes have been built, {wamps and 
morafles drained, plantations. formed, and every means 
adopted that could contribute to improve the foil or em- 
bellifh the landfeape. In carrying on thefe works, liberal 
expenditure has been combined with minute favings, which 
is indifpenfably neceflary in all the operations of hufbandry, 
either where the objeét is profit, or, as in this cafe, a defire 
to promote the public good, by endeavouring to create a 
fpirit in others for undertaking improvements of a fimilar 
nature. na 

In confidering the fecond clafs, the writer remarks, that 
a confiderable portion of the cultivated lands in Britain is 
poflefled by the great proprietors, and fuch as generally re- 
fide on their eflates, who may therefore very probably be 
denominated country-gentlemen. Exclufive of their do- 
mains, or lands around their manor-houfes, thefe proprietors 
commonly hold farms, which are kept under regular modes 
of cultivation. Many of thefe characters merit high com- 
mendation for their fteady and unwearied attention to that 
great fource of national wealth, the introdu€tion of better 
fyftems of hufbandry ; while others have gone farther, and 
not only endeavoured, both by precept and example, to in- 
duce their tenants to adopt fuch fyftems as they from expe- 
rience had found beneficial, but alfo granted leafes of fuch 
duration, and on terms fo liberal, as induced men poffefling 
knowledge, enterprife, and capital, to apply them to the 
art of hufbandry. It is to be regretted, however, that this 
cannot be faid of all the great proprictors and cowntry-gen- 
tlemen of this ifland. Many there are who, with a cool in- 
difference refpe&ting either the improvement of the country 
or the fituation of their tenants, feem to think the chief 
bulinefs of a landlord ought to be an unremitting attention 
to the extenfion of his rent-roll, without ever duly confider- 
ing, that if additional rents are demanded, means fhould be 
furnifhed by the introduétion of better fyftems of hufbandry, 
improved breeds of live-ftock, and the expenditure of money 
in the improvement of the property, by which tenants may 
be enabled to difcharge fuch farther obligations. But from 
‘the {pirit of improvement which has of late evinced itfelf fo 
confpicuoufly, it may be hoped, that in a little time no in- 
flance of this kind will be found amongift this highly re- 
{peétable clafs of farmers and proprietors of land. 

Regarding the third clafs, or the yeomen and farmers, pro- 
perly fo denominated, they may be confidered the ftrength 
of the ftate. The yeoman and the farmer here alluded to 
differ only in one particular; the lands which the former 
cultivates are either in part or in whole his own property, 


Vou. XIV. 


while the latter rents his farm from another. In regard 
to induftry, perieverance, and attention to bufinefs, there ie 
no difference. Happy in their fituation, removed on the 
one hand from the vamities and fuperfluities of high life, 
and, on the other, by their honeft induftry from the fear of 
poverty, the improvement of their farms cunftituting their 
chief ftudy and delight, they {pend their days in independ- 
ence, enjoying health and all the rational comforts of life. 
It is fuppofed probable that near three-fourths of this king- 
dom are pofleffed by peopie of this defcription. Fortunate 
it is for Britain that this is the cafe ; for although many of 
the proprietoys are entitled to much praife for introducing 
improvements into various parts of the country, it is to this 
clafs that the nation is indebted for thefe improvements hav- 
ing become fo general and extenfive as they.now are. 

Concerning the fourth clafs it may be ftated, that in all 
the beft cultivated parts of Great Britain, as well as where 
improvements have not become general, there are many 
{mall farms. Thefe, though not as yet in every cafe ma- 
naged in fuch a manner as to produce the greateft crops 
which the foil is capable of yielding, are, however, much 
better cultivated than they-were 30 or 40 years ago; and 
the {pirit for improvements among tenants of this defcrip- 
tion appears to be more general than at any former period, 
although, from the want of capital, and the little attention 
generally paid to them by their landlords, added to their 
own attachment to ancient prejudices, they are yet very far 
from having attained that degree of ufefulnefs, in an agrt- 
cultural view, to which, by adopting proper means, they 
may be advanced. The poffeffors of {mail farms are, how- 
ever, very ufeful and valuable members of the community : 
honeft, peaceable, and induftrious, they breed up their 
children in the fame principles, and to thefe are the manu- 
faCiurers of our ifland moft indebted for a never-failing 
fupply of virtuous and ufeful artificers and labourers in va- 
rious ways. 

The fifth clafs, or cottagers, are thofe who either refide 
in the neighbourhood of large farms adjoining to moors or 
commons, or in {mall hamlets. They generally poffefs a 
few acres of tillage-lands, from the cultivation of which, 
together with what they receive for labour performed to the 
farmers, or from carrying on the occupations to which they 
had been bred, as weavers, tailors, fhoemakers, blackfmiths, 
thatchers, &c. they are enabled to maintain their families, 
and to be of great fervice in the bufinefs of cultivation. 
Being for the moft part induftrious and inured to labour, 
they bring up their children not only without becoming 
burdens on the public, but in fuch a manner as to render 
them extremely ufeful as members of fociety. Thefe h 
Jets and cottages are alfo nurferies whence the Br 
farmer draws his centtant fupply of labourers tor performin 
his work. 

In regard to thofe who cultivate {mall farms, adjoining to 
towns or villages, they fall to be defcribed under twe cha- 
raGters. The firit are fuch as refide in towns, and are en- 
gaged in commerce and manufactures ; but who, for their 
amufement, or the Gonvenience of their families, poifeis 
{mall farms in the neigkbourhood. Thefe may be denomt- 
nated good farmers only in a national point of view 
Their farms are indeed in fome cafes well cultivated, the 
crops luxuriant, and a full proportion, correfponding to the 
extent of the farms, comes to market; but, owing to thei 
time and’ attention being occupied with other matters, in 
the fuccefs of which they are more immediately interefted, 
few of them derive much benefit from their farming opera- 
tions. The reafon is obvious ; there is no bufinefs requires 
more unremitting care than that of hufbaadry ; and, though 

people 


a 
¥ 
= 


FARMER. 


people fo employed may have it in their power to pay atten- 
tion to the great leading points, as that of feed-time and 
harveft, it is not to be fuppofed they cau fpare time to 
fuperintend the execution of many of thofe more minute 
operations, on the proper attention to which the profits of 
a farm, particularly one fo fituated, principally depend. 
The fecond are thote who refide in or immediately adjoining 
to towns, and farm fo many acres as enable them to keep 
a few milch-cows, or two or three horfes to hire, either for 
the faddle or the cart. It is only neceflary to fay, that as, 
on account of local fituation, they commonly pay very high 
* rents for their lands, they therefore find it for their intereft 
to cultivate them in the beft manner, fo as to infure the 
greateft poffible crops. The ufes to which thefe crops are 
applied, it wiil be readily admitted, tend in a material 
degree to the convenience and accommodation of the inha- 
bitants, and therefore cultivators of this defcription are to 
the inhabitants of thefe towns and villages what the Britifh 
farmers are to the nation at large; namely, the means by 
which they are furnifhed with many of the neceffaries and 
comforts of life. Without the aid of this induftrious clafs 
of men, it is evident that manufactures cannot flourifh, as 
thofe engaged in them in the various towns would be 
obliged to difperfe, and feck thofe fupplics in the country, 
without which their fituation would be in 2 great meafure 
unfupportable. 
While fumming up this account of the cultivators of the 
Britifh foil, there yet remains a very numerous clafs to be 


taken notice of ; and it is to be regretted, that the appella-’ 


tion of the unproduétive clafs but too well applies to them. 
Thofe are, the great body of the inhabitants in the remote 

arts of Scotland, who are without doubt the moit ufelefs 
inhabitants in the ifland. This, however, it is but jutlice to 
fay, does not arife from any fault of theirs, but from the 
negligence of thofe who fhould be their natural guardians 
and protetors. They are well known to be capable of 
the mott indefatigable exertion and perfeverance, when 
taught to look forward to any objet, either of glory or of 
intereft. But they are permitted to wafte their time in floth 
and indolence. Were the landholders to beftow the proper 
attention, which an object of fuch national importance 
merits, thefe people might, in a few years, be taught the 
firft principles of improvement ; namely, the value of time, 
and the beneficial effects of labour. ‘Then, but not till then, 
will a knowledge of agriculture and other ufeful arts prevail 
amongft them, and take the place of that gloomy melan- 
«holy which was introduced under the feudal fyftem, and 
has too long held its reign. The greateft part of the cul- 
tivated lands in the highlands and iflands of Scotland is 
pofleffed in townfhips ; that is, a number of tenants refide in 
the fame town or hamlet, and rent {mall lots adjoining. Ia 
almoft every fuch cafe the modes of cultivation, and the 
implements of hufbandry, are probably little improved from 
what they were five hundred years ago, at leait they are 
wretched in the extreme, the culture of potatoes being the 
only improvement of any confequence that has taken place 
for ages. When to this it is added that few attempts have 
been hitherto made to introduce either commerce or manu- 
faGtures, it will appear evident to every Britifh reader, that 
this great body of his fellow-fubjects may, with too much 
propriety, be termed an unproduétive clafs, and in their pre- 
fent fituation be corfidered as a burden, rather than an ad- 
vantage to the Rate. There are notwithitanding many in 
fhofe diftri&s who, from the extent of land which they 

offefs, their knowledge of agriculture, and the attention 
which they beftow on the improvement of the different 
Species of live ftock, are juftly entitled to be ranked among 


the number of Britifh farmers; and if proper encourages 
ment was giver by the proprietors, and fuch medes of ime 
provement introduced as the country is mott fufceptible of, 
that number would, it is fuppofed, naturally increafe in a 
high degree. 

{tis of much confequence to farmers in general, that 
they confider the nature of their different fituations with at- 
tention, as by fuch means they may introduce the moft 
advantageous fyftems of management on their farms. They 
fhould likewife be particularly atteutive to the raifinge of 
various forts of feeds, as well as to the practice of cropping ; 
and above all to the keeping of regular accounts. See 
Farm. ' 

Farmer, in Law, he that tenants a farm, or leffee 
thereof. Alfo generally every leifee for life, years, or at 
will, is called farmer. Farm, or feorme, being an old 
Saxon word, fignifying provifions (fee Farm), came to 
be ufed inftead of rent or render, becaufe anciently rents,. 
or the greater part of them, were referved in provifions, 
in corn, poultry, or the like, till the ufe of money became 
more frequent. [ence a farmer, frmarius, was one who 
held his lands upon payment of a rent or feorme; though 
at prefent, by a gradual departure from the original fenfe, 
the word farm is brought to fienify thie very eftate or lands 
fo held upon farm or rent. See Lease. 

As this word implies no myttery, except it be that of 
hufbandry, hufbandman is the proper addition for a farmer. 

Farmer, in Mining, is the lord of the field, or one that 
farms the lot and cope of the kiag. 

Farmer, Huu, in Biography, an eminent diviné among 
the Proteftant diffenters, no lefs diftingnifhed by his populas 
talents as a preacher, than by his learning as a theologian, 
was a defcendant from refpectable anceftors in North Wales, 
and born’ at Shrewfbury in-the year 1714 Having laid a 
fuitable foundation ef claflical literature at a fchool near 
Towyn, in Merionethhhire, and afterwards under the tuition 
of Dr. Charles Owen, alearaed diflenting minifter at War- 
tington, in Lancafhire, he was initiated as a ftudent for the 
minittry, in the year 1730, at the academy in Northampton, 
then under the fuperintendance of Mr. (afterwards Dr.) 
Doddridge. After he had finifhed his courfe of ftudies, 
very much to his own honour, and to the fatisfaGtion of his 
tutor, he fettled at Walthamttow near London, as chaplain. 
to William Coward, efq. and alfo as minilter to the diffenting 
congregation in that village. Mr. Coward, although he 
made liberal provifion by benefaétions and bequefts for the 
education and relief of Proteftant diffenting minifters, was 
a man of a peculiar temper, which obliged his. chaplain 
fuddenly to remove, and te take up an afylum in the houfe of 
William Snell, efq. an eminent folicitor of diitinguifhed. 
probity and worth. Here he was hofpitably received, and: 
in this family he continued, on terms of the clofelt intimacy 
and friendfhip, for more than 30 years. The congregation 
at Waltharsitow flourifhed under his paftoral care, and. 
became one of the moft confiderable, as to the number and 
opulence of its members, in the vicinity of the metropolis. 
Mr. Farmer, whilft he regularly difcharged the duties of 
his paftoral office, devoted himfelf to thofe itudies, that 
contributed to the high reputation which he afterwards. 
acquired in the department of biblical literature. The 
firit publication of this kind, which attracted notice, ap- 
peared in 1761, under the title of “* An Enquiry into the 
Nature and Defign of our Lord’s temptation in the Wilder- 
nefs,”” 8vo. The fubfequent editions of this tra in 1765, 
and in 1776, afforded to the author an opportunity of 
eftablifhing his peculiar opinions concerning the nature and 
defign of this event, and of replying to his i a 

or 


at 


FARMER. 


For an account of his fentiments on the fubje&t, we refer to 
the article TeEmrTaTion. 

Inthe year 1771, Mr. Farmer publifhed his larger and 
more valuable work, entitled «* A Differtation on Miracles, 
defigned to fhew that they are arguments of a divine inter- 
polition, and abfolute Proofs of the Miffionand DoGtrine of 
a Prophet,”’ 8vo. ‘This work, the fubje@ and arguments 
of which will be more particularly detailed under the head 
‘of Mirac res, is entitled, as one of his biographers fays, 
* to pre-eminent diftinGtion for extent of inquiry, profundi- 
ty of erudition, matterly criticifm, accurate difcrimination, 
and perfpicuity and fairnefs of reafoning.’? By ably ¢ refut- 
ing thofe principles of demonif{m, whieh have done fo much 
difcredit to the argument drawn from miracles in favour of 
the Jewifh and Chriltian revelations,’’? and by eftablifhing 
the belief “* that the world is under the government of God 
alone, and that no created {pirits, much lefs fuch as oppole 
his wife and benevolent defigus, can dilturb that courle and 
order of things which he has eftablifhed,” it leads to the 
proof of what is ainounced in the title, in a manner that will 
ever rank it, in the opinion of competent judges, among the 
moit important produétions in the caufe of facred literature. 
A charge of plagiarifm having been unjultly alleged againit 
the author, in confequence of this ** Differtation,’”” he took 
occafion to publiih, inthe year 1772, ‘¢ An [Examination 
of the. Rev. Mr. Le Moine’s Treatife on Miracles ;’? in 
which he evinces the contrariety of Mr. Le Moine’s opinion 
tothe fentiments which he had advanced, and farther confirms 
them. Mr. Farmer’snext publication appeared in the year 
1775, under the title of ** An Effay oa the Demoniacs of 
the New Teftament.’”’ In this treatife he purfues the rea- 
foning adopted in his ** Differtation on Miracles,” and dif- 
tinguifhes himfelf as the advocate of an hypothefis, which 
had been previoufly adopted and fupported by Mr. Jofeph 
Mede, Dr. Sykes, Dr. Mead, and Dr. Lardner. It is 
hardly neceffary to mention in this place, that thefe writers 
have attempted to fhew “* that the diforders imputed to fu- 
pernatural poffeffions proceed from natural caufes, and not 
from the agency of evil fpirits.”’ (See the articles Demon, 
Demoniac, and Demoniacar Pofefion, and Damono- 
mania.) Mr. Farmer’s publication led to a freth difcuffion 
of this interefting fubjeG&: and drew upon him the attacks 
of Dr. Worthington, alearned clergyman of the church of 
England, and of Mr. Fell, an acute writer, and a Protef- 
tant diffenting minifter. Tio the former opponent Mr. 
Farmer thought proper to reply ina feries of “ Letters, 
&c.”’ publifhed in 1778 ; but to the latter, whom our author 
has, perhaps too freely, cenfured for want of candour, he 
addreffled no dire&t anfwer. However, Mr. Fell’s work 
produced an elaborate treatife, which appeared in 1783, 
under the title of * The General Prevalence of the Worfhip 
of Human Spirits in the Ancient Heathen Nations, aflerted 
and proved ;”? 8vo. (See Dzmon.) In this treatife the au- 
thor has incidentally introduced feveral {tri¢tures on Mr. Fell’s 
performance, and fome reflections, which have been thought, 
particularly by that gentleman’s friends and the advocates 
of his opinion, too acrimonious and contemptuous. In 
this controverfy, which was again purfued by Mr, Fell in 
the year 1785, candid perfons, whatever may be their pe- 
culiar fentiments with refpect to the fubject in difpute, 
have regretted that they have been able to difcover too 

at a degree of perfonality, and of invective that goes be- 

ond the bounds of the ‘* retort courteous.’”? Mr. Darmer 
declined any further reply, and refumed the profecution of 
thofe general inquiries, in which he excelled ; and from 
which the literary world might have derived further adyan- 
tage, if his health had continued, and if he had not enjoin. 


ed on his executors the urpleafant charge of committing all 
his fermons and manufcripts to the flames. Among the 
latter was “ A Differtation on the Story of Balaam,”’ which 
had been tranfcribed for the prefs, and a colleétion of papers, 
prepared.for an improved edition of his Treatife on Mira- 
cles. 

Having remained fole minifter of the congregation at 
Walthamftow for feveral years, he was provided with 
an ingenious and able affociate, the Rev. Mr. Ebenezer 
Radcliffe ; and, in 1761, he accepted the office of afternoon 
preacher to the refpeCtable fociety at Salters’ Hall, in the 
city of London, where for feveral years he exercifed his 
miniftry toa numerous auditory. He was alfo foon after 
eleéted one of the Tuefday leGturers at the above-mentioned 
place, atruftee of Dr. Williams’s charities, and one of the 
truftees of Mr, Coward’s bequefts. But ashe advanced in 
years, he found it neceflary to difcontinue his public fer- 
vices ; not withont the regret of the focieties with which he 
was conneéted. In the year 1785, the clofe of his life was 
embittered by a total failure of fight; for which, however, 
he obtained relief by a furgical operation, to fuch a degree 
as to enable him to purfue his favourite ftudies. But his ia- 
firmities gradually increafed ; and in 1787 he termiaated his 
courfe of honourable Jabours, having attained the 73d year 
of his age. ‘ Of Mr. Farmer’s charaéter as a {cholar,” 
fays one of his biographers, ‘ his learned labours afford 
fufftcient teftimony. Asa preacher, he was diftinguifhed 
by.a happy variety of thought and expreffion, judicious cri- 


-ticifm, liberality of fentiment, and energy and eloquence of 


language. His voice was uncommonly clear and harmo- 
nious, and his manner of delivery; natural, manly, and im- 
prefive. He was a man of ardent but cheerful piety, who 
recommended the religion he taught by the exemplarinefs 
of his moral condu@, and adorned it by his beneficence 
and candour, In conyerfation he was lively, and often bril- 
lant ; and in his manner polite and complimentary, fome- 
times to excefs. On difputable topics, it was no ealy 
matter todraw from him a decided opinion. Upon the 
whole, Mr, Farmer is entitled to a high rank among the 
diffenting minifters of his time, and {upported an honourable 
{tation in the literature of the age.”’? Biog. Brit. Gen. 
Biog. 

Farmer, Ricuarp, D.D. a celebrated fcholar and 
critic, was the fon of a hofier at Leicefter, where he was 
born in 1735. He received the elementary parts of his 
education at his native town, whence he removed to Cam- 
bridge, and was entered a penfioner of Emanuel college : 
here he took his degrees, and, in 1760, was appointed claf- 
fical tutor of hiscollege. In 1767, he became one of the 
preachers at Whitehall, In London he refided very much 
with Dr. Afkew, a phyfician, well known for his curious 
and. very valuable library, of which Mr, Farmer did not 
fail to make a good ufe. He had already engaged in a 
courfe of reading which laid the foundation of a work to 
which he was indebted for the principal part of his literary 
reputation, This was entitled ‘* An Effay on the Learning 
of Shakfpeare,”’ firft publifhed in 1766. In this eflay, 
Mr. Farmer undertook to thew that, in the time of our 
great poet, Englifh tranflations exifted of mot of the claf- 
fical writers, and by tracing even the expreflions and mif- 
takes of the tranflators in thole pailages of his plays which 
allude to the fubjeéts treated by theie writers, he proved 
that the untutored Shak{peare had read the. tranilations 
initead of the originals. The effay, which went through 
feveral editions, was printed in the edition of Shakipeare, 
by Stevens and Reed, in 1793. 

The netice Mr. Farmer acquired by his performaace waa 

> ae the 


FAR 


the means of his advancement in the church, and he ob- 
tained the chancellorfhip and prebendal ftall in the cathedral 
of Litchfield ; and, in 1775, he was chofen mafter of Ema- 
nuel college, on which occafion he took his degree of D. D. 
He was afterwards made principal librarian to the univer- 
fity, and ferved in his turn the office of vice-chancellor. 
Being a zealous advocate for the exifting order of things, 
and attached to the church in its prefent ftate, he was 
fingled out for preferment. Lord North conferred upon 
him a prebend of Canterbury, and he was twice offered a 
bifhopric by the late Mr. Pitt, but he preferred a refidenti- 
ary(hip of St. Paul’s, which he exchanged for his prebend. 
He was now obliged to refide three mouths in the, year in 
the metropolis, which he {pent very agreeably in the fociety 
of his friends, and among the firft literary charaters, to 
whofe efteem his own learning and acquirements gave him 
high claims. He was hoftile to certam academical reforms 
which were propofed in his time, but was the chief pro- 
moter of improvements in the police of Cambridge, parti- 
cularly thofe of paving and lighting the {treets ; and it was 
in a great meafure owing to his exertions that the cathe- 
dral of St. Paul’s was permitted to receive thofe decorations 
of monumental fculpture which, while they exhibit high 
merit and national gratitude, will gradually clothe, and 
highly adorn the prefent nakednefs of the edifice. Dr. 
Farmer died in September, 1797, at Emanuel college, and 
to his memory an epitaph was infcribed on a tomb by Dr. 
Parr. He publifhed nothing but the effay referred to, 
though, while young, he iffued propofals for a hiftory of 
Leicefter ; forthis he collected only a few materials, which 
were afterwards put into the hands of Mr. John Nichols. 
Necrology. 

Farmer, Jonn, an Englifh madrigalift of fome merit, 
but not fo much as he imagined. In 1599, he publithed 
his firft fet of Englifh madrigals, to four voices, profefling 
in his preface to have “ fully linked his mufic to number, 
as each gives to other their true effet, which is to move de- 
light; a virtue,”? he adds, “fo fingular in the Italians, as 
under that enfign only they hazard their honour.’ This 
boaft made us examine his accentuation of the words of his 
madrigals, with fome expectation of finding greater accu- 
racy in that particular than was general at the time; but, 
on the contrary, his affertion is fo far from true, that there 
appears more falfe accent in his fongs, than in thofe of his 
contemporaries. : 

FARMERY, in Agriculture, the foite or place where the 
farm buildings are erected, and the general bufinefs of the 
farm principally carried on; the fame as home-{tead and 
home-ftall. It is a matter of much importance to have it 
conveniently placed for performing the work of the farm. 

FARMING, fignifies the art of managing, or general 
detail of the bufinefs of a farm. Itis an employment of 
eonfiderable difficulty and trouble, as requiring conftant 
care, united with great activity and judgment. In order to 
conduct it with propriety and advantage, it demands an in- 
timate practical knowledge of the various forts of cultiva- 
tion and management which are in ufe, as well as of the 
nature and value of every defcription of live ftock ; like- 
wife a perfect acquaintance with the various methods of 
buying and felling, and the conftant ftate of different mark- 
ets and fairs. And, befides thefe, there are other minutiz 
which are of equal importance to the fuccefs of the farmer. 
The advantages of farming differ materially according to 
the nature, fituation, and circumi{tances of farms, as well 
as the care and management that are beftowed upon 
them. It is {tated by the writer of the “ Survey of the 
County of Middlefex,’’ that the profits of farming, under 


FAR 


the old coutfe of two crops of corn and a fallow, have 
feldom afforded more than a mere fubfiftence to the farmer, 
and the means of eftablifhing his children to run the fame 
courfe. But even this, he contends, is no proof againft 
the profits of farming per cent. on the capital employed, 
which is generally fo {mail a fum, that the foregoing pro- 
duce may be a large per centage, and with fedulovs atten- 
tion this has been the fa; as from the accounts of parti- 
cular families which he has examined, a profit of thirty-two 
per cent. per annum on the fum made ufe of hss been de- 
monttrated for thirty-five years in fucceffion. Indeed it 
feems to be evident that a perfon who employs only 5co/. 
and with it brings up a large family, and places them in a 
fituation equal to his own, while himfelf retires with an 
ealy fortune, could not have done it with a lefs return. But 
the great improvements which have for fome time patt 
been taking place in agriculture, aided by high prices for 
the produce of the foil, are occafioning fuch a rapid rife in 
rents ; the taxes alfo, and every expenditure are fo greatly 
on the increafe, as muft, he fuppofes, at the lowering of 
the price of corn and cattle, put farmers of the old {chool- 
to confiderable difficulties, and become one of the means of 
inducing them to adopt the new and better practice. 
Changes in this way, however, except under particular 
circumttances, are very flow in their progrefs. 

The profits of arable farming are, in general, *tolerably: 
well underitood, therefore they need not be introduced 
here. 

The following is a ftatement of the produce and expence 
of 150 acres of good grafs-land, at the diftance of eight 
miles from the London markets. 


Acres. 
Hedge rows, and wafte of farm ¢ 3 20 
Mowing ground . . : : Sli acic. 
150 
Produce at one cutting forhay . 200 loads. 


Average fale of ditto for five or fix years, 


/. per load, is - 4 : ; } fe 1,300 
After-feed fold for . 3 > : Rated MOOT 
Total produce per annum. . : £1,365 

Expences. 

Four horfes 36/. each ve aye fue fo) 
Three men all the year, at 12s. per week 93 © 
Extra labour, of mowing, hay-making, 

ftacking, ftraw, thatching, and pul} 97 10 

ing, at 15s. . . . : 
Taxes, affeffments, and tithes . 3° -130') 
Marketing 260 loads of hay, at 4s. . 52 © 
Paid for 300 loads of manure, at 25.6d. 37 10 
Tenants’ repairs of buildings . 2 /5O 10 
Infurance of flock, andtaxon . ela ® 
Pilfermg . ~ ° . ; 2208 
Frauds of hay-falefmen ; 2 Toms 
Mole-catcher . - ° : t= EO 
Intereft of 7oo/. for one yea ° . 35 
Total expences . E : : : : - 620 
Remains for rent and attention . A ~ - 745 


which is equivalent to 5/. the acre. 
Suppofe the farmer to pay 3/. the acre rent, it will leave 
2i, 


FAR 
z/, which, on 1g0.acres, is 300/, a-year profit, or 40 per 
ent. upon the capital employed. 

Thefe charges ftand too low for the prefent period, and 
the produce is in fome degree undervalued, but the profit is 
in fome meafure fhewn,. : 

FARMINGTON, in Geography, a large and flourifhing 
townfhip of excellent land in Kennebeck county, in the 
ftate of Maine, North America, fituated on Sandy river, 
which, in the S.E. part, has falls, that furnifh good mill- 
feats, for faw-mills, a carding machine, grift-mill, and full- 
ing-mill, already erected. It has a pott-office, and contdins 
942 inhabitants; 204 miles N.N.E. of Botton.—Alfo, a 
large, pleafaut, and wealthy poft-town in Hartford county, 
Connecticut ; ro milesS.W. of Hartford city. This town 
is beautified and enriched by ariver of the fame name. In 
the compact part of the town, the houfes ftand chiefly in a 
ftreet which runs N. and S, along the gentle declivity ofa hill; 
and about the centre of the ftreet is a large and handfome 
congregational church. Thistown wasfettled in 1645, aud 
has 2809 inhabitants.—Alfo, ariverof Conneticut, which 
rifes in the flate of Maffachufetts, and runs fouth-eatterly 
through Hartland, Bark-Hempftead, and New Hartford. 
Qa the borders of Hartford county it receives a weftern 
branch, which rifes from feveral ponds in Colebrook, and 
continuing this courfe to Farmington, it meets with moun- 
tains and turus northerly, feeking a paflage to the Conneéti- 
cut. After running 15 miles, it unites with Salmon river, and 
rufhing through the mountains and down a cataract of 150 
feet, is afterwards called Windfor river, andin a S.E. courfe 
mingles with Conneticut river, 4 miles above Hartford. 

FARMSTEAD, in Agriculture, the place or fituation 
where the farm offices are built, and the chief work of the 
farm conducted. It is of much confequence to have it fitua- 
ted as centrical as poffible in the farm. 

FARMVILLE, in Geography, a {mall poft-town: of 
America, in Prince Edward county, Virginia, fituated on 
Appomatox river, 210 miles from Wafhington. The river is 

affable by boats from hence to Peterfburgh. 

FARN Isxanps, two groups of {mall iffands and rocks, 
amounting to 17 in number, and fituated in the German fea, 
near the Englith coaft, oppofite to Bamborough cattle, in 
Northumberland... They have all their refpective names, and 
produce kelp, feathers aud eggs of fowls, and fome {feals ; 
fome of them bear a little grafs, and feeda cow or two. The 
principal, called ** Farn,” is about a mile in compafs, and 
has a fort, and a light-houfe, which being never furnifhed 
with fire is.of no ufe.. N. lat. 55° 29’. W. long. 1° 


! 

HARNABY, Tuomas, in Biography, fon of a car- 
penter in London, was born about the year 1575. Having 
aturn for learning he was well grounded in the elements of 
grammar, and laid a good foundation in claffical know- 
ledge. In 1590 he was admitted a fervitor of Merton col- 
lege, Oxford; but he foon quitted that univerfity, and 
went to Spain, where he ftudied in a college of the Jefuits. 
With this fituation he was diflatisfied, returned, and entered 
on board the fleet of Drake and Hawkins in their expedition 
of 1595. After this he ferved in the Low Countries asa 
foldier, and having led an unfettled life for fome years, he 
landed in Cornwall, fo much depreffed with poverty, that he 
was under the neceflity of teaching children their letters for 
a very fcanty fubfiftence. He neat taught a yrammar 
fehool at Martock in Somerfetfhire, and from thence he re- 
moved to London, and opened a feminary near Cripple- 

ate, where he attained to a high a reputation, that he is 
Pia to have had fometimes as many as three hundred {cho- 


Jars atatime. He now futtained a confiderable rank in the 


FAR 


literary world, by his editions of Juyenal and Perfius; of 
the tragedies of Seneca, of Martial’s Epigrams, and .of 
Lucan’s Pharfalia, and took his degree of M. A. at 
Cambridge in 1616. 

At this period he fought for amore retired refidence, 
and removed to Seven-Oaks, in Kent, where he contrived to 
take boarders. His profeffion was profperous, and he 
became fufliciently rich to purchafe fome confiderable 
eftates in Kent and in Suffex. In the neighbourhood of 
Seyen-Oaks it is prefumed the defcendants of this induftrious 
and learned man lived ti!l within thefe few years, when fir 
Charles Farnaby, if we miltake not, removed to another part 
of Kent, or to the borders of Surrey. At the commence- 
ment of the civil wars, Mr. Parnaby incurred the fulpicion 
of being concerned in an infurreétion at Tunbridge in fa- 
vour of the king. ‘This fufpicion caufed him to be impri- 
foned in Newgate; he had a narrow efcape from being 
banifhed to America, aud was, after his releafe from Nev- 
gate, confined at Ely Houfe. He died at Seven-Oaks in 
1647, aged 72 ; highly refpeéted as a beneiaéior to early 
claflical education. Befides the works already mentioned, 
he publifhed notes on Virgil, Ovid, and Terence ; and many 
{mall pieces for fchocls. He drew up alfo, amon other 
things, a “Syitema Grammaticum,”’ by order of king 
Charles, who intended to fubititutea new Latin grammar 
for that taught in fchools. Biog. Brit. 

Farnasby, Gitts, a great organ-player and able 
pofer, was organift of Chrift church, Oxford, aud in 1592 
admitted batchelor of mufic. There are extant of his com- 
pofition ‘‘Canzonets to foure voices, with a fong of eight 
parts,”? London, 1598. He affilted Ravenferoft in fetting 
parts to fome of the pfalm-tunes, publithed at the beginning 
of the next century. There are near twenty leffons in queen 
Elizabeth’s virginal book, by Giles Farnaby, little lefs diffi- 
cult than thofe of Bird and Bull. Thefe great muficians, 
the wonder and delight of their times, feem to have had no 
conception of brilliancy or embellifhment, but what arofe 
from breaking common chords into arpeggio, or rapidly 
running up and down the feale in notes tied three, and often 
four times. They feem, however, to have been the greateft 
players in Europe, till Frefcobaldi introduced a iuperior 
ityle of treating the organ, divetted of rapid and frivolous 
divifions, which difgrace that moit noble and comprehenfive 
of all initruments. 

At prefent, the pieces of Bird, Bull, and Farnaby, muft 
doubtlefs appear dryand monotonous, for want of air, variety 
of movement, and modulation; yet before thefe qualities were 
cultivated, expected, or indeed exifting, they fed the ear 
with pure and fimple harmony, in a manner which none but 
keyed-inftruments could effect; and perhaps their favour 
with profeffional muficians was not a little augmented, by 
the learning of their contexture, and difficulty of execution. 
For however the old matters may be celebrated for their fim- 
plicity and fobriety of ftyle, and the moderns indifcrimi- 
nately cenfured for multiplied notes, rapidity of perform. 
ance, tricks, whip-fyllabub, froth, tumbling, and mere 
difficulties ; it would not be very eafy to fiad, among the 
molt complicated pieces of modern times, difficulties equally 
infurmouatable with thofe in which thefe old fancies and 
variations abound, Farnaby was of Truro, in Cornwall, 
and nearly related to Thomas Farnaby, the famous fchvol- 
matter in Kent. 

FARNBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in 
the county of Henneberg; 6 miles E.S.E. of Salzun- 

en. 

FARNESE, A cexanper, in Biography, duke of 
Parma, fon of O@tavio Farnefe, duke of Parma, and of 

Margaret 


come 


FAR 


Margaret of Anftria, was bornin 1546. He was educated 
in the court of king Philip IL., and early embraced the pro- 
feffion of arms, and was prefent in his eighteenth year at the 
battle of Lepanto. From this period he interefted himfelf 
in every thing that concerned the army 5 rejeGted all indul- 
gences to which his rank might have laid claim, and was 
clad more like a foldier than a prince. He diltinguifhed 
himfelf in the Low Countries during the adminiftration of 
Don John of Auttria, and upon his death, in 1578, was ap- 
pointed to fucceed him. He now carried on his military 
projects with great fuccefs, obliged Maeftricht to furrender, 
recovered mott of the towns in Brabant and Flanders, and 
laid fiege to Antwerp. This laft town afforded him ample 
opportunity for the difplay of all his fill; at length he fhut 
up the Scheldt byavatt bridge or mound, an enterprife which 
occupied him nearly a year, during which he took Bruffels, 
Ghent, and other places, and then entered Antwerp in a 
moft triumphant manner in 1585. He granted favourable 
terms to the town, and completed his conquelt of the Low 
Countries, which have ever fince, till the late war, remained 
under the Spanifh or Auttrian fovereignty. He now extended 
his views to the Dutch provinces, openly zided by queen 
Elizabeth of Eneland; and to carry his point he took the 
command of the army, under the title of duke of Parma, 
his father-being dead, deftined to the conqueft of England. 
The difafters of the grand Armada rendered the defign abor- 
tive. After this he made an attempt upon Bergen-op- 
Zoom, but was again foiled. Inceffant toils and expofure 
to an unhealthy climate had undermined a naturally ftrong 
conftitution, and fome ferious fymptoms of dropfy began 
‘to appearin him; but he was too important a character to 
be allowed the repofe which the nature of the cafe required. 
In 1590 he was obliged to march to France in fuccour of 
the league which Philip II. was determined to fupport in 
its refiftance to Henry IV. The duke performed all that 
avas hoped for, and raifed the fiege of Paris, in which he 
difplayed great military fill. Henry was fo much hurt at 
the condué of the duke, that he fent him a challenge, to 
which he replied, “that he was accuftomed to fight at his 
own pleafure, and not at that of his adverfary, and that he 
fhould not fhun an engagement when he found fuch a mea- 
fure expedient.”” Two years afterwards he was again op- 
pofed to Henry, and again victorious. This was at Rouen, 
which was befieged by the king of France, but being 
relieved by the duke, he immediately advanced to the fiege 
of Caudebec, where he was wounded in thearm. ‘The king 
now preffed clofely upon the duke, and reduced him to 
rie {traits for want of provifion. Henry anticipated the 
furrender of the whole army, when the duke, by unexpeét- 
edly croffing the Seine in his rear, efcaped the difficulty, and 
led back his troops fafely to Flanders. This retreat excited 
‘the admiration of all military men, and fealed the reputa- 
tion of its condu@tor. The duke was at this period in ex- 
treme ill health, and demanded a fucceflor, but the king his 
matter with much inhumanity refufed to liften to his requett, 
and fent him new orders; but death, a ftill greater tyrant 
than Philip, ftopped his career in December 1592. A ftatue 
of bronze was ereéted to his memory at Rome. Moreri. 
FARNHAM, in Geography, a town in the hundred of 
‘Farnham and county of Surrey, England, is fituated partly 
on a hill which rifes from the river Wye. A caftle was 
built here by Henry, bifhop of Winchefter, brother to king 
Stephen; and fince that period has continued to belong 
to the bifhop of that fee. At different times the building 
has been injured by fieges. During the civil wars, in the 
time of king CharlesI. it was nearly demolifhed ; being 
garrifoned for the monarch, it was invelted by the parlia- 


FoA)R 


mentary forces, who, after a long confliét, obtained poffef- 
fion, and blew up and deftroyed mott of the walls and towers. 
Soon after the reftoration, bifhop Merley repaired thie 
greater part of the fortrefs, and fixed his refidence within its 
walls ; and fince that period it has been rendered a hand- 
fome, commodious refidence. The keep is called Jay’s 
tower, the afcent to which is by 63 ftone fleps. ‘The area 
at the fummit is now occupied as a kitchen-garden. 

The town of Farnham is paved and lighted, and having 
feveral good houfes, has a refpe€table appearance. It con- 
tains 437 houfes, which are occupied by 2508 inhabitants. 
The civil government of the place is velted in 12 burgeffes, 
who aét under the bifhop. In the reign of Edward II. it 
fent members to parliament. In the vicinity of the town 
is More-park, which formerly belonged to fir William 
Temple. Here is a curious cave, called Mother Ludlam’s 
Hole, through which paffes a continual {tream of fine water. 
This grotto is formed and decorated by rocks, marble, 
troughs, &c. Near this park was Waverley abbey, fome 
few fragments of which oaoly now remain. Farnham is 
noted for its large market for oats, between Michaelmas and 
Chriftmas ; for wheat about Midfummer; and for hops. 
Many plantations of the latter are in the vicinity of the 
town; indeed, the Farnham hops have long been celebrated 
in the aanals of commerce. Here are three fairs annually. 

Farnuam, a polt town of America, in Richmond 
county, Virginia; 159 miles from Wafhington. 

FARNI, atown of Africa, in Bambarra. N. lat. 13° 40. 
W. long. 4° 8’. ; 

FARNIA, or Farnta Jtalorum, a name by which fome 
authors have called the bitter oak ; the cerrus egylops and 
a/pris of other writers. 

FARNOVIANS, in Ecclefiaflical Hifory, a fe& of So- 
cinians, fo called from Staniflaus Farnovius, or Farnetius, 
who feparated from the other Unitarians in the year 1568, 
and was followed by feveral perfons eminent for their learn- 
ing and rank. This feét did not lait long ; for having loft 
their chief, who died in 1615, it was feattered abroad and 
reduced to nothing. Farnovius was engaged by Gonefius 
to prefer the Arian fy{tem to that of the Socinians, and 
confequently afferted that Chrift had been produced out of 
nothing by the Supreme Being before the creation of this 
terrettrial globe. His fentiments concerning the Holy 
Ghoft are not certainly known ; however, it appears that he 
warned his difciples againft paying the tribute of religious 
worfhip to that Divine Spirit. 

FARO, in Geography, an ifland of Sweden, about 30 
miles in circumference, feparated from the N.E. part of the 
ifland of Gothland by a narrow channel. This ifland is po- 
pulous and fertile. The principal town of the fame name 
is fituated on the S.E. coaft. N.lat. 57°50'. E. long. 
19° 12/. 

Faro, an open, regularly built trading town of Portu- 
gal, in the province of Algarva, or Algarvez, the fee of a 
bifhop, fuffragan of Evora. It is fituated at the extremit 
of a{mall bay, in a level and fandy territory, is defended by 
a {mall citadel, and contains two parifh churches, four con- 
vents, and 5000 inhabitants. The harbour is 14 league 
below the town. Another arm of the river, or of the fea, 
forms an ifland, in which is the fandy cape of Santa Maria, 
very near the land. The traé& between the town and the 
fea is marfhy ; on the oppofite fide it is flat and fandy ; 
and at a diftance appear the fteep hills of San Miguel. The 
road to Tavira, 20 miles S.W. of it, is uncommonly plea- 
fant. Its environs produce good wine and fruits, particu- 
larly figs, which are chief articles of exportation. N. lat. 
37°'2" W. long. 7° 52'. 

g Faro, 


. FAR 


Faro, a town of the ifland of Siphanto. N, lat. 36° 53'. 
E. long. 24° 49’, 

Faro of Mefina, a ftrait of the Mediterranean, between 
Sicily and Calabria, about 5 miles wide, remarkable tor the 
tide’s ebbing and flowing every fix hours. 

FAROE’, a {mall ifland of Denmark, near the S. coaft 
of Zealand. N. lat. 54° 57'. E. long. 12°. 

FAROER Istanps. See Feroe L/lands. 

FARON, a river of France, which runs into the Mexfe, 
2 miles below Vifet. 

FARONAGUR, a town of Hindooilan, in the fonbah 
of Delhi; 35 miles ‘W.S.W. of Delhi. N. lat. 28° 30’. 
E’ long. 77° 4. 

FAROUT, or Far-out, Head, a cape of Scotland, on 
the N. coait of the county of Sutherland; 30 miles E. of 
cape Wrath. N. lat. 58° 40’. W. long. 4° 38’. 

FARQUHAR, Georce, in Biography, ion of a cler- 
gyman in the north of Ireland, was bom at Londonderry 
about the year 1678, He received his univerfity education 
at ‘Trinity college, Dublin, where he was not diftinguifhed 
for fuperior talents, and from which it is fappofed he was 
expelled for want of moral condué&t. He difcovered an 
early taite for poetry and dramatic exhibitions, which led 
him to try his powers as an actor ; but in one of his early 
attempts lic had the misfortune to wound a brother-player, 
by ufing his {word in miftake inftead of a foil, which put 
n end to his hope in that profeflica. In 1696 he came to 
London, obtained a lieutenant’s commiffion through lord 
‘Orrery, and fuitained the military charafter a contiderable 
time. He brought out, in 1698, a play, entitled “ Love 
and a Bottle ;” this was his fir effort as a writer for the 
ftage, and it obtained for him much popularity. The 
*¢ Conftant Couple, or a Trip to the Jubilee,’? was his next 
play, which was acted with great applanfe, and which has 
maintained its reputation to the prefent day. At this pe- 
riod Mr. Farquhar was in Holland, probably in his profef- 
fion as a foldier; but his letters contain humorous deferip- 
tions of the manners and cuftoms of that country. In 1702 
he publifhed a volume of mifcellanies, confifting of poems, 
letters, effays, &c.; and inthe following year the “ Incon- 
itant, of the way to win him,” was acted. 
a lady, whofe violent attachment induced her to pafs hertelf 
tpon him as one poilefled of a large fortune. When he 
difcovered the ftratagem, he freely forgave her for the 
motive. He ftill continued to bring out new pieces; and in 
¥7-6 the “ Recruiting Officer’? was a&ted. This has 
proved one of his moft popular plays, and is now acted with 
much applaufe in all our country theatres ; the humour of 
ferjeant Kite, with the incidents of the captain in country 
quarters, being levelled particularly at thofe auditors who 
are ufually found there. * His lait piece was entitled “ The 
Beaux Stratagem,” which, though compofed in fix weeks, 
is reckoned the author’s mailer-piece. Notwithitanding his 
fuccefs as a writer, he was a neceflitous man, and was obligea 
before his death to fell his commiffion to fupply his need. 
He died in the {pring of 1707, at the early age of 30, leav- 
ing behind him two daughters wholly unprovided for. His 
comedies, though not equal to thofe. of Congreve, are 
{prightly, pleafant, and natural, interefting in their plots, 
and eafy’in their dialogue. They are, however, very licen- 
tious ; a chara&ter which belonged to all the comedies of 
that period, and which has undoubtedly given a diitafte for 
theatrical amufement to multitudes who would otherwife 
refort to the theatre for inftruGtion as well as. pleafure. 
Biog. Brit. 

Farquuar’s J/fland, in Geography, an ifland in the Mer- 


He now married” 


FAR 
gui Archipelago, of an oval form, about 8 miles ia circums 
ference. N. lat. 11° 4'. 

FARR, a fmall fea-port of Scotland, in the county of 
Sutherland, on a bay to which it gives name, in which is a 
good falmon fithery ; 48 miles N. of Dornock. 

Farr Bay, a bay on the N. coalt of Scotland, in the 
county of Sutherland. N. Jat. 58° 34’. W. long. 4° 2'. 

FARRA, a town of Japan, on the S. coaft of the ifland 
of Niphon ; go miles S. of Jeddo. N. lit. 367 4’. E. long. 
139° 12’. 

Farra, in Ichthyology, the name given by authors to a 
{pecies of the corregonus, not difsriug effentially from the 
lavaretus or bezola. This fpecies has had a-great number 

“7 “2 . 5 

of different names, and been defcribed as-five or fix different 
fifh. But all the defcriptions of the feveral authors agree 
to prove it to be that f{pecies only of the corvegoni, which 
Atedi has diftinguifhed by the name of the corregonus, witts 
the upper jaw longer and flat, and with fourteen rays in the 
back fin. This name equally agrees with the feveral defcrip- 
tions of the farra or ferro, bezola, lavaretus, &e. and they 
agree in all the effential charaéters with one another. Sez 
Lavarervs and Sarmo. 

FARRANT, Ricuarp, in Biography, one of the gen- 
tlemen of Edward VI. and queen Elizabeth’s chapel, and 
fome time mafter of the children of St. George’s chapel at 
Windfor, died about 1585. Dr. Boyce has publifhed feve- 
ral of his produ€tioas, which are grave and folemn, but 
fomewhat diy. and uninterelting. 

FARREATION, FarreaTio, in dutigzity, the fame 
with confarreation. 5 

FARRENBACH, in Geography, a river of Franconia, 
which runs into the Rednitz, 2 miles below Farth.— Alfo, 
a town of the principality of Anfpach, 5 miles E. of Lan- 

enzen. 

FARRIER, a perfon whofe office is to fhoe horfes, and 
cure them when difeafed or lame. 

An action on the cafe to recover damages lies againit a- 
common farrier, who lames a horfe in fhoeinc. him. See. 
ASSUMPSIT. ‘A 

Farrien’s Pouch, in the JZancge, a leathern bag, in 
which they carry:drivers, nippers, fhoes for all fizes of feet, 
good fharp. nails, and‘ all that’ is proper for new-{hocing a 
horfe that hae loft his fhoe upon the road.. 

FARRINGDON, in Geography, a market-town in the 
hundred of the fame name, and county of Berks, England, is 
fituated about two miles fromthe river Thames,.on the we 
fide of a hill, thence called Farringdon-hill. The church, 
which ftands on an eminence, is an ancient-aad fpacious ftruc- 
ture, difplaying different {pecimens of ityles of archite€ture. 
It was. built in the- form of a crofa, but with a double 
tranfept. The eaft end is remarkable forits antiquity ; the 
windows being of the fame form as thofe of the Temple 
church in London.. Part of the {pire was deftroyed in the 
civil wars ; the remainderis very little higher than the body. 
of the church.. A cattle was ere&ed here in the reien of 
king Stephen, by Robert earl of Gloucetter ; but the king 
{oon reduced it and levelled it with the ground. The fite 
is faid to have been granted by king John, in the year 
1202, for building an abbey of the Ciftercian order. The 
death of king Edward the Elder is recorded in the Saxon 
annals to have happened in this town, Farringdon is 68 
miles diftant from London; has a good market: on Tuef- 
days, and two annual fairs. The population, as returned to 
parliament in 1801, was 1691; the number of houfes 309. 
Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. i. 4to. 

FARRUCH, Cars, a cape on the E. coa ef Majorca, 


N, lat.39° 47’. E. long. 3° 18%. 
EARSA, 


FAR 


FARSA, a town of European Turkey, in Theffaly, an- 
ciently Phar/alia, the fee of a bifhop; 10 miles S. Livadia. 
—Alfo, a town of Italy, in Sabina ; 16 miles N. of Tivoli. 

FARSANG. See Parasana. 

FARSCHOUT, a town of Upper Egypt, which is ill- 
built, and bears every appearance of wretchednefs, Itis fi- 
tuated on the weft fide of the Nile, at more than two leagues 
from it, and is about a mile in compals. It is the refidence of 
a {cheick, who is not only the governor of this town, but alfo 
of feveral adjacent diftriéts, to a confiderable extent. The en- 
virons are pleafant, and mott of the roads that lead to the town 
are planted with Acaciatrees. Between it and the Nile lies 
a town called ** Basjoura,”’ the refidence ofa kiafchef. The 
harbour of both thetfe places is a {mall village, named Sahet. 
Sonnini thinks it probable that Farfchout ttood upon the 
{cite of Acanthus, aa ancient city of Egypt, near which 
there was a facred wood. Another city of the fame name 
flood on the {pot where Dafchour is now built, a little to 
the fouth of Saccara. At Farfchout there is a convent of 
Francifcans. It lies 20 miles S. of Girgé, the capital of 
Upper Egypt. 4 

FARSIDUNGA, a town of Bengal; 40 miles N.W. 
of Beyhas. 

FARSISTAN, Fars, Perfis, or Perfia Proper, a pro- 
vince of Perfia, furrounded with mountains on the N.W. and 
S., and on the E. feparated by a defert from Kerman. Irak 
lies northward; Chufiftan or Chofiftan to the weft; La- 
riftan and the Perfian gulf towards the fouth, aud Kerman 
eaft. This province contains the beautiful city of Shiraz, 
or Schiras, the capital; together with Iftakar, and the 
ruins of Perfepolis. 1t is about 420 miles long from N. to 
S., and 360 from E. to W. ‘Towards the fouth the air is 
very hot, and the land fo fandy, that it produces little elfe 
than palm-trees : towards the north it abounds with moun- 
tains, on which are found the mot beautiful falcons in 
Perfia, wild fwine, and wild cats. The principal produc- 
tions of the cultivated parts are rice and fruit. See Per- 
SIA. 

FARTACK, or Farracn, a fea-port of Arabia Felix, 
in the province of Hadramaut, belonging to the fcheick of 
Kefchim, 132 miles S.E. of Hadramaut. N. lat. 15° 36'. 
E. long. 51°. : 

Fartack, or Farta/h, Cape, a cape on the eaft coaft of 
Arabia Felix, oppofite to Gardefui or Gardefan ; the dif- 
tance between them, in a line drawn acrofs from one to an- 
ther, being not above 50 leagues. The breadth between thefe 
two lands diminifhes gradually for about 150 leagues, till at 
laft it ends in the ftraits, whofe breadth does not feem to be 
above 6 leagues. Bruce’s Travels, vol. i. p. 315. N. lat. 
15" 30!. KK. long. 51° 4!. 

FARTHEL, or FarrHeriinc, among Seamen, was 
ufed for the fame with what they commonly call fur/, or 
furling, which is taking up the fails, and binding them clofe 
to the yards. 

FARTHING, a {mall Englifh copper coin, amounting 
to one-fourth of a penny. 

It was anciently called fourthing, as being the fourth of 
the integer or penny. 

Fartuine of Gold, acoin ufed in ancient times, contain- 
ing in value the fourth part of a noble, or 20d. filver, and 
in weight the fixth part of an ounce of gold. It is men- 
tioned in the ftat. g Hen. V. cap. 7. where it is enacted, 
that there fhall be good and juft weight of the noble, half- 
noble, and farthing of gold. 

Fartuine of Land, in Rural Economy, a term anciently 
employed to fignify a certain quantity of land, but which, 
at prefent, is not well afcertained. It would feem, however, 


FAS 

to differ from that of farding-deal, as Blount has fhewn 
from an entry made in an old furvey-book of the manor 
of Weit-Hapton in the county of Devon, in which it is 
ftated that A. B. holds fix farthings of land at 1264 per 
annum. Confequeutly the farthing of land mutt be of con- 
fiderable extent, a great deal more thana rood, which ts the 
quantity fuppofed by the former term. 

FARTIN, in Geography, a {mall river of the county of 
Kerry, Ireland, running into the Atlantic ocean, oppofite 
to Valentia ifland. 

LFARTREY,a river of the county of Wicklow, Ireland, 
which runs into the Irifh fea, at the town of Wicklow. 

FARUGANIE’, a town of Egypt, on the eaft branch 
of the Nile; 18 miles N. of Cairo. 

FARUNDEL of Land, a term formerly ufed to fignify 
the fame as farding-dale. 

FASAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province 
of Segeftan ; 35 miles S. S. W. of Zareng. ; 

FASCE, Fascio, in Heraldry. See Fesse. 

Fasces, in Antiquity, axes ued together with rods or 
ftaves, and borne before the Roman magiftrates as a badge 
of their office and authority. 

Torus, lib i. cap. 5. affures us, that the ufe of fafces was 
introduced by the elder Tarquin, the fifth king of Rome, 
and that they were then the mark of the fovereign dignity. 
In after-times they were borne before the confuls, but by 
turns only, each his day; ‘ne fi ambo fafces haberent 
duplicatus terror videretur.”? (Livy, lib. ii. cap. 1.) They 
had each of them twelve, borne by fo many ufhers, called 
lictors. (See Lreror.) Dionyf. Halicarn. lib. iii. eap. 84. 

Others will have Romulus the author of the inftitution, 
and afcribe the number twelve to the number of birds 
which foretold him his kingdom. Others hold that he 
borrowed it from the Etrurians, and that the number 
twelve anfwered to the twelve nations of Etruria, who, in 
creating him king, gave him each an oflicer to ferve him as 
lictor.  Silius Italicus afcribes their firfl invention to a city 
of Etruria, called Vetulonia. 

Vhefe fafces confilted of branches of elm, in the middle 
whereof was a fecuris or ax, the head whereof {tood out be- 
yond the reft. Plutarch relates the reafon of this difpofition. 
Publicola took the ax out of the fafces, as Plutarch affures 
us, to remove from the people all occafion of terror, After 
the confuls the pretors affumed the falces. Cenforin, De 
Die Natal. obferves, that the prators had only two, though 
Polybius and Plutarch give them fix. 

In the government oP the decemviri it was the practice at 
firft for only one of them to have the fafces; afterwards 
each of them had twelve, in the fame maaner as the kings. 

In funeral proceffions it was the cuftom te carry the fafces 
reverfed, as a token of erief. 

FASCETS, in Gla/s making, the irons thruft into the 
mouths of the bottles when made to remove them into the 
amealing-tower. 

FASCH, Cuarces, in Biography, chamber mnufician to 
the late king Frederic II. of Pruffia, and fon of the 
celebrated chapel-mafter. He fucceeded Emanuel Bach as 
harpfichord player at his majefty’s concerts, His reputation 
as a performer was very hig 30 years ago, and in his com- 
pofitions for his inftrument the greateft fire and delicacy are 
united. 

FASCIA, in Archite@ure, by the workmen called 
Facia, Facio, or Face, a broad lift, fillet, or band, particularly 
ufed in architraves and pedeltals. 

The architrave confifts of three fafcie or bands; thus 
called by Vitruvius, as refembling fwaths, called in Latin 

Saftie. 
6 That 


FASCIA. 


That author admits of no fafcie# in the Tufean and Doric 
architrave ; i. ¢. he makes it all plain, without any divifion 
or canioning into parts or fafciaz ; but the modern architects 
take the liberty to differ from him in this particular. 

In brick-buildings, the jutting out of the bricks beyond 
the windows in the feveral ftories, except the higheft, are 
called fafcias or fafcizx. 

Thefe are fometimes plain, and fometimes moulded ; but 
the moulding is only, a cima reverfa, or an ogee, at the 
bottom, with two plain courfes of brick over it; then an 
aitragal, and laiily a boultine. 

Fascia, in Anatomy, is the thin tendinous covering 
which furrounds the mufcles of the limbs, and binds them 
in their places. The term feems to have been fuggefted 
by, the analogy of thefe parts to bandages; which they 
refemble in embracing and clofely prefling the mutfcles, &c. 

which they cover. The word aponeurofis is fometimes 
employed. A general account of the ftruéture of thefe 
organs will be found under the article Fisrous Sy/lem: we 
have to defcribe at prefent the fituation and connections of 
the individual fafciz. _ , 

Thefe organs, coniifting of thin fheets of a fibrous texture, 
differ confiderably in their itrength at different parts; at the 
outfide of the thigh and fore-arm they are very {trong ; 
much thinner on the inner fide of the limbs ;_ and particularly 
thick and denfe in the fole of the foot. Where they fur- 
round the whole of a limb, they generally are connected to 
one or more tenfor muf{cles, which have the power of 
firetching them. ‘Thefe mufcles, being put in action when 
the reft of the limb is exerted, render the fafcie tenfe, and 
thus bind down firmly the other mufcles. ‘They are relaxed 
when the limb is at reit; and the fafcie confequently 
become loofe. We cannot explain very clearly how the 
aGtion of mulcles is facilitated, nor how the amount of their 
exertion is increafed by the preffure of the fafcie; yet fome 
effe& of this kind is probably produced. Workmen often 
bind their limbs when about to exert confiderable mufcular 
power, on the fuppefition that it favours exertion; and 
firm bandaging, as employed in furgery, ferves in many 
inftances to ftrengthen parts very confiderably. A perfon 
who had bruifed the mufcles of the loins fousd great bene- 
fit in a firm bandage round the body; which diminifhed 
his pain, and enabled him to move his trunk with eafe, 
which before he could accomplith only with the groatett 
difficulty. Couriers inthe Eaft, who go on foot for great 
diftances, find themfelves benefited by bandaging the trunk. 

The habitual compreflion of the fafcie favours the circu- 
Jation of fluids in the limbs. Hence the varices, which are 
common in the fuperficial veins, placed externally to the faf- 
cia, are never met with in the deeper-feated veflels : and the 
moft effectual method of curing thefe affections is by the 

artificial compreflion of bandages. For the fame reafon, 
anafarcous depofits in the cellular membrane always appear 
much later and to much f{maller extent within the falcie 
.thanin the fub-cutaneous cellular texture. 
*_ Fafcize are conneéted, on their internal furfaces, generally 
by means of loofe cellular texture, to the muicles: fome- 
times, however, the flethy fibres derive their origin from the 
_fafcia, which cannot, in fuch cafes, be diffle@ed away with- 
_out cutting the fubltance of the mufcle. Sometimes fepta 
extend frem their inner furface between the muteles down 
tothe bone. Thefe add to the ftrength of attachment, and 
offer a furface for mufcular origin. Externally, fafcie are con- 
“neGted to the integuments by a yielding cellular ftraGure ; 
nd the fuperficial nerves and veins are generally interpofed 
en thefe parts. 
ee The fafeia of the arm—is one of the thinneft and moft 
DUaMEAY OL. XIV. 


delicate of thefe orgaus, and approaching in its texture al- 
moft to a condenfed cellular fubftance. It feems to arife 
among that fubftance in the axilla, and is manifeftly conti- 
nuous, at the frontand back of the armpit, with expanfions 
proceeding from the latiffimus dorfi and pe€oralis major. 
On the anterior and external afpects of the deltoid it does 
not feem to exift, commencing apparently below this muf- 
cle. Behind, it is continuous with the aponeurofis covering 
the infra-{pinatus. Defcending along the arm, it envelopes the 
brachial mufcles, and adheres to the feptum at the outer edge 
of the brachialis internus. It is contiguous ia a great mea- 
fure with the fafcia of the fore-arm, and has attachments to 
the two condyles of the humerus. 

Every where fub-cutaneous, this fafcia is covered merely 
by the fuperficial yeins, lymphatics, and nerves of the ann. 
It enclofes all the brachial mufcles, as well as the arteries, 
veins, and nerves, which form a large fafciculus defcending 
on the inner furface of the limb. _ Its texture, fimply cellular 
in many points, offers manifeit tendinous fibres:ia others; and 
it exhibits very clearly the continuity of the aponeurotic 
and cellular ftrutcres, The pe€toralis major and latiffimus 
dorfi are to be regarded as its tenfor mufcles; but they 
cannot act on it with very great efficacy, as their fibres pais 
very obliquely with refpeét to the fafcia. 

Fafcia of the fore-arm.—This covers the mufcles of the 
fore-arm. Its origins above are, from the fafcia of the arm, 
with which it is continuous, from the production furnifhed 
by the tendon of the biceps, and from the condyles of the 
humerus. It defcends over the whole furface of the fore- 
arm, terminates behind at the annular ligament, which binds 
down the extenfor tendons at the back of the wrift, and in 
front at the annular ligament of the hand. Separated from 
the {kin by the fuperficial veins, nerves, aad lymphatics, this 
fafcia covers all the fuperficial mufcles of the fore-arm, 
connected to thefe generally by cellular tiflue. Near the 
cubital end of the limb it adheres clofely to the muicles; 
and fends aponeurotic fepta between them ; viz. in front 
between the pronator teres, palmaris longus, flexor fublimis, 
and flexor carpi ulnavis; behind between the extentor 
carpi radialis brevior, extenfor communis digitorum, exten- 
for digiti minimi, extenfor carpi ulnaris and anconeus. Oa 
the radial fide of the limb it has no attachment: it is fixed 
to the olecranon, and. to nearly the whole inner edge of the 
ulna, where it affords origin to the flexor carpi uluaris. 

The anti-brachial fafcia differs from that of the arm by its 
much greater denfity and ftrength. Its component fibres 
decuflate each other in varions directions, without following 
any fixed courfe. The biceps flexor cubiti is the tenfor G 
this fafcia, by means of the produdtion arilfing from its 
ulnar fide, covering the brachial veflels at the bend of the 
arm, and expanding into the fafcia at the upper and inner 
part of the limb. 

The annular ligament of the fore-arm may be regarded 
as a part of the fafcia, terminating # towards the back of 
the hand. Several fibrous fheaths belonging: to the extenfor 
tendons (fee Extensor) are placed under this ligament ; 
viz. thofe of the three extenfors of the thumb, the exten- 
fores carpi radiales, extenfor digitorum communis, indicator, 
extenfor proprius auricularis, and extenfor carpi. ulnaris. 
The fheaths belonging to thefe mufcles are independent 
of each other; each poffefling peculiar femi-circular fibres 
of its own, They are all covered by the annular ligament, 
which confifts of longitudinal parallel fibres, very white 
and diftin&, and feparated by vafevlar intervals, _ Implanted 
in the external and inferior part of the radius, it crofles the 
back of the wrilt obliquely, covering and intimately ad- 
hering, to the above-mentioned fibrous fheaths, and is at- 

Z tached 


FASCIA. 


tached flightly to the extremity of the ulna, but chiefly to 
the os pififorme. 

Palmar fajcia, aponeurofts palmaris—is a very ftrong apo- 
neurotic layer, compofed of firm and clofe fibres, poflefling 
atriangular form, and covering particularly the middle of 
the hand, Towards the wrift it arifes from the annular 
ligament of the hand (which is defcribed in the article Ex- 
TREMITIES), and from the tendon of the palmaris longus. 
It is continued to the digital extremities of the metacarpal 
bones, growing broader, having its fibres feparated from 
each other, and divided at laft into four diftinct portions. 
‘There are, however, very obvious tran{verfe fibres conneét- 
ing together the longitudinal ones after they have feparated. 
Each portion of the fafcia fplits into two divifions, em- 
bracing the flexor tendons, and there inferted into the liga- 
ments helonging to the digital ends of the metacarpal 
bones. 

From the edges of the palmar fafcia a thin continuation 
is fometimes obferved to extend over the mufcles of the 
thumb and little finger. 

‘The palmar fafcia is clofely connected to the fkin, fome of 
its fibres being apparently conneéted to the inner furface of 
that organ. It covers the flexor tendons of the fingers, 
the lumbricales mufcles, the trunk and ramifications of the 
ulnar artery, and the digital branches of the ulnar and me- 
dian nerves, confines thefe organs in their relative fitua- 
tions, and gives to the palma firmnefs well fuited to its 
office of feizing and holding external objects. 

The two following are its tenfor mufcles. 

Palmaris longus, ulnaris gracilis, petit palmaire,—are the 
different names given to a long and very flender mufcle, 
placed in the fore-arm near the ulnar edge of the flexor 
carpi radialis. It arifes from the common tendon connected 
to the internal condyle, and from the aponeurotic fepta, 
which feparate it from the neighbouring mufcles. A {mall 
rounded fafciculus of fibres very foon forms a thin and flat 
tendon, which takes a ftraight dire€tion to the annular liga- 
ment of the hand, where it becomes broader, It is inferted 
by a few fibres into that ligament, but is chiefly expanded 
into the palmar fafcia. This mufcle fometimes does not 
exilt. It is placed between the fafcia of the fore-arm and 
the flexor digitorum fublimis. It will exert a moft marked 
effe€t in rendering the fafcia tenfe; and it has an equally 
ilecided influence in bending the wrift. 

The palmaris brevis, or cutaneus,—is a {mall thin and flat- 
tened plate of fibres, generally difpoied in feparate fafciculi, 
fituated under the integuments on the ulnar fide of the palm 
ef the hand. It arifes from the edge of the palmar fafcia, 
takes a tranfverfe courfe, and is attached to the integu- 
ments of the inner fide of the palm, Covered every where 
by the integuments, it lies upon the addu@or and flexor 
brevis minimi digit, on the ulnar artery and nerve. It 
renders the fafcia tenfe, and draws the integuments in- 
wards. 

Fafcia of the thigh, fafcia lata, vagina femoris, aponevrofe 
erurule.—This, which is the largeft and ftrongeit fafcia in 
the body, covers all the mufeles of the thigh. It is ftrongly 
connected to the crural arch, in the groin, and it extends 
over the bones of the pelvis into the abdomen. It is alfo 
concerned in covering the femoral veffels where they appear 
at the frant of the thigh, under the crural arch. 

The ihacus internus is covered by athin fafcia, to which 
the broad tendon of the pfeas parvus is conneéted when 
that mufcle is prefent. This fafcia is attached above to the 
internal edge of the crifta ilii; on the inner fide to the 
brim of the pelvis ; externally, to the pofterior furface of 
the crural arch, where it confilts of two layers, with the 


circumflex veffels of the ilium paffing between them 5 and in 
front it is continued over the os innominatum into the thigh. 
This has recently been deforibed by the name of fa/tia iliaca, 
Its pofterior furface covers the iliacus internus, a part of the 
pfoas magnus, and of the anterior crursl nerve. Its anterior 
furface is covered by the {mall fuperticial branches of the 
lumbar nerves, which pafs through perforations in the 
fafcia, near the crural arch; by the external iliac artery and 
vein; and by the peritoneum; all which parts are con- 
nected to it by the intervention of a loofe cellular texture. 
The attachment of this fafcia to the crural arch is continued 
only fo far as where the iliac veffels pafs out; at that point 
it defcends to the thigh, forms the polterior part of the 
fheath including the femoral veffels, and is continuous with 
the fafcia lata. The fecond origin of the fafeia of the 
thigh is from the anterior furface of the crural arch, from 
the anterior {uperior {pine of the ilium to the point at which 
the arch begins to be attached to the pubes. In the 
whole of this {pace the fafcia lata and aponeurofis of the 
obliquus, externus abdominis, are continuous, and are main- 
tained by their continuity in a ftate of reciprocal tenfion. 
Hence, when the thigh is extended on the pelvis, all thefe 
parts are very tenfe; and they all become loofe on ee 
the limb. Hence, too, in the extended ftate, the crura 
arch is drawn down towards the thigh, fo as to reprefent a 
convex line. ‘The third origin of the fafcia is from the 
front edge of the pubes, juft over the attachment of the 
pectineus, and under the point at which the crural arch is 
inferted into that bone. This portion is continuous with 
the iliac divifion of the fafcia. The rami of the pubes 
and ifchium, and the outer edge of the erifta ilii, are other 
points of origin. Behind, its commencement cannot be 
very clearly developed ; it appears to arife infenfibly rer 
the cellular fub{tance over the gluteus maximus, and is fir 
diitinétly vifible about the tendon of that mufcle. 

From the various attachments now enumerated the fafcia 
defeends over the thigh, embracing all the mufeles, fending 
various productions between them, and terminates at the 
knee; 1{t, by mingling in frent with the common tendon of 
the extenfors of the knee,*and with its lateral prodnétions; 
2dly, behind, by extending over the hollow of the knee, 
and being continued into the aponeurofis of the leg; and, 
3dly, at the fides, partly by mixing with the laft-mentioned 
aponeurofis, and partly by infertions into the internal and 
external tuberofities of the tibia. 

The fafcia is covered in general fimply by the integuments, 
with the addition of the fuperficial veins, nerves, and - 
lymphatics. The abforbing glands, through which the 
latter pafs, are found in the groin externally to the fafcia. 
And at this point the fafcia lata of the thigh, as wellasthe 
lower part of the aponeurofis of the obliquus externus ab- 
dominis, is covered by athin fheet of condenfed membrane, 
conlifting of feveral layers intermixed with the abforbing 
glands, and feldom fhewing a very diftin@ fibrous texture, 
This has been defcribed by the name of the /uperficial fa/cia ; 
and, together with the lymphatic glands, it lies exterior to 
the fafcia lata. 

The internal furface of the fafcia is in conta&t with the 
various {uperficial mufcles of the thigh. On the front it 
covers the rectus and valti, and includes the fartorius in a 
peculiar fheath. Behind it is placed over the femi-tendinofus, 
femi-membranofus, and biceps; fending. between the fhort 
head of the latter mufcle and the vaftus externus a ftrony 
feptum, implanted in the external lamina of the linea afpera, 
and affording origin to the two mufcles. It is interpofed, 
for a fhort {pace, between the gluteus maximus and medius; 
and. afterwards the front edge of the latter has a moitex- 

2 tenfive 


FASCIA. 


tenfive and powerful connection to it. (See Grutevs.) 
In front of the edge of the latter mufcle it covers very 
clofely the gluteus medius, which arifes here from the inner 
furface of the fafcia, It then enclofes its own tenfor mufcle 
in a peculiar fheath, which unites it clofely to the gluteus 
mediusand minimus. On the infide of the thigh it covers 
the mufcles, without difpatching any produétions between 
them. 

It is extremely denfe and thick on the outfide of the 
thigh ; much lefs fo before and behind ; and thinneft on the 
infide; when in the neighbourhood of the perineum, it can 
hardly be recognized as pofleffing a fibrous texture. Fibres 
decuffating each other in every variety of direétion, compofe 
its fubftance. Vetfels and nerves perforate it in various fi- 
tuations ; wiz. the faphena minor vein in the ham, and fe- 
veral fuperficial nervous twigs on the front and upper part of 
the thigh. The mott confpicuous opening, however, is 
near the inner end of the crural arch, where the great faphe- 
na paffes to the femoral vein. Here we find a large oval de- 
preffion, bounded upwards and outwards by a crefcent- 
fhaped produétion of the fafcia, called the /emi-lunar cdge 
of the fafcia lata, or the falciform procefs. In defcribing 
the origin of the fafcialata, we have mentioved its conti- 
nuity with the crural arch. Tracing this from the ilium 
downwards, we come to a part, near the front of the arch, 
where the fafcia is folded inwards, and conne&ed with the 
thin pofterior border of the tendon of the obliquus exter- 
nus. This portion covers the paflage of the femoral vein, 
and forms the anterior boundary of that divifion of the faf- 
ela which arifes fromthe crural arch. It terminates here 
by a thin, fharp, and lunated edge, of which the upper 
corner is connecied to the crural arch, the concavity is turn- 
ed towards the oppofite limb, and the inferior corner turns 
again upwards and inwards, fo as to form another very 
fharp edge, bounding the eval {pace below. The faphena 
interna, or ae pailes over this inferior fharp edge to 
join the femoral veia. The parts now defcribed bound the 
oval opening above, on the outfide, and below. The inter- 
nal boundary is wanting, and the depreflion is here continu- 
ous with that part of the fafcia lata which covers the pec- 
tineus mufcle. By prefling the handle of a knife clofe on 
this portion of the fafcia, we elevate the femoral veflels, 
fo as to fhew that they are uot here covered by fafcia lata ; 
and we prove that the fafcia paffes behind them, and be- 
comes continuous on the oppotite fide with the femi-lunar 
edge. +, 

The tenfor mufcles of this fafcia are the gluteus maximus, 
(fee Grurerus,) and the tenfor vagine femoris. The 
Taticr, called alfo mufculus fafcie late, and tenfeur apone- 
vrotique crural, is placed at the upper and outer border of 
the thigh. Elongated and flattened in its form, it increafes 

radually in breadth from above downwards. Its origin is 

rom the anterior and fuperior {pine of the ilium, where it 
lies between the fartorius and gluteus medius ; it defcends, 
palling obliquely outwards, and growing broader by the 
divergence of its fibres, and terminates by a broad infertion 
into the external part of the fafcia lata. It is in conta, at 
both furfaces, with layers of the fafcia, which include it, 
and unite into one lamina at its infertion, The thin portion 
of fafcia, which covers it externally, feparates it from the 
integuments : and the potterior layer from the reétus and 
vaitusexternus, On its outer edge, it is in contact with the 
gluteus medius and minimus. 

Befides the tenfion of the fafcia lata, which is the frit 
effet of this mufcle, and by which it may be fuppofed to 
. aid the aétion of the fubjacent mufcular organs, it rotates 
the thigh inwards; and it will affift alfo in bending the 


limb on the pelvis. Suppofing the thigh to be fixed, the 
tenfor vaginz may incline the pelvis laterally ; and, in 
the attitude on one foot, it may rotate the pelvis out- 
wards. 

The fafcia of the leg, fafcia aponeurotica cruris, aponevrofe 
jambiere—analogous in ttruéture, but inferior in itrength to 
that of the thigh, envelopes the mufcles placed on the corre~ 
{ponding part of the lower extremity. Behind, it is conti- 
nuous with the fafcia lata; asalfo on the outfide, where it 
arifes further from the extremity ef the fibula, and from the 
tendon of the biceps flexor cruris; on the infide its origins 
are from the expanded tendons of the fartorius, femi-tendi- 
nofus, and gracilis. ‘The crural aponeurofis defcends from 
thefe points over the potterior, external, and anterior afpeéts 
of the leg; but not over the internal, -confifting of the 
broad furface of the tibia, which is immediately fubcuta- 
neous, aid has the fafcia attached to its two edges. Below, 
this fafcia is continued into the fuperior annular ligament ; 
on the outfide it is continuous with the fibrous fheaths en- 
clofing the tendons of the peronei; within, with the internal 
annular ligament ; and behind, it is infenfibly loft tawards 
the heel, being apparently confounded with the cellular 
fubftatice. 

This fafcia lies immediately on the mufcles, being co- 
vered externally by the integuments, fuperficial veins, é&c. 
It is thick aud very tenfe on the front and outlide of the 
leg, binding the mufcles together very clofely. In thefe 
afpects its ternal furface gives origin above to the fethy 
fibres of the tibialis anticus, extenfor longus digitorum pe-~ 
dis, and peroneus longus; while below it is conneéted to 
the mutfcles by cellular fubitance. Two fepta are continued 
from it ; between the extenfor communis and peroneus lon- 
gus ; and between the latter mufcle and the foleus. Beth 
thefe partitions are attached to the fibula. It is much 
thinner, and more loofe on the calf of the leg ; and is at- 
tached to the mufcles by a loofe cellular texture. At the 
lower part of the back of the limb it divides into two layers 5 
a {uperficial and thinner one covering the tendo Achillis ; a 
thick and deep-feated divifion paffing in front of the ten« 
don, embracing very clofely the mufcles which lie on the 
back of the bones, and feparating them from the muicles of 
the calf. The latter is fixed to the edges of the tibia and 
fibula below, and is infenfibly loft in the cellular fubftance 
above. 

The biceps flexor cruris, on the outfide; and the farto- 
rius, gracilis, and femi-tendinofus on the infide. are the tea- 
fors of this fafcia, 

Superior annular ligament of the foot.—This is a rong 
tendinous plane, covering and confining the tendons on the 
back of the foot, and continuous wth the crural fafcia; 
Arifing from the fuperior depreffion of the os calcis, where 
its fibres are furrounded by much fat, it pafles inwards, 
dividing into two layers, which form a fheath including 
the tendons of the peroneus tertius, and extenfor longus di- 
gitorum ; then continues over the tendons of the extenfor 
longus hallicis, and tibialis anticus; and is fixed in front 
of the internal mallgolus. A produ&ion of it is continued 
over the lait mentioned tendons to the os {caphoides and 
plantar fafcia. This ligament differs from that of the hand, 
as the fheaths of the tendons are formed in it by the fepara- 
tion of its fibres. Continuous above withthe crural fafcia, 
it ends below in the dorfal aponeurofis: it is covered by the 
integuments, and lies upon the tendons, and the extenfor 
brevis digitorum. 

The internal annular ligament—isa thick and broad fibrous 
plane, ariling from the lower and front part of the malieo. 
lus interaus, andinferted into the inner and lower edge at 

Z2 the 


FAS 


the os calcis. It forms the internal concavity of the latter 
bone into a channel, containing the fibrous fheaths of the 
tibialis pofticus, and flexors of the toes ; the pofterior tibial 
nerves and veffels, and a confiderable quantity of fat. The 
crural fafcia is continued into it above; it gives origin be- 
low to the abduétor hallicis ; and it is covered externally by 
integuments. 

Dorfal fafcia of the foot.—This is a thin, and fometimes 
hardly diltinguifhable fibrous plate, arifing from the front 
edge of the fuperior annular ligament ; defeending over the 
extenfor brevis digitorum ; flightly attached to the fides of 
the metatarfus; and loft towards the toes in cellular fub- 
itance. 

Plantar fafcia 3 fafcia aponeurotica plantaris ; aponevrofe 
plantaire.—This is a very thick, denfe, and firm'fibrous or- 
gan, covering the middle and fides of the fole of the foot. 
Its origin is from the polterior and inferior part of the os 
calcis ; pafling forwards, it foon divides into three portions 
feparated by two deep grooves. The lateral divifions clofe- 
ly cover the abdudtor hallicis, and the abductor minimi di- 
giti; and grow thinner towards the front, where they are 
conneéted to the edges of the foot. Theexternal is ftrong- 
ly attached to the laft metacarpal bone. Their oppotite 
edges are conneéted by erofs portions to the middle divifion. 
The latter, which is the principal portion, pafles forwards, 
growing broader and broader, and divides at the front of 
the metacarpus into five pieces. Each of thefe fubdivides 
into two others, which have lateral attachments to the meta- 
tarfal bones, and leave an interval occupied by the flexor 
tendons, lumbricales mufcles, and the digital veflels and 
nerves. 

The plantar fafcia is extremely thick and clofe in its tex- 
ture behind; but its fibres are more feattered in front. 
Many filaments proceed from its inferior furface to the flcin, 
intercepting portions of fat. Its wpper furface is in contact 
with the three fuperficial mufcles of the foot, and affords a 
point of origin to their fibres. It difpatches between thete 
twofepta correfponding in fituation to the two grooves al- 
ready mentioned. Ithasno tenfor mufcle. 

The fa/cia tranfverfalis—is a thin production extended 
from the crural arch between the tranfverfus abdominis and 
peritoneum ; fee Osriquus externus abdominis. 

Bichat ; Anatomie defcriptive, vol. 2. Murray, De faf- 
cia lata, Upfal; 1777. Barth, Mufkellehre ; with plates. 
Cooper’s platesof herniz,part 2, withthe defcriptions. Burn’s 
ebfervations on the ftrudure of the parts concerned in 
crural hernia; inthe 2d volume of the Edinburgh Medical 
and Surgical Journal; p. 265. 

Fascra, in Surgery, a bandage, fillet, roller, or liga- 
ture. See BAnpaGe. 

Fascia, or Mafciole, in Roman Antiquity, were pieces 
of cloth, ufed by the Romans, who wore neither ftockings 
nor breeches, for wrapping their legs and thighs; and they 
were denominated from the parts which they covered, viz. 
tibialia and femoralia. 

Fascia, in Affronomy, two rows of bright {pots ob- 
ferved on Jupiter’s body, appearing like {wathes or belts. 

The fafciz, or belts of Jupiter, are more lucid than the 
reft of the difk, and are terminated by parallel lines. They 
arefometimes broader, and fometimes narrower; nor do 
they always poflefs the fame part of the difk. 

. Huygens likewife obferved a very large kind of 
fafcia in Mars; but it was darker than the reft of the difk, 
and took up the middle thereof. See Betts. 

FASCIALIS, in Anatomy, a mulcle of the leg, called 


alfo fartorius. 


FASCICULATE, in Botany, applies to leaves when 


FAS 


gathered together into a tuft, as in the larch and cedar 5 
and occafionally to fuch {mall leaves as form axillary cluf- 
ters in feveral plants, witnefs the pink or Sandwort tribe, 
fome f{pecies of Se/ago, and many others. <A faiciculate or 
cluttered item is a preternatural luxuriance, or difeafe, of 
that part, in which numerous branches or {tems appear to 
cohere longitudinally into one, affuming a broad, flat figure, 
crowded with leaves, flowers, or both, at the extremity, 
and bearing occafionally a few fcattered leaves here and 
there at the fides. We have feen it in the Ath, Helly, 
Daphne, Antirrhinum, Ranunculus, &c. © In compound 
flowers, as the Anthemis or Matricaria, the receptacles are 
fometimes united into one linear feries. In the Top-knot. 
Pea, Pi/um comofum, Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 38, the fafcieu- 
late ftem is a permanent vatiety, propagated by feed. The 
legume of this pea has no cartilaginous linmg, and is there- 
fore eatable entire. —Fafciculate flowers are fuch as grow in 
a peculiar form of inflorefcence, termed a fa/ciculus. See 
that article. S. 

FASCICULUS, a fafcicle, is one form of infloref- 
cence, compofed of feveral flowers, fupported on little 
ftalks varioufly inferted and fub-divided, colle€ted into a 
clofe bundle, level at the top; as in the Sweet William, 
Dianthus barbatus. 

Fascicutus, in the Afateria Medica, a term fome- 
times ufed to exprefs a certain quantity or meafure of 
herbs. 

By fafciculus is meant fo much as may be held in the arm 
when bent, and refted on the top of the hip, Phyficians. 
note it in prefeription by fa/c. 

FASCINATION denotes a fort of witchcraft, fup- 
pofed to operate by the influence either of the eye or the 
tongue, 

The word is formed from the Greek, Bacxasvev, which 
fignifies the fame. 

Ancient writers diftinguifh two forts of fafcination, one 
performed by looking, or the efficacy of the eye. Such is 
that fpoken of by Virgil in his third eclogue : 


“ Nefcio quis teneros oculus mihi fafcinat agnos.” 


The fecond by words, and efpecially malignant praifes, 
Such is that mentioned by the fame poet in the feventh 
eclogue : 


“ Aut, fi ultra placitum laudarit, baccare frontem 
Cingite, ne vati noceat ma'a lingua futuro.” ; 


Horace touches on both kinds in his firft book of epiftles.: 


« Non iftic obliquo oculo mea commoda quifquam 
Limat, non odio obfcuro, morfuque venenat.”’ 


Among the Romans there was a deity called Fafcinus, 
who prevented fafcination or enchantment. i. 
FASCINE, a bundle of boughs, twigs, &c. firmly 
bound together, and made of certain dimenfions, according 
to the ufe for which it may be intended. Fafcines are 
much ufed in field-fortification, for the purpofe of retaining 
loofe foil within certain {paces, fuch as the merlons of bat- 
teries, the defences of trenches, the raifing of epaulements, 
&c. Simple as the formation of a fafcine may appear, for 
it is nothing more than a faggot, much attention to method 
is requifite towards their being rendered equal in fize, and 
compaét in every part. When fuch a convenience can be 
had, it is proper to make them on treftles, or any kind of 
fupport placed at about two feet afunder from centre to cen-= 
tre: forked fticks driven into the ground anfwer admirably, 
as they receive the feveral fticks, but allow ample {pace for 
the bands, which fhould be of hazle, birch, or other pli- 
ant tough wood, that will bear to be well twilted. In ~ 

4 : 


, 


FAS 


firftinftance a flrong piece of very {mooth cord, technically 
termed a “ choke-rope,”? fhould be pafied round fo as to 
draw the bundle astight as poffible, and to bring the whole 
within a certain girth marked on the rope by means of any 
diftingt token ; if deficient, the fafcine mult be filled up to 
that meafurement. That being effe&ted, the bands are fe- 
verally paffed round at leaft twice, and firmly fecured by 
twifting their ends together, and by pafling them between 
fome of the twigs: thefe bands fhould never be more than 
a foot apart. ? 

Five men fhould be employed at each fafcine; three to 
make up on the treftle, and two to colle& and prepare the 
twigs, bands, &c. attention being paid to placing all fhort 
pieces in the middle of the diameter. Dirch and fir are 
confidered the beft wood for this work. It is alfo found ex- 

edient to double fome very long pieces at the ends of a 
P icine, fo as to ferm a loop, through which a ftake may 
be driven for the purpofe of fecuring the ends more firmly 
‘than they can poflibly be when left ragged. Fafcines are 
made of various dimenfions, according to the works for 
which they are intended; generally, they are about 18 feet 
in length, and ro or 12 inches in diameter 3 fuch being 
fuited to the revetement, or facing of embrafures. When 
intended for the exterior, or the ining of the merlons, they 
are ufually made 8 feet long for the former, and 12 for the 
latter purpofe: the diameter the fame as thofe for the re- 
vetements of embrafures. 

French fafcines, from 4 to 6 feet long, and from 4 to 9 
inches diameter, are ufed in fieges, chiefly for the purpole 
of binding works of {mall bulk, and for upholding loole 
foil in parts where no great ftrength is requifite. 

Water fafcines are ufually made about 6 feet long, and 
from 1 to 2 feet thick: they are ufed to cover marfhy fpots, 
fo as to give a firm footing ; but where the water is more 
than a few inches deep, they fhould be well laden with 
ftones, &c. to caufe their fettling to the bottom. Great 
care mult be taken to arrange them properly, fo that the 
-wheels of carriages may not be obitruéted : with this view 

they are generally laid acrofs the road, having their fur- 

faces well filled up with fap-faggots, which are rarely 
more than 3 feet in Pk, or more than 8 inches in thick- 
nefs. ; 

Covering fafcines are ufed to form the tops of magazines, 
or of faps. Thefe fhould be made remarkably ftrong, of 
the thickett branches, and generally bound upon fubftan- 
tial poles, that they may beara great weight ; it being com- 
mon to load them to the depth of many feet, with al, fo 
as to defeud the-interior from ricoghet fhots, grenades, &c. 
The dimenfions of fafcines for this purpofe mut depend on 
circumftances ; where timber can be obtained, it, of courfe, 
is preferred, otherwife every en eavour mult be ufed to 
render this fub{titute as firm as circumftances may admit. 

The general computation is, that five men will make 
two fafeines 18 feet long, and a foot thick, within an 
hour, provided materials are at hand: if to be brought from 
a diftance, more men muft be employed. The treitles, or, 
which are better, the forked tticks, fhould ftand at fuch a 

_ height as’ may enable the binders to put on the bands with 
litele or no flooping. Experience proves that except for 
the lining of embrafures, for which fafcines 18 feet long 
are preferable, thofe of from 8 to 12 feet are the moft con- 
venient ; fuch may be eafily carried, and rarely require any 
cutting. It is proper, however, to have feveral 18 feet 
long made, for the purpofe of binding the corners of a 
merlon, &c. and to remark, that care fhould be taken not 
to let two joints ftand one above the other. 


FAS 


The following will be found reqnifite for the conflruce 
tion of a fafcine battery of two guns, or howitzers, 

go Fafcines each 9 feet long, 
20 Ditto 18 ditto. 

This number will face the outfide, as well as the infide, 
of the epaulement ; which, if the earth be ftiff, will not 
always prove neceflary, at leaft not higher than the foles of 
the embrafures on the outfide. In the latter cafe, five 
fafcines, of nine feet each, will be fpared for other ufes. 

A mortar-battery will not require any long faftines, (7. ¢. 
of 18 feet,) for lining the embrafures ; but if a battery be 
fo expofed as to require a fhoulder (epaulement) to cover 
it in flank, about bfty fafcines, of nine feet, will be neceflary 
for that purpofe. The fimpleft method of afcertainiag the 
number of fafcines for a mortar battery, or for any other 
plain breaft-work, is to divide the length of work to be 
fafcined, by the length of each fafcine in feet ; mu'tiply py 
the number of layers, and the refuit will thew the number 
of fafcines required. 

Every fafcine will require a picket for every yard of its 
length, and one for its extremity ; thus, one of 18 feet will 
require feven pickets ; nine feet, four ditto. 

_Obferving, that where any fra€tional part exceeds a foot, 
an additional picket mutt be piven. By adding to the above 
computation 30 fafcines of nine feet, and ro of 18 feet, tlie 
number of fafcines, and confequently of pickets, for every 
additional gun may be afcertained. But as, owing to the 
damages ufually fultained from the fire of the enemy, repairs 
will often be neceflary, it is proper to have a certain number 
of {pare fafcines, at fome fecure depot, for that purpofe; 
and as parts of the wadding, &c. are apt to be impelled to- 
wards the fafcine-revetements of the embrafures, water 
fhould always be at hand for their extin@tion. Nothing is 
more common than for the befieged to make a fortie, with 
the intention of burning the breaching and mortar bat- 
teries. 

FASCINERY, in Engineery, fignifies wattled wood or 
hedge-work for groins, &c. to retain the pebbles or beach, 
and break the waves on the fea fhore. Smeaton’s Reports, i, 
2 


Tr 
FASCIOLA, in Zoology, a genus of inteftinal worms; 
with which man, and varions animals, are afliێted. The 
body is flattifh, with an aperture at the anterior extremity, 
aud another in the middle of the abdomen, or at a diftance 
beneath. Some are of confiderable magnitude, being front 
an inch to two inches or more in Jength, while others are 
{carcely perceptible, and they differ alfo in their habits of 
life, being either folitary or gregarious. They occur molt 
frequently in the mucus of the itomach, or the inteftines, 
and liver; or fotnetimes in the flefh immediately under the 
fin, examples of which have been obferved in many kiuds 
of fifhes, and in fome quadrupeds. When they occupy the 
biliary canal in animals, they tumefy all the parts, and bes 
come the fource of many maladies, an effeét too generally 
experienced in that ufeful creature the common fheep, and 
alfo in cattle. The particular kind with which the fheep is 
infeited (F. hepatica } is known among agriculturifts by 
the familiar name of Fluke, or Gourd-worm, and is fuffiie 
ciently under{tood to be the occafion of the dropfy ; aud 
alfo of that diforder ufually called the rot, ii which cafe 
the wool falls off the infe&ted carcafé, and the animal 
perithes miferably. Sometimes thefe pernicious internal 
depredators are found in brooks, and other watery places, 
where it is concluded they have been vomited up by the 
afflicted fheep, and dropped into the water. 

The labours of Goeze, Miiller, Bloch, and other natu 
ralifts have tended, in a remote degree, to elucidate the 
hiitory 


PAS CIOL A, 


hiftory of thofe particular {pecies which infeft the more 
ufeful kinds of domeftic animals in Europe. Much, how- 
ever, we are perfuaded, fill remains to be obferved, even in 
this partial branch of the enquiry; there are probably 
many other fpecies which infeft thofe animals already exa- 
mined, but which, from their ambiguity of charaéter, or 
extreme minutenefs, have hitherte eluded the vigilance of 
the obferver. Again, thofe which infeft the inferior tribes 
of European animals have {carcely claimed the lealt atten- 
tion, and fuch as are peculiar to animals in hotter climates 
than thofe of Europe appear, with one or two exceptions, 
to be utterly unknown. The latter we conceive to be 
numerous indeed, and this idea is rendered probable, when 
we confider how exceedingly conducive the heat, even of 
our own climate, is known to be to the increafe both in fize 
and numbers of thofe deftructive inmates. ; 

Thefe vermes are declared hermaphrodite, and the fup- 
pofition is plaufible, becaufe it has been afcertained, from 
accurate in{fpeCtion, that among the immenfe numbers of the 
gregarious kinds which occafionally occur together every 
individual is furuifhed with ovaries ; but it muift alfo be ad- 
mitted that we are not fo fully converfant with the myitery 
of their generation and manner of life as to {peak with 
certainty even from this circumftance, although it hence 
appears an admiffible opinion The fafciele adhere by 
means of the abdominal as well as the anterior pore, the 
latter of which is however the true mouth through which 
they derive fuftenance, and from whence the intettinal 
cavity may be traced to the inteftines, and thence to the 
vent or abdominal pore. The inteftines are flexuous, and 
the ovaries placed laterally. 


Species. 
* Infefling Man. 


Humana. Doever.verm. Cleric. Lumbr, 
* * Infefting Mammalia, 
Vuuris. Orbicular; head thick, rounded, and fepa- 


parated from the trunk by a circular arch; pofterior part 
flexuous at the fides; tail with two cylindrical membrana- 
ceous appendages each fide. Goeze. 

Found in the inteftines of the fox, and is not perhaps of 
this genus. 

Purori. Minute and fubrotund, with two approxi- 
mate pores. Goeze. 

Length an inch and a half; the fpecies found in the in- 
teftines of the polecat. 

Metis. Thick; head triangular. 

Inhabits the inteftines of the badger. 

Vespertitionis. Elongated and tapering with red 
inteftines. Mull. 

Body reddifh fufcous, and flefhy, with minute dots dif- 
pofed in tranfverfe ftriz. This kind is found in the inteftines 
of the long eared bat, which it frequently penetrates and 
occafions death 

Hurarica. Ovate and fub-petiolate Linn. Depreffed- 
ovate, whitith fufcous with the anterior part lengthened and 
tubular. Fabr. &c. Limax ovate, livid with acute margin, 
Amoen. Acad. Planaria latiufeula, Goeze. 

Infefts the liver of fheep, where it is generally found ad- 
hering by a pere at the extremity, and another in the mid- 
dle of the abdomen, and occafions the diforder in fheep 
called the rot. The body is about an inch long, broader 
on the fore part, and terminated by a tube, the back 
marked with furrows. ‘The five following kinds are con- 
dered by fome as varieties of hepatica. 

Boum. In the liver of cattle, Mull. 


Goeze. 


In the liver of fwine. Goere. 
In the liver of boar. Cleric. 
In the liver of deer. Borlafe. 
Eour. In the liver of the horfe. Buffon. 
Evarut, Body conic-ovate, with a very large aperture 
behind ; mouth afflurgent and remote. 


Inhabits the fLomach of the ftag, and is gregarious. 
e** Infofling Birds. 

Bitts. In the gall-duét of the black eagle. 

Body thick, and gregarious. 

Bureonts. Inhabits the inteflines of the buzzard. 
Goeze. 

Body with two pores, 

Mitvr. Body flat with a double pore ; inteftines fron« 
defe. Goeze. 

Small. Found in the inteftines of the kite. 

Strricis. Body roundifh, witha fingle pore. Goeze, 

In the inteflines of the kite. Perhaps not of this 
genus. 

Pur:yis. Very minute; thape various, inclofed in a 
cyft, and tenacious of life. Braun. 

Found in the thorax of the owl, (ftrix aluco) and alfo 
under the fkin in the common hedge hog. Probably not 
of this genus. 

Awnatis. Reddifh and roundifh, with a fingle pores 
te Cuculanus conoideus, Bloch. Hirudo fafetolarts. 

Ail. : 

An internal worm, f{uppofed to be of this genus, and 
which is found in the intettines of the common dometlicated’ 
duck. The body is {mall, pellucid, and fometimes white ; 
the anterior part ending in a truncated triangle, the pofterior 
rounded ; inteltines black and flexuous; ovaries lateral. 

Anseris. Oblong-ovate, with oppofite papilla placed 
in two rows; pores approximate.* Froelich. 

Found in the rectum of the common goofe. 

Gruis. Inhabits the inteftines of the crane. Bloch. 

This may not be fpecifically diftinét from fafciola anatis. 

Arpex. Sub-orbicular. Goeze. ; 

Found in vaft numbers in the inteftines of the bitterny 
which it often penetrates. 


** * * Infefling Reptiles, 


Saramanprz. Oblong, fub-linear, refembling an vil- 
flafk ; pores remote. Froelich. 

In the rectum of the falamander. 

Rana. Sub-clavated, mouth feffile. Goeze. 

Found in the inteflines, lungs, and liver of the frog ; is 
very flow in motion, contracting itfelf into a globular form, 
and when dilated is broad and flattifh. 

Uncinurata. Pofterior part of the body armed with 
two elaftic hooks. Braun. 

Inhabits the frog under the common integuments of the 
abdomen, and occurs either folitary, or in number; its 
motion refembles that. of the common leech. 


Xe * Infefling Fifbes. “i 
Bivopis. Elongated, round, and caudated, with a pa- 
pillary lateral pore. Mill. Zoega, &e. 
Infefts the inteftines of various fifhes ; the body is of equal 
thicknefs, with papillary pores; the anterior one larger, and 
extending over the fore part of the body ; tail filiform, and 


Porcorym, 
Apri. 


Crrvi. 


Braun: 


5 


half as long as the body. 
Ditiscna. Elongated, round, with a projecting exca- 

vated lateral pore. Zoega. 
Infefts the inteftines of various fifhes; the body is 
wrinkled, and tapering behind; the anterior part. fome- 
what 


FAS 


what bifid at the end, the divifions unequal, and excavated 


at the tip. 
AnGuiti#. Inthecommon eel. Lewenh. 
Scapra. Elongated, round, tranfverfely ftriated, and 


ferratulate at the margin. Mill. 

In the ftomach of the whiting pout. The body is 
fearcely pereeptible to the naked eye; pellucid, and pro- 
truding from the mouth a hard and hollowed {pharule, 
with a white double filiform veffel, and another blackith 
flexuous one filled with eggs extending the whole length of 
the body. 
wae: Linear, and flightly deprefled; no neck. 

ull. 

Length half an inch, colour cinereous, form rounded at 
the extremities. t 

Brennirt. Linear, and flat; neck inflated with a di- 
vergent truncated bafe. Bloch. 

Found in the inteftinal mucus of the viviparous blenny ; 
fize fmall, being almoft imperceptible to the naked eye; 
colour white, pellucid, and generally curved into an obtule 
angle; lateral pore large, placed in the angle of the body, 
and prominent when in motion with two white veficles. 

Scorpius. Elliptic, and perforated at one end with a 
minute papilla; no neck. Mull. 

In the inteftines of the Father lather; invifible to the 
naked eye, pellucid, whitifh grey, obtufe at each end, and. 
filled with eggs. 

Pratessz, Elliptic, and green. Miill. 

Extremely minute, opaque, divided into fix alternate 
{paces of green and white ; terminal pore large, lateral one 
placed in the middle ; eggs deep green. Found in the in- 
teftinal mucus of the plaife. 

Lucioprercea. Ovate-oblong, aud flightly ventricofe ; 
oan fhort; margin of the terminal pore dilated and fmooth. 

ull. 

Size of a grain of fand; colour brownifh ; neck cylindri- 
cal; lateral pore flightly prominent, and narrower down- 
wards. Inthe inteftines of perca lucioperca. 

Pexc#. Ovate, ventricofe; neck fhort ; terminal, pore 
nodulous at the margin. Miill. 

Found in the inteftines of the ruffe, and in fize rather 
exceeding the former. The body is brown; neck white 
and cylindrical, granulated, and terminated by a pore ; 
Jateral pore feated at the bafe of the neck; bedy obtufe 
behind. 

Lacena. Body rotund; neck long. Braun. 

In the inteftines of the common river perch. 

Varica. Linear, round, neck divergent, obtufe, and 
perforated beneath the tip. Mull. 

Found in the ftomach of the falmon. This is of an 
elongated form, often diverging into an acute angle, fmooth 
when extended, and rather wrinkled when contra¢ted ; late- 
ral pore nearly in the middle; a double filiform white vefi- 
cle down each fide, and connected below with two white 
opaque bodies of an ovate form; eggs numerous, fcattered, 


yellowifh green, and contained in a flexuous hyaline tube ; 


each of the eggs inclofed in a pellucid membrane. 
Pied Elliptic, hyaline, and rufous in the middle. 
ull. 

Infefts the inteftines of falmo eriox; the fize very 
‘minute; anterior part of the body retraétile, and exten- 
‘file, including a filiform conglomerated inteftine, and two 
veticles. 

_  Farionis. Oblong and a little depreffed; the fore 
“part with fix equal lobes on the margin. Mull. 

In the inteftinal mucus of the falmon. The body is 

yellowifh, and about the twelfth part of an inch in length ; 


FAS 


the margin obtufely crenulated ; the anterior lobes nearly 
{quare and membranaceous. A 

Umsraz, Oblong, flat, with a narrower retractile neck, 
O. Fabr. 

Found in vaft numbers beneath the fkin in the back of 
the falmo umbla. The length is one-eighth part of an 
inch; the body is whitifh, and refembling a flafkk, broader 
behind, and obtufely truncated, the margin acute. 

Luci. Lanceolate, with a crenated depreffed margin ; 
neck long and round. Mill. , 

An inch and a half in length, the colour bright red; 
found in the ftomach and cefophagus of the common 
pike. 

HAcecis. 
Leuwenh. 

Bramz. Oblong, round, tapering, and obtufe at the 
bafe ; neck rounded and flightly incurved. Mull. 

In the inteftines of the bream. The body is white, the 
lateral pore at the bafe of the neck. 

Jests. Body ovate, the anterior part narrower. Bloch. 

Found in the inteftines of cyprinus jefes, and refembles 
a flaflk, or long-necked bottle. : 

Truttz. Oblong, with two white lucid orbicular 
fpots behind the lower aperture. Freel. 

In the reétum of the trout. 


Found in the ftomach of the herring, 


Cravata. Body roundifh, livid, wrinkled, and clavated ° 


behind. Linnzan Tranf. 

Found in the ftomach of the feomber pelamis, in the 
Paciticocean. The length is about two inches; the body 
whitifh brown, with a blueifh caft, and annulated with fine 
wrinkles; towards the lower extremity fpherically gibbous, 
and terminating in an aperture; neck flender ; pore larger 
than the terminal one. 

Spart. Inthe mucus of f{parus aurata, &c. La fa/ciole 
de la dorade, Bofc. 


Brunneae Inthe mucus of fparus aurata. La fa/ciole 
bruné, Bofc. A 
Caupata. In the mucus of fparus aurata. La fa/ciole 


caudate, Bofc. 
RX RHE Infefting Worms. 


Loricrints. Body oblong, white; mouth with tranf- 
verfe papille. O. Fabr. 

Found in the inteftines of the cuttle-fith. 

FASHION. The word is French, fagon, which fig- 
nifies making. 

Fasuion is particularly ufed among Artificers, for the 
trouble, time, and labour, employed in a piece-of work, 
particularly of filver or gold. 

It is by the fafhion that the workmen’s wages, or falary, 
are regulated. 

The word is alfo ufed to denote the prevailing mode 
or tatte. 

Faswions, a name fometimes given to the farcin. 

Faswion-Pieces, in Sea Language, two pieces of tim- 
ber which form the breadth of a fhip at the itern, and are 
the outmoit timbers of the ftern on each fide, forming its 
fhape, and united to the ftern-poft, and to the extremity 
of the wing-tranfom, by a rabbit, and a number of {trong 
nails or frikes driven from without. 

FASIANO, ia Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro- 
vince of Bari; 12 miles S. of Monopoli. 

FASIKANTI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon; 
zo miles W. of Xenday. 

FASSETS, among Jewellers. See Facets. 

FASSUS, in our Old Writers, is ufed for a faggot of 
wood. . It feems to come from the French fai/eaw. 


FAST, , 


ya 


FE AS-6: oF: 


FAST, a fpace of time wherein a perfon takes little or 
no food. 

For the advantages of falting with regard to health, fee 
ABSTINENCE. 

The Bramins never bleed their fick, but make them fatt. 

Vast is peculiarly ufed for an ab{linenee on account of 
religion, or a fpace of time wherein the church prohibits 
the ufe of food, or at leaft reftrains it to certain kinds, 
and to certain hours. 

Vafting has been praétifed by moft rations from the re- 
moteftiantiguity. The Jews obferved fafts from their firlt 
ettablifimem. Mofes appointed one folemn fait before the 
feaft of expiation: and others were initituted by the fol- 
lowing prophets on different occafions ; fo that in the ume 
of Zacharias there were four regular fatts, viz. in the 
months of June, July, September, and December. To 
thefe they have fince added three others, in memory of fore 
diitrefies they have at different times fuffered. Befides 
thefe there are various kinds of faits, fome for devotion, 
others for the new moons; and fome among them kept an 
anniverfary faftyin memory of the tranflation of the Septua- 
gint, in order to expiate the bafe compliance of their doc- 
tors for a foreign prince, and the outrage offered to the dig- 
nity of their law, which, in their opinion, was only defigned 
for themfelyes: ‘* Non fecit taliter omnrnationi.”’ 

There is no occafion to deferibe exaétly the various ob- 
fervances that accompanied thefe aéts of humiliation, as 
they are generally known. Their abitinence lafted twenty- 
feven or twenty-eight hours, beginning before fun-fet, and 
not ending till fome time after fun-fet the next day. On 
thefe days they were obliged to wear white robes, in token 
of their grief and repentance ; to cover themfelves with 
fackcloth, to lie on afhes, to {prinkle them on their head, 
and on great occafions to cover the ark of the covenant. In 
order to complete their abitinence, they eat nothing at night 
but alittle bread fteeped in water, feafoned with falt, and 
bitter herbs and pulfe. Some of them continued the fol- 
lowing day and night praying in the temple, or fynagogue, 
bare-footed, and occafionally fcourging themfelves. 

Thofe that would be particularly informed of thefe 
aufterities may confult Maimonides, Leo of Modena, and 
Buxtorf. 

The Egyptians, Pheenicians, and Affyrians, neighbours 
to the Jews, had alfo their fafts. ‘The faft of the Ninivites, 
occafioned by the preaching of the prophet Jonas, is too 
well known to be infifted on. 

Nor were the Greeks without their fafts. Ariftotle in- 
forms us, that the Lacedzmonians having refolved to fuc- 
cour a city of the allies, ordained a general faft through the 
whole extent of their dominions, without excepting the do- 
meftic animals ; and this they did for two ends, one that 
they might {pare provilion in favour of the befieged, and 
the other to draw the bleffing of heaven on their enterprize. 
The Athenians, among others, had the Eleufinian and 
Thefmophorian fafts, the obfervation of which was aceom- 
panied with ftri& fafting, particularly among the women, 
who fpent one whole day fitting on the ground in a mourn- 
ful drefs, without taking any nourifhment ; on which ac- 
count this day was called verse. 

In a word, all the Pagan deities, whether of the male or 
female fex, required this duty of thofe that defired to be 
initiated into their mytteries, of the priefts and priefteffes 
that gave the oracles, and of thofe that came to confult 
them. 

In italy fafting was obferved much in the fame way. 
The inhabitants of Tarentum, being befieged by the Ro- 
mans, demanded fuccours from their neighbours of Reg- 


gium, who itamediately ordained a fa throughout their 
whole territories, with the fame intention as the Lacedx- 
monians, viz. to render the gods favourable, and to fpare 
provifion for their allies. Their enterprize having had good 
fuccefs by their throwing a convoy with provifions into the 
town, the Romans were obliged to raife the fiege ; and the 
Tarentiacs, in mempry of this delivery, inflituted a perens 
nial faft. So that here we have two fafts for the fame 
event ; that obferved by thofe who were the means of ob~ 
taining the deliverance, and that obferved by them who re- 
ceived it. ‘The Roman fenate, Livy tells us, being alarm- 
ed by many prodigies, happening in a train one after an- 
other, ordered the decemyiri to confult the Sibyliine books ; 
who having executed their commiffion, declared, that to pre- 
vent the fatal confequences, it was necefiary to eftablifh a 
fait in honour of Ceres, to be obferved every fifth year. 
That Jupiter had ftated fafts at Rome, appears from the 
following paflage of Horace, where a mother is intro- 
duced praying to Jupiter for the recovery of her fon from 
a quartan ague, and promifing that the patient fhould purify. 
himfelf in the Tiber on the morning of the falt-day ijacred 
to that god: . 


“ Frigida fi puerum quartana reliquerit, illo 
Mane die quo tu indicis jejunia, nudus 
In Tiberi ftabit.’”’ 


Fafting muft have been very facred at Rome, fince we find 
it practifed by kings and emperors. Nua Pompilius, 
Julius Czfar, Auguftus, Vefpafian, and others, we are told, 
had their ftated faft days; and Julian the Apoftate was fo 
exact in this obfervance as even to outdo the priefts them- 
felves, and the moft rigid philofophers. 

In a word, every country, nation, and religion have had 
at all times their prielts, druids, g Micon and philos 
fophers, who diftinguifhed thentioe by their frugality, 
aufterity, and abftinence. The practice of the Pythago-- 
reans is well known; their whole life was a continued lent, 
but with this difference between them and us, that they be- 
lieved the ufe of fifh equally unlawful with that of fleth. 
They lived entirely on bread, fruits, and pulfe, with great 
fobriety, in imitation of their mafter Pythagoras ; though in 
this ref{pe& they mult have fallen far fhort of him, if we may 
believe Diogenes Laertius, who fays that he continued his 
fafts for no lefs than forty days. Apollonius Tyaneus, one 
of his moft famous difciples, could never by all his endea- 
vours equal his matter in this point, though his fafts greatly 
exceeded the ordinary intervals. 

The gymnofophiits or brachmans reckoned fafting among 
their religious duties. Father Le Compte, in his memoirs, 
tells us, that the Chinefe have at all times had regular faits 
with form of prayers, for preferving them from barrennefs, 
inundation, earthquakes, and fuch like public calamities. 
The Mahometans too, who poffefs fo large a part of Afia 
and Africa, have times of fafting, called by them ramadan 
(which fee) as regular as we have lent; and their dervifes 
are remarkable for their mortitication and fafting. Compte, 
Mem. tom.il. p. 142. 

The Turks are to ferupulous on the point of fafting, that 
they will not at thofe times fo much as take the fmell of 
any perfume by the nofe. They hold that odours them- 
felves break falt. If they bathe, it is forbid to put the 
head under water for fear of {wallowing any of it ; and as 
for women, they are forbid to bathe at all on faft-days, for 
a reafon peculiar to the fex. 

It was not unufual among the ancients to faft on account 
of dreams. Ny 

Mr. Bayle obferves, that whole books have been written 


on 


FAS 


on long fafting. Cyriacus Lentulus has compofed one, “ De 
Prodigiolis Inediis.”” Fortunius Licetus, profeffor of medi- 
‘cine at Padua, befides a great many others, has publifhed 
one book in folio, * De us qui diu viyunt fine Alimento,’’ 
or © De Feriis Altricis Anime.’’ 

Though falting is not pofitively enjoined by Chrift or his 
Rpoftles, a practice prevailed among the firit Chriftians of 
joining abftinence with their prayers, efpecially when they 
were engaged in affairs of extraordinary importance. Put 
in the moit ancient times we find no mention of any public 
and folemn fafts, except upon the anniverfary of Chrifl’s 
crucifixion. However, in procefs of time, days of falting 
were gradually introduced, firft by cuftom, and afterwards 
by poditive appointment ; though it is not certain what 
thofe days were, nor whether they were obferved in the tint 
century. Mr. Mofheim acknowledges, that thofe who af- 
firm, that in the time of the apoftles, or foon after, the fourth 
and fixth days of the week were obferved as ‘alts, are not 
deftitute of {pecious arguments in favour of their opinion. 
Ecclef. Hilt. vol. i. p. 131. Svo. 

Towards the clofe of the third century fafting was held in 
much greater efteem, from a notion that it ferved as a fecu- 
rity againft the power of demons, who directed their ftrata- 
gems principally againit the luxurious. ‘The Latins, con- 
trary to the general cuftom, fafted the feventh day of the 
week ; and as the Greeks and Orientals refufed to follow 
their example, this afforded a new fubje¢t of contention 
between them. About the end of the fourth century this 
notion ftill more generally prevailed ; and fafting was alfo 
confidered as the moft effeGtual means of appeating the 
anger of an offended deity. Hence proceeded the eitablifh- 
ment of this practice as an indifpeniible duty, by exprefs 
laws enacted by the rulers of the church. ‘The Quadrage- 
fima or Lent faft was held more facred than all the rett, 
though it was not yet confined to a certain number of days. 
But as fafting became more general, it was contrived to 
render it more eafy ; and therefore a mere abftinence from 
flefh and wine was judged fufficient : which opinion pre- 
vailed from this time, and became univerfal among the La- 
tins. Ib. vol. i. p. 293. 398. 

The ftri&t canonical fait only allows of one meal in 
twenty four hours. IF. Thomaflin obferves that the ancient 
faft was to fup without dining, i.¢. only to take one meal, 
and that not till atter noon: adding, that to dine without 
fupping, was a breach of the faft. The practice of the 
Latin church was to faft thirty-fix days in the year; which 
is, as it were, the tithe of the year. 

Tertullian wrote an exprefs treatife, ‘‘ De Jejuntis,’’ of 
fafts, to jupport the new laws of fafting, which the Mon- 
tanifls were for impoling. 

The ancient catholics allowed of no obligatory or com- 
manded fafts befides that preceding Ealter, fince called 
Lent ; the terms of which were to forbear eating till the 
evening. — 

The other fafls obferved were only of devotion ; fuch 
were the fourth and fixth feria ; # e. Wednefdays and Fri- 
days. . 

This Lent faft was called /fation. Befides thefe there 
were occafional falts enjoined by the bifhops, &c. See 
Asstinence and Lenr. ; 

~ Some introduced the xerophagy into fafts; that is, the 
ufe of dried fruits for their meals ; and made a practice of 
abftaining not only from all meats and wines, but alfo from 
fucculent fruits, for the whole twenty-four hours ; and fome 
reduced themfelves to bread and water: but this was more 
than was commanded, 


Vow. XIV. 


FAS 

Fast-days are thofe appointed by public authority, to 
be obferved by falting and humiliation. See AzstineNce, 

Fasr-ground, or Fasr-country, a term ufed by fome of 
our Miners to exprefs what others call the fhelf'; which fee. 

FASTAGE, fignifies the feagh, fleet, or refufe {mall 
{par from a vein. 

FASTERMANS, or Fastrinc-men, q-d. homines ha- 
bentes, was ufed in our ancient cuftoms for men in repute 
and fubftance ; or rather for pledges, fureties, or bond{mea, 
who, according to the Saxon polity, were faft bound to 
anfwer for one another’s peaceable behaviour. 

FASTI, in Antiquity, the Roman calendar; wherein 
the feveral days of the year, with their feafts, games, and 
other ceremonies were exprefled. 

The Romass had their greater and Jeffer fafli. The creat 
falti were called the fafti of the magiftrates; and the leffer, 
the falti calendares, 

The faiti calendares; which were what was properly aud 
primarily called faiti, are defined by Feitus Pompeius to be 
books containing a de!cription of the whole year 258.26 ephe- 
merides, or diaries, ditinguifhing the feveral kinds of days, 
feiti, profefti; fafli, nefalti, &c, he author of thefe was 
Numa, whe committed the care and direétion of the fai 
to the ‘pontifex maximes,’’ whom the people ufed to go 
and confult on every occafion. This cuitom held till the 
year of Rome 450, when C. Flavius, fecretary to the pon- 
tilfices, expofed in the forum a lift of all the days on which 
it was lawful to work; which was fo acceptable to the 
people, that they made him curvle edile. Liv. lib. ix. 
cap. 46. Ed. Crevier. tom. i. p. 573. 

Thefe leffer fafti, or fafti calendares, were of two kinds, 
urbani and ruftici. The fafti urbani, or fafti of the city, 
were thofe which obtained, or were obferved in the city. 
Some will have them thus called becaufe they were expofed 
publicly in divers parts of the city ; though by the various 
inferiptions or gravings thereof on antique ftones one would 
imagine that private perfons had them likewife in their 
houfes. Ovid undertook to illuftrate thefe fafti urbani, and 
comment on them mm his ‘ Libri Faftorum,” whereof we 
have the fix firit books {till remaining ; the fix laff, if ever 
they were written, being loft. Befide Ovid, feveral other 
authors had undertaken the fame fubjeét, particularly 
L. Cincius Alimentatus, Fulvius Nobilior, Maturius Sabi- 
nus, Cornelius Labeo, C. Licinianus, and Nifus; of all 
whom Macrobius makes mention in his “ Saturn.?? and 
preferves fragments of each; befides a work of one Bebius 
Marcus, intitled, ** De Faftis Diebus,’’ quoted by Ful- 
gentius, ‘* De Prifco Sermouie.”’ 

In the greater faiti, or fafti of the magiftrates, were ex- 
preffed the feveral feafts, with every thing relating to the 
gods, religion, and the magiftrates; the emperors, their 
birth-days, offices, days confecrated to them, and feafts 
and ceremonies eftablifhed in their honour, or for their prof- 
perity, &c. 

With a number of fuch circumftances did flattery at 
length {well the fafti, when they became denominated magni, 
to diltinguifh them from the bare calendar, or faiti calen- 
dares. 

In the fafti ruftici, or country fafti, were expreffed the 
feveral days, feafts, &c. to be obferved by the country 
peoples for as thefe were taken up in tilling the ground, 

ewer feafts, facrifices, ceremonies, and holidays, were en- 
joined them than the inhabitants of cities; and they had alfo 
fome peculiar ones not obferved at Rome. . 

Thefe ruftic fatti contained little more than the ceremonies 
of the calends, nones, and ides; the fairs, ficns of the 
zodiac, increafe and decreafe of the days, the tutelary gods 


> 
Aa of 


FAS 


ef each month, and cértain diredtions for rural works to 
be performed each month. 

Tasti was alfo a chronicle or regifter of time, wherein 
the feveral years were denoted by the refpeétive confuls, with 
the principal events that happened during their confulates ; 
thefe were called alfo fafti confulares, or confular fafti. 

Osuphrius Panvinius, Pighius, Sigonius, and Janflen 
d’Almelooven,, have given us the fafti confulaves; the 
two firft, with long and learned comments, wherein are ex- 
preffed not only the confuls, but alfo the di€tators, magiltri 
equitum, triumphs, and ovations. Pighius even adds as 
many of the other officers as he could find, viz. pretors, 
tribunes, &c. J. d’Almelooven confines himfelf to the con- 
fuls alone. 

Fasri is ftill applied to the archives and public records 
wherein are kept hiftorical memoirs of public and remark- 
able events that have happened to a people. 

In the like fenfe the martyrology is called the facred fafti 
of the church. 

The Jefuit Du-Londel has compiled the fafti of Louis 
le Grand, &c. 

Fasti, or Dies Fafti, alfo denoted court days. 
Day. 

The word fafti, faftorum, is formed of the verb furi, to 
Speak, becaufe, during thofe days the courts were open, 
caufes might be heard, and the praztor was allowed fari, to 
pronounce the three words, do, dico, addico; the other 
days wherein this was prohibited were called nefa/fi: thus 


Ovid, 


s¢ Tlle nefaflus erit, per quem tria verba filentur: 
Faftus erit, per quem lege licebit agi.” 


See 


Thefe dies fafti were noted in the calendar by the letter 
F: but obferve, that there were fome days ex parte fatti, 
partly fatti, partly nefafti; ze. juftice might be diftributed 
at certain times of the day, and not at others. Thefe days 
avere called intercifi: they were marked in the calendar thus; 
F. P. faftus primo, where juftice might be demanded during 
the firft part of that day. 

FASTIGIATI Furni, in Chemifiry, furnaces fitted 
with feveral aludels. 

FASTIGIUM, in Archited@ure, the fame with pedi- 
ment. : 

FASTING Men. See Fastermans. 

FASTNEL, in Geography, the name of a rock in the 
Atlantic-ocean, not far from Cape Clear, on the fouthern 
coaft of Ireland. N. Jat.51°17'. W. long. 9° 30!. 

FASTOLFF, Joun, in Biography, knight and knight- 
banneret, a renowned general, governor and nobleman in 
France during our conquefts in that kingdom, under 
Henries IV. V. and VI. of England, was fon of John 
Faftolff, efq. of Yarmouth, and of Mary, daughter of 
Nicholas Park, efq. and born, it is prefumed, about the 
year 1377- He is fuppofed to have had a good education, 
and his father dying while he was young, he became ward 
to John duke of Bedford, who was afterwards regent of 
France. The firft public employments in which Faftolff was 
engaged feem to have been under Thomas of Lancafter, 
afterwards duke of Clarence, the then lord-lieutenant of Ire- 
Jand, which was in 1401, and it is probable he was with 
him again in that country in 1405, 6, and 8, as in the begin- 
ning of 1409,he was married in that kingdom toa rich young 
widow of quality, named Milicent, lady Caftlecomb, re- 
li of fir Stephen Scope. The marriage was folemnized 
on the feaft of St. Hilary, and Fattolff obliged himfelf in 
a bond of a rooo/, to pay her an hundred pounds a-year in 


EAT 


the nature of pin-money during her life, There feems good 
evidence that fhortly after his marriage he went to France, 
where he was, according to the teftimony of Caxton, full 
forty years, fo that he could not have been a companion 
with, or follower and corrupter of prince Henry ; of courfe 
Shakefpeare could not have drawn his fir John Falttaff from 
this gentleman: “The one,”’ fays the writer of the article 
in the Biographia Britannica, *¢is an old humourous, va- 
pouring, and cowardly, lewd, lying, and drunken de- 
bauchee, about the prince’s court, when the other was a 
young and grave, difcreet and valiant, chalte and fober 
commander abroad, continually advanced to honour and 
places of profit, for his brave and politic atchievements, 
military and civil; continually preferred to the truft of one 
government or other, of countries, cities, towns, &c. or as 
a general and commander of armies, in martial expeditions 
while abroad, made knight-banneret in the field of battle; 
baron of France, and knight of the garter in England,’’ 
&c. &e. In the year 1413 Faltolff had the caftle and do- 
minion of Veires in Gafcony committed to his cuftody and 
defence. He was afterwards engaged in the celebrated 
battle of Agincourt, in which, it is faid, he fignalized him- 
{elf by taking the duke d’Alengon prifoner. For his emi- 
nent fervices in this and other great battles he received. the 
honour of knighthood, and the manor and demefnes of 
Fritenfe, near Harfleur, beftowed upon him during life, 
For various other inftances of high military prowefs he was 
elected, about the year 1425, knight of the garter. In O&o- 
ber 1428 fir John Faftolff with others were difpatched with 
fupplies to the Englifh army who were befieging Orleans ; 
two immenfe French armies were fent to prevent the fuccours 
being delivered ; thefe, by the valour of fir John, were de- 
feated, and he accomplifhed the tafk for which he was fent 
without difficulty. "his circumftance has been celebrated 
as almoft unparalleled in hiftory. After frefh viétories, and 
much aétive fervice in France, where many years he had the 
government of Normandy, he returned to his native home, 
and though living in retirement he was a zealous friend of 
thofe to whom he could be ferviceable. He died m the 
year 1459 or 60, and was buried in a chapel of the abbey 
church of St. Bennet in Norwich; fo highly was he vene- 
rated, that John Beauchamp, lord ef Powyke, appointed by 
his will a chaunt efpecially for the foul of fir John Faftolff, 
Biog. Brit. 
FAT, in Anatomy. See Ceritutar Subfance. 


Fat, Animal. For the chemical properties of this fub- 
ftance, fee the articles O11, anima/, and Sewacic acid. 
See alfo Apeps. 


The way of preparing fat for medicinal purpofes is to 
take out the fkins, veins, fibres, &c. wafh it till it be- 
comes unbloody ; then melt it by a gentle heat, with a little 
water, till the water is evaporated; ftrain, put it into 
an earthen veffel where it will fix, and preferve it from 
air. 
Fat of Whales. See Buusper. 

Fart, in Agriculture, is a term which is frequently ap- 
plied to fuch neat cattle and fheep ftock as are ready forthe 
butcher. : 

Far, in Rural Economy, is aterm which is often applied 
to the large wooden veffels in which various forts of liquors 
are contained, while they, undergo the ftate of preparation, 
as ale, beer, cyder, &c. It is, however, more frequently 
written vat. See Vat. 

And it likewife fignities, with, brewers and maltfters, the 
large wooden veffel which, forexpedition, is employed to 
meafure malt, and which contains one quarter, or eight 


L bufhels,. 


FA T 


bufhels, aceording to ftatutes 1 Hen, V. cap. 10, and 
it Hen. VI. cap. 8. 

It isalfo applied to a veffel or pan of lead, which is made 
ufe of in the preparation of falt. See Saur. 

Far alfo denotes an uncertain meafure of capacity ; thus, 
a fat of ifinglafs contains from 3+ hundred weight to 4 hun- 
dred weight ; a fat of unbound books half a maund, or 4 
bales; of briftles, 5 hundred weight; of wire, from 20 to 
25 hundred weight; and of yarn, from 229 to 221 bun- 
les. 

Ear-Hen, in Rural Economy, is a term often provincially 
ufed to fignify the weed called goofe-foot. 

~FATA Moreana, or the Caflles of the Fairy Morgana, 
the common appellation of a fingular phenomenon, which 
is fometimes feen in the Faro of Meffina, or ftraits of 
Reggio, between the ifland of Sicily and the coait of Cala- 
bria. The origin of this eppellation is doubtful, or rather 
uuknown ; yet fome authors are pleafed to derive it from 
pevrgos, melancholy, and yxvw, inducing exhilaration ; alluding 
to the pleaiure which its appearance gives to the {petators ; 
for whoever has been an eye-witneis of this phenomenon, 
exprefles himfelf as having been highly delighted by it. 

This phenomenon has been noticed asd deferibed by va- 
rious authors ; viz. Kircher, Angelucei, Scotus, Giardina, 
Gallo, Leanti, Minafi, Brydone, Swinburne, ‘and others ; 
but of all thefe authors, Fr. Antonio Minafi, who had 
thrice been f{pectator of this remarkable appearance, feems' 
to defcribe it ina more explicit manner. His differtation on 
the fubject was publifhed at Rome in the year 1793. 

The north-eait angle of the ifland of Sicily comes very 
near the fouthern extremity of the kingdom of Naples. 
The channel between thefe coa{ls is narrow, and confined 
between two ridges of mountains. In this channel the wa- 
ter is continually agitated, and thrown into ridges and 
whirlings hy the violence of the current, by the particular 
direction of certain winds, and by the irregular conforma- 
tion of the coafts. At times it likewife happens that a 
very denfe vapour is accumulated, and condenfed over the 
water of the channel. ‘* When,”’ Minafi fays, ‘ the rifing 
fun fhines trom that point whence its incident ray forms an 
angle of about 45 degrees on the fea of Reggio, and the 
bright furface of the water in the bay is not difturbed either 
by the wind or the current, the {peCtator being placed on an 
eminence of the city, with his back to the fun, and his face 
to the fea; on a fudden there appears in the water, as ina 
catoptric theatre, various multiplied objects ; viz. number- 
lefs feries of pilalters, arches, caftles well delineated, regu- 
lar columns, lofty towers, fuperb palaces, with balconies 
and windows, extended alleys of trees, delightful plains 
with herds and flocks, armies of men on foot and horfeback, 
and many other ftrange figures, in their natural colours and 
proper actions, pafling rapidly in fucceflion along the fur- 
face of the fea, during the whole of the fhort period of 
time while the above-mentioned caufes remain. 

«« But if, in addition to the circumftances before defcribed, 
the atmofphere be highly impregnated with vapour, and 
denfe exhalations not previoufly difperfed by the action of 
the wind or waves, or rarefied by the fun, it then happens 
that in this vapour, as in a curtain extended along the chan- 
nel to the height of about four or five and twenty feet, and 
nearly down to the fea, the obferver will behold'the fcene 
of the fame objeéts not only reflected from the furface of 
the fea, but likewife in the air, though not fo diftin& or 
well defined as the former objects from the fea. 

 Laftly, if the air be flightly hazy and opaque, and at 
the fame time dewy, and adapted to form the iris, then 
the above-mentioned objects will appear enly at the far- 


- 


E AT 


face of the fea, asin the firtt cafe, but all vividly coloured, 
or fringed with red, green, blue, and other prifmatic co- 
lours.’”? 

Thefe appearances induced this author to diftinguifh the 
phenomenon into three {pecies under diftin& denominations ; 
viz. calling the apparition on the water by the name of 
marine morgana; that in the air by the name of aerial 
morgana; and that which is attended with fringes of co- 
lours, the prifmatic morgana. 

This defcription of the phenomenon coincides upon the 
whole with other accounts, fo far at leaft as to the appear- 
ance of fomething extraordinary on the furface of the fea, or 
in the air, vapour, fog, &c. not much abgve the furface 
of the water ; but when the minuter part culars are inquired 
into, then all the accounts differ confiderably from each 
other. - In truth, the phenomenon is always different, tran- 
fient, and furprifing ; hence it is no wonder that the accounts 
fhould be found to differ. The imagization, which readi- 
ly fupplies the imperfect perceptions of the fenfes, may 
doubtlefs influerce confiderably the correétnefs of the ac- 
counts. ‘The objeéts which are deferibed as appearing per- 
feG and well defined by fome, are faid to be extremely in- 
diftinct aud indefinite by others; yet all feem to coincide ia 
faying that figures of human beings and of other terreftrial 
objects are exhibited by the fata morgana; thus Leanti 
fays that the fky appears crowded with a variety of beautiful 
objects, fuch as palaces, woods, gardens, veffels, and fuch 
like, together with figures of human beings, and other ani- 
mals, that appear to move amongit thofe fixed objects. 

Notwithftanding the difagreement of the accounts with 
refpeCt to particulars, the appearance of the phenomenon, 
which has been obferved by a vaft number of creditable au- 
thors, ancient as well as modern, cannot poffibly be doubted ; 
hence philofophers have endeavoured to account for it upon 
the known laws of optics, and of other natural powers ; but 
notwithftanding their exertions, a thorough explanation of 
the appearance itil! remains a defideratum. In his attempts 
to explain this phenomenon, Minafi firft defcribes the city 
of Reggio on the coaft of Calabria, oppofite to Meflina, 
together with the adjacent parts, and then endeavours to 
prove that all the objeéts which are feen in the fata mor- 
gana are the reprefentations of thofe objects which ftand en 
the coait. He fays, “that the fea in the ftraits of Meffina 
has the appearance of a large inclined {peculum ; that in the 
alternate current or tide which flows and returns in the 
ftraits for fix hours each way, and is conftantly attended by 
an oppofite current along the fhore to the medium diftance of 
about a mile anda half, there are many eddies and irregula- 
rities at the time of its change of direGtion; and that the 
morgana ufually appears at this period.” 

After various other confiderations he at laft accounts for 
the appearances, by the {uppofed inclination of the furface 
ofthe fea, and its fub-divifion into different plains by the 
contrary eddies. He explains the aerial morgana by refer- 
ring it to the reflective and refractive powers of effuvia fuf- 
pended in the air. 

Mr. Brydone, in his tour through Sicily and Malta, {peak- 
ing of the attempts that have been made for explaining the 
phenomena of the fata morgana, fays, “ they think it may 
be owing to fome uncommon refraction or refleGion of the 
rays, from the water of the ftraits ; which, as it is at that 
time carried about in a variety of eddies, and vortexes, mult of 
confequence, fay they, make a variety of appearances on any 
medium where it is refleéted. This, I think, is nonfeafe ; 
or at leait very near it. I fufpe& it is fomething in the na- 
ture of our aurora boreelis ; and, like many of the great 
phenomena of natures, depends upon electrical cautes ; 

> 


wa? which, 


RAF 


which, in future ages, I have little doubt will be found to 
be as powerful an agent in regulating the univerfe, as gra- 
vity isin thisage, oras the fubtile fluid was in the laft.” 

We fhall laitly prefent our readers with a ftatement of 
the conjectures which Mr. Nicholfon was enabled to derive 
from an examination of the accounts, obfervations, &c. 
«¢ Tt feems,”” he fays, “‘ that, by the fituation of the Faro 
of Meffina, the current from the fouth, at the expiration 
of which this phenomenon is moft likely to appear, is fo far 
impeded by the figure of the land, that a confiderable por- 
tion of the water returns along fhore. 2. That it is pro- 
bable the fame coafts may have a tendency to modify the 
lower portion of the air im a fimilar manner, during the 
fouthern breeze; or, 1n other words, that a fort of bafon 
is formed by the land, in which the lower air is more dif- 
pofed to become motionlefs and calm than elfewhere. 3.'That 
the morgana marina prefents inverted images below the real 
obje&s, which are multiplied laterally, as well as verti- 
cally ; and that there are repetitions of the fame multiplied 
objects at more confiderable vertical intervals. 4, That the 
aerial morgana is not inverted, but, as I am difpofed to 
conjeGture, is more elevated than the original objects. 
5. That the fringes of prifmatic colours are produced in 
falling vapours, fimilar to many appearances which have 
been defcribed by ‘authors, but not accurately explained 
by the general principles of refraétion through fpheres of 
water. The fhip is referred to by Minafi as an objeét fur- 
rounded by thefe fringes, whence it appears that the co- 
lours apply to the dire&t rays from objeéts, as well as to 
thofe of the marine morgana. 6. The various other ob- 
jects in tne defcription afford matter fer queftion and con- 
jecture ; but none perhaps which it may be proper to en- 
large upon, until the theory be better known. 7. It feems, 
at all'events, more probable that thefe appearances are pro- 
duced by a calm fea, on one or more ftrata of fuper-incum- 
bent air, differing in refraGtive, and confequently reflective 
power, than from any confiderable change in the furface of 
the water, with the laws of which we are much better ac- 
quainted than with thofe of the atmofphere. 8. By at- 
tentive refleGtion upon the facts and reafonings in Mr. Hud- 
dart’s paper, (Phil. Tranf. for 1797,) we may form a 
theory to account for the ereét and inverted images: the 
polithed furface of the fea may perhaps account for the ver- 
tical repetition ; but for the lateral multiplication we mutt 
have recourfe to refleGting or refra¢ting planes in the va- 
pour, which appear nearly as difficult to deduce or eftablifh, 
as thofe which have been fuppofed on the water.’”? Phil. 
Journal for Augult, 1797. 

FATAGAR, in Geography, acountry of Africa, fituated 
to the fouth-eait of Abyflinia; about N. lat. 9°. E. long. 


OR ATATINDA, a town of Africa, m the country of 
Woolly, on the river Gambia, about 500 miles from its 
mouth, where the Englifh had a factory, but were com- 
pelled to abandon it in the year 1734, by the conduct of 
the king of Tomani; 19 miles S. of Medina. N. lat. 
15> 20',  W. long. 13° 8’. 

FATE, Farum, ina general fenfe, denotes an inevita- 
ble neceffity depending on fome fuperior caufe. 

Fate is a term much ufed among the ancient philofophers. 
itis formed a fando, from /peaking, and primarily implies 
the fame with viGaue viz. a word or decree pronounced 
by God; ora fixed fentence, whereby the Deity has pre- 
fcribed the order of things, and allotted every perfon what 
fhall befal him, : 

The Greeks call it suaguen, guafi ten@, nexus, a chain, 
orneceffary feries of things indiffolubly linked together. 


P&T 


All things, fays Plato, are in fate; # ¢ within its 
{phere or fcheme, but all things are not fated ; and he thus 
explains the diftinGtion: it is not in fate, fays he, that one 
man fhall do fo and fo, and another fufer fo and fo, for 
that would be deftrutive of our free agency and liberty ; 
but if any one fhould choofe fuch a life, and do fuch or 
fuch things, then it is in fate that fuch things and fuch 
confequences fhall enfue upon it. The foul, therefore, is 
aderrorovy free and uncontrolled, and it lies withia itfelf 
to act or not; and there is no compulfion or neceffity 
here; but what follows upon the aétion fhall be accom- ~ 
plifhed, xa§” ciapyevm, according to fate, or the conttitu- 
tion of things; e. gr. that Paris fhould bear off Helen by 
force was fomething dependent on himfelf ; but that a wat 
fhould enfue is the confequence. Ex. Alcinoo de Platon. 
Dogmat. 

The fame philofopher, as cited by. Hierocles, obferves 
to this purpofe: the choice of action is in our own power ; 
but the juit award or retribution of good or ill which en- 
fues upon the choice, lies in the breait of thofe etherial 
judges who are appointed under God. 

But befide this fenfe of the word wherein it is ufed, fome- 
times to denote the connection of caufesin nature, and fome- 
times in the divine appointment, the word fate has a farther 
intention, being ufed-to exprefs a certain neceflity or ex- 
ternal defignation of things, whereby all agents, both ne- 
ceffary and voluntary, are {wayed and dire&ted to their ends. 
See Necessity. 

Some authors divide fate into affrological and flotcal. 

Fate, Affrological, denotes a neceffity of things and 
events, arifing, as is fuppofed, from the influence and 
politions of the heavenly bodies, which give law both 
to the elements and mixed bodies, and to the wills of 
men. ‘ a" ' 

In which fenfe the word is often ufed by Manilius, 
“ Certum eft & inevitabile fatum: materizque datum eit 
cogi, fed cogere ttellis.”? . : 

Fare, Stoical, or fatality, is defined by Cicero an order 
or feries of caufes, wherein caufe being linked to’ caufe, 
each produces the other; and thus all things flow from 
one prime caufe. Chryfippus defines it a natural invariable 
fucceffion of all things ad eferno, each involving the other. 
The Stoic idea of providence is, not that of an infinitely 
wife and good being, wholly independent of matter, freely 
direéting and governing all things, but that of a neceffary 
chain of caufes and effects, arifing from the aétion of a 
power, which is itfelf a part of the machine regulated by 
it, and which, equally with that machine, is fubje& to the 
immutable law of neceflity. Hence, it appears, that pro- 
vidence, in the Stoic creed, is only another name for abfo- 
lute neceffity or fate, to which God and matter, or the uni- 
verfe which confifts of both, is immutably fubje&. 

Thus the poet: the Parent of all things made laws at the 
beginning, by which he not only binds other things but 
himfelf. So Seneca:  Eadem neceffitas & deos alligat. 
Irrevocabilis divina pariter & humana curfus vehit. Ipfe 
ille omnium conditor & reétor feripfit quidem fata, fed 
fequitur : femel fcripfit, femper paret.’? (See Srorcs.) 
The dotrine of the Stoics concerning fate, was ftrenuoufly 
oppofed by Carneades. See CARNEADES. 

The eternal feries of caufes mentioned by the Stoics the 
poets call Moin and Parce, or Deflinies. 
} Fate is divided by fome later authors into phy/fical and 

ivine. 

Fate, Phyfical, is an order and feries of natural caufes 
appropriated to their effects, om ; 

This feries is neceffary, and the receflity isnatural. The 

7 principle 


BAT 


principle or foundation of this fate is nature, or the power 
and manner of aéting which God originally gave to the fe- 
veral bodies, elements, mixts, &e. By this fate it is that 
fire warms, bodies communicate motion to each other, 
the fun and moon occafion the tides, &c. and the effeéts 
of this fate are all the events and phenomena in the uni- 
verfe, except fuch as arife from the human will. See 
Narvre. 

Fare, Divine, is what we more ufually call Provi- 
dence. Plato in his Phedo includes both thefe in one de- 
finition, as intimating, that they were one and the fame 
thing, atively and paflively confidered. Thus, « Fatum 
eft ratio quedam divina, lexque nature comes, que tranfiri 
nequeat, quippe a caufa pendens, que fuperior fit quibuf- 
vis impedimentis.”” Though that of Bocthius feems the 
clearer and more juft, “ Fatum,” fays he, “ eft inhzrens 
rebus mobilibus difpofitio, per quam Providentia fuis queque 
neétit ordinibus.”’ 

FATESH, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, and dil- 
tri& of the government of Kurfk ; on a rivulet falling into 
the Svopa. , 

FATHER, Parer,a term of relation, denoting a perfon 
who begot a child, either male or female. 

Among the ancient Romans the fathers of three children 
had very confiderable privileges allowed them as fuch. 
By the law of Romulus a father had an abfolute and un- 
limited power over his children. Amongft the Lace- 
dzmonians, as we learn from Ariftotle’s Politics, the father 
of three children was excufed from the duty of mounting 
guard for the fecurity of the city ; and a father of four 
children was exempted from every public burden. Concern- 
ing the duties and claims of fathers and mothers; fee 
Parent. 

Fatuer, Adoptive, is he who takes the children of fome 
other and acknowledges them as hisown. See Aporrtion. 

Faruer, Putative, is he whe is only the reputed or fup- 
pofed father. Jofeph was putative father of our Saviour. 

Farner, Natural, is he who has illegitimate children. 

Faruer-in-Law, is a perfon married to a woman who 
has children by a former hufband, &c. to which children he 
is faid to be a father-in-law, 

Fatuer is alfo ufed in Theology for the firft Perfon in 
the Trinity, 

Faruer is alfo ufed in a figurative fenfe on divers moral 
and {piritual occafions. Thus, it is applied to the patriarchs ; 
as we fay Adam was the father of all mankind, Abraham 
the father of the faithful, &c. 

Fartuers, Apofiolical. See ApesToical. 

Faruers, in an Ecclefiaffical Senfe, denote the ancient 
prelates and doGtors of the church. 

The fathers aflembled at the council of Nice : Chryfof- 
tom, St. Bafil, &c. were Greek fathers, and St. Auguttine, 
St. Ambrofe, &c. were Latin fathers. 

The appellation of fathers is ufually confined to the theo- 
logical writers of the firft fix centuries. 

Learned men have differed in their opinion concerning 
the degree of efteem that is due to the ancient fathers, more 
efpecially as moral writers. Whilit fome reprefent them as 
the moft excellent guides in the paths of piety and virtue : 
others place them in the very loweft rank of moralifts, con- 
fidering them as the very worft of all inftru@tors, and treat 
their precepts and decifions as perfectly infipid, and, in many 
refpeéts, pernicious. Although we allow that in the writ- 
ings of the primitive fathers there are feveral fublime fenti- 
ments, judicious thoughts, and many things that are natu- 
rally adapted to form a religious temper and virtuous cha- 
rater 5. yet it muft be confefled that they abound {till more 


FAT 

with precepts of an unreafonable and exceffive aufterity, 
with fteical and academical di€tates, vague and indetermi. 
nate notions, and, what is {ti!] worfe, with decifions that are 
abfolutely falfe, and in evident oppofition to the precepts 
of Chrift. In later ages, and particularly towards the clofe 
of the eighth century, the labours and indultry of divines 
were totally employed in colleCting the opinion? and autho- 
rities of the fathers, i. e. the theological writers of the firft 
fix centuries; and fo blind and fervile was their veneration 
for thefe doétors, that they regarded their di€tates as infalli- 
ble, and their writings as the boundaries of truth, beyond 
which reafon was not permitted to extend its refearches. 
The Inifh, or Hibernians, who in the eighth century were 
known by the name of Scots, were the only divines who 
refufed to difhonour their reafon by fubmitting it implicitly 
to the ditates of authority. Naturally fubtile and faga- 
cicus, they applied their philofophy, fuch as it was, to the 
illuftration of the truth and doétrines of religion: a method 
which was almoft generally abhorred and exploded in ail 
other nations. It is much to be lamented, that the fathers 
of the Chriftian church foon departed from the fimplicity 
of the apoftolic aye, and corrupted the purity of the 
Chriftian faith. This is chiefly to be afcribed to the two 
following caufes; viz. firlt, the practice which at that time 
fo generally prevailed of clothing the do&trines of religion 
in an allegorical drefs; and, fecondly, the habit of fubtle 
f{peculation, which the more learned converts from Paganifm 
brought with them from the fchools of philofophy. The 
practice of allegorical interpretation prevailed in a very 
great degree among the Gentile converts, who had been 
educated in the Alexandrian fchools, and among thofe 
Jewifh Chriftians who, by the fame help of allegory, had 
been inftruted in the Cabbaliftic doftrines, which before this 
time had {prung up in Egypt, and paffed thence into Judza. 
Several of thofe fe€ts of Chriftians, who were called Here- 
tics, particularly the Valentinian Gnoftics, made ufe of alle- 
gorical Ianguage to difguife the unnatural alliance which 
they had introduced between the fanciful dogmas of the 
Oriental plilofophy, and the fimple do@rine of Chrift. The 
orthodox fathers of the church, too, defended themfelves 
with the fame armour both againft heretics and infidels ; 
applying with more ingenuity than judgment the fymbolical 
method of interpretation to the facred {criptures. _ In the 
fame manner in which Philo and other Alexandrian Jews 
had corrupted the Jewifh church, Clemens Alexandrinus, 
Origen, aud other difciples of the Alexandrian fchool, in the 
fecond’ century, introduced error and corruption into the 
church of Chrift. Among the Chriftian fathers, who had 
abandoned Paganifm on account of its inferiority to the 
dogtrine of Chriftianity, there were not wanting advocates 
for different fetts of Grecian philofophy. When Origen 
and his followers, together with many others, favoured the 
Eclectic method of philofophifing, which had been followed 
in the Alexandrian fabiscls: they eafily perfuaded them- 
felves, that as a coalition had been effected in thefe {chools, 
between Plato and Anitotle, it would not be difficult to 
accomplifh a fimilar coalition between Jefus Chrilt and 
Ariftotle. Others reafoned in the fame manner with*«re- 
{pect to the doftrines of the Stoics. The Epicurean was 
almoft the only fe& which met with no patrons among the 
Chriftian fathers. But the fe& which obtained moit favour 
in the Chriftian fchool was the Platonic. See Pratonics. 

It fhould be readily acknowledged, that the early teachers 
of the Chriftian church were honeft and zealous advocates 
for the caufe of Chrift; and that many of their apolagies 
difcover an extenfive acquaintance with ancient philofophy 


and learning, and ferve to caft much light ppop- the philo- 
fophical 


PATHE R. 


fephical and thealogical hiftory of preceding times. But it 
mutt, at the fame time, be candidly confeffed, that in the heat 
of controverfy they not only fell into various miftakes, but 
made ufe of urfatisfactory methods of reafoning, which 
betray imbecility of jadgment, or inattention to the principles 
and rules of good writing. The works of the fathers, 
inftead of being diftinguifhed by correcinefs aad ftrength of 
argument, furaif innumerable examples of feeble reafoning, 
of interpretations of {cripture irreconcilable with good fenfe, 
and of a carelefs admiffion of {purious writings, as genuine 
authority. This charge might be eafily fub{tantiated againft 
Trenzus, LaGtantius, Arnobius, Jerom, and others. For 
their defeéts in found argumentation we may affign feveral 
reafons. [heir injudicious zeal induced them to grafp at 
every fhadow of argument againft their opponents; and 
their want of {kill in the art of reafoning led them often to 
aniftake fhadows for realities. Their fondnefs for allegory 
dazzled and confounded their underftandings, fo that they 
were unable to diftinguifh between fanciful refemblances and 
folidarguments. They had not learned to diftinguifh accu- 
rately between the light of revelation and that of reafon, and 
therefore fuppofed that their reverence for the former 
obliged them to depreciate and vilify the latter. Ambrofe, 
a learned man, but a bad logician, advifed that in difputes 
where faith is concerned reafon fhould be laid afide. Bafil 
called reafoning the devil’s work. Others who admitted the 
carefulnefs of ufing the weapons of Ariitotelian logic in 
defence of Chriftianity, contended that Chriftians were pof- 
fefled of a better logic, confifting in the demonilration of 
the fpirit, and that they who poffefled this might defend 
their caufe without the arms of human reafon. It might 
be alleged, as another proof of their want of judgment, that 
they gave eafy credit to falfe tales, and received, without 
due examination, fuppofititious writings, which they ob- 
truded upon others, and to which they referred as fufficient 
authorities. Nor is it poffible to exculpate them from the 
charge of haviag made ufe of, and even juftified, difhonett 
aéts and pious frauds, after the example of their adverfaries. 
Befides, the ftyle in which their works are written is, for the 
moft part, tumid and puerile ; and in fearch of the dazzling 
ornaments of falfe eloquence, they foon loft themfelves in 
the clouds of ob{curity. 

Among the caufes which promoted the corruption of 
their moral doGtrine, we may reckon the praétice which 
they borrowed from the Alexandrian Jews, of affixing an 
allegorical meaning to the words of fcripture. Indeed it 
«could not be expeéted that they fhould fucceed better in 
their interpretation of the facred writings, when they un- 
dertook to deduce moral doétrines from them without ftrictly 
adhering to the rules of found criticif{m, and without being 
accurately acquainted with the general principles of morals. 
Another principal caufe of the corruption of the Chriftian dec- 
trine of morality was, that it was very early tinétured with 
the enthufiaftic {pirit of the Alexandrian philofophy. To 
this fource we are to trace back the numerous.adulterations 
of the fimple morality of the New Teftament, which are to be 
found in the “ Shepherd of Hermas,’’ and in the writings of 
Juftin Martyr, Ireneus, Athenagoras, and Tertullian. Upon 
the whole we may oblevve, that the Chriftian fathers con- 
tributed little towards the improvement of true and found 
philofophy. Through feveral centuries they partook of 
the fpirit of the Alexandrian fchool, and the Ecleétic me- 
thod of philofophifing platonifed Chriftianity. And when, 
in procefs of time, the philofophers themfelves began to 
forfake Plato and follow Arilftotle, the Chriflian fathers 
preferred the Stagyrite as the more accurate philofopher. 
in this preference they were confirmed by the example 


of the Saracens; and hence arofe that pernicious cor- 
ruption, both of theology and philofophy, the « Scho- 
laftic fyftem.”? At the fame time, the adulterated Pla- 
tonifm of Alexandria continued among the Greek Chriftians, 
and produced the §* Myitic Theology.’’ 

The Chrittian fathers, from the bezinning of the fecond to 
the feventh century, may be divided into two claffes: thofe 
who flourifhed before, and thofe who flourifhed after, the 
inftitution of the EcleGtic {24. The firft clafs commences 
with Juftin Martyr ; the fecond with Origen. The apof- 
tolic fathers, wlio had derived their knowledge of Chrifti- 
anity, and their habits of thinking, from the apoftles and 
evangclifts, manifeft, in their genuine writings, few traces 
of the Grecian or Alexandrian philofophy. But, when 
men who had been educated in the Pagan fchools became 
converts to the Chriftian faith, they brought with them 
their philofophical ideas and language, and aflociated them 
with the do¢trine of Chriftianity. Among thefe Chriftiaa 
philofophers, the firit, and moft celebrated, was Juftin Mar- 
tyr, who bleuded Platonic notions and language with the 
fimple doGtrine of Chrillianity, and wrote concerning God 
and divine things like a Chriftian Platonift. Tatian was 
his difciple; and his apology for Chriltianity, entitled, 
« Oratio ad Grecos,”’ every where breathes the fpirit of 
the Oriental philofophy, and tie whole tenor of it concurs 
with his hiftory to prove, that he wasa Platonic Chriftian. 
We may alfo rank among the Platonifing fathers Theophi- 
lus of Antioch, Athenagoras, Ireneus, Tertullian, and 
Clemens Alexandrinus. To thefe we may add, among 
thofe who flourifhed after the eftablifhment of the Ecleétic 
fyftem, Origen, Anatolius of Alexandria, Arnobius, Eu- 
febius Pamphilus, Didymus of Alexandria, Augultine, 
Synefius, an African bifhop, and others, who chiefly flon- 
rifhed in the eaftern countries. In the weftern world ap- 
peared Claudianus Mamertius, Boethius, Aneas Gaza, Za- 
charias, Philoponus, aud Nemefius. See Brucker’s Hilt. 
of Phil. by Enfield, vol. ii. 

Farner is alfo a title of honour given to prelates and 
dignitaries of the church. The right reverend father in 
God, lord Bifhop of, &c. “* Ab cure fimilitudine patres’ 
appellantur.”’ 

Fatuer is alfo applied to the fuperiors of conyents, 
&c. (See Assor.), The father-general; father-provincial, 
ex-provincial ; father prior, fub-prior ; father definitor, in 
the order of Benedjétines ; father guardian, in that ef the 
Francifeans ; father corrector, among the Minims, &c. 

Fatners isalfo applied plurally to all congregations of 
ecclefiaftics, whether regular or fecular; as the fathers 
Cordeliers, Capuchins, Auguttins, Jacobins, &c. The 
fathers Jefuits, fathers of the Oratory, Barnabites, Thea- 
tine of the Miffion, &c. See each under the proper ar- 
ticle. 

Fatuers of the Chriflian Do@rine is a denomination 
belonging to twe religious orders: one in{tituted in France 
by Cefar de Bus, and confirmed in 1597 by Clement VIII. 
and another in Italy founded by Culani, a Milanefe 
knight, and eftablifhed by the authority of Pius V. and 
Gregory XIII. 

Faruers of Soma/qua, or regular clerks of St. Maieul, is 
the appellation of a religious order deduced from the name 
of the place where their founder refided. It was  firft 
formed into a diftinét fociety by Jerome /miliani, a noble 
Venetian, and confirmed by Paul II]. and Pius iV. in 
1540 and 1563. Their office was the in{truGtion of the 
young and ignorant, and the relief of orphans. , 

Faruers is alfo ufed for perfons venerable for their age 


_ or quality, or the fervices they haye done the public. 


Thus, 


FAT 


Thus, at Rome the fenators were called con/erfe fathers, 
patres conferipti, Ke. 

Faruer La/ber, in Ichthyology, an Englifh name given to 
a fifh, called by fome authors, though improperly, /cor- 
Coe: and /corpius marinus. It is properly of the cottus 

ind. See Corrus Scorpius. , 

FATHIMITES, or Faruemires, the defeendants of 
Mahomet by Fathima, or Fathema his daughter. 

The dynafty of Fathimites, i.e. of princes defcending m 
a dire& line from Ali and Fathima his wife, Mahomet’s 
daughter, commenced in Africa in the year of the Hegira 
296, of Jefus Chrift 908. 

The Fathimites afterwards conquered Egypt, and efta- 
blithed themfelves therein in quality of caliphs. 

The Fathimites of Egypt ended with Abed, ic the year 
of the Hegira 567, 268 years after thelr firit eftablifhment 
in Africa, and 28 years after the conquelt of Egypt 

FATHOM, in Rural Economy, is a long meafure, which 
comprifes fix feet, being taken from the utmoft extent of 
both arms, when fully ftretched out intoa right line. It is 
made ufe of in the meafurements of mines, quarries, wells, 
and pits. 

This meafure is chiefly ufed at fea, or by feafaring 
people, for expreffing depths of the fea, lengths of cables, 
&c. It is hardly ever ufed on land, except fometimes by 
miners. 

The length of the fathom formerly differed a little, ac- 
cording as it was uled on veffels of greater or lefs fize. 
Thus in the old edition of Chambers’s dictionary, the fol- 
lowing explanation is given. ‘* There are three kinds of 
fathoms accommodatea to the different ranks of veffels. 
The firlt, which is that of men of war, contains fix fect. 
The middling, or that of merchant fhips, five feet anda 
half ; and the {mall one, ulfed in flayts, fly-boats, and other 
fifhing veffels, only five feet.” 

At prefent, however, the meafure of a fathom is uni- 
verfally confidered as being equal to fix feet exaéily. 

ATHom is alfo ufed in feveral countries, particularly 
Italy, fer the common yard or ell, whereby things are ordi- 
narily meafured in commerce. 

In this fenfe it is more commonly called brace or braccio, 

.d,arm. In Mufcovy the fathom contains feven Englith 
feet, and about one-tenth of an inch. 

Fatruom-Za/e, in Mining, is a term for work, let to 
workmen by the fathom meafure in length, as the driving 
of foughs and levels generally is. 

Fatuom is a meafure equal to two yards, or fix feet in 
length, in generalcorrefponding with the French toife, where- 
by the feale of military meafures in that country is generally 
regulated. The French foot being nine lines, or about 7. 
parts longer than the Englifh, requires, that in eftimating the 
fortifications, and other buildings, &c. of that quarter, we 
fhouldin general terms make an allowance of about one toot 
in fifteen and a half, for an excefs on their part. There- 
fore, when we fay that the line of defence of a French fortrefs 
meafures 155 toifes French, it will, according to our feale, 
give full 165 Britifh fathoms, fuck as are commonly in ule 
throughout our marie. ‘This meafure has given rile to a 
term now perfeétly familiar smong us; namely, ‘to fathom 
the depth of water,”’ &c.; meaning, to afcertain how many 
fathoms it may meafure from the furface to the bottom. 
We have likewife a derivative cxpreflion, whereby the word 
‘fathom is applied. metaphyfically ; thus, we fay, ‘there 
js no fathoming that fellow’s thoughts ;”? meaning, that he 
is too deep for usto get to the bottom of his defigns. 

FATIABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in 
the foubah of Agra, built. in 1041 by Modoud, king of 


FAT 


Ghizni; r5 miles $.S.E. of Agra.—Alfo, a town of Hin- 
dooftan, in the crcar of Hiffar; 57 miles W. of Hiffar. 

FATIAH, atown of the Arabian Irak, on the Enu- 
phrates; 15 miles S.W. of Korna. 

FAT? ESS, in Medicine. See Corputrncy- 

FATO, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the eaft fide of 
the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63°52' EE. long. 22° 44’. 
FATSISIO, an ifland of Japan, about 80 miles from the 
fouth coalt of the ifle of Niphon, whither the emperor ba- 
nifhes the grandees who have offended him, to be employed’ 
in making filk ituffs embroidered with gold. The ifland is 
barren, and almoft inacceffible. N. lat. 33> 40’. E. long. 
140° TO’. 

FATTALAGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 
20 miles §.E. of Sumbul 

FATTAPODR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; eight 
miles W. of Karabad. 

FATTECONDA, a town of Africa, in Bornou. Ne 
lat. 14% 20'. W. long. ro 20! 

FATTENING, ia Rural Economy, the art or procefs 
of rendering any fort of animal fat. orfit for food. Itisa 
bufinefs in which much care and circum{peétion ave requifite, 
as well as confiderable knowledge of the nature of animals. 

FatrtrenrnG of Cattle, the means of preparing them for 
the purpofe of the butcher. It is.a procefs which is capa- 
ble of being accomplifhed in feverat different methods, but 
the moft ufual is that of grazing them in rich feeding 
pattures. It is likewife effeGted by keeping them in warm 
convenient houfes, or fheds, and feeding them regularly with 
oats and cther fortsof grain, either ground or in the theaf; 
different kinds of roots,. as common and. Swedifh tumips, 
carrots, parfuips, potatoes, &c. with fome fort of dry food; 
and by the ule of oil-cake in the fame manner. Thefe 
modes are termed ftall-feeding, from the animals being kept 
up in the ftalls; and there is much advantage in keeping 
the houfes properly dry and warm, and the troughs for the 
food perfeétly clean and fweet. It is alfo effeatial tha che 
food fhould be given them in a regular manner, in fuitable 
proportions, and properly varied,. where different forts are 
employed. See Srauu-Leding. 

This applies equally to neat cattle and fheep; but the 
fattening of early lambs, and of calves, is meftly accom- 
plifhed by the fuckling of them. See Carr-Suck/ing, and 
House-Lams Suckling. 

FarrentnG of Colours; among Painters; denotes a 
coagulation of the oil, which frequently happens on its be-- 
ing mixed with feveral kinds of pigments; whence, after 
being kept for fome time, it is rendered of.fo vifeid or gluti- 
nous a confiftence as to be wholly incapable of being work- 
ed with either brufh or pencil.. This alfo happens fome- 
times after the colours have been f{pread or laid on the pro- 
per ground; in which cafe, one part of the vil will run off 
in {mall ftreams or drops, while the other will remain with 
the colour, without fhewing the leaft tendency to dry. 
Oils likewife will fatten by long keeping, or by being ex- 
pofed for a confiderable time to the fun and air.. 
PFatreninG of Horfes. See Horsrs. 

FATTIK, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital 
of the kingdom of Josli, N. lat. 14°. E. long. 16° 48". 

FATTIKO, .a town of Africa, in. the Kingdom of Jes 
marrow. 

FATTIPOUR, or Faterovr, a town of Hindooftan,, 
in the foubah of Agra, anciently called « Sikari,”” but on 
being rebuilt by Acbar- changed its name. It was oncea 
magnificent city, but isnow ina ftate of decay ; 28 miles 
W. S. W. of Agra. N, lat. 27° ro’. E. long. 78° 8/.— 
Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 35 miles W.S.W- 

of 


FAU 


‘of Lucknow.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar 
of Nagore: 25 miles N.W. of Didwana—Alfo, a town of 
Hindoottan, in Bahar, on the Gundack ; 30 miles N.N.W. 
of Patna. 

FATTY-KAN-DURGA, a town of Hindooftan, in 
Moultan ; 35 miles N.N.W. of Moultan 

FATUARILI, in Antiquity, were perfons who, appearing 
infpired, foretold things to come. 

The word is formed of Fatua, wife of the god Faunus, 
who was fuppofed to infpire women with the knowledge of 
futurity, as Faunus himfelf did the men. Fatua had her 
name from fari, q.d. vaticinart, to prophefy. 

FATUUS Ients See Icnis Jatuus. 

FAVAGNANA, or Favocnana, in Geography, an 
ifland in the Mediterranean, about 7 miles in circumference, 
near the W. coaft of Sicily ; anciently called gu/a, or Ca- 
praria. Ithas good anchorage in a convenient harbour, and 
fome years yields from its fifheries 80,000 livres. N. lat. 
Bere elong. 02 Zhi 

FAVALLI, in Bizgraphy, an Italian finger, with a fo- 
prano voice. He feems to have been the firit finger of that 
country and kind who made any impreffion on French ears. 
He was fo beloved by Louis XIV. for his fine voice, and 
the pleafure which his ftyle of finging gave that monarch, 
that he permitted him to fhoot in the royal manors, and 
even in the park at Verfailles. He firft arrived in France in 
1674, and his powers feem to have been miraculous. 

. FAVANT, La, in Geography, ariver of Naples, which 
runs into the fea, g miles S.S.E. of Squillace. 

FAVARA, a river of Sicily, which runs into the Me- 
diterranean, about 5 miles S. of Modica. — Alfo, a town of 
Africa, in the country of Barca; 30 miles E.S.E. of Der- 
na.—Alfo, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Noto, ona 
river of the fame name; 10 miles W. of Noto. 

FAVAROTA, atown of Sicily, in the valley of Ma- 
zara; 15 miles. W.N.W. of Palermo. 

FAVART, Cares Simon, in Biography, one of the 
moft agreeable and pleafing lyric French poets of the latt 
century. He was born at Parisin 1710, educated in the Je- 
fuits’ college, and gave very early {pecimens of a happy dif- 

‘pofition for French verfification, At twenty years of age 
h2 compofed a poem on the Floral games, and was crowned. 
Many beautiful ftanzas of his writing were already in circu- 
lation. .Upon the merits of thefe juvenile pieces he was en- 
gaged at the comic opera. - ‘La Chercheux d’Efprit, or Ni- 
cette in fearch of Wic,’? which had been preceded by many 
other comic operas, were fo favourably received, as to fix his 
reputation. His‘ Chercheux d’Efprit”? being regarded as a 
matter-piece in its kind, the royal academy of mufic, or the 
great opera, claimed: his talents, and he produced for that 
‘theatre the ballet of “Don Quixot.” (See Batret.) In 
1744 he married the daughter of a mutician in the band of 
Staniflaus, king of Poland, Juitinade Roncerai, who by a 
conftant fuccefs was one of the principal fupports of the 
comic opera. Her talents of different kinds, acting, finging, 
playing on the harp, and dancing, all by turns, fhe exhi- 
bited with equal grace and perfeCtion. We faw her in the part 
of Roxalana in the ** Three Sultanas,’’ at near 60, at, look, 
fing, romp and dance (with her petit nex retrouffé,) with as 
much feeming vivacity as if fhe had been only 16. Her va- 
rious eftimable talents and condu jultified the choice of an 
author as eminent for the delicacy of his talte as the decorum 
and propriety of his manners. He fignalized his “zeal on 
every interefting occafion for his country, and was employ- 
edby the court at different feftivals, and honoured with the 
title of mafter of the revels, with a ‘penfion of rooo livres. 
6« At the peace of 1762 he wrote, Sy order of the govern- 


the armsare capable of folding. 


FAWU 


ment, a piece of one a&, for the theatre Frangois, called 
‘* |’Anglois a Bourdeaux ;’? and the celebrated madame 
D’Angerville, who had quitted the ftage, returned to play 
the principal part. The fuccefs of this work was crowned 
by his being prefented to the king, who conferred on him 
another pention. Men of letters difcovered in the  Enghifh- 
men at Bourdeaux”’ the agreeable author of “ Ninette a 
la Cour,’ and the “* Three Sultanas,”” and regretted that 
theatrical etiquette forced him to lavifh on the Italian flage 
talents worthy of the French. The connoifleurs have nevey 
been fo unjuft as to attribute to him the works of others, 
particularly as he has always with fcrupulous delicacy in- 
formed the public of any afliflance he might have received 
from his intimate friends. He was the firft who tried to 
teach us to liften to ltalian mufic. In adapting it to French 
words, Philider affited him, and they fucceeded. The 
purity and elegance of his ityle, with the gaiety of his fer- 
timents, are the principal characterillics of this amiable au- 
thor.’ Laborde. 

FAUCHET, Craupr, was born at Paris about the 
year 1529. He was made prefident of the“ Cour des 
Monnoies,”’ an ofiice which he was obliged to fell to pay 
his debts. From Henry 1V. he obtained a penfion, with 
the title of hiftoriographer. He was an able antiquarian, 
and well verfed in all books relating to the fubje&, making 
himfelf fome important additions to the ftock. He died in 
16¢1, leaving behind him (1) ‘ Antiquités Gauloife et 
Trancoifes,” in two parts: the firft brings down the hifto- 
ry of Gaul to the arrival of the Franks: the fecond from 
Pharamond to Hugh Capet. (2) ‘ A Treatife on the Li- 
berties of the Gallican Church’? (3) “ A Treatife on the 
Origin of Knights, Coats of Arms, and Heralds.” (4) 
* Origin of the Dignities and Magiltrates of France.” His 
ie were colleéted and publifhed in gto. at Paris in 1610. 

oreri. 


FAUCIGNY, or Faussieny, Cantona in Geogra- 
phy, a province of Savoy, bounded on the N. by the te:ri- 
tory of Chablais, on the E. by the Valais, and the du f 
Aotfta, and on the S. and W. by the Genevois. Wood and 
pafture form the principal riches of thiscountry. It is di- 
vided into Upperand Lower; the chief towns of the former 
are Salanche, Samoens, Taninge, and Flumet, and thofe 
of the latter are Clufe, Bonne, and Bonne Ville. This 
province now belongs to France, and conttitutes part of the 
department of the Leman. 

FAUCOGNEY, a town of France, in the department of 
the Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton in the dittrict 
of Lure ;-g miles N. of Lure. The place contains 983 and 
the canton 10,205 inhabitants, ona territory of 200 kilie- 
metres and in 17 communes. 

FAUCON, or Fatcon, in Gunnery, a name formerly 
given toa fmall piece of cannon, whofe diameter was 22 
inches ; weight, 750 pounds ; leegth,7 feet ; load, 24 pound ; 
fhot, 24inches-diameter ; and 24 pounds weight. See Can- 
NON. 

FAUCONCOURT, in Geography, a town of France, 
ea department cf the Vofges ; 4 miles N.W. of Ramber- 
viller. 

FAUCONET, or Farconer, in Gunnery, a very 
{mall piece of ordnance, whofe diameter at the bore was 23 
inches; weight, 400 pounds; length, 6 feet; load, 1+ pound; 
fhot, fomething more than two inches diameter; and 14 pound 
weight. See Oxpnance and Gun. 

FAUD, in Agriculture, a provincial term employed in 
fome places to fignify a trufs of fhort-ftraw, or as much as 


Pe 
FAVELONE, 


FAV 
FAVELONE, in Geography, a river of Naples, which 


runs into the fea, 4 miles from Squillace. 

FAVENTIA, in Aacient Geography, a town inthe S.E. 
part of Gallia Cifpadana. See Farnza. ; 

FAVERGES, in Geography, a town of Franee, in the 
department of Mont Blanc, and chief place of a canton in 
the diftrict of Annecy. The place contains 2,156, and the 
canton 12,143 inhabitants, on a territory of 240 kiliometres, 
and in 16 communes. 4 

FAVERNEY, atown of France, in the department of 
the Upper Saone ; 7 miles N. of Vefoul. N. lat. 47° 46/. 
E. long. 6° 11’. 

FAVEROLLE, a town of France, in the departinent 
ofthe Marne ; 12 miles W. of Rheims. 

FAVEROLLES, a town of France, in the depart- 
ment of the Cote d’Or; 12 miles E. of Chatillon-fur- 
Seine. 

FAVERSHAM, a market town in the hundred of the 
fame name, and county of Kent, England, is fituated on 
a navigable arm of the river Swale, and confilts principally 
of four ftreets, forming an irregular crofs, in the centre of 
which is the Guildhall and market place. Theugh a-bo- 
rough by prefcription as well as charter, it does not appear 
ever to have been fummoned to return members to parlia- 
mint ; ithas, however, been the place of meeting of a Wit- 
tanegemot, or Council of the Wife Men, aflembled by king 
Athelitan, about the year 930, “ to enact laws, and cou- 
Ritute methods for the future obfervance of them.”? At 
that time, and long before, the town formed part of the 
royal demefnes ; and from the high value of the market and 
appendages, as ftatedin the Domefday record, it appears to 
have been then a place of confiderable refort and traffic. In 
1147, king Stephen founded an abbey here for Cluniac 
monks, to whom he granted large endowments and privi- 
leges, which were confirmed by fucceflive fovereigns: the 
abbots fat in twelve parliaments, in the reigns of Edward 
J. and I1.; and the abbey poffefled the right of fan€tuary, 
Li appears to have been attached even to the parifh 

ch, from the time of the diffolution till the reformation. 
The furrender of the abbey eftates was ftrenuoufly oppofed 
by the abbot and monks ; but refiftance being vain, the deed 
was figned July 8, 1538; the grofs revenues of the abbey 
at that time were ftated to be 355/. 125. 2d. annually ; the 
nett income :86/. 125. 64d. ‘The buildings were extenfive 
and numerous, but moft of them have been long deftroy- 
ed; the two entrance gateways remained till the middle 
of the laft century, when they were taken dowa on ac- 
count of their ruinous flate. 

’ Faverfham has been an appendage to the port of Do- 
ver from a very remote period; its cultomary propor- 
tion of aid was one fhip for forty days annually. At 
the fieze of Calais, however, in the time of Edward LIL, 
this town furnifhed, two fhips and fifty-three mariners. 
This connection with the Cinque Ports may probably ac- 
count for the diltinguifhed privileges and charters ({carcely 
to be equalled by any town in the kingdom) which Faver- 
fham has immemorially been favoured with by different fo- 
vereigns. ‘The charter under which it is ftill governed was 
granted by Henry VIII., A.D. 1545; the froin is 
thereby vefted in a mayor, twelve junats, (the mayor being 
one,)* twenty-four commoners, a fteward or recorder, a 
town clerk, and two chamberlains. 

« Faverfham,” fays Leland in his Itinerary, ‘is encluded 
ynone paroche, but that ys very large.» Ther cummeth a 
creeke to the towne that bareth veflels of xx tunnes; and 
amyle fro thens north-efl, is a great key, cawled Thorn, to 
difcharge bigge veflels. The creeke is’ fedde with bakke 

Vor. XIV. 


FAV 

water, that cummeth fro Ofpring.”? In the furvey of mari- 
time places in Kent, made in the reign of Elizabeth, this 
town is ftated as having 380 inhabited houfes ; 18 fhips or 
veffels, from five to forty-five tons burthen ; and 50 perfons 
occupied in merchandize and fifhing. The quay, called the 
Thorn, mentioned by Leland, has long been out of ufe ; 
but its place has been fupplied by three new quays or wharfs, 
formed clofe to the town, where all the fhipping belonging 
to the port take in and difcharge theircargoes. Since Le- 
land’s time - great improvements have taken place in the na-~ 
vigation of the creek ; and veffels of eighty and an hundred 
tons burthen can now come up to the town at common tides ; 
whilft, at {pring tides, the channel is deep enough for fhips 
drawing eight feet water; the corporation are invelted with 
the management of the navigation, the expence being de- 
frayed by port-dues of very ancient eftablifhment. Upwards 
of 40,000 quarters of corn are annually fhipped here for the 
Loudon markets ; hops, fruit, wool, oylters, &c. are alfo 
fent in confideravle quantities from this port, to which 
above thirty coalting veffels (exclufive of fithing fmacks) 
belong, of from 40 to 150 tons burthen; the imports are 
principally coals and fir timber, iron, tar, &cc. from Sweden 
and Norway. A branch both of the excife and of the cuf- 
toms is eflablifhed here; the former under the direGioa 
of a colle€tor, furveyor, and other officers ; the latter under 
a fupervifor and affiftants. The oytter fithery of Faver- 
fham is a very extenfive concern, and forms the principal 
fource of its trade, affording fupport to upwards of an hun- 
dred familics. Here, as at Milton and Rochetter, the na- 
tive broods fall very fhort of the confumption ; and vaft 
quantities of {pat or eggs are annually colleéted from differ- 
ent parts of the furrounding feas, even as diftant as the 
Land’s End in Cornwall, and the coafts of Scotland and 
France, and placed in the beds belonging to this fithery, 
there to increafe and fatten. 

The company of the “ free-fifhermen and free-dredger- 
men of the hundred and manor of Faverfham”’ are under the 
immediate protection and jurifdiion of the lord of the 
manor, as tenants thereof ; and he appoints a fteward to 
hold two annual courts, called admirzlty, or water, courts, 
for the neceffary regulations of the fifhery. No perfon is 
admitted as a free dredger unlefs he has ferved an appren- 
ticefhip of feven years to a freeman, and is married. The 
right of the fifhery was anciently an appurtenance to the 
manor of Milton, but was feparated from it by king John, 
and granted, with the property of the grounds, to Faver- 
fham abbey ; in that grant the company of free-dredgers of 
Faverfham is firft mentioned, but it is generally fuppofed to 
have exilled from time immemorial. Before the war, Fa- 
verfham oyfters, to the amount of between 3000/. and 
4000/. were annually exported to Holland. ' 
manufature carried on in the vicinity of Faverfham is that 
of gun-powder, which is under the fuperintendance of a 
branch af the ordnance eftablifhed here, the principal offi- 
cers of which area florekceper, a clerk of the cheque, and 4 
matter fireworker, who all have re{pectable houdes. The 
various mills, ftorchoufes, &c. are chiefly fituated on th 
ftream that flows from Ofpringe, aud forms feveral fmall 
iflands in its courfe to the Faverfham creek. This maavy- 
fature is {uppofed to have been eftablifhed here prior to the 
reign of Elizabeth; but it was a private concern, and 
continued till about the year 1760, when the : 
works were purchafed by government, and {von af 
were rebuilt in a more fubitantial and fafe manner. 
the care that can be exerted is, however, fufficient to pre- 


on ’ 
she only 


is 


vent accidents by the occafional ignition of the powder. 
The mott dreadful exploii hat has occurre took plac 
rea@iul explofion that has occurred took place 

Bb ix 


F A V: 


jn April 178%, when the corning-mill and dufting-houfe 
were deflroyed by the blowing up of about 7009 pounds of 
powder, which fo impregnated the air with fulphur, for 
many miles round, as greatly to affect 'refpiration, The 
quantity of powder anvually manufactured here is computed 
at between 12 and 13,000 barrels; the perfons employed 
are nearly 400. 

The church of Faverfham is a fpacious and handfome 
edifice, built of flint, in the form of a crofs, and coigned 
with ttone. It confifts principally of a nave, with aifles, 
chancel, and tranfept, with a light tower at the welt end, 
ornamented with pinnacles, and terminated by an o€tagonal 
{pire, 73 feet high, On the north fide of the church-yard 
isa free grammar-{chool, founded in the 18th year of queen 
Elizabeth, and endowed with certain lands then in the pof- 
feffion of the crown, but which had been given in the i8th 
of Henry VIII. to the abbey of Faverfham, by Dr. Cole, a 
Kentifhman, warden of All Souls’ college in Oxford, for 
the *¢ maintenance of a fchool, wherein the novices of the 
abbey were to be inftru@ted in grammar.’’ 

The town has been greatly improved within the laft 40 
a f{pacious avenue was formed, by which it 
The contizuous 
The 


years ; in 1773 
was laid open to the high London road. 
roads have fince been rendered more commodious. 


it¥eets alfo have been new paved and lighted, under an act’ 


of parliament obtained in 1780. Faverfham is fituated 48 
miles diftant from London: has two annual fairs, and two 
markets, well fupplied with all kinds of provifions, on Wed- 
nefdays and Saturdays; and was returned under the act of 
parliament in 1801 as containing 570 houfes, inhabited by 
3304 perfons. 

Anioug the eminent natives of this town, feveral were fur- 
named de Faverfham: of thefe Hamo de Faverfham was a 
learned Francifcan friar, who became provincial of his order, 
and died in Italy, at an advanced age, in the year 1244; and 
Simon de Faverfham was chancellor of the univerfity of 
Oxford about 1304. The celebrated mufician, Dr. John 
Wilfon, was alfo born in this town, in 1595. Hatted’s 
Hittory of Kent. 

FAUFEL, in Botany, Cluf. Exot. 187. SeeAreca, fp.t. 

FAUGELAT, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the 
right bank of the Nile. 

FAUGH, in Agriculture, a term ufed provincially to 
fignify a fallow, or land lying in the ftate ef tillage without 
being cropped. It likewife implies land which is repeatedly 
ploughed over without any intervening erops. It is moftly 
made ufe of in the more northern parts of the ifland, and 
frequently written fuuf. 

FAUGHAN, or Fanan, in Geography, a river of the 


county of Londonderry, Ireland, which rifes in the moun- 


tains feparating that county from Tyrone, and winding to 


the welt receives a confiderable addition from the Glenrandle 
river near Clady. It afterwards takes a north-eattern di- 
reCtion, and being navigable for {mall craft {carcely one mile, 
runs into Lough Foyle, not far from the place where the 
river Foyle alfo runs into it. Sampfon’s Londonderry. 

FAVIDA, an ifland in the gulf of Georgia, difcovered 
by the Spaniards in the year 1791, near the W. coaft of 
North America, from which it is feparated by a channel, 
called « Canal del Nueftra Signora del Rofario,”? 30 miles 
in Jength from N.W. to S.E. and from 2 to 5 in breadth. 
The N.W. point is named Point Marfhal, and the S E, 
point, Point Upwood. 

FAVILLAE Satis, in Natural Hiffory, a name given 
by Vitruvius, and fome of the more ancient writers, to the 
nitrum or nitre of the ancients. Our chemical writers, who 


have been ufed tu delight much in hard-names, have applied 


FAU 


the fame phrafe to exprefs our nitre; but this is a very dif- 
ferent falt from the other. 

FAVISSA, among Antiquaries, a hole, pit, or vault, 
under ground, wherein js kept fomething of great value. 

The word feems formed of fovif/a, a diminutive of fovea, 
a pit or ditch. 

The favilfa, according to A. Gellius and Varro, was 
much the fame with what the ancient Greeks and Romans 
called Srcavpor, thefaurus, and what in fome of the modern. 
churches is called archives and treafury. In the Capitol 
there were divers faviffe. They were fubterraneous places, 
walled and vaulted, having no entrance or light but bya 
hole at the top, which was ufually itopped up with a huge 
ftone. 

They were chiefly deftined for keeping the old worn fta- 
tues and other ancient moveables formerly ufed in the 
temple ; fo religioufly did that people refpe€t and pre- 
ferve whatever was confecrated. Catullus would have 
lowered the floor of the Capitol, but that the fayiffe pre- 
vented him. 

Feftus, however, gives usa different account of the fa- 
ville. According to that author they were wells or pits of 
water near the temples, and for the ufe thereof, the fame. 
with what the Greeks called on¢a20:, navel, as being round, . 
&e. Gellius likewile gives them the name of cifterns, as, 
well as Feftus ; but itis apparently for no other reafen than 
that they bore a refemblance to them in figure. 

In effect, the two notions are pretty ealily reconciled ; it 
being certain that the treafuries of fome of the ancient 
Greek temples were the cifterns or refervoirs of water where- 
in people ufed to wafh themfelves before they entered the 
temple. ; 

FAULBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in 
the county of Wertheim; 3 miles W. of Wertheim. 

FAULQUEMONT,, a town-of France, in the depart- 
ment of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton in the 
diltri&t of Metz, near the river Nied; 16 miles E. of Metz. 
N. lat. 49° 3'. E. long. 6°40’. The place contains 1,05 
and the canton 13,555 inhabitants, on a territory of 
kiliometres and in 35 communes. 

FAULT, in Mining and Geology, is a term pretty gene- 
rally ufed for the fiffures which are found dividing the mea- 
{ures or itrata of the earth, which form one OF the moft 
curious and important facts that the cruft or furface of the 
earth prefents. The great prevalence of faults, and the im- 
portant interruption which they fometimes give to mining, _ 
have occafioned them to be noticed by the practical miners 
of every diltri& ; and, as is too often the cafe, they have re- 
ceived from them a great number of different names, in dif- 
ferent diftrifts, or according to the mede in which they ap- 
pear to affeQ the vein or feam which they are working, In 
the courfe of our reading or practice we have met with all 
the following names for faults ¢ viz. 


Break Gath Ridge 

Breatt Gaw Riit 

Cleft Gulph Rife-dyke 

Crack Hitch j Shake 

Depreffioa Horle Shift 

Dip-dyke Jump | Slip 

Down-catt | Knot Trap-dowr 
Down-leap Leap-up | ‘Trap-up 
Down-trap Leap-down ‘Trouble 4 
Dyke Let-down Up-caft 

Fall t Load Up-leap : 
Fault Lum Up-trap 

Fiffure Mare Vein 

Fleoking Mear Wam 


ae al 


FAU 


and probably others! Doubtlefs there are fome which we 
never heard or met with. The above lift frengly fhews 
the neceffity for a reformin the language of mining. That 
faults are real breaks or mechanical fraétures of the ftrata, 
‘no one who has ever feen and examined one can poflibly 
doubt ; and fince the worn {tate of their furfaces, or of the 
‘edges of the ftrata which they feparate, has been attended 
to, there cannot remain a doubt but moft of them have had 
‘a fliding motion, or formed the vertical junétion between two 
‘mafles of flrata. which often flid or ground forcibly agaiaft 
each other, as Mr, Farey has obferved, and which gaye the 
‘firlt rife to a new theory on this and many other points in 
geology. (Philofophical Magazine, vol. xxx. p. 258.) 
‘The direction of faults feldom differs greatly from a perpen- 
dicular to the planes of the ftrata, which they interfe@, al- 
though they are fometimes much inclined to the perpendicu- 
Tar to the horizon. hey generally proceed in ftraight 
lines, or nearly, until they interfeét into other faults, which 
they never fail to do. The quantity of the fink, or rife, on 
one fide, compared with the ether, is feldom the fame for 
any great length of the fame fault, but it decreafes one way, 


“until the meafures on the two fides will at a certain place be 


found to match; -and it is believed, that in fome places, 
‘where the fault continues forward, that the fame is reverfed, 
and the fide which before had the meafures the highelt, now 
“has them the lowelt, and increafingly fo. On the contrary, 
af a fault be purfued in the direCtion in which it increafes 
“the derangement of the meafures, a point will be found, 
where it either terminates by interfeGiing into another, or 
crofs fault, or fhould it continue its firft direction, in which 
it will begin to decreafe, and perhaps continue to do fo until 
the meafures ceafe to have any derangement in their levels, but 
‘are merely feparated by a fiflure ; and where, if a crofs fault 
“occurs, the fame may be faid to terminate, and actually does 
fo, againtt the folid face of the meafures on the oppofite 
fide of the crofs fault in fome initances. It is believed by 
fome, that the principal faults generally take the fame direc- 
tion as the flinos, or natural joints, by which the rock is di- 
vided into blocks, in which cafe they are faid by the quarry- 
men or miners to agree with the face of their work. In 
mineral diftri€ts it is certaiu that the faults are much influ- 
‘enced in their directions by the mineral veins, which are of 
‘older formation, and that the principal ones follow the veins, 
‘dividing the matters they contain inte two parts, and when 
‘the fraéture has happened through the rib of ore, the fame 
is in a very curious manner polifhed, as Mr. Whitehurft ob- 
ferves, under the name of /licker-fides, which fee. This 
‘preference of the faults for the mineral veins has occafioned 
molt of the cliffs or facades in the denudated mineral 
“diftriGs of Derbythire and Staffordthire to happen at the 
fide or fkkirt of the vein; and in foe inftances confiderable 
“veins of ore have been worked at the foot of fuch cliffs, as 
at Middle-peak, Runtor and Yoke-cliff veins near Wirk{- 
‘worth. It feems furprifing, that cireumftances fo extraor- 
“dinary and important as attend the faults fhould have en- 
‘gaged fo little of the attention of the writers on mining and 
geology as we find by their works. Mr, William Martin, 
though in moft refpects a very accurate obferver, in his re- 
cent work, * Outlines of the Knowledge of Extraneous 
Foffils,” p. 372, confiders mineral vélns and faults as having 
‘the fame origin, and indeed almott contounds them toge- 
‘ther. 

It is neceffary to obferve, refpecting the term fault, and 
‘many others in the above lift, that they not only mean the 
fiffure or feparation itfelf, and the derangement of the {trata 
‘occafioned thereby, but alfo are applied to the folid and ex- 
traneous matters with which the fiffure or fault is in general 


FAV 


filled; for it often happens that the fiffure is of fome 
width, fometimes many yards, and is wedged quite full of 
matter, generally clay, with fome mixtures of other fub- 
ftances, and fometimes angular and rounded ftones are 
among thefe. A large portion of the faults are water-tight, 
and hold up the {prings of water contained in phe tate oa 
one fide of them. But it is not true, we believe, that water 
is ever lodged in the fault itfelf, as Mr. Kirwan afferts (Geol. 
Eff. 296.), but it frequently happens, that the cutting ofa 
fault by miners, that is, the driving a paflage through it, or 
the burfting-in of a thin fault, lets in a great body of water 
to the mine, which was before pent up in the porous ftrata 
and open cracks of the rocks on the other fide, which has 
probably occafioued his miftake. In the neighbourhood of 
old mines in particular, the xtmoft precautions are often ne 
ceflary in cutting or even approaching the thin faults, for 
fear of drowning the miners by a fudden influx of water. 

FAUNALIA, in Antiquity, fealts celebrated by the Ro- 
mans in honour of the god Faunus. 

The deity Faunus, to whom the folemnity was devoted, 
and from whom it was denominated, was the fame among 
the Romans with the Pan of the Greeks. 

The Faunalia were held on the day of the nones of De- 
cember ; #.¢. on the fifth day of that month. The princi- 
pal facrifice was a roe-buck ; or rather, according to Ho- 
race, a kid attended with libations of wine, and burning of 
incenfe. 

It was properly a country feftival, being performed in the 
fields and villages, or in the midft of woods, with peculiar 
jey and devotion, : 

Horace gives us a very gay defcription thereof in the 
eighteenth ode of his third book : 


a Tener pleno cadit hoedus anno: 


Larga nec defunt Veneris fodali 
Vina craterz : vetus ara multo. 
Fumat odore.”’ 


Struvius, in his Roman calendar, marks the feaft of Fan- 
nus on the day of the ides of February, which is the thir- 
teenth day of that month ; and the Faunalia he places oa 
the fifth of the ides of December, or the ninth of that 
month; and in chap.ix. he fhews, that there really were 
two Faunalia, the one in February, mentioned by Ovid, 
Fatt. lib. vi. ver. 246. the other on the ninth of December, 
mentioned by Horace, in the place juit cited. 

FAUNS, Faun, among the ancients, were a {pecies of 
demi-gods inhabiting the forefts; called alfo Sylvans, Syl- 
vani, and little differing from the Satyrs. They delighted 
more particularly in vineyards, and they generally appear as 
attendants of Bacchus, in the reprefentations of Bacchanal 
feafts and proceffions.. They were reprefented as half men, 
half goats, having the horns, ears, feet, and tailofa goat, a 
very flat nofe, and the reft human. 

The Roman Fannns, we have obferved, was the fame 
with the Greek Pan, Now, in the poets we find frequen 
mention made of Fayns and Panes in the plural number ; in 
all probability, therefore, the Fauns were the fame with the 
Panes. 

Though the Fauns were held for demi-gods, yet they were 
fuppofed to die after alonglife. Arnobus fiews that their 
father gr chief, Faunus himfelf, only lived 120 years. 

FAVONIUM, in Botany, from favs, a honey-comb, in 
allation to the appearance of its receptacle after the feeds ave 
fallen. Gaertn, v. 2.431. t..174, Clafs and order, Syage- 
nefia Polygamia-frujiranea. Nat. Ord. Compefiie oppo/iti 
folie, Linn. Corymbifere, Jul. 
~ Gen. Ch. Contmon Calyx double ; the external of many 

Bbh2z unequal, 


FA. 


unequal, elliptical, entire, {pinous leaves, the outer ones 
much the largeft ; internal fimple, of one leaf, firmly united 
with the receptacle, bordered with numerous, unequal, 
fpinousteeth. Cor. compound, radiant ; florets of the dif 
androgynous, tubular, five-cleft, regular: thofe of the ra- 
dius neuter, ligulate, three-toothed. Stam. Filaments five; 
anthers united intoatube. Pi. Germen obovate, crown- 
ed; ftyle rather longer than its own corolla; ftizmas two, 
revolute. Peric. none, except the permanent calyx. Seeds 
folitary, inverfely pyramidal, {mooth, lead-coloured ; crown 
membranous, of one leaf, cut half-way down into numerous 
radiating teeth. Recept. broad, naked, deeply cellular, the 
cells irregular, with thick, even, fmooth edges. 

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked, deeply cellular. Down many- 
toothed. Florets of the radius ligulate. Outer calyx 
many-leaved ; inner many-toothed. 

1. EF. fpinofum. (Polymnia fpinofa; Linn. Suppl. 384. 
Choriftea fpinofa; Thunb. Prod. 163. Didelta {pinofa ; 
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.256. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2262.) 
See Dipevta, where this plant is defcribed, but from 
which genus we are now convinced, by Gertner’s remarks, 
it ought to be removed. 

FAVONIUS, among the Romans, the wind which blew 
direG&tly from the weit. 

FAVORINUS, in Biography, a celebrated Platonic 
philofopher, who flourifhed under the reigns of Trajan and 
Adrian, was born at Arles in Gaul, and ftudied under 
Dio,Chryfoftom. He was himfelf profoundly {killed in 
philofophy, and wrote numerous books on the fubject. He 
taught with much reputation at Rome, and at Athens. 
He was highly refpeGted by Adnan, and frequently dif- 
puted with that prince, though not always with the decifion 
of aphilofopher. Being once reproached for having tamely 
given up a point in debate, he replied “ are you altonifhed 
that I fhould fubmit to the fuperior learning of one who has 
thirty legions of troops at his command ?”” He is reported 
to have been an eunuch, and is faid to have felt furprife at 
three things, viz. that being a Gaul, he cowld {peak Greek 
fo well ;—that being an eunuch, he fhould have been ac- 
cufed of adultery ;—that being a fubje&t of envy and 
jealoufy, he fhould be permitted to have lived fo long. 

Favorinus, VaArinus, who flourifhed in the 16th cen- 
tury, was born near Camerino, a ducal town of Umbria. 
He ftudied under Angelo Politian, and John Lafcaris at 
Florence, and was patronized by Lorenzo the Magnificent. 
Having determined on an ecclefiaftical life, he undertook 
the care of acongregation, and was appointed preceptor to 
John de Medici, afterwards pope Leo X. Favorinus was 
appointed keeper of the Medicean library in the year 1512, 
and two years afterwards his former pupil nominated him to 
the bifhopric of Nocera ; the duties of this high office he 
performed, fo as to obtain high and very general refpect, 
till his death, which happened in 1537. His principal 
work, as a literary man, was a Greek lexicon, entitled 
« Magnum Ditionarium, feu Thefaurus Lingue Grece,” 
&e. fol. This work is wholly in Greek, and furnifhes 
f{cholars with the various explications of words, which are 
to be found in other lexicons. It has gone through many 
editions, but the moft beautiful and corre is faid to be 
that of Venice in 1712. He was author of feveral other 
publications. Moreri. 

FAVORITE, in Oraithology. 
roftris. 

FAVORITO, in the /talian Mufic, is an epithet given 
to fuch parts of any compofition as are performed to the 
greateft advantage. Thus, choro favorito is a chorus in 
which are employed the belt voices and inftruments to fing 


See Fuxrica flavi- 


FAV 


the recitativos, play the ritornellos, &c. This is otherwife 
called the /ittle chorus, or choro recitante. 

FAVOUR, in Commerce. See Days of Grace. 

Favour, in Mythology, a deified perfon among the 
ancients, of whom we merely learn, that Apelles made a 
fine picture of this deity. 

FAVOURABLE Lake, in Geography, a lake of N, 
America, in N. lat. 52° 50’. W. long. 92° 30’, which is the 
fource of two large rivers, at the mouth of one of which, 
emptying into Winnipec lake, ftands the Canadian houfe, 
The other is the S. W. brancn of Severn river. 

FAUP, one of the Caroline or New Philippine iflands, 
in the Pacific ocean. 

FAUQUEMBERQUES, a town of France, in the 
department of the ftrait of Calais, and chief place of a can- 
ton, in the diftri& of St. Omer, 11 miles S. W. of 
St. Omer, The place contains 1,250, and the canton 14,852 
inhabitants, on a territory of 1824 kiliometres, and in 24 
communes. 

FAUQUEMONT, or Varkensere, or Falkenberg, 
a town of France, in the department of the Lower 
Meufe, fituated on the Geule; 12 miles W. of Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

FAUR, Guy Du, Lord Du Pizrac, in Biography, un 
eminent lawyer and man of letters, was born of a diftin- 
fk family at Touloufe in 1528. He was educated at 

aris, and then went to Italy, to perfeé himfelf in junif- 
prudence. On his return he figured away with high repu- 
tation in the parliament of his native city, and was chofen 
a deputy to the ftates of Orleans in 1559, at which he had 
the firmnefs to prefent a memorial of grievances to the king. 
He was afterwards feleted as ambaflador from Charles 1X. 
to the council of Trent, where he ably defended the rights 
of the Gallican church. In 1565, he was nominated advo- 
cate general in the parliament of Paris, and in this capacity 
he compofed an apology in Latin, for the infamous maflacre 
of St. Bartholomew. He next accompanied the duke of 
Anjou, afterwards Henry III. when he went to take pof- 
feffion of the crown of Poland. He was fele&ted to ae 
high diplomatic ftations, but was at length charged with 
indulging an amorous paflion for the queen of Navarre. 
Some refpectable writers treat this charge as a mere calumny. 
He died in 1584, leaving behind him, as memorials of his 
literary charaéter, ‘Pleadings and Harangues,” “A difcourfe 
on the Soul and the Sciences,” but his name is chiefly famous 
for a feries of moral maxims in French verfe, entitled 
‘¢ Quatrains ;”” they are written with elegance and fpint, 
were extremely popular, and have been tranflated into the 
Latin, Greek, and modern languages. Moreri. 

FAURANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in La- 
vora; 17 miles E. of Naples. 

FAVRE, Antony, in Biography, was born at Bourg-en- 
Breffe in 1557, ftudied at Paris and Turin, and was raifed 
to feveral important pofls under the duke of Savoy, and 
finally was made governor of that country, and all the pro- 
vinces beyond the mountains. He was alfo pretident of the 
council of the Genevois for the duke of Nemours. His 
character for profeflional knowledge, and ftri€t undeviating 
integrity, was extremely high, and he might have attained 
to confiderable rank in France under Lewis XIII. could 
he have induced him to quit Savoy. He died in 1624.. 
His works on jurifprudence were publifhed in ten vols. folio, 
of which the principal is entitled «* Codex Fabrianus.’? 
This has been referred to in all. the parliaments of France. 
Moreri. 

Favre, Cxraupe, lord of Vaugelas, fon of the preceding, 
was born in 1585, and early brought up in attendance upon 

the 


FA WU 


the court. He was made gentleman in ordinary, and after- 
wards chamberlain to Gafton, duke of Orleans, whom he 
followed in all his fortunes, though to the ruin of himfelf 
and his profpeéts. He was a diltinguifhed member of the 
French academy, and devoted his whole leifure time to the 
ftudy of his native language, by which he has perpetuated 


his name. He publifhed “ Remarks on the French 
Beata” and a tranflation of “ Quintus Curtius.” On 
the latter he is faid to have {pent thirty years, and it ac- 


cordingly obtained forhimahigh reputation. Lewis XIII. 
had fettled upon his father and family a penfion, the pay- 
‘ment of which, however, had ceafed, but was renewed to 
‘Claude, with a view of inducing him to engage in the com- 
‘pilation of the diGtionary of the academy. On this occafion 
Richelieu faid to him, “ I hope you will not forget the word 
penfion in your di€tionary.’”’ ** No,’’ my lord, replied Favre, 
<¢ and ftill lels the word gratitude,”’ a delicate, but forcible 
reproof for the cardinal. Favre died infolvent in 1650. 
Morert. 

FAUSSE, Fr. in J7ufic, falfe, out of tune, by being 
too high or too low. There are falfe voices, as there are 
falfe ftrings. It is fuppofed that this is occahioned by a bad 
ear, but the mifchief is done before the found arrives at the 
ear; and we have known perfons fing out of tune, who ftop 
perfectly well in time on the violin, and who judge very 
accurately of the intonation of others. It is often from 
defedt of the organ, which is difobedient to the will of the 
‘owner, that falfe intonations occur ; intonationi perfidi. 

Fausse-Bray, in Fortification, is a {trong parapet, or 
a low rampart, formed by a continuation of the revetement 
of the fearp, carried up to fuch a height, generally about 
feven feet, as fhould enable the defenders to fire direCtly into 
the covert-way, and to obftrué the affailants not only from 
making any lodgment there, but from attempting the paf- 
fage of the ditch. Thefe are certainly points of importance, 
and it fhould feem that the faufle-bray poffefled in itfelf 
the means of anfwering every part of its intention ; and fuch, 
indeed, would probably have continued to be the cafe, 
were it not that the invention of ricoghet-firing, by which 
the ball is made to lob along the interior of a defence, (fee 
Enrivape and Erauremenr) totally difqualifies the 
faufle-bray from being confidered a place of fecurity. Add 
to this moft formidable objeGtion, that, where the rampart 
ts furnifhed with a revetement of mafonry, the {plinters oc- 
cafioned by fuch fhots as may {trike thereon, prove more 
deftructive than the open fire of many fituations apparently 
more expofed. 

In confequence of fuch important defe€ts, modern engi- 
neers have totally difcarded the faufle-bray as a defence, 
though it may be advantageoufly conftructed in certain in- 
ftances as the only effeCtual means of preventing the rub- 
bith occafioned by the breaching-batteries of the aflailants 
from falling into the ditch, fo as to afford the means of af- 
cent. In lieu of a fauffe-bray, it is now the practice to 
planta very ftrong fence, a few feet diftant from the foot of 
the rampart, for the above purpofe, as well as to conceal 
fuch perions as may have occafion to pafs along the berm. 
The defence of the covert way, and of the pailage of the 
ditch, is found to be more effectually fupported by the con- 
ftrution of a low work, called a tenaille, (fee ConstTRuUC- 
v10N Military,) placed before the potternsin the curtains ; 
and from which the fre is more powerful than that from the 
flanks ; it being more horizontal, and much nearer. 

Fausset Chenille,in Natural Hiffory, a term uled by Mr. 
Reaumur, and other of the French writers, to exprefs a 
large clafs of worms produced from the eggs of feveral 
{pecies. of four-winged flies.. Thefe worms. have greatly 


FAU 


the appearance of caterpillars in their general form, fo that 
they have deceived many writers on infects into an opi- 
nion that they were really fo ; but M. Reaumur has fhewn 
that they are very different. Hift. Inf. vol. ix. p. 133. 

Fausse Quarte, Fr. in Mufic, another wame for the tri- 
tonus, or fharp 4th. See Tritonvus. 

FAUSSET, Fr. is that kind of voice which fings 
an octave above its natural compafs, to imitate a boy or a 
female. A voice on this occafion refembles a flute or organ 
pipe over-blown, or blown with a fharper current, when it 
breaks into the oftave. See Ocrave and Fatser. 

FAUST, Joun, in Biography, a goldimith at Mentz, 
celebrated on account of the fhare which he had in the 
invention of the art of printing. It has never been 
afcertained to whom we are chiefly indebted for this 
admirable art. Claims have been made for perfons named 
Guttemberg and Scheffer, and it has been afferted that 
Fault only furnifhed money to Guttemberg to enable him 
to bring the invention to a ftate of maturity, he having 
previoufly, at Strafburgh, made the attempt with carved 
blocks. Scheffer, who was fon-in-law to Fauft, invented 
punches and matrices. To the firft work that was printed the 
names Fauft and Scheffer are attached ; this was entitled 
“¢ Durandi Rationale divinorum officioru:n,” 1459. Among 
other works to which thefe names are attached are the Bible, 
and two editions of the Pfalter. Thefe were executed with 
charaGters engraved on wood, and are now exceedingly rare, 
and confidered as mafter-pieces of typography : the charac- 
ters are cut to imitate the fineft writing, and the initial lJet- 
ters are printed in three colours, blue, red, and purple. It 
has been faid that Fauft went to Paris to fell fome copies of 
his bible, and having fold them at a low price, in com- 
parifon of what was given at that time for manufcript 
bibles, and at different rates, his cuftomers having heard of © 
his mode of printing them, profecuted him on account of 
the overcharge. From this period Fauft never appeared at 
Paris, and it is thought he died of the plague in the 
year 1466.. Nouv. Did. Hilt. See Praintine. 

FAUSTED, in Mining, is a refufe fort of ore and fpar, 
intended to be drefled over again. 

FAUSTINA Borpone, in Biography, a celebrated female 
finger at the early part of the latt century; fhe was a Venetian, 
anda {cholar of Michael Angelo Gafparini of Lucca. She in 
a manner invented a new kind of finging, by running divifions 
with a neatnefs and velocity which aftonifhed all who heard 
her. She had the art of fultaining a note longer, in the 
Opinion of the public, than any other finger, by taking her 
breath imperceptibly. Her beats and trills were ftrong and 
rapid ; her intonation perfeé&t ; and her profeffional perfec. 
tions were enhanced by a beautiful face, a fymmetric figure, 
though of {mall ftature, and a countenance and geiture on 
the ftage, which indicated an entire intelligence and _poffef- 
fion of the feveral parts fhe had to reprefent. She firit ap- 
peared, as a theatrical finger, at Venice, in 1716, when {he 
performed in the opera of * Ariodante,”’ compofed by Carl. 
Fran. Pollarolo. In 1719, fhe appeared on the fame ftage 
with Cuzzoni and Bernacchi, in an opera compofed by her 
matte: Gafparini. Here fhe is called Wirtuefa:di Camera 
of the Elector Palatine. In 1722, fhe fung in Leo’s opera 
of * Bajazet,” at Naples; and,in 1725, we find her at Vienna, 
where, according to Apoftolo Zeno, fhe received great hoe- 
nours, as well as prefents. At the palace of prince Lichten- 
itein, finging to a great affe.ably, fhe was prefented with 4 
purfe contend a hundred pieces of gold {ungheri rofpi); 
and near as much more at the French ambaflador’s. “ But,’” 
fays this poet, ‘* whatever good fortune or encouragement fhg 
meets with, fhe merits it.all by her courteous and polite man- 

NETS 


FAU 


érs, ag well as talents, with which fhe has enchanted and 

ained the efteem and affection of the whole court.”? The 
fame author fpeaks ‘ della bravura di Fanfina,”’ and the 
« bella mufica di Porfile,”’ in an opera by the Abate Pafquini, 
performed at Vienna, 1725 ; and of the regret exprefled by 
the whole court at her quitting that city to go to London. 
She remained here but two fealons, and then returned to Ve- 
nice, where, in 1732, fhe was married to the celebrated Saxon 
compofer Haffe, and foon after went to Drefden, in the fer- 
vice of which court fhe remained till the year 1756. At 
the bombardment of that city by the late king of Pruffia, 
Hiaffe, her hufband, had all his manofcripts burned, which 
were to have been printed at the expence of his mafter and 
patron, the elector. 

A late writer upon mufic, of confiderable merit with refpect 
to the prefent times, though frequently erroneous as to the 
paft, {peaking of the Fauitina, fays that her agility of voice 
has feldom been equalled ; a matchlefs facility and rapidity 
in her execution; dexterity in taking her breath, ‘exquifite 
fhake, new and bnilliant paflages of embecllifhment, and a 


thoufand other qualities contributed to inferibe her mame 


among the firft fingers in Enrope. 

The Cuzzoni, an exyuifite finger in a “different ftyle 
from that of the Fauttina, being here at the fame time, 
occafioned fuch frefh feuds among the nobility and gentry, 
fubfcribers to the Royal Academy, as form an era in the an- 
nals of mufical contefts ; for fo dilputable were the talents of 
thefe two fingers, that in Handel’s opera of * Aleffaudro,”” 
the flames of difcord were kindled to fuch a height among 
the frequenters of the opera, and patrous of the art, as to 
excite a greater degree of enmity than even the theological 
and political parties of High church and Low, or of Whig 
and Tory, which then raged in this country. 

it was related by the Hon. Mr. Walpole (late earl of 
Orford) that his mother, the lady of fir Robert Walpole, 
had thefe two firens at her houfe to fing in a concert, at 
which were all the firft people of the kingdom. She was 
under the greateft difficulty how to fettle the precedence, 
or prevail on either to relinquith the pas, which could only 
be accomplifhed by renouncing the pleafure of hearing el- 
ther of them herfelf: the knot could not be untied, but it 
was cut, by the following expedient. Lady W. finding it 
jmpoflible to prevail on one to fing while the other was pre- 
fent, took Faultina to a remote part of the houfe, under 
the pretence of fhewing her fome curious china, during which 
time the company obtained a {ong from Cuzzoni, who fup- 

ofed that her rival had quitted the field. A fimilar expe- 
dient was practifed in order to get Cuzzoni out of the 
room, while Fauftina performed. 

The Fauftina hada mezzo-foprano voice that was lefs clear 
than penetrating. Her compats was only from B flat to Gin 
alt. ; but after this time fhe extended its limits downwards. 
She poffeffed what the Italians call «* un cantar granito;”” her 
execution was articulate and brilliant. She had a fluent tongue 
for prenouncing words rapidly and diftinétly, and a flexible 
throat for divifions, with fo beautiful and quick a fhake 
that fhe could put it in motion upon fhort notice, jult when 
the would. The paflages might be fmooth or by leaps, 
or confifting of iterations of the fame tone, their execution 
was equa'ly eafy to her as to any inftrument whatever. 
She was doubtlefs the firft who introduced, with fuceefs, 
a {wift repetition of the fame tone. She fung adagios with 
great paflion and expreflion, but was not equally fuccefsful, 
if {uch deep forrow were to be imprefled on the hearer, as 
might require dragging, fliding, or notes of fyncopation, 
znd tempo rubato. 

She had a very happy memory in arbitrary changes and 


- words their full power and expreflion. 


FAU 


embellifhments, and a clear and quick judgment in giving ta 
In her action fhe 
was very happy; and as fhe perfe&tly poffefled that flexi- 
bility of mufcles and features, which conititutes face-playing, 
fhe fucceeded equally well in furious, amorous, and tender 
parts: in fhort, fhe was born for finging and ating. The 
violence of party for thefe two fiagers, Cuzzoni and Fauf- 
tina, was very great. 

For, according to Tofi, their contemporary, and a moft 
excellent judge of their feveral merits, their talents, and 
ftyles of finging, were fo different, that the praife of one was 
no reproach to the other. ** Iudeed, their merit,” fays he, 
“ js {uperior to all praife ; for with equal force, in a differ- 
ent ftyle, they help to keep up the tottering profeflion from 
immediately falling into ruin. The one is inimitable for a 
privileged gift of finging, and enchanting the world with.a 
prodigious felicity in executing difficulties with a brilliancy, 
I know not whether from nature or art, which pleafes to ex- 
cefs. The delightful foothing cantabile of the other, joined 
with the fweetnefs of a fine voice, a perfe& intonation, 
ftri€tnels of time, and the rarelt productions of genius ir 
her embellifhments, are qualifications as peculiar and uncom- 
mon, asthey are difficult to be imitated. The pathetic of 
the one, and the rapidity of the other, are diftinétly charac. 
teriftic. What a beautiful mixture it would be, if the excel- 
lences of thefe two angelic beings could be united in a fingle 
individual !?? (Offario fopra il canto fig.) Are not thefe re- 
flegtions applicable to the two great fingers ( Banti and Bil- 
lingtom) of the prefent time, who have each their exclufive ad- 
mirers? It isa very ancient remark among mutfical critics, that 
pathetic fingers have no brilliancy of execution, nor thofe 
pofleffed of great agility of throat, much pathos. Would it 
not have afforded more delight to perfons of tafte and dif- 
cernment, to hear two great performers at the head of dif- 
ferent ilyles, than the perpetual {truggle of two contending 
firens in the fame ftyle ? ‘Then, after taking fides, partifans 
have an opinion to defend, which generates difputes that 
feldom end fhort of contempt and hatred of each other. 

In June, 1772, we found the old Fauftina and her hufband 
the admirable Hafle, commonly called Saffoni by the Tha 
lians, and their two daughters at Vienna. She was then.about 
72, but lively, and curious after what was tranfaGting in the 
world. The daughters were very fine fingers in different 
ftyles. On the Fauttina being afked to fing, fhe cried out : 
Ah! non poflo; ho perduto lutte le miei facolta !”? Alas! 
I am no longer able, I have loft all my faculties !”? This 
worthy family remained at Vienna till the year 1775, then 
retiring to Venice, the place of the Fauftina’s nativity where 
the daughters were well married, fhe ended her days in 1783 
at the great age of 81; and Haile died foon after, at nearly 
the fame age. 

PAUSTINO, Si, in Geography, a town of South Ameri- 
ca, in New Granada; 40 miles N. of Pamplona. N. lat 
6° 55’.  W. long. 71° 24". ‘ 

FAUTAGC, a town on the eaft coal of Madagafcar 
S. lat. 24°. E. long. 47° 45!. i 

FAUVILLE-EN-CAUX, a town of France, in the 
department of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton 
in the diftii&t of Yvetot 3 ro miles N. of Caudebec. The 
place contains 1,346, and the canton 10,956 inhabitants, 


on a territorial extent ef 112} kiliometres, in 20 coms 


munes. 

FAUX, Fr. in Mufie, falfe. 

Faux-Bourdon, Fr. 
BURDEN. 

Tau x-Bourdon, Laflard humble bee, in Natural Hiffory 
aname given by Reaumur and other French naturaliits to 


the 


See Fausse. : 
See Farso-Borpone, and Fa- 


EA Y¥. 


the bees ufually called by us drones, and by the common 
people of that nation bourdons, confounding them with the 
common humble-bee under that name. See Drone. 

Faux Puceron, aname given by Reaumur and otheis to 
a genus of infeéts much refembling the pucerons in many 
things, but differing in fome material circumftances. The 
two principal kinds of thefe are found on the back of the 
leaves of the fig-trees, and in little hollow balls at the fum- 
mits of the branches of box, formed of the upper leaves 
vitjated by. the bitines of thefe creatures, 

FAUXVILLERS, in Geography, a town of France, 
in the department of the Foréts, and chief place of a can- 
ton in the diftri@ of Neufchateau. The place contains 
938 and the canton 5,841 inhabitants, ona territory of 255 
kiliometres and in 14 communes, 

FAWKES, Francis, in Biography, was born in York- 
fhire about the year 1721. He received his grammar 
Iearning at Leeds, whence he was transferred to Jefus 
college, Cambridge. He was educated for the church, 
and prefented to the vicarage of Orpington, with St. 
Mary Cray, in Kent, by archbifhop Herring, whofe death, 
in 1757, was noticed in an elegy by Mr. Fawkes. In 1761, 
he publifhed a volume of poems by fubfcription, and took 
a part in fome periodical publications. In 1767, he pub- 
Jifhed an eclogue, addrefled to the honourable Charles 
Yorke, on partridge fhooting. He is more celebrated for 
tranflations than for original compofitions. His yerfions of 
Anacreon, Sappho, Bion, Mofchus, and Mufeus, were po- 
pular, and are ftill in good repute. In 1774, he exchanged 
his vicarage for the re€tory of Hayes, where he died in 
1777. After his deceafe a tranflation from his pen of the 
s* Argonautics,”” was publifhed by fubfcription. <* He pof- 
feffed,”? fays his biographer, “an eafy fiow of verfification, 


_and though his di€tion is not highly poetical, yet it has the 


merit of extraordinary clearnefs, which leaves no hefitation 
about the meaning of the original.”” Gen. Biog. 

FAWN, among Huniers, is a buck or doe of the 
firll year, or the young one of the buck’s breed in its firft 

ear. 
Fawn, in Geography, atownfhip of America, in York 
county, Pennfylvania, on the W. bank of Sufquehannah 
river, onthe Maryland line ; containing 1,214 inhabitants. 

FAY, a town of France, in the department of the 
Indre and Loire ; 13 miles S. of Chinon. 

Fay-Billot, Le, a town of Vrance, in the department of 
the Upper Marne, and chief place of a canton, inthe dif- 
wi of Langres; 12 miles S. E. of Langres. The place 
contains 1,999, and the canton 11,453 inhabitants, on a 
territory of 2774 kiliometres, and in 23 communes. 

Fay-/e-Froid, atown of France, in the department of * 
the Upper Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- 
tri 3 Le Puy; 15 miles E.S.E. of Le Puy. The 
place contains 525, and the canton 5,590 inhabitants, on a 
territory of 175 kiliometres, and in 6 communes. 

Fay, To, in Ship Building, is to fet any two pieces of 
wood fo as to join clofe together : the’ plank is faid to fay 
to the’timbers when it bears or lies clofe to all the umbers. 
_FAYAL, in Geography, the mott wettern of the Azore 
iflands. This ifland derives its name from the great number 
of beech-trees (Faya, in Portuguele,) which grow here ; 
befides which it abounds with other wood. It is about 27 
miles long, and 9 wide: the climate is good, the air is mild, 
the winter-cold is never felt, and the heat of fummer is 
countera@ted by refrefhing winds. The bullocks and hogs of 
this ifland are very good, but the fheep are remarkably poor ; 
poultry, vegetables, and fruit may be had at a reafonable 
Price: but the chief produce of the ifland is wheat and 


FAY 


Indian corn, with which they fupply Pico, and fome of the 
other ifles. Birds are numerous, and the coait affords abun 
dance of fifh. Fayal, although the mo& noted for wine, 
does not raife fufficiest for its own confumption; this are 
ticle is raifed on Pico, and thence brought to De Horta, 
for foreign fhipping. The chief town is called Villa de 
Horta, or Orta. Fayal was firft peopled by Flemings, who, 
grudging the expence of a Portuguefe garrifon, undertook 
to defend the ifland. But they had reafon to repent of their 
prefumption; for the Englifh, at different times, made de- 
{cents upon the ifand, and took it ; they deftroyed the for- 
tifications, after having feized and burnt a fguadron of rich 
homeward-bound thips that lay in the harbour. Since this 
time a Portuguefe garrifon has conftantly been maintained in 
the ifland. N. lat. 38° 32! 24". W. long. 28° go! 54! 

Fayat, Bay er Road af, is fituated at the E. end of the 
ifle, before Villa de Horta, and facing the W. end of Picoy, 
It is 2 miles broad, and 3-4ths of a mile deep, being of a 
femi-circular form. The depth of water is from 20 to to 
and eyen 6 fathoms, and the bottom fandy, except near the 
fhore, where it is rocky, and alfo beyond the line which. 
joins the two parts of the bay. It is not a bad road; but 
the winds meit to be apprehended are thofe which blow 
from between the S.S. W.and S. E. Round the S. W. 
point there is a cove, called Porto Piere, in which a fhip. 
or two may lie in tolerable fafety. 

FAYD, a town of Syria, on the frontiers of Arabi 
Deferta ; 400 miles E. of Damatcus. 

FAYDIT, Ansetm, in Biography, a native of France, 
who flourifhed:towards the clofe of the 12th century. He 
is celebrated asa Proyengal poet, and for his excellent fing- 
ing, by which he-made himfelf agreeable to perfons of 
rank. He not only compofed, but reprefented comedies, 
which obtained fo large a fhare of popular favour, as to put 
the author in poffeflion of confiderable wealth, which he. 
{quandered away in licentious pleafures, and vain expence. 
In poverty, he was fortunate enough to attra& the notice 
and favour of Richard Ceeur-de-Lion, king of England, who 
had a paflion for poetry, and by bim was once more railed 
tova ftate of afluence. Arter the death of Richard, Fay- 
dit returned to Aix, where he married a woman as im- 
prudent as himfelf, but who. died fhortly after marriage. 
He next went to the court of the marquis of Montferrat, 
and afterwards to that of the lord of Sault, where he died 
about 1220. - He wrote a poem on the death of his patren 
king Richard; another, entitled “ The Palace of Love,’ 
and feveral comedies, of which one, entitled “ L’Heregia 
dels Prettres,”” The Here/y of Priefis; was written to gra- 
tify and flatter the wifhes of perfons of rank, who at that 
period were, favourers of the opinions of the Albigenfes, 
and who he probably expected would become his friends 
and patrons. Moreri- 

Faypir, Perer, a French prieit, born at Riom, in 
Auvergne, about the middle of the 17th century. In 
1662, he entered into the congregation of the Oratory, 
from which he was expelled for having publifhed a treatife 
on the principles of the Cartefian philofophy. He after- 
wards became famous for the part which he took in the 
controverfy between pope Innocent XI. and France, in 
which he compared the pantuiff with pope Anicetus in his 
difpute with Polycarp, and with pope Vicor in his differ~ 
ence with Polycrates and the Aliatic bifhops’ concerning 
Eafter. This led to other controverfies of much repute 
at the time, but which may now be well configned to obli, 
vion. In 1695, he publithed “ Illuitrations of the doce 
trine, and of the Ecclefiattical Hiitory of the fir two 
centuries 5” and, in the following year, ‘ A treatife on 


ae 


the Trinity ;”? for which he was accufed of tritheifm, con- 
victed and imprifoned at Paris. His fuffering had no ten- 
dency to reprefs his zeal, though it probably led him to 
caution in his future publications. But the freedom of his 
language, and the want of attention and refpe&t which he 
fhewed to certain illuftrious individuals, excited their anger 
fo much, as to procure an order from the fovereign that he 
fhould retire to his native place, where he died in 1709. 
His other works are, “ A Colleétion of Memoirs,” intended 
to: fatirize “ Tillemont’s Ecclefiaftical Hiftory,?? which 
were foon fupprefled; ‘* Remarks on Virgil, on Homer, 
and on the Pcetic Style of the Scriptures,” in 2 vols. 
A critique on Telemachus, entitled « Telemaco-manie.” 
And other pieces in Latin verfe, and French profe. 
Moreri. 

FAYE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart- 
ment of the Maine and Loire; 10 miles S. of Angers. 

Fave /e Vinenfe, in the department of the Indre and 
Loire ; 2 miles S. E. of Richelieu. 

FAYENCE, a town of France, in the department of 
the. Var, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of 
Draguignan, celebrated for its manufaéture of earthen 
ware; 10 miles-N.E. of Draguignan. The place con- 
tains 2,712 andthe canton 9,488 inhabitants, ona territory 
of 1923 kiliometres, in 6 communes. 

FAYETTE, Mary-Macparen Procue DE LA 
VerGNeE, Counte/s of, in Biography, a lady in high favour 
at the court of Lewis XIV. She was intimately connected 
with the wits of that period, who were accuftemed to al- 
femble at her honfe, and to many of whom fhe was a liberal 
benefaétrefs. Segrais was her particular friend, and in his 
name the celebrated romances entitled “ Zaide,’? and ‘ The 
Princefs of Cleves,”’ were given to the public, but he has 
himfelf teftified that his part in them was only contributing 
to the plot and difpofition, and that the filling-up and or- 
naments were entirely by Madame de la Iayette. Thefe 
were extremely popular, and they are fpoken of by Voltaire 
as the firft in which the manners of perfons of condition 
were painted, and natural adventures were defcribed with 
eafe and grace. She wrote likewife ‘ Memoirs of the 
Court of France in the years 1688 and 1689 ;” * The 
Princefs of Montpenfier ;?? ‘¢ The Hiftory of Henrietta 
of England ;”? and “ Divers Portraits of Perfons about the 
Court.” Thefe were all very much admired for the grace 
of ftyle, and the delicacy -and livelinefs of defcription. 
She died in 1693. During her life fhe was ever molt flat- 
tered With the praife of having a judgment fuperior to 
her wif, and loving the truth above all things. Moreri. 

Fayette, in Geography, an American fettlement in 
Tioga county, New York, between the Unadilla and the 

nain branch of the Chenengo. It is laid out in roo lots of 
f{quare mile each, as nearly as the ground will permit. 

FayeTre, a eounty of Pennfylvania, bounded N. by 
Weitmoreland, S. by part of Maryland and Virginia, and 
W. by Monongahela river; 39 miles long and 29 broad; 
containing 473,280 acres; divided into 17 townthips, of 
which Union is the chief. The number of inhabitants is 
20,159. 

Fayette, a diftri@ of North Carolina, comprehending 
fix counties, viz. Moore, Cumberland, Sampfon, Richmond, 
Robefon, and Anfon. It-is bounded N. by Hillfborough, 
S.E. by Wilmington and Newbern, W. by Salifbury, and 
S. by the ftate of South Carolina. It is 120 miles in length, 
and 50 in breadth, and contains 41,358 inhabitants, of whom 
$206 are flaves. The furface is varied with hills and dales, 
and is in general well watered. 


Fayette, a county of Kentucky, 24 miles long, 20 


Paty 


broad, bounded N. by Scott county, N.E. by Bourbos, 
E. by Clark, S. by Madifon and Jeffamine, and W. by 
Woodford. 'The foil is excellent, though it lies on an emi- 
nence. ‘The number of inhabitants is 12,233, of whom 
3786 are flaves. The chief town is Lexington. 

Fayetre, a town in Kennebeck county and ftate of 
Maine, bounded welterly by Livermore, eafterly by Mount 
Vernon, Wayne, and a large pond, called Great Amere- 
fkogcen pond. It has 532 ishabitants. 

FAYETTEVILLE, fo called in honour of the marquis 
La Fayette, a fourifhing poft town of North Carolina, plea- 
fantly fituated in Cumberland county, on the welt fide of 
the N.W. branch of Cape Fear river, nearly at the head of 
the navigation ; roo milesabove Wilmington, and 61 fouth- 
erly of Raleigh. The town is fituated about a mile froma 
the river, near the junétion of Blount’s and Crofs creek; 
on both fides of the creek are about 400 houfes, and hand- 
fome edifices for public ufe. The ftreets are regularly laid 
out, and the principal ones are 100 feet wide. Here are 
three mills, two confiderable diftilleries and breweries, and 
feveral extenfive tan-yards. This town carries on a con- 
fiderable trade to Wilmington in tobacco, wheat, flour, 
beef, pork, flax-feed, hemp, cotton, butter, lumber, ftaves, 
naval ftores, &c. The town ftands in a fettlement of Scots 
Highlanders, and has a poft office, and 1656 inhabitants. 
N. lat. 35° 11! W. long. 79°. 

FAYORO, a town of hath, in the province of Aragon, 
at the conflux of the Matarana and the Ebro; 15 miles S, 
of Fraga. 

FAYOUM, Faioum, or Ferum, a province of Egypt, 
on the weft fide of the Nile, exteuding from the river to, 
the lake Berkit Caroun or Burkit-el-Kerun, the ancient lake 
Moeris. This was formerly the province of Arfinoe, 
(which fee,) interfe€ted by canals, which formed a commu- 
nication between the river and the lake, and diftinguifhed 
by its beauty and fertility, as well as the variety and value of 
its productions. Since that period this province has, by the, 
oppreffion of the Turks, undergone a very great change 3. 
inftead of flourifhing cities,it now prefents to view cottages” 
and hamlets built of mud, canals nearly choaked up, and 
the fea of Moeris reduced to two-thirds of its former extent ;. 
and yet the obferver will difcover the fame produ@ions 
which Strabo has defcribed, and the fame abundance where- 
ever the waters can penetrate. The Copts {till cultivate 
the olive and the vine planted by their fathers. They 
gather an excellent grape, of which they make a white 
wine of very agreeable flavour, The whole country 
is at prefent covered with corn, with barley, with dourra, 
or Indian millet, which follow one another in regular fuc- 
ceffion during feven or ‘eight months. The fuperb flax,, 
the fugar-cane, and all forts of vegetables, {pring up al- 
moft without culture. The cucumber, and various forts of, 
excellent melons, line the banks of the rivulets. Groves of 
fruit trees, among{t which are the date-tree, the fig-tree, the 
banana, the caffia, &c. are here and there difperfed over, 
the plain; near the villages are groves of rofe-trees, from 
the odoriferous flowers of which they diftil the rofe-water, 
which forms a valuable branch of commerce. The canals: 
and the lakes abound with fifh, which fupplies the neigh-, 
bouring provinces at a cheap rate. When winter is cover-; 
ing the northern ‘countries with fnow and hoar-froft, ionu- 
merable flocks of birds come to winter in lake Moeris, and. 
the canals of Faioum. The inhabitants take a vaft number. 
of geefe, with golden plumage and of an excellent flavour ;. 
wild ducks that are fat and delicate, teals, fwans, of whofe. 


fkins they make furs, and pelicans. Savary’s Letters on 
Egypt, vol. i. . 


6 Fayoum, 


FAZ 


“ Favoum, or Faioum, a town of Egypt, and capital of 
the province above defcribed, which formerly poffeffed pub- 
lic baths, markets, and colleges, divided by the canal of 
Jofeph into two parts, and furrounded by gardens. At 
prefent it is only half a league in circumference, and is 
fituated on the eaftern bank of the canal. The remainder 
is deftroyed; the colleges no longer fubfift; the houfes 
built with brick, dried in the fun, prefent the dreary afpec 
of a heap of cottages. The inhabitants are poor, and, 
under oppreflion, deftitute of energy; and all the arts 
are reduced to fome manufactures of mats, coarfe carpets, 
and the diftillation of rofe-water. This town is governed 
by a cachef, in the name of one of the beys of Grand Cairo. 
Several Arabian {cheicks, who poffefs lands in the neigh- 
bourhood, compofe his council, and they repair to the divan 
two or three times a week, when the governor invites them. 
Their chief is held in high eftimation ; but harmony among 
the members of the adminiftration is of fhort continuance. 
‘The frequent fucceflive wars at Grand Cairo difturb the tran- 
quillity of the provinces, and the victorious party deprives 
the poffeffors of their governments and their lands; 49 miles 
SSW. of Cairo. N. lat. 29727'. E. long. 30° 39/. 
Savary. 

FAYS, a town of France, in the department of Upper 
Marne; five miles N.W. of Joinville. 


FAZILPOUR, a town of Hindooitan, in Guzerat ; 
i2 miles N. of Brodera. 

FAZULA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; three 
miles N. of Lucknow. 


FAZULAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 
3x3 miles N.W. of Bahar. 


FAZZELLO, Tuomas, in Biography, was born at 
Sacca, a town of Palermo, in the year 1498. He was entered 
in the order of Dominican monks, and was their provincial, 
and might have heen cleéted general of the order, had not 
his own modefty thwarted the meafures taken for the pur- 
pofe. He was ten times chofen prior of the monaltery at 
Palermo, and died in poffeffion of that office in 1570. He 
wrote many works, but the moft confiderable was a ‘ Hif- 
tory of Sicily,” written in Latin in 20 books, which firft 
appeared in Palermo in 1558, and which has paffed through 
feveral editions, and was tranflated into the Italian language. 
Moreri. ; 

FAZZIO, Barruoremew, was born at Spezio, on the 
coatt of Genoa, in the beginning of the rsth century. Though 
of very humble defeent, he became learned in the ancient 
languages, and tranflated ** Arrian’s Hiftory of Alexander,” 
He likewife wrote a hiflory of that prince in ten books; 
and a hiftory of the war between the Genoefe and the 
Venetians, which commenced in 1377. He is chiefly re- 
garded for his work “ De Viris [luftribus,”? which con- 
tains brief eulogies of the moft famous men who were his 
contemporaries, with anecdotes of their lives, and an account 
of their principal works. This was not publifhed tilla long 
time after the death of the author, when Mehus annexed 
fome MS. letters of Fazzio relating to the hiftory of the 
times. We have likewile two moral treatifes by Fazzio, 
the one entitled ** De Humane vite Felicitate ;’? and the 
other, De Excellentia & preitantia Hominis;” anda Latin 
poem. The early part of life he paffed at Genoa, whence 
he was invited to the court of Alphonfo, king of Naples, a 

reat patron of learned men, where he remained till his death 
i 1457- His ftyle is faid to be generally pure and elegant, 
écially in comparifon with that of other writers in the fame 
jod. A great hatred prevailed between Pazzie and Lo- 
renzo Valla, on account of their rivalfhip for the favour of 


Vor. XIV. 


FE 


Alphonfo, and each wrote four books of invectives againft 
the other. Gen. Biog. 

FAZZOLO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the 
Capitanata ; 13 miles S.W. of Manfredonia. 

FE’, Santa, a town of Spain, in the province of Gra- 
nada, near the Xenil, built by Ferdinand and Ifabella in 
the year 1491, during the fiege of Granada: it is fituated 
in a fertile tract, and though a {mall town, contains about 
2000 inhabitants ; five miles N.W. of Granada—Alfo, a 
town of Spain, in Aragon; five miles S. of Saragofla. 

Fr!, Santa, a province of South America, in the vice- 
royalty of New Granada; and the name is fometimes given 
to the vice-royalty itfelf from that of its capital. 

Fs! de Bogota, Santa, the capital of the vice-royalty 
of New Granada, fituated near the river Funza or Pati, 
which at the diftance of 35 miles falls into the Magdalena. 
This city was‘founded in 1538 by Quefada the Conqueror. 
Although it lies at a confiderable diftance to the eait of the 
grand chain of the Andes, which paffes N. of the province 
of Carthagena, between the rivers Magdalena and Cauca, 
and though it is only four degrees from the equator, the 
climate is unexpectedly rather cold. It ftands ina beau- 
tiful and fpacious plain, called Alcarazes, and the foil is 
fufficiently fertile. The city is large and handfome, and its 
{treets are wide and well laid out. There are four {quares, 
and five bridges over two little rivulets, called San Francifco. 
and San Auguttin, which {pring from the eaftern mountains, 
and run weitward both of the city and its plain, which 
is about 20 leagues in length and 11 in breadth, till they 
join the Funza, called allo the river of Bogota. The 
whole year, fuch is the temperature of the climate, may 
here be called a perpetual fpring, and the fertility of the 
foil produces two harveits. The cathedral is magnificent, 
and has 16 prebends. Here are alfo three parifh churches 
and eight convents, with four nunneries, and the great 
hofpital of San Pedro. Befides two religious colleges for 
education, there is the univerfity of St. Thomas, with a 
large public library, eftablithed in 1772. This beautiful 
city prefents feveral other churches and chapels. The po- 
pulation is thought to exceed 30,000 fouls ; and the inhabit- 
ants are generally of a good character: and though phleg- 
matic in their appearance, their ftature and afpeé are agree- 
able, and their wit acute. Juftice is adminiftered by two 
alcalds, according to the code of the Indies, with an appeal 
to the Royal Audience. The municipality is compoied 
befides of fix regidors and other officers. The inhabitant 
are, in general, not rich, and many of them are occupied 11 
trade, the means of which, however, are rare and uncertain ; 
the fecular jurifdiction of this capital comprehends feven 
little diltri€ts in its neighbourhood, with 52 villages, and 

or7 Indians, not including the people of colour, fuppofed 
to be fourfoldthat number. N. lat. 4° 6’. W. long. 78° 30’. 
For other particulars, fee Bocora. 

Fe’, Santa, a town, or rather a village of America, thouzh 
it is the capital of New Mexico, fituated 2400 miles N. of 
the capital city of Mexico. It is the fee of a bifhop and re- 
fidence of a governor. It was founded, in +682, on the 
fkirts of a high chain of mountains, whence {prings a cleat 
river abounding in excellent trout. The river iffues from a 
lake on the fummit of the mountain, and pailes through the 
middle of the tewn. ‘The climate refembles that of Spain, 
having feafonable rain and fnow, the {pring being mild, and 
the fummer heats maturing cotton in abundance; the popu- 
lation eonfilts of 300 Spanith families, the Indians in that 
diftri not wifhing to live in the. fame town with their 
malters. The furrounding territory is clear of woods, fer- 
tile and pleafant, producing wheat, maize, garden plants, 

Ce fruits, 


REA 


fraits, and particularly grapes, of which good wines are 
made. ‘I'he paftures are well watered, and replenifhed with 

chorfes, cattle, acd fheep. The Rio Bravo rifes 50 leagues 
N.W. of the capital, difufes fertility, and has its margins 
adorned with beautiful woods, and its ftream abounding 
with excellent fifh. The ucighbouring mountains are 
cloathed with tail batrea pines, and with thofe of a Imaller 
fort which bear large cones ; the other trees are oaks of dif- 
ferent kinds, fapines and others which form excellent tim- 
ber. The animals are deer, bears, wolves, foxes, wild 
fheep, and {tags of the fize of a mule, the horus of which 
are not lefs than two yards in, length, probably the moofe 
deer, There are mines of tin, which do not defray the ex- 
pence of working. N. lat. 36° 50’. W, long. 108’ 48’. 

Fe!, Santa, a town of South America, in the vice-royalty 
of La Plata, or Buenos Ayres, at the confluence of the river 
Salado with the Plata, built by Ferdinand V. The town 
is of a {quare form, aad furrounded with walls, fanked with 
towers, and adcep ditch. The two flreets interfec& each 
other in the form of a crofs. It contains one parifh and 
ope convent. The environs abound in filk, corn, wine, and 
fruit; and game is plentiful, S. lat. 31° 50’. W. long. 
60’. 

. Fe’ @’ Antioquia, Santa, the capital of a province fo 
called, fituated on the river Cauca, in the vice-royalty of 
New Granada; highly celebrated for its rich mines of 
gold. N. lat. 6° 48!. W. long. 74° 36’. 

Fe! de Chiribique, Santa, atown of South America, in 
New Andalufia, on the coalt; 24 miles W. of Cumana. 
N, lat. 10° 5’, W. long. 65°. 

Fr'!, or Foy, Santa, a placein the middle of Veragua, 
.a province in the Audience of Guatimala, in North Ame- 
rica, where the king of Spain keeps officers for cafting and 
refining gold. It ftands at the fource of a river which runs 
into the North fea. 

Fe’, Santa, a city of Paraguay, in South America, 150 
leagues S. by W. of the city of Aflumption, feated on the 
river Paraguay. ‘The inhabitants are chiefly employed in 
hufbandry, grazing, and weaving cloth. They fell their 
_produ@tions and manufactures advantageoufly in Brazil. 

FEABES, in Rural Economy, aterm applied in fome 
places to goofeberries; and which is fometimes written 
feaberries. 

FEAGH, in Mining, fignifies the refufe fpar and rub- 
bifh of a mine. 

FEAL, in Rural Economy, a term often ufed in the 
more northern diftriats to fignify the turf or {ward of grafs 
land, when cut up or pared from the foil, for the purpofe of 
forming fods. This fort of cutting or flaying off the fur- 
face of old grafs lands was formerly very common, but from 
its being found highly prejudicial, has been lately much 
laid afide, and fhould be wholly difcontinued. 

Feau-D:ke, a term applied in the northern counties to a 
fence which is conflituted either wholly or partially. of fods 
or feal cut from the adjoining grafs land. 

Feav-Manure, in Agriculture, is that fort of earthy ma- 
nure, which is produced from the decompofition and decay 
of the grafly furface of land which has been cut in the man- 
ner of feal, and thrown together in a heap for the purpofe. 
When incorporated with a little dung it forms an excellent 
top-dreffing for hay-lands. 

Fea, wasanciently ufed for faithful; hence the tenants 
by knights fervice ufed to fwear to their lords to be fea/and 
deal; that is, faithful and loyal. 

_ FEALE, in Geography, a river of the county of Kerry, 

Ireland, which rifes in the weftern part of the county of 
Limerick, and pafles the towns of Abbyfeale and Liftowel ; 


FEA: 
after this it meets the river Gale, and with it forms the 
Cafhin, a river which is navigable for eight or ten miles, and 
rims into the eftuary of the Shannon, 

FEALTY, Fipexriras, denoted, under the feudal 
fyltem, an obligation on the part of the vaflal to be faithful to 
his lord, and to defend him againft all his enemies; and by 
the feudal law-an oath of fealty was required to be taken by 
all tenants to their landlord, which is couched in almoft the 
fame terms as our ancient oath of allegiance ; except that 
in the ufual oath of fealty there was frequently a faving or 
exception of the faith due to a fuperior lord by name, under 
whom the landlord himfelf was perhaps only a tenant or 
vaflal. But when the acknowledgment was made to the 
abfolute-{uperior himfelf, who was vaffal to no man, it was 
no longer called the oath of fealty, but the oath of allegi- 
ance, in which the tenant fwore to bear faith to his fove- 
reiga lord, without any faving or exception. See Artes 
GIANCE. 

Tealty is ufually mentioned as fynonymous with homage ; 
but it differs from it, as homage confifts in taking an oath 
when the tenant comes to his land, and is done but once, 
being an obligation which is permanent, and binds for ever, 
whiich fealty does not. : 

They differ alfo in the manner of the folemnity; for the 
oath of homage is taken by the tenant kneeling, but that 
of fealty is taken ftanding, and includes fix things, which 
are comprifed in the words incolume, tutum, utile, hone/lum, 
facile, pofibile. 

Incolume, that he do no bodily injury to the lord ; tutum, 
that he do him no fecret injury in any thing which is for his 
defence, asin his houfe or caltle ; honeflum, that he do him 
no injury in his reputation ; u/i/e, that he do not damage him 
in his poffeffions ; facile and poffibile, that he make it eafy 
and not difficult for the lord to do any good which other- 
wife he might do: all which is nae A comprifed in Leg, 
Hen. I. cap. 5. 

He that holds land by this only oath of fealty, holds in 
the freeft manner; for all, even thofe that have fee, hold 
per fidem & fiduciam ; that is, by fealty at the lealt. 

This fealty is alfo ufed in other nations, as in Lombardy 
and Burgundy. 

Indeed, as the very firft creation of this tenure grew from 
the love of the lord towards his followers, fo did it bind the 
tenant to fidelity, as appears by the whole courfe of the 
feuds, and the breach thereof is lofs of the fee. 

Hottoman, in his ** Commentaries de Verbis Feudalibus,”” 
fhews a double fealty ; the one general, to be performed by 
every fubjeét to his prince, anfwering to our oath of allegi- 
ance; and the other fpecial, required only of fuch, as in 
refpeét of their fee are tied by this oath towards their lords, 
We read of both alfo in the Grand Cuftomary of Normandy, 
&e. 

Fealty fpecial was with us performed either by freemen 
or villains. By 17 Ed. II. ftat. 2. the form of this oath is 
appointed, and as now oblerved it is as follows: “I A.B. 
will be to you my lord C. true and faithful, and bear to you 
fealty and faith for the lands and tenements which I hold of 
you; and I will truly do and perform the cuftoms and 
fervices that I ought to do to you. So help me God.’? 
The oath is adminiftered by the lord or his tteward ; and 
though it is negle&ted in fome manors, yet in copy-hold 
manors, where courts are kept, and copy-hold eftate granted, 
it is generally ufed. Every lord, of whom tenements are 
holden at this day, may, and ought to call upon his tenants 
to take this oath in his court-baron, becaufe if it be long 
neglected he may lofe his feignory, and the profits arifing 
from efcheats and other contingencies. ; 

Fealty 


FEA 


Fealty is incident to all forts of tenures, except from 
frank-almoign and tenancy at will. bn 5 

FEAR, in Lthics, is the apprehenfion of fome evil likely 
to befal us, attended with a defire of avoiding it. This 
paffion has been found to leffen perfpiration and urine. 
Fear, in JZythology, was a deity among the Grecks, 
and afterwards adored by the Romans, together with 
« Palenefs,’’ its infeparable companion. When men were 
{truck with the view of events, of which the caufes were 
unknown, and which infufed a terror into their minds that 
required foreign relief, they made a divinity of the difturb- 
ing paffion itfelf, from which they fought to be delivereg, by 
addreffing to it vows and prayers. It is not poffible to 
determine the precife time when they began to pay adora- 
tion to thefe two divinities. "They were known, however, 
to the earlieft poets of Greece. Hefiod, after having told 
us in his Theogony that fear was the daughter of Mars and 
Venus, adds, in the defcription of Hercules’s buckler, that 
this god was reprefented upon it in his chariot, accom- 
panied with fear and terror. Homer (Il. 1. 4.) gives thefe 
goddefles the fame original. Accordingly, whenever he 
makes the god of war appear in battle, he gives him fear, 
terror, and flight for his retinue ; he alfo places the fame 
divinities fometimes upon the tremendous gis of Minerva, 
and fometimes upon the buckler of Agamemnon. (Il. 1. 11.) 
A divinity, fo well marked by thefe two poets, and fo 
formidable in herfelf, could not fail to command religious 
worfhip. Accordingly they had recourfe to gifts and 
facrifices, in order to appeale and to be delivered from her. 
In a battle fought by Tullus Hoftilius, the Albans, who 
had declared for him, withdrew and joined the enemy. His 
men were at firft difmayed, and all feemed to be loft, when 
that prince vowed to erect a temple to fear and paleuels ; 
this vow produced its effects; the foldiers refumed their 
courage, and Tullus gained a complete victory. ‘his 
event, which is the era of introducing the worthip of thefe 
two goddeffes into Rome, is marked upon two medals of 
the ae of Hoftilia. Upon the one isa head with the 
hair erect, the countenance raifed towards heaven, the 
mouth open, and a terrible afpeét, which are lively figures 
of the divinity whom the medal reprefented. The other 
exhibits a meagre face inuch lengthened, the hair laid flat, 
and a ftaring afpect. And this is the true portrait of pale- 
nefs, which is the effeét of fear. According to Plutarch, 
the Icacedemonians placed the temple of fear by the tribunal 
of the “ Ephori,”? from a perfuafion that nothing is fo 
neceflary as to infpire the wicked with fear of fevere chattife- 
ment. Moreover, fear was joined in oaths with the other 
Bers fEf{chylus informs us, that in the folemn oath taken 
‘by the feven chiefs of the Thebau expedition, in the midit 
of facrifices, all of them holdin, their hands in the blood of 
ae victims, {wore by fear, by the god Mars, and by Bel- 
ona. 

Fear, Putting in, in Law, is the criterion that diftin- 
guifhes robbery from other larcenies. For if ont privately 

eals fixpence from the perfon of ancther, and afterwards 
keeps it by putting him in fear, this is no robbery, for the 
fear is fublequent (1 Hal. P. C. 534.) However, it is not 
neceflary, though ufual, to Jay in the indiétment that the 
robbery was committed by putting in fear ; it is: {ufficient, 
if laid-to be done by violence. And when it is laid to be 
‘done by putting in fear, this does not imply any great 
degree of terror or affright in the party robbed; it is 
enough that fo much force, or threatening by word or 
-geflure,. be ufed, as might create an apprehenfion of danger, 
or induce a man to part with his property without or againit 
his confent. (FPoit. 128.) | 


FEA 


Tzaa, Caps, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of North 
Carolina:. N. lat. 33° 50’. W. long. 78° r1'. 

Fear River, Cope, a river formed by the union of two 
ftreams, which unite near Wilmington in North Carolina, 
and run into the fea at Cape Fear. 

FEARN, a town of Scotland, in the county of Rofs ; 
four miles S. E. of Tain. 

FEAST, or Festivat, a church folemnity, or rejoicing 
in honour of God ora faint. 

The word is formed of the Latin, fefum, which fome 
derive a feriari, to keep holiday ; others from the Greek, 
ioriun, I feaff or entertain, of irra, hearth, fire. 

Feafts, and the ceremonies attending them, have made 
great part of the religion of almoft all nations and feéts ; 
witnefs thofe of the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Hebrews, 
Chriftians, and Mahometans. 

The Egyptians had fix principal feftivals, w/z. the firkt, 
celebrated at Bubaftis in honour of Diana; the fecond, at 
Bufiris, for the goddefs Ifis; the third, at Sais, for 
Minerva; the fourth, at Heliopolis, in honour of the Sun ; 
the fifth, at Buthos, was the feftival of Latona; and the 
fixth was celebrated at Pampremis. in honour of Mars. ‘The 
feftival at Bubaftis was peculiarly folemn. The people 
flocked thither from all parts, and the Nile was for feveral 
days overfpread with barges, decked with ornaments, and 
accompanied with mufic. The number of {pe€tators at this 
feftival was computed to be 700,cc0; who abandoned 
themfelves to mirth and revelling, and who confumed on 
this oceafion more wine than they uled throughout the whole 
year. At the feltival of Bufiris, the facrifices were followed 
with a flagellation, from which neither mea nor women 
were exempted. The feftival of Minerva at Sais was 
diftinguifhed by the great number of lamps which were kept 
burning during the night. The whole ceremony m the 
feftival of Heliopolis, and that of Buthos, was to offer 
facrifices upon that occafion to the Sua and to Latona, 
But that which they celebrated at Pampremis in honour of 
Mars, was attended with this fingularity ; the priefts bore 
upon a four-wheeled chariot the ftatue of that god, inclofed 
in a {mall chapel of gilt wood ; and while they endeavoured 
to force the chariot and ftatue into the temple of that 
divinity, men armed with clubs ftood in the way to hinder 
it, and as the prieits likewife had arms, an engagement 
enfued, it which it muft naturally be fuppofed many people 
loft their lives; though the Egyptians maintained that no 
perfon died of the wounds which were received on that 
occation. 

The firft feafts among the Greeks were celebrated in fo- 
kemn affemblies of the whole nation, on occafion of their 
games, as the Olympic, the Pythian, the Iithmian, and 
Nemean ; in procefs of time they had many others, the 
principal of which are enumerated in the courle of this work. 
Sce Potter’s Arch. vol. i. cap. 19, 20. 

The Romans alfo had abundance of ftated feafts in ho- 
nour of their deiti¢és and heroes: fuch were the Saturnalia, 
Cerealia, Lupercalia, Liberalia, Neptunalia, Confualia, 
Portymnalia, Vulcanalia, Palilia, Divalia, &c. See Sa- 
TURNALIA, &c. x! 

They had alfo feafts inftituted occafionally ; as Carmen- 
talia, Quirinalia, Terminalia, Floralia, Compitalia, Lemu- 
ria, Vernalia, befide other moveable and occational ones ; 
as to give thanks to the gods for benefits reseived; to im- 
nlore their affidance, or to appeafe their wrath, &c. as the 
Seales Feralia, Bacchanalia, Ambarvalia, Amburbalia, 
Suovetaurilia, and divers others, particularly denominated 
feria ; a8 Sementine, Latine, &c. See cach of thote feafls 
and feria in its proper place. 

Cta Tke 


FEA 


The featts were divided into days of facrifice, and days 
of banqueting and fealting ; days of games, and days of 
reft, or feriz. a 

There being but little hiftory wrote, or at leaft publithed 
in thofe days ; one end of feafts was to keep up the re- 
membrance of paft occurrences. 

The principal feafts of the Jews were the feafts of trum- 
pets, that of the expiation, of tabernacles, or the dedica- 
tion, ef the paffover, of pentecoft, and that of purifica- 
tion, The modern Jews have other feafts marked in their 
calendar of modern inttitution. 

The Mahometans, befides their weekly feaft, or fabbath, 
which is kept on Friday, have two folemn feafts, the firtt 
of which is called the Feaft of Victims, and celebrated on 
the tenth day of the laft month of their year; and the 
fecond, called Bairam. The Chinefe have two folemn 
feats in the year, in memory of Confucius, befides others of 
lefs note on other days of the year. 

Feasts among us are either immoveable or moveable. 

Feasts, Immoveable, are thofe conftantly celebrated on 
the fame day of the year; the principal of thefe are Chrift- 
mas-day, or the Nativity ; the Circumcifion, Epiphany, 
Candlemas, or the Purification; Lady-day, or the An- 
nuuciation, called alfo the Incarnation and Conception; All 
Saints, and All Souls; befides the days of the feveral 
apottles, St. Thomas, St. Paul, &c. which with us are 
fealts, though not ferie. See each feaft under its proper 
article. 

Feasts, Moveable, are thofe which are not confined to 
the fame day of the year. Of thefe the principal is Eatter, 
which gives law to all the reft, all of them following, and 
keeping their proper diftances from it; fuch are Palm- 
Sunday, Good-Fniday, Afh-Wednefday, Sexagefima, Af- 
cenfion-day, Pentecoft, and Trinity-Sunday. See Easter, 
SEXAGESIMA, PENTECOST, [RINITY, Kc. 

The four feafts which our laws take {pecial notice of are, 
the Annunciation of the blefled Virgin Mary, or Lady-day, 
the 25th of March; the Nativity of St. John the Baptilt, 
held on the 24th of June; the feaft of St. Michael the 
Archangel, on the 29th of September; and that of St. 
Thomas the Apoitle, on the 214t of December: on which 
quarterly days rent on leafes is ufually referved to be paid, 
5 and 6 Ed. VI. cap. 3. 3 Jac. I. cap. 1. 12 Car. II. 
cap. 30. : 

Belide thefe feafts, which are general, and enjoined by 
the church, there are others local and occafional, enjoined 
by the magiftrate, or voluntarily fet on foot by the people ; 
fuch are the days of thankfgiving for delivery from wars, 
plagues, &c. Such alfo are the vigils or wakes in commemo- 
ration of the dedications of particular churches. See 
Vici, &e. 

The prodigious increafe of feaft-days in the Chriftian 
church commenced towards the clofe of the fourth century, 
and was occafioned by the difcovery that was then made of 
the remains of martyrs and other holy men, for the com- 
memoration of whom they were eftablifhed. Thefe, inftead 
of being fet apart for pious exercifes, were abufed in 
indolence, voluptuoufnefs, and criminal practices. Many of 
them were inftituted on a pagan model, and perverted to 
fimilar purpofes. 

Feast of the Dead, is a folemn religious ceremony in ufe 
among the favages of America, fome of whom thus teftify 
their refpeét for the deceafed every eight years; and others, 
as the Hurons and Iroquois, every ten years. 


Feast is alfo ufed for. a banquet, or a fumptuous meal, 
without any immediate view to religion. 


PEA 


The ufe of the word, in this fenfe, arifes hence; that a 
part of the ceremony of many of the ancient feftivals, both 
thofe of the Heathens and the agape of the Chriftians, was 
good eating; though Mr, Huet ¢hoofes to derive the word 
from fe/inare, which in an ancient Latin verfion of Origen’s 
Comment on Matthew, fignifies fo feaff; “ Ut veniens illus 
Jefus feftinet cum difcipulis fuis.”? In ail antiquity, both 
errs and profane, facrifices were little more than religious 
eatts. 

It has been often obferved by authors, that there is no 
nation in the world comes near the Englifh in the mag- 
nificence of their feafls. Thofe made at our coronations, 
inttallments, confecrations, &c. tranfcend the belief of alf 
foreigners ; and yet itis doubted whether thofe now in ufe 
are comparable to thofe of our forefathers. 

The Perfians never difcourfe and deliberate of their moft 
important affairs but in the middle of their featts. 

FEATHARD, in Geography, a pott town of the county 
of Wexford, Ireland, which was formerly flourifhing, and 
fent two members to parliament, but which has now faller 
to decay, and has loft its privilege as a borough by the 
union. It isa feaport, feparated by a fmall neck of land 
from Waterford harbour, 81 Irifh miles S. by W. from 
Dublin, and 14 S.from New Rofs, See FerHarp. 

FEATHERS, in Comparative Anatomy, conttitute the 
peculiar covering of the clafs of birds. In no other tribe of 
animals are they met with; for the plumes which belon 
to fome of the lepidopterous infe&ts are different from the 
feathers of birds, both with refpe& to their ftru&ure and 
mode of growth. No bird is entirely deprived of feathers, 
although fome fpecies want them on certain parts of the 
body. The turkey and vulture have the head and part of the 
neck uncovered. The oftrich and the wading birds have 
bare thighs : thofe birds which have ceres, combs, cr pieces 
of flefh on the head, have thofe-parts without feathers, as in 
the bald coot, feveral gallinacex, &c. The aptenodytes 
want feathers even on the wings. Many birds have patches 
or {pots about the fide of the head, upon which there are no 
feathers. 

The feathers which make the proper clothing of the bird 
are of two kinds, the dow and common fhort feathers ; 
the former is placed under the common feathers: it gives 
an entire covering to fome water birds at a very early age ; 
of this the young goofe is a familiar example. The down 
is defigned to defend the bird againft cold and wet ; aad 
hence it is fo abundant upon the lower furface of thofe birds 
that frequent the water. 

Although the common feathers cover the whole body, 
they do not grow from every part of the fkin: they are 


thickeft upon the fhoulders and loins, along the under part of 


the neck and breaft, and do not exit upon the lateral lines 
of the neck or breaft, or about the umbilicus. This ar- 
rangement, and their being directed downwards and back- 
wards, allows them to cover the body more neatly, and to 
remain unrufled during the motions of the bird. ; 

The Jarge feathers, or quills, fituated upon the wings and 
tail, fhould rather be confidered as inftruments of motion 
than as an integument: thus we find them ftrong and un- 
yielding in their texture in birds of flight, more efpecially 
thofe that have heavy bodies, as the fwan, goofe, turkey, 
&c. while they are wanting in the wings of thofe birds that 
do not fly, as the oftrich, aptenodytes, &c. 

There are other long feathers that differ both from the 
quills and common feathers, with refpe@ to their ftru€ture and 
pofition. Of thefe we may mention thofe of the creft of 
the peacock, and fome of the crane kind, the hypoc on- 
driac feathers of the birds of paradife, the rump feathers 


of 


FEATHERS, 


of the peacock, &c. thefe feem defigned for ornament 
alone.. ‘ 

There are many other varieties of feathers, but as thefe 
are more the concern of the naturalift than of the anatomiift, 
we fhall not dwell upon them at prefent, and hereafter only 
notice fuch peculiarities in the external appearance of fea- 
thers as illuftrate the ftru€ture of thefe parts. 

The anatomy and mode of growth are effentially the 
fame in all kinds of feathers ; but we fhall take our defcrip- 
tion chiefly from the large feathers, or quills, as being the 
moft convenient for the purpofe. 

Previous to the appearance of the firft feathers, the fkin 
of birds is in a degree covered with hairs, except under the 
belly: thefe grow in tufts, or fafciculi, each containing about 
ten or twelve hairs. Cuvier flates thefe tufts to be implanted 
in a bulb or follicle, which, as he conceives, contains the 
rudiments or fheath of the feather. When the fheath is 
protruded from the flin, it carries with it the fafciculus of 
hairs, which then appears to arife from its extremity. In 
general, the hair very foon falls off from the feather, but 
in fome' of the accipitrine birds it is found attached for a 
conliderable time to the end of the feather, refembling fine 
down. : 

All feathers are originally contained in tubular fheaths ; 
thefe penetrate the fkin, and become apparent, ulually a 
few days after the bird leaves the ihell. "The quills are firft 
obferved ; after thefe, the down makes its appearance, and 
then the common feathers. Thefe latt are found to be ar- 
ranged in a quincunx order. 

The ftruéture of the fheath is exceedingly curious: it is 
round, or tubular ; the extremity, which is affixed in the fin, 
is blunt and perforated, in order to give paflage to the bulb 
or vafcular part of the feather; the external end is origi- 
nally-clofe, and of a pointed-fhape. The parietes cf this 
tube appear to be of an horny nature, although they are 
thin and extremely fragile: it readily fplits into lamina, 
more efpecially at the external extremity; it is thicker, 
fofter, and lefs brittle towards the end conne&ied with the 
fin. 

The root ef each fheath is accommodated in a corre- 
{ponding excavation of the integuments: this is lined by a 
refleCtion of the cuticle, which appears, after reaching the 
bottom of the ce//, to return outwards, by pafling on the 
proper fheath of the feather, in which fituation it is ex- 
tremely thin and delicate. The cells which enclofe the 
fheaths of the feathers are ufualiy very deep in the wings 
and tail ; their internal lininy is alfo ftrong in that fituation, 
and they adhere to the periofteum., 

If the fheath of the feather be opened at a very early 
period, it will be found to contain a wa/zular pulp, (of 
which more hereafter) ; and around this may be feen fome 
colouring matter, in a foft and almoft liquid ftate, which, 
if examined, will be found compofed of a number of little 
thin proceffes, or lamin, already pofleffing the form of the 
barbs of the future feather; thefe are therefore the firit 
parts which are produced ; they foon acquire more itrength 
and firmnefs, and become attached to the /haft or /alk of 
the feather, which isthe part next fecreted. 

As foon as the point of the feather is completely formed, 
it perforates the external end of the fheath, which is ealily 
ruptured. The feather in this way gradually increafes, to 
accommodate ,which the fheath alfo enlarges, and becomes 
on the feathers of the wing and tail a contiderable tube. 

In proportion as the feather is formed it paffes out of the 
torn end of the fheath, which becomes further lacerated by 
this means, and drics from expofure to the air, and falls off 


in fhreddy plates or feales, fhewing its original firu€@ture to 


have been Jaminated. 


The barbs, while enclofed in the fheath, are coiled round, 
in order to gain room ; but on paffing out unfold and take 
their proper figure. 

After the fhaft and barbs of the feather are entirely 
formed, the tubular part, or that which in quills is called 
the barrel, is produced. Cuvier defcribes this part as being 
formed by the confolidation and drying of the fheath in 
which the-fhaft grew ; ut it appears to us to be fecreted, 
like the other parts of the feather, by the vafcular pulp. 
The tube, ina full-grown feather, always appears to be the 
continuation of the back part of the fhaft. The fheath, 
however, adheres more clofely to the tube than the reft of 
the fhaft, and hence that fhreddy membrane which is 
obfervable on the barrel of a quill before it is cleaned. 

The vafeular fubflance, or pulp, fo often already alluded 
to, poffefles a very fingular ftru€ture. Cuvier calls it a 
gelatinous cylinder ; but although aimott fo foft and pulpy 
as to merit that name, it is an organifed body, confifting of 
numerous cells, and provided with a large fupply of blood. 
An injection of a coloured fluid from any of the neighbour- 
ing arteries renders the pulp of the feather entirely red, and 
feems to pervade every part of it, as if it was fhed into it, 
or extravafated in its fubitance. 

We have failed to trace any branches of nerves into the 
pulp, although they can be eafily diffe€ted as far as its 
origin or root: in this circumftance it refembles the vafcu- 
lar bulbs of hair and fpines, and the pulps of the teeth, 
into the fubftance of which, we believe, no perfon has yet 
clearly purfued the branches of nerves. 

The pulp, after fulfilling its purpofe, viz. the fecretion of 
the feather, undergoes a fingular change of ftruG@ure: it 
lofes all vafcularity, becomes perfeétly dry and tranfparent, 
and puts on the appearance of a number of empty mem- 
branous cones, or funnels, inferted the one into the other. 
This change has been afcribed to the part being dried by 
expofure to the air; but, that it is effe¢ted by a “procefs of 
ablorption, and by the ceffation of vafcular a@ion in the 
arterial branches, is fully proved by the cleannefs and the 
gifappearance of all colour in the degenerated pulp. The 
above change goes on gradually, beginning at the extremity 
of the pulp, fartheft from the root of the feather, and 
keeps regular pace with the growth of the feathers. Avs 
the pulp dies or degenerates along the grooved fide cf the 
fhaft, itis rubbed off ; but in the tube of the feather it is 
preferved, and makes that well-known jointed membra- 
nous body which we take out of the® barrel of the quill in 
making a pen. 

The converfion of the vafcular pulp into dry membra- 
nous cells neceffarily produces a confiderable vacancy in 
the tubular portion of the feather, which is fupplied by air. 
The means by which this airis obtained, and its chemical 
compofition, have not heretofore been known. In making 
fome experiments, with the view of analyfing the air.con- 
tained in quills, we difcovered how it is admitted into the- 
tube. Some quills, plucked from a living goofe, being in- 
troduced into a quickfilver bath, and their ends being cut 
off while in the bath, a fufficient quantity of air was ob- 
tained by turning their open ends up into an inverted jar. 
While this was doing, it was obferved, that if the open-erd 
of the quill was pufhed downwards into the bath, the 
quickfilver rofe in the barrel, asin a thermometer. This led 
to the conclufion, that there muit be an opening through 
which air could pafs out, and of courfe alfo into the barrel 
of the quill: fome further examination dete&ed a foramen 
fituated at the upper part of the barrel, juft where the 

groove 


FEATHERS. 


xroove of the fhaft terminates. This opening is extremely 
{mall, while *the quill is fixed in the wing, and: becomes 
almoft entirely lobed by the drying of the feather after it 
is plucked: it is the remnant of the paflage in which the 
portion of the vafcular pulp that went to the inner, or 
grooved fide of the fhafts, was originally fituated : for the 
pulp is divided at its external extremity into two branches, 
one of which goes onin the continuation of the tube in the 
back of the fhaft, and the other belongs to the greoved, or 
inner fide of the fhaft. : 

The above obfervations put it beyond all doubt that the 
hollow portions of feathers are fupplied with air from the 
atmofphere, inftead of being fecreted, as fome have fuppofed. 
As this air cannot be expelled and removed} and as it 1s ina 
degree expofed to the influence of the blood of the vafcular 
pulp, it was to be prefumed, that it underwent the fame 
change as air which had paffed through the organs of re- 
fpiration. With the view of afcertaining the fact, the fol- 
lowing experiments were made upona confiderable portion 
of air collected under quickfilver, in the manner already 
mentioned, from the quills of a living goofe. 

Some nitrous gas was firft admitted into the inverted jar, 
eontaining the air of the quills, and produced a very flight 
diminution of the column of air. Some weak folution of 
ammonia was next introduced, which diminifhed the quan- 
tity of air very confiderably: this was fuppofed to proceed 
froma folution of fome nitrate of mereury, which had formed 
on the furface. 

A fecond quantity of air was collected in a glafs tube in 
a fimilar manner. On admitting a portion of lime water, 
and fhaking the tube, the water became flightly turbid, and 
no material diminution of the column of air was obfeived. 
Nitrous gas was next introduced, when the red fumes were 
inftantly formed: in order to get rid of the fuperfluous 
nitrous gas, a quantity of the folution of fulphat of iron 
avas pafled up into the tube; a diminution in the bulk of the 
original air was now evident, and amounting, as was fup- 
pofed, to about the one-fixth of the whole. It was calcu- 
dated that this portion of air contained carbonic acid gas in 

| the proportion of about one-fifteenth part. Thefe experi- 
sments were made with the affiftance of the heft chemitt of 
the prefent age. We have fince repeated them nearly in 
the fame manner, and have obtained fimilar refults. The 
air admitted into feathers lofes a portion of its oxygen, and 
acquires a certain quantity of fixed air; but it is not fpoiled 
an the fame degree as if it had pafled through the lungs, 
por to the fame extent that, from reafoning on the fubject, 
ewe had been prepared to expect. 

Feathers, when fully formed, befides the degenerated 
pulp upon which they grew, ufually contifl of three parts, 
the tube or barrel, the /baft or fiali, and the barbs, with 
their darbules. 

The tube is a cylinder of a horny fubftance ; it is tranf- 
parent, on account of its only containing air, and the dry 
anembranous cells which remain from the vafcular pulp ; its 
fize isin general {mell in proportion to that of the whole 
feather, except in the quills, where it is of a confiderable 
fize. It is largeft in the large anferime and gallinaceous 
birds, as the turkey, fwan, goofe, &c. ; and hence the quills 
of thefe birds are the fitteft to be made into pens. ‘The 
tube, when minutely examined, appears to confilt of two 
4ayers, or lamine ; the external is a circular plate, and ex- 
hibits fome flight linear impreffions running round the barrel 
in.a tranfverfe dire@tion; it is likewife more denfe and tranf- 
parent than the internal, which has its parts difpofed in 
a@ longitudinal dire€tion, and is fmooth on-the internal 
Surface. 


The cavity of the barreliis continued a little way inte 
the back part of the fhaft, in which it is gradually loft, and 
in fome birds of flight, as the eagle, hawk, llork, &c. it is 
continued for a very, confiderable diltance into the fhaft. 
No part can be better contrived for uniting the advantages 
of ftrength and levity than the barrel of quills. 

The /haft 1s likewife compofed of a circular and a longi- 
tudinal layer, or plate ; it, however, appears opaque, in cons 
fequence of being filled with a pithy {ubitance. This lat is 
often of a white colour; if refembles very much the me- 
dulla of vegetables in a dried ftate, but is more compaét and 
clofe in its itru€ture, The fhaft is the principal part of moft 
feathers. The back, or external fide of the fhaft, is fmooth; 
the oppofite, or inner furface, prefents a groove, which runs 
along the middle of the fhaft for its whole length, giving it 
the appearance of having been originally compofed of two 
pieces. The two fides, or intermediate furfaces, of the 
fhaft, are lighter in their texture than the external and 
internal furfaces. 

The darés ave implanted along the two edges of the ex- 
ternal furface, or back of the fhaft. Upon the exiftence, 
fize, colour, and form of thele, chiefly depend the cha- 
racter and appearance of the feather. 

The barbs, when minutely examined, are feen to fend off 
proceffes from the edge of their potterior furfuce, exaGly in 
the fame manner as they avife themfelves from the fhaft : 
every barb, therefore, may be properly confidered as a fhaft 
1) mMintature, . 

Semetimes both the barbs and darbules are wanting, as 
in the quills of the caflowary, of which the fhafts are long, 
f{mooth, and pointed, refembling the {pines of the porca- 

ine. 

In loofe floating feathers, as thofe of the oftrich, &c. 
tthe barbs are not clofely applied to each other, and give off 
ufually barbules on each fide, which have no immediate con- 
neCtion with one another. In general, however, the barbules 
of one barb are inferted or interwoven with thofe of the 
next barb, fo that the feather prefents a continuous furface 
to the air or water. When the feathers are ruffled, the con- 
nection of the barbules is deftroyed, and the adjuftment of 
the feathers confifts in laying the barbs neatly the’ one be- 
fide the other, by which the barbules fall into each others 
interttices, 

The adhefion between the barbs of the wing-feathers in 
many birds of flight and water-birds is rendered very firm. 
In the goofe, for inftance, the barbs of the quills are plates 
or laminw, which have each a concave and convex furface. 
The barbs, therefore, are received the-one iuto the other, and 
are befides united by a row of barbules along their upper 
or pofterior edge. A deyree of the fame {tructure is found 
in the wings of all birds that fly. The intention of the 
barbs adhering together is the fame as the feathers being 
laid one upon another; by both thefe circumftances the bird 
is enabled to prefent an unbroken furface to the impulfe of 
the air during flight, and defend its body from being wet. 
The quills of the wing and tail appear to have, in general, 
but one row of barbules, which being placed obliquel 
upon the pofterior edge of the barbs, are enabled to pafs 
acrofs and touch each other. 

The feathers that form the creft of the peacock have no 
barbules in their middle and inferior part. The feathers of 
the creft of the balearic crane aretwilted ina {piral manner, and 
their barbs are only fine hairs. The creft of the little egret 
(ardea garzetta) is compofed of fimilar feathers. The tuft 
of feathers at the boctom of the neck of the male turkey 
may be alfo regarded as barblefs. ; 

The barbules are long, diftin€, and unattached to each 

, other 


FEATHERS. 


ether in the hypochondriac feathers of the birds of pa- 
radife, the rump feathers of the peacock, thofe on the thighs 
of the myGeria and balearic crane, the feathers of the 
toucan, and thofe placed around the earsof the owl, &c. 

The feathers of the noéturnal birds of prey have the 
barbs covered with long filky down, from which arifes the 
flow and tilent flight of thole birds fo neceffary to their ha- 
bits of life. 

The feathers ot the bulfinch, the purple throated Afy- 
cabcher (mufcicapa rubricollis’, the Tanagra fepticolor, thofe 
of the head of the red-headed manakin, and of the ram- 

hates momota, &c. have the barbs fine and filky. 

The rump-feathers of the golden thrush, thofe of the tail 
of the jay, and of the neck of the common duck, have the 
barbs fet clofe, and furnifhed with long, fine, foft barbules, 
peeled upon the furface in fuch a manner as to refemble 
atin. 

In fome foreign birds, as the humming-birds, the galbulas 

and trogons, paradifea aurea, &c. the barbs of the feathers 
are broad and fmooth upon the furface, and being of a bril- 
liant colour, produce the appearance of polifhed metals. 
' In the ruby necked humming-bird the feathers of the 
head and throat, and thofe of the head and belly of the 
amethyftine humming-bird, are fo extremely brilliant as to 
refemble precious ftones, as the names of thefe birds imply. 
This effet is produced by the barbs which terminate the 
fhaft being fo very denfe and highly polifked. 
of the tail-feathers in the wood-pecker are fingularly ftrong, 
it being by the tail that thefe birds fuftain themfelves in a 
great meafure when taking their prey. 

The appearance of fealing-wax on the wings of the waxen 
ehatterer (ampelis garrulus) arifes from the end of the fhaft 
being without barbs, and formed into a folid round difk, 
_ In the down of all birds the fhafts are extremely fine and 
delicate, and often imperceptible. The barbs are long, 
aoe and floating : and the barbules are long, loofe, and 
ilky. 

The chemical compofition of feathers agrees fo nearly 
with that of hairs, that we need not enter into particu- 
lars upon this part of the fubje&t. Feathers, however, con- 
tain a lefs proportion of mucilage, and receive lefs moifture 
from the body ; but although feathers are fo dry, even when 
attached to the living bird, they lofe much of their pliancy 
and frefhnefs after being fome time plucked. 

In the Plate defigned to illuftrate the anatomy and mode 
of growth of feathers, fig. 1. reprefents a portion of {kin of 
a bird recently hatched, upon which the hairs are feen that 
precede the appearance of the feathers. Fig. 2. fhews one 
of the young fheaths, bearing on its extremity fome of thefe 
hairs. Fig. 3. is aportion of the wing on which the fheaths 
of the quills are fhewn of different fizes, The cells are laid 
open, to expofe the roots of the feathers and the vafcular 
pulps pafling into them; a the fubftance of the wing; 4544 
the feather-fheaths ; ccc the pulps penetrating the bafe of 
the fheaths ; dd the lining of the cells turned back. Fig, 4. 
is the end of a fheath, fhewing the foramen by which the 
pulp enters the feather. Fig. 5. exhibits the fheath rup- 
tured at its external extremity, through which the end of 
the feather is feen to protrude ; a the fheath, fhewing the 
appearance of being compofed of circular fibres ;, 4 the fea- 
ther. - Fig.6. fhews the fame feather removed from the 
fheath; a the vane or fhaft, with the barbs imperfe@ly un- 
folded ; 2a part of the tubular portion of the fhaft. Fig. 7. 
reprefents the pulp taken out of the fheath, and that part 
which had formed the fhaft and barbs decayed and dry ; a 
the pulp ftill foft and vafcular; 4 the part which having 

2 


The barbs 


done its office is degenerated; ¢the feather. Fig. 8. isa 
magnified view of the pulp, feparated from all its connec- 
tions. Fig. g. is a view of the pulp laid open, in order to 
expofe the blood-veffels. Fig. ro. exhibits the pulp as it 
exilts when completely degenerated. Fig. 11. is the lower 

ortion of a quill, to fhew the foramen for admitting air 
Into the barrel ; @the groove of the inner fide of the thaft 
leading to the opéning ; 4 indicates a fpeck, which marks 
the fituation of the foramen. Jig.12. is the quill of a 
ftork laid open at the back part, in order to expofe the con- 
tinuation of the tube into the fhaft. Fig. 13. is given as 
an example of a loofe floating barb, with the barbules on 
each fide, and not intended for attachment to the adjoining 
ones: this view is magnified. Fig. 14. is a magnified re- 
prefentation of a barb of a goofe’s quill; a the convex fur- 
face which lies in the correfponding convexity of the next 
barb ; / the fingle row of {tiff oblique barbules. 

Fearuers. The chemical compofition ot feathers ap- 
pears, by Mr. Hatchett’s excellent experimeats (Phil. 
Tranf. vol.xc.), to be nearly the fame as that of hair, 
nail, and cuticle, and confifts of infpiflated albumen mixed 
with a very minute portion of gelatin, and a little animal 
oil. The proportion of infpiffated albumen is fo large, that 
feathers may be boiled for many days in water with fcarcely 
any lofs, the albumen being infoluble in this liquid, and the 
gelatin being fo fmall that the liquor gives no precipitate 
with tan, and very little with nitro-muriat of tin. 

FeaTHEersS, in Commerce, make a confiderable article, 
particularly thofe of the oftrich, heron, fwan, peacock, 
goofe, &c. for plumes, ornaments of the head, filling of 
beds, writing pens, &c. 

Geefe are plucked in fome parts of Great Britain five 
times in the year; the firft plucking is at Lady-day for 
feathers and quills; and the fame is renewed for feathers 
only four times more between that and Michaelmas. (See 
Fen and Goose.) In cold feafons many geefe die by this 
barbarous cuftom. Thofe feathers that are brought from 
Somerfetfhire are efteemed the beft, and thofe from Ireland 
the worft. Eider down is imported into this country from 
Denmark, and is furnifhed by thofe ducks that are inhabit- 
ants of Hudfon’s bay, Greenland, Iceland, and Norway : 
Hudfon’s bay alfo affords a very fine feather, fuppofed to 
be of the goofe-kind. "The down of the fwan is brought 
from Dantzick, whence we have alfo a great quantity of 
cock and hen feathers. The beft method of curing feathers 
is to lay them in a room in an expofure to the fun, and when 
dried to put them in bags, and beat them well with poles te 
difcharge the duit. 

Featruer-bed, 

FEATHERS, dy plea, See Ben. 

FEeaTuers, fcalded, 

FEeaTuHERs, in Agriculture, are fometimes employed as 
manure, where they can be colleéted in any quantity ; but, 
when ufed in this way, the pens, ftumps, and other refufe 
of them are chiefly the parts had recourfe to, being pro- 
cured from the fhops of the poulterers, &c. in large 
towns. S 

Frearuer, in the Manege, a fort of natural frizzling of 
the hair found in many parts of a horfe’s body, but more 
commonly between the eyes. In fome cafes it refembles 
an ear of barley, and in others an oilet-hole. Many are 
of opinion, that when the feather is lower than the eyes 
it is a fign of a weak eye-fight ; but this remark is not cer- 
tain. 

VeatuEr-edged Boards, in Rural Economy, are fuch 
boards as are fawn thinner on one edge than the other, in 


order 


FEA 


order to lap over each other, being much employed in 
building fmall farm-fheds, &c. where great expence is to be 
avoided. : 

Featuer, Prince’s, in Gardening, a common name of a 
{pecies of the amaranthus, See AMARANTHUS. 

Fearuer, Roman, called in French ef2e Romaine, isa 
feather upon a horfe’s neck, being a row of inair turned back 
and raifed, which forms a mark like a fword-blade juit by 
the mane. 

Featuer, Mid, in the Englifh Salt-works. See Mrp. 

Fratuer, Sea. See Gorconta. 

FeatHers, Fofil, in Natural Hiflory. Different writers 
have defcribed organic remains, or reliquia, found in the 
flrata, under the name of feathers, ornitholithi, &c. Mott 
of the drawings of pretended foffil feathers which we have 
feen, have had a confiderable refemblance to the iron-{tone 
foffil which Mr. Parkinfon has figured in the fifth plate, 
(fig. 5.) of the firfl volume of his Organic Remains, and 
he confiders it as a kind of leaf or vegetable produétion, and 
we think with good reafon. 

FEaTHER-out, in Geology, is a term which has been of late 
ufed by Mr. W. Smith and others, in deferibing fuch flrata 
as do not end abruptly, or in the face of a fudden hill, but 
whofe lower beds advance fo far beyond the fuperior ones, 
as to end by imperceptible degrees; acafe which frequently 
occurs.with fome particular itrata, and gives much trouble 
to a mineralogical furveyor in tracing their fuperior and in- 
ferior edges, and deferibing the furface they include ona 
map. In denudated diftrigts, it is very common to find 
ftrata, which are of pretty uniform hardnefs, feathering-out 
fo far, that it is difficult to trace their limits, except by the 
flight and almoft imperceptible ta>lets which the harder 
beds oceafion, as mentioned by Mr. Farey, Philofophical 
Magazine, vol. xxxiii. p. 262. 

FEATHERED Cotumsins. See THALicTRuM. 

FEATLY, Dante, in Biography, was born at Charl- 
ton in Oxfordfhire, in 1582. In 1594 he was admitted a 
{cholar of Corpus Chriiti college, where he took his degree 
of B. A.in 1602. He purfued his theological ftudies with 
great ardour ; and on account of his learning and polifhed 
manners was appointed chaplain te the embafly fent to the 
court of France, where he refided three years, and obtained 
a diftinguifhed reputation as a preacher. Upon his return, 
in 1613, he took his degree of 5B. D. and was prefented with 
the reétory of Northill in Cornwall, and immediately after 
was appointed domettic chaplain to Dr. Abbot, archbifhop 
of Canterbury, who in a fhort time prefented him with the 
reGtory of Lambeth. This was followed by other prefer- 
ments of confiderable worth. In 1625 he married, and 
quitted the palace xt Lambeth for a houfe at Kennington, 
of which he became poffeffed in right of his wife. During 
the civil wars he had nearly loft his life by fomeenthufiafti- 
cal foldiers who had conceived the opinion of his holding 
popifh principles. Though he twice efeaped their fury, 
his property was very much deteriorated by their ravages. 
Tn 1643 he was nominated one of the aflembly of divines, not 
only on account of his learning, but becaufe he was zealoufly 
attached to the Calviniftic dotrines. This latter circum- 
ftance induced the affembly not only to treat him with great 
re{peét, but to permit him to {peak freely his own opinions 
in favour of * epifcopacy,’’ and againit the * covenant.”? 
He was by his own friends deemed orthodox and loyal ; but 
lord Clarendon and others will not allow him that praife, on 
account of his attending againft archbifhop Laud when on 
trial. Lord Clarendon afferts that the king fent hima letter 
commanding him to follow the example of the other epifco- 


EES 


pal divines who had quitted the afflembly, which occafioned 
his writing to archbifhop Uther, affigning reafons why he 
could not obey the royal mandate. This correfpondence 
was by fome means laid before parliament, and was the ruin 
of Featly ; who was found guilty of a breach of an ordi- 
nance which prohibited the members of the aflembly from 
divulging their opinions without confent of one or both 
houfes. He was accordingly deemed a betrayer of the par= 
liamentary caufe, imprifoned, {tripped of his preferments, 
and expelled the aflembly, His {pirits were not broker by 
this ufage, but his health began rapidly to decline; he fup- 
plicated parliament to be permitted to exchange his prifon 
for apartments in Chelfea college, for the fake of change of 
air: this favour he obtained, but it was then too late; he 
died in 1644. His charafter is given in few words by Wood, 
who fays that ‘“ he was mott ferioufly and foundly pious 
and devout.” _Neal’s. Hift. of Puritans by Toulmin. 

FEAZING, at Sea, is the ravelling out of the cable or 
any great rope at the ends. 

FEBABO, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital 
of a diftri@ in the Libyan defert, inhabited by the Tibboo ¢ 
160 miles S. of Augela. N. lat. 26° 50’. IE. long, 22° 5’. 

FEBRICULA, in Medicine, the diminutive of febris, 
fignifying a flight fever, has been fometimes applied to the 
heétic fever, and fometimes to the low nervous fever, fo 
denominated ty Dr. Huxham. In the latter acceptation 
principally we have a treatife on the * Febricula, or Little 
—— by fir Richard Manningham. See Nervous 
"eUVUers 

FEBRIFUGE, from febris, fever, and fugo, I drive 
away, a term which is applicable to every remedy for 
fever, Lut was originally employed to denote the quality 
of thofe medicines which were believed to have fome pe+ 
culiar or fpecific power in arrefting febrile difeafes. The 
word, however, is now feldom employed; becaufe no re- 
medy pofleffed of any fpecific anti-febrile power is known, 
Autimonial medicines, indeed, and the neutral falts, in con- 
fequence of their diaphoretic quality, are fometimes called 
febrifuges ; but the term is not applied to them with more 
propriety than to the purgatives which are given, or even 
to the gruel which the patieats drink, If there be a re- 
medy, whicl: can be faid direétly to fupprefs febrile aGtion, 
it is, we believe, cold water, freely applied to the furface, 
and taken internally, (See Coip.) Hence the term * fe- 
brifugum magnum,”’ ufed a century ago by the reverend - 
Dr. i eee although it called forth the raillery and ri- 
dicule of the faculty, was, perhaps, not lefs juft than em- 
phatical. (See his treatife, entitled « Febrifugum Mag- 
num, or Common Water the beft Cure for Fevers,?? Lon- 
don, 1723.) ‘The cinchona, or Peruvian bark, has been 
termed the greateft febrifuge, probably on account of its 
efficacy in the cure of intermittent fevers, or agues, but, 
ftri@ly {peaking, it is a preventive in thefe cafes; fince its 
efficacy confifts in preventing the return of the fever, by 
pak eee the body in the interval ; and not in allaying 
the fever itfelf, over which it has no power. The fecret 
preparation of antimony, which Dr. James employed, and ~ 
which was fufficiently popular for many years, as a febri- 
fuge, to enrich the inventor and his family, poffeffes no other 
power in allaying fever, than its operation as a purgative 
and diaphoretic. See Fever. ren “4 

FEBRIS. See Fever. ’ 

Fesris Amphemerina, from zu$s and *pépx, a day, an ap- 
pellation given by fome of the moderns to that form of re- 
mittent fever, in which fimilar remiffions and exacerbation; 
occur daily, in order to diftinguifh it from’ the daily inter- 

4 mittent, 


a J FEB 


mittent, which is called febris quotidiana: (See Sauvages, 
Nofol. Method. clafs ii. order ii. genus 6.) It has been alfo 
denominated by Latin writers quotidiana continua. (See Sen- 
nertus de Febribus, lib. ii. cap. xiv.) “ Ett febris perpetuo 
quidem durans,”’ fays this author, “et nunquamad drueckios 
deveniens, fingulis tamen diebus exacerbationes fuas habens a 
one fanguini permixta.”’ It is the fynechees or continent 
ever of Morton, erroneoufly fo called: and the febris latica 
of feme writers in barbarous Latin. The terms 22. 2npepirxs 
amphemerina, as well as cathemerina, and methemerina, ée- 
rived from the fame root, with the addition of the prepofi- 
tions xe7% and perx, were applied by the Greeks to this 
' fever, as well as the quotidian intermittent. See Remir- 
TENT. 

'Fesris Anginofa, a term applied to fevers:accompanied 
by a fore throat, or angina. See CyNxancue. 

Fesris Defecatoria, the fame with depuratoria, a term 
ufed by Sydenham, Quefnay, and other htmoral patholo- 
gifts, to denote fuch a fever as terminates by a critical dif- 
charge, which was fuppofed to rid the fyltem of morbid 
humours. See DeruRAToria. 

*Fesris Elodes. See Evopes. 

Fesris Ephemera. See EPHEMERA. 

Fenris £pialos. See Epiavos. ‘ 

Fesris Gaffrica, an appellation applied to thofe modi- 
fications of tever in which the ftomach and bowels are more 
particularly affeted; as with pain, diarrhea, efpecially 
when the ftools are of a morbid appearance, or fetid, &c. 
(See Burferius, Inft. Med. Praé. vol.i.) The fame variety 
of fever has alfo been denominated febris ftercoralis, and 
by Quefnay fievre excrementeufe.. (Traite des Fieyres, 
tom. ii.) 

Fesris Hemitritea, rysrecrosz, the fame with femi-ter- 
tian. See Fever, Semi-tertian. 

Fenris Lypiria. See Lypiria. 

Fenris Phricodes, from Qeixn, febrile chill, called alfo fe- 
bris horrida and horrifica, a variety of fever in which the ri- 
gors or chills are frequent. See Puricopes. 

Fenris Synochus, allo Synocha, different modifications 
of continued fever, the former term being applied to the 
milder, the latter to the more violeut, inflammatory or ar- 
dent fpecies. See thofe words. 

Fexris Triteophia, a remittent fever with the remiflions 

and exacerbations occurring only on the alternate days ; it 
differs from the tertian intermittent, as the febris amphime- 
rina differs from the quotidian. See Remitrenr. 
- Fesris Tetartophia, a remittent fever, with the remiffions 
and exacerbations on the fourth day from the commence- 
ment, that is, with an interval of two days petween each 
remiffion ; and differing from the quartan, as the preceding 
article from the tertian intermittent. The triteophia and 
tetartophia have alfo been denominated tertiana continua, 
and quartana continua. See Remirrenrt. 

Fesris 1yphodes. See Tyruus. 

FEBRUA, or Fesrvara, in AZythologyy am appellation 
given to Juno as the goddefs of purification, and as prefiding 
over women in the pains of labour and childbirth. She 
was fo denominated, becaufe the pontiffs paid her a peculiar 
worfhip on the firft day of February. 

Fesrvua, in Antiquity, a featt held by the Romans in the 
mouth of February, in behalf of the manes of the deceafed. 

Macrobius tells us that facrifices were here pertormed, 
and the aft offices paid to the fhades of the defun@. (Saturn. 
lib. i. cap. 13.) c\nd.from this feaft it was that the month 
of February took its name. 

- The defign of thefe facrifices is fomewhat controverted : 
Pliny fays they were performed to render the infernal gods 
~»Vov. XIV. 


FEC 


propitious to the deceafed; though fome of the moderns 
have imagined that they were intended to. appeafe the 
deceafed themfelves, and were offered immediately to them 
asa fort of deities. What confirms the former fentiment 
is, that Pluto himfelf is furnamed Februus. They laited 
twelve days. 

The word is of an ancient ftanding inthe Latin tongue ; 
from the very foundation of the city we meet with fedrua 
for purifications, and februare, to purge or purify. Varroy 
(De Ling. lib. y.) derives it from the Sabines; Voffius 
and others from ferveo, J am hot, becaufe purifications 
were chiefly performed with fire and hot water. Some go 
higher, and even deduce the words from 4}5), phur, or 
phavar, which in the Syriac and Arabic has the fame 
fignification with -ferbuit, .or eferbuit, aud might probably 
likewifle fignify to purify ; for phavar, in Arabic, denotes 
a@ preparation given to women in child-bed to bring away 
the after-birth, and other impurities remaining after delivery 
much as among the Romans, who gave the name Februa to 
the goddefs fuppofed to prefide over the delivery of women. 
Ovid. Fatt. 

FEBRUARY, Fezruarius, inthe Roman Chronology; 
the fecond: month. of their year, fo called from Februa, a 
feat held therein. 

In the firft ages. of Rome, February was the laft month 
of the year, and preceded January, till the decemviri made 
an order that February fhould be the fecond month of the 
year, and come after January. See BissexTiLe. 

FE CAMB, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of the Lower Seine, and chief place of a canton, 
in the diftriét of Le Havre, nine miles S.W. of Dieppe. 
The place contains 7009, and the canton 14,981 inhabitants, 
on a territorial extent of 825 kiliometres, in 13 communes. 
The principal commerce confifts of linen, ferges, lace, leather, 
and hats: the herring fifhery employs many veffels: and 
fmaller boats tfhalong the coaft. N. lat. 49 46/. E. long. 
0° 28’. 

FECES. . See Faces. 

FECIALES, or Fosctares, an order of pricfts or 
officers confifting of twenty perfons, among the ancient Ro- 
mans, appointed to proclaim war, negociate peace, &c. 

Feftus derives the word from feria, J firike, as ferire fe- 
dus fignifies to conclude a treaty ; and accordingly, inftead of 
feciales, he would have it wrote feria/es. Others derive it from 
fedus, which was anciently written fedus ; or from ides, 
faith ; others from facto, feci, I make, &c. becaufe they 
made war and peace. Voflius choofes to derive it from 
fatu, of the verb fari, to peak : in which fenfe the feciales 
fhonld be the fame with oratores ; which fentiment is alfo 
confirmed by the authority of Varro, who fays they were 
called indifferently, fecia/es and eratores. De Vit. Popul. 
Roman. lib. ii. 

The feciales were a fort of heralds or kings at arms, who, 


when the Romans had any difpute with their neighbours, 
were fent firft to demand the thing pretended to be ufurped, 
or require fatisfaGtion for the injury alleged to be done. 
If an anfwer.was not returned by them that was fatisfactory 
to the people and the fenate, they were difpatched again to 
declare war, and.the like in, treating of peace, the feciales 
being the only perflons appointed to negociate between the 
fenate, &c. and the enemy. 

Plutarch, in the Life of Numa, and Halicarnaffeus, lib. i. 
obferve, that they were firft inftituted by that prince. The 
latter adds, that they were chofen out of the beit families 
in Rome; that their office, which was reputed a fort of {2- 
cerdotium, or prieithood, only ended with their life; that 
their, perfons were facred and invioluble, as thofe of other 

Dd pricits} 


REC 


prielts ; that they were even charged to fee the republic did 
not declare war unjuftly ; that they were to receive the 
complaints and remonftrances of nations who pretended to 
have been any way injured by the Romans; that if thofe 
complaints were found jut, they were to feize the criminals, 
and deliver them up te thofe they had offended; that they 
were invefted with the rights and privileges of ambaffadors ; 
that they concluded treaties of peace and alliance, and took 
care they.were executed ; and, la{tly, abolifhed them if they 
were found not to he equitable. Livy, lib. i. cap. 24. af: 
cribes their inftitution to Ancus Martius, in theyear of 
Rome 114. See alfo Aul. Gell. lib. xvi. cap. 4. 

But Varro affures us, that in his time moft of thefe fune- 
tions of the feciales were fet afide ; as thofe of the ancient 
heralds at arms are ameng-us at prefent ; though Plutarch 
obferves, that they had ftill fome authority in his time. 

The feciales. were crowned with verbena, vervain, when 
they went to declare war; their head was covered witha 
veil, over which the erown was applied; in this equipage 
they proceeded to the frontiers of the'new enemy’s:country, 
and threw.a bloody dart or javelin into the ground within 
the fame. In Livy,’and other ancient authors, we have the 
formula ufed in fuch declarations. 

FECKENHAM, Joun’ pe, in Biography, the laf 
mitred abbot who fat in the houfe of peers, was born of. 
poor parents, who réfided in a mere cottage on Feckenham 
forelt, in Worcefterfhire, from which place he derived -his 
name, that of his family being ** Howman.”? His natural 
abilities induced the parifh prieft to educate him, aad then 
to obtain for him an admithon into the monaftery’at Eve- 
fham. When he was eighteen years of age, he was fent to 
Gloucefter college, Oxford; where he ‘vefided a fufficient 
time to improve himfelf im académical learning, and then he 
was recalled to his abbey. Upon the diffolution of this 
place, in 1536, he hada yearly penfion of one hundred florins 
allowed him during his life. He now returned to Oxford, and 
in a fhort time took his degree, and was appointed chaplain 
to Dr. Bell, bifhop of Worcefter.. He wasafterwards chap- 
lain to Bonner, bifhop of Loadon, and, in 1549, when-Bon- 
ner was deprived of his bifhopric, his: chaplam was com- 
mitted to the Tower of London. The caufe of his impri- 
fonment was firft promiling, and then refufing, to adminitter 
the facraments after the Préteftant manner. He was after- 
wards, to ufe his own expreffion, * borrowed from prifon: to 
take part in different difputations on the points at “iffue 
between the Proteftants and Papifts,’”? which were held at 
the houfes of fome perfons of high rank, and was carried 
into Worcefterfhire, where he {till held a benefice to main- 
tain folemn public debates with Hooper, the bifhop of that 
diocefe. Thefe difputations producing no change in his re- 
ligious opinions, he was moit fhamefully remanded to the 
‘Tower, where he was kept till the acceflion of queen Mary, 
in 1553. He was rfow made chaplain to the queen 3 and 
alfo chaplain to Bonner, by whom he was prefented to the 
prebend of Kentifh Town, in St. Paul’s cathedral. ‘He was 
deputed to lady Jane Grey, to attempt her converfion two 
days before fhe was executed, but his miffion proved to be en- 
tirely fruitlefs. From the prebendary of St. Paul’s, he was, in 
the year 1554, raifed to the deanery ; and received other va- 
luable preferment. In the fame year he was appointed to 
difpute againft Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, before thofe 
exemplary charaéters were committed to the flames by order 
of the bloody queen, and her {till more infamous prelates. 
Feckenham, it is believed, was no party in thefe horri- 
ble crimes, and abhorred even the office of attempting to 
change the opinions of men, whom in his heart: he could 
not but refpeét. He was kind and humane, and diftinguifhed 


3 


FEC 
himfelf in. performing a thoufand good offices for the: dfs 


flied and perfecuted Proteftants. He went fo far in this’ 
caufe as to offend his bigoted mittrefs, who probably begam © 


to be:f{ufpicious of his principles. In 1556 he was created 
D.D. out of refpeét to his learning, piety, benevolence, and 
other virtues, without being called on to perform the ac 
cuftomed exercifes. 


pointed Feckenham. abbot of the fame, with epifcopal 
power over the monks. When Elizabeth came to the 
crown in 1558, fhe did not require to be reminded of her 
obligations to this worthy man, who had pleaded for her 
liberty when imprifoned by her fifter, but offered him the 
higheft promotion in the church, provided he could 
conform to the changes then in contemplation: ~ This 
his confcience obliged him to refufe: he went much farther; 
he thought it his duty to oppofe the reformation in the heufe 
of peers, where he fat as a mitred abbot in the loweft place 
on the bifhop’s form. . For his fteady attachment to his own, 
principles, and for the eloquence with which he pleaded 
againit the innovations of the times, he was committed to* 
the Tower in 1560, and continued in that prifon ull 1663, 
when he was removed to the cuftody of Dr. Herne, bifhop 
of Winchelter, who probably engaged to convert him from 
his errors : a‘taflc much too difficult for the prelate, who, it 
appears, in a few months, fent him back to the Tower: 
Shortly after, at the folicitation of his friends, he was re= 
moved to the Marfhalfea, from which he foon obtained a com+ 
plete difcharge. 1n 1574, he was again imprifoned, and res 
leafed upon giving bond for his appearance when Called ons 
It muft be obferved, that this mode of giving and taking 
bond is often reforted to as an apology for the government, 
when they know that they have flretched the limits of their 
power, and by fubmitting to give bond or bail for appear- 
ance, the aggrieved and injured perfon, in truth, juftifies the 
condu& of thofe who-have inflicted the injury. Fecken- 
ham, at length, wearied with frequent profecutions, ac- 
knowledged the queen’s fupremacy, but could be perfuaded 
to go no farther, and he was again imprifoned at the 
caltle of Wifseach, where he fpent the remainder cf his 
days, and died in 1585. Camden calls him “a learned and 
good man, that lived long, did a great deal of geod, and al. 
ways folicited the minds of his adverfaries to benevolence.” 
Fuller f{tyles him a man cruel to none, courteous and cha= 
ritable to all who needed his help. Burnet and others bear 
their teftimony likewife to the excellence of his character: 
Biog. Brit. 

FECULA, in Chemifry. This term is ufually applied to 
any pulverulent matter extracted from any part of a vegeta- 
ble, fimply by breaking down its texture, wafhing with wa- 
ter, and fubfidence. It is therefore a moft minutely divided 
fub{tance, capable of being fufpended in cold water, but not 
diffolved. a 

The moft important.of thefe is the amylaceons fecula, a 
nutritive infipid fubftance contamed abundantly in grains, 
feeds, and roots, and which, when extraéted, purified, and 
dried, forms the common Starch, the manufa&ture’ of which 
will be deferibed under that article. be 

Mok parts of vegetables will furnith this fecula, but it is 
particularly found in grains, feeds, and roots, united with 
an extractive and faccharine matter, fometimes with glaten 
and vegetable albumen, with mucilage, and oil. Of “roots, 
the tuberous and bulbous are thofe which contain the moft 
fecula; the medullary part of trees and plants alfo abound 
with it. te ante are 

The extraction of the fecula-is very fimple, but it cannot 
always be obtained free from-colour and tafe. The root 

: or. 


Inthe fame year, queen Mary reftored . 
the monaftic foundation of Weftminfter Abbey, and: ap- ~ 


EE C 
or grain mutt firft be broken down into a pulp by rafping 


or other mechanical means, and then wafhed with cold water, 
which becomes immediately turbid. This is to be haftily 
poured off from the fibrous part of the pulp through a coarfe 
fieve, and allowed to remain at reft for a few minutes, during 
which the fecula fubfides to the bottom in the form of a 
very fine clofe-grained powder, but without any tenacity or 
cohefion, and of the confiftence of very fine wetted fand: 
The fuperaatant liquor always remains fomewhat'turbid, and 
generally coloured with mucilage or extrad. ‘The fecula 
fhould be wafhed repeatedly with abundance of cold water, 
till this comes from it quite infipid and colourlefs. 

It fhould be obferved, however, that it is only from a 
few of the grains and roots of plants that the’extraction of 
. the fecula is thus eafily effeGted ; for where this fubftance is 
intimately united with oil and mucilage, as in the almond, 
and many other kernel feeds, the whole is rendered uniformly 
diffufible in water nearly in an equal degree, and the fecula 
will not be depofited pure by mere fubfidence, nor indeed is 


there any way by which it can be obtained very pure’ 


when in this combination. ; 

The chemical properties of pure fecula (taking fine 
flarch as an soles are the following : 

{t is a white powder, nearly, if not entirely, infipid, fonte- 
what adhering to the tongue, but not foluble in the mouth. 
When examined with a lens in a goad light it appears com- 
pofed of {mall femi-tranfparent grains, with a fattiny glofs, 
and fomewhat of a cryftalline arrangement. It is not eafily 
moiftened with cold water, but when rubbed with this fluid 
it makes an incohefive mafs, which, on drying, cracks into 
{mall pieces. When wetted and kept in a moderate warmth, 
the mixture flightly ferments and turns four. 

Boiling water, however, ats very differently on fecula, 
for it diflolves that fubftance fpeedily and totally into a thick, 
tenacious, tranf{parent jelly, which becomes {till more tena- 

_ cious by long boiling, as is feen in the ordinary domettic 
ufe of ftarch. When liquid ftarch is flowly dried, it fhrinks 
in every direétion as the water evaporates, and finally be- 
comes a tranf{parent brittle fub{ftance, exactly refembling 
gum-mucilage. 

Mott of the acids diffolve fecula with eafe, efpecially when 
affifted with heat, and with nearly the fame products and 
appearances that attend the ation of the fame acids on 
mucilage. 

The alkalies alfo diffolve fecula readily, but the precife 
chemical effeéts of thefe agents have not been much ex- 
amined. 


FEC 


derately, afford a turbid green juice, which, when filtered, 
ives a clear but tenacious juice, that. pafles through the 
filter, whilft there remains bebind a green pulp, which is the 
fpecies of fecula in queftion. - Rouellé was the firit. who 
pointed out the nature of this fecula, fhewiag that it. was 
totally different from the amylaceous fecula, but bore a {trong 
refemblance tothe gluten-of wheat, mixed, however, with a 
kind of refinous fubftance foluble in alcohol, to which the 
green colours chiefly owing. 
‘- Prouft has alfo given fome valuable obfervations on thig 
fubje€€ (Journal de Phyfique, tom. 56.) of which the fol- 
lowing is an abftraé. 

When any of the green turbid juice of plants, (fuch as 
of hemlock, crefs, cabbage, &c.) is heated, it becomes ropy, 
and {Gon coagulates in part, forming a tough, green, gluti- 
nous mafs, that feparates from the liquor, which laft now 
lofes* its*colour and remains limpid. ‘he heat - of .1457 
is fufficient to feparaté all this fecula, which is lefs than 
what is required to coagulate albumen, one circumitance 
that éftablifhes fome difference between this fecula and albu- 
men, to which it has been likened by Fourcroy, I the co- 
agulated fecula is gently dried, it hardens into an elaftic 
horny fubftance, which will not again unite with .water. 
Tf this fecula, either before or after coagulation, be kept 
under water in warm weather, it becomes offenfive in a day’s 
time, and has the naufeous fmell and other circumitances at- 
tending the putrefagtion of animal matter. .The water in 
which this fecula has long been kept contains fulphuretted 
hydrogen,‘and carbonat of ammonia. 

This fecula is precipitated from the native juice by almoft 
any neutral falt, which, probably, is merely owing to the 
fuperior affinity of the falt for the water in which the'fecula 
is held diffolved. 

When the entire green feculous precipitate, formed by 
heating the recent juice, is treated with alcohol, a portion 
only diffolves therein, leaving about 80 ger cent. of the 
whole precipitate untouched. The alcoholic folution, eva- 
porated to drynefs, leaves a foft green fubRance, fomewhat 
refembling a refin, but differing from it in not being fepa- 
rated from the alcoholic folution on addition of water. Al- 
cohol, added to the entire juice of the plant recently ex- 
preffed, produces a white precipitate, and leaves a green re- 
finous folution. Oxymuriatic acid deftroys the green co- 
lour, both of the entire juice and of the alcoholic folution. 

On the whole, it feems probable that the green fecula of 
the herbaceous vegetables confifts of two parts, namely, 
of a green fubftance, foluble in alcohol, and very fimilar to 


. When ftarch is heated ftrongly in the open air, it firft be-. the refins ; and of another principle, coagulable by a very 


comes yellow, then brown, and red, foftens, puffs up, exhales 
‘a white pungent acid fmoke, and leaves a bulky foft coal. 
The produéts of its diftillation per fe are, a water loaded 
with pyromucous acid, fome drops of a red-brown oil, much 
carbonic acid, and hydrocarbonous gas. The athes of 
the coal, when fully calcined, contain a little potafh and 
phofpbat-of lime. 
Starch, when kept dry, and fecluded feom the air, will 
remain long unaltered, though at lait it runs into clots, and 
acquires a four mufty fmell. 
. In chemical properties the amylaceous fecula bears the 
ftrongett refemblance to mucilage. : 
«Of the green Fecula of Plants. —This fubftance, which has 
been the fubje& of much curious inveltigation, muft be care- 
fully diftinzuithed from the amylaceous fecula laft deferibed, 
to which indeed it has no other refemblance than in the 
mere circumitance of being fometimes obtained in a fine 
pulverulent form by {pontaneous fubfidence. 
- Many of the green Jucculent vegetables, when preffed mo- 


> 


gentle heat, {nfceptible of putrefaction, like animal matter, 
producing much ammonia when heated, foluble in alkalies, 
and which bears a very ftrong analogy with animal gluten. 
FECULENT, or Facutent, isapplied to the blood 
and other humours, where they abound in feces or dregs, 
or have not the proper and ufual degree of purity. 
FECUNDATION of Puants, in Vegetable Phyfrole- 
ey, is now generally believed to be accomplithed by the ac- 
tion of the pollen of the anthers upon the fligma. (See A 
tHER#.) This doétrine, having been previoufly ailerted t 
feveral phyfiologitts towards the end of the feventeenth ce 
tury, was varioudly illuftrated and finally eflablithed by Lia- 
neus towards the year1732. His fubfequent publications 
all tend to confirm it, efpecially his prize diflertation, pub- 
lifhed by the Imperial Academy at Peterfburgh .in 1760, 
tranflated into Englifh, with notes, by the author of the 
prefent article in 1786. Whether the hypothelis 


Ne 
Vv 
h- 


in that work, that the itamens, or male organs, ve their 
origin from the cortical part of the plant, and the piftils, or 
Dd2 female 


FEC 


female ones; from the medullary fubftance, be founded in 
truth, is not to our prefent purpofe. There are many 
faéts and analogies which fupport that theory ; and what 
theory, in the hands of an ingenious man, is deftitute of 
fuch fupports? The idea is altogether {peculative ; and 
the dogtrine of vegetable impregnation, which we thall now 
briefly explain, is entirely independant of it. 

As far as the flowers of any plant have been clearly afcer- 
tained and diffeGted, they are found to confilt of two effen- 
tial-kinds of organs, the fkamens and pillils. The effential 
part of the former is the anther, a capfular body containing 
the pollen; which laft, even after it is diflodged from the 
anther, is found to be alfovin general capfalar, aes in 
{ome inftances of a glutinous fub{tance. In either cafe the 
pollen finally difcharges fomething, in the form.of a vapour 
or eflence, by which its final purpofe is anfwered. _The 
eflential part of the piftil or piftils, on the other hand, is the 
fligma belonging toeach. This is formed fo as tv receive 
and retain the pollen, being either downy or concave, often 
irritable, and efpecially furnifhed with a peculiar vifeid 
moitture of its own, which caufes the pollen, when of a 
dry nature, to explode, and when otherwife, to give out 
its eflential fubftance, fo as to be communicated through the 
medium of the faid peculiar moifture, to the rudiments of 
the feeds, which by that means alone are enabled to bring to 
perfection the latent embryo of the future plant within them, 
er, in other words, to become prolific. It has been afcer- 
tained that feeds, however apparently perfe&t in all their 
other parts, have no embryo unlefs the pollen has acted upon 
them as above-mentioned. (See Emspryo and Corcutum.) 
‘That the pollen is not of an excrementitious nature, and has 
fundtions to perform after it has left the anther, is evident 
from its elaborate ftructure, and highly elattic, and appa- 
rently active, contents, which are fubfequently difcharged. 
"That its funGtions, whatever they may be, are not perform- 
ed by any clandeftine communication with the infant feeds, 
through the other parts of the flower, is demonttrated by 
the great numbers of flowers which have the ftamens in one 
individual, and the piftils in another, of the fame f{pecies, 
growing on different ftalks or even diftinét roots. That the 
fligma 1s no lefs important an agent than the pollen, ap- 
pears from its vitality being retained till it has received that 
{timulus, and no longer, while the parts immediately connect- 
ed with the ftigma, deftined to contain, protect, or here- 
after to tranfport, the growing feeds or fruit, remain in full 
vigour till their deftination is accomplifhed. Thus the 
ftyles of many umbelliferous plants, aud various others, after 
their ftigmas are entirely withered, become lengthened, har- 
dened, or recurved, fo as to form hooks by which the mpe 
feeds {tick to the coats of animals, and are by that means 
widely difperfed. Other flyles become feathery crowns or 
wings, through whofe fupport the feeds are wafted away by 
the wind, as in moft compound flowers. In every cafe 
the fligma, however elaborate an organ originally, will be 
found: to have long fince difappeared, its ** fountains of life” 
having kcea dried up as foon as the ends of its creation were 
accomplifhed. That the female organs of a flower are, dur- 
ing their growth, before fecundation, independant of the 
male ones, or ftamens, is proved by removing the latter, and 
impregnating their appropriate piltils with pollen from an- 
other bloffom of the fame fpecies, which will then as effec- 
tually perfeét their feeds as if they had received pollen from 
the anthers which naturally belong to them. This laft ex- 
periment is molt fatisfa€torily performed on flowers that laft 
but one day, as the various {pecies of Glaucium or Horned- 

Oppy- A : 
Innumerable collateral circumftances confirm the doctrine 


4 


PED 


of vegetable fecundation here advanced. Ifthe pollen be 
caufed to explode prematurely by adventitious moiiture, be- 
fore it reaches its final defination at the ftigma, its purpofe 
is defeated, and the appropriate piftils prove barren. This 
happens to corn and fruit-trees ocealionally, from fuper- 
abundant and uninterrupted rain. Cold alfo is hurtful, as 
benumbing the vital energy of the ftigma and its concomi- 
tant parts. Exceflive, irregular, or unhealthy nourifhment 
fometimes changes the nature of the ftamens and piltils, fo 
effeCtually as to transferm them into other parts of a flower, 
chiefly petals, thereby entirely defeating their natural pur- 
pofe, and producing thofe beautiful monflers called double 
flowers, which generally return to a natural fkate, if reftored 
to their natural foils and fituations. Accidental or artificial 
crofs fecundation, by application of the pollen of one flower 
to the ttigma of another nearly akin, ‘thereby producing 
mule offspring, more or Jefs refembling both its parents, 
but, like animal mules, only tranfiently, imperfectly or not 
at all, prolific, is perhaps the moft conelufive proof of the 
truth of thisdo€trine. Lianzeus performed fuch an experi- 
ment on the Tragopogon pratenfis, whole flowers are yellow, 
by fprinkling its fugmas with pollen taken from Tragopogon 
porrtfolius, whofe flowers are dark purple. The offspring 
bore purple flowers, yellow at their bafe, than which no-~ 
thing could be more conclufive ; and the many varieties, or 
feemingly new {pecies, of Cape Geraniums, which come up 
{pontaneoufly from feed ripened in our gardens, and fooner 
or later decline and difappear, afford no lefs evident confir- 
mation of the fexes and fecundation of vegetables. S. 

FECUNDITY, or Forcunpiry, Fertility, or that 
quality ofa thing which denominates it fruitful. 

The fecundity of divers plants is very extraordinary. My 
Dodart has an exprefs difcourfe on this fubjeét, in the Me- 
moirs of the Academy of Science ; wherein he fhews, that, 
at a moderate computation, anelm, one year with another, 
yields 329,000 grains or feeds, each of which, if properly 
lodged, would grow up into a tree : now an elm ordinarily 
lives 100 years, confequently, in the courfe of its life, it 
produces near 33,000,¢00 feeds, all which arife trom one 
fingle feed. ‘ 

He thews farther, that the fame elm, by frequently cutting 
off its head, &c.might be broughtto produce 15,840,000,003 
feeds, and, confequently, that there are fo many aétually 
contained in it. 

Fecunpity of Fifh. See Fisu. 

FECUNSUM, in Geography, a town of Japan, on the 
N. coaft of Niphon; 28 miles N. of Noto. ; : 

FECURI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon, 


‘on the gulf of Jedo; 65 miles S. of Jedo. 


FECYUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of 
Gallia Narbonnentis, fituated on the bank of a lake, near 
the fea, at the mouth of the Rhéne, in the country of the 
Vol{ci Arécomici. 

FEDALA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Africa, in 
Morocco, ona bay of the Atlantic, forming the road belonging 
to this town, fcarcely fufficient to fhelter a few fmall veffels ; 
8 leagues S. of Monfooria. ‘The above-mentioned bay is 
partly formed by a little point of land which projects into 
the fea, and which has been improperly denominated an 
ifland. In the year 1773 the reigning emperor, having per- 
mitted a great quantity of corn to be brought out of the 
matadores contiguous to this road, determined to avail him- 
felf of the opportunity thus offered for building a city, by 
obliging the merchants, who wifhed to have any part. 
the corn, to build fome houfes; and thus the town of Fea 
dala was begun in a very advantageous fituation; but no 
fooner was the corn dilpofed of than the town was aban- 

doned ; 


«* 


FED 


Goned ; fo that it was ruined before it was finifhed. ‘The 
road of Fedala being defended by the coait, which, on the 
fouthern fide, perceptibly extends to the welt, fhips may 
fafely anchor here in winter; but, in fummer, when the 
winds blow ftrong from the N.N.W., the fwell of the fea 
is very incommodious. 

FEDER Sea, a lake of Germany, in the circle of 
Swabia, about 12 miles in circumference ; communicatipg 
with the Danube by ariver called Krantzach; the lake is a 
little to the eaft of Buchau. 

FEDERATION, or Conreprration, applies prin- 
cipally to a certain coalition among powers, generally 
adjunétly fituated, and nearly equal in power, for the pur- 
pofe of maintaining their independence, or for the conquelt 
of fome obnoxious people, with whom none of the parties 
could cope unlefs aided by the forces of his neighbours. 
This excellent policy has been on many occafions reforted 
to as the means of felf-defence, and, whea duly maintaincd, 
has rarely failed to’accomplifh its intent ; but, unhappily, 
we experience in this branch of politics all thofe evils infe- 
parably attendant upon every combination of perfons whole 
views aid interefts are not {ridtly in unifon 5 jealoufy, am- 
bition, and refentment for fuppofed flights, rarely fail to 
banifh that harmony, on which alone the fafety of all mutt 
depend. Of this, we have a lamentable inftance in the late 
difmemberment of the German empire, of which the feveral 
members allowed themfelves to be {wayed by hopes and ex- 
pectations, fuch as muft ultimately prove illufive; in the 
mean time they enable him, who fhould have been confidered 
their common enemy, to deftroy the very foundation of their 
fafety, both general and individual, and to extend that 
power, which had already proved itfelf too extenfive, to 
admit that Europe fhould repofe in peace, or even preferve 
its independence. 

In like manner we fee that immenfe federation, formed in 
the heart of Hindooftan by the Mahrattas, proceeding 
with hafty ftrides towards its diffolution. There the feveral 
princes allowed themfelves to be aétuated by ambition; each 
wanted to become the head of a formidable empire ; each 
viewed his neighbour’s dominions with a longing eye, and 

~viewed his every at with fufpicion and doubt. Hence it 
was no difficult tafk to fet the whole at variance, and to fow 
difcord fo abundantly among them, as to raife an impene- 
trable barrier again{t reconciliation, and future co-opera- 
tion. 

Though not fo evidently marked, a certain charaéteriftic 
of this defeription may be traced in the conduct of thole 
Indian tribes inhabiting the interior of North America. 
Formerly, to infult one, was to challenge the whole ; but 
fince they have become familiarized to the ufe of {pirituous 
liquors, and been taught to look forward to their own 
feparate interefts, each tribe has been, to a certain degree, 
eftranged from: the federation, and all have confequently 
beea, more or lefs, bereft of both property and power. 
Tn this cafe, however, we are induced to throw a veil over 
the privations, and the fufferings of a people who have con- 
tributed fo little, if at all, to the welfare of the world at 
large ; viewing them as ferocious, fanguinary, and treache- 
rous, we may be permitted rather to exult in, than to con- 
demn thofe encroachments which carry with them civiliza- 
tion and improvement ; we therefore feel no difpofition to 
become their partizans. 

' With refpeét to that federation or league which has 
been fo often attempted, and fo invariably baffled, for the 
narrowing our maritime influence, little need be faid. So 
long as our minifters remain faithful to their trait,) we may 
confide to the Britifh navy the charge of fupporting that 


w 


ftriking a charaGer in moft of the {pecies, the 


PLE 


exalted character for which it is not indebted to eripty 
panegyric, but to its own fubftantial merits. 

The Britith empire, while its three component parts, viz. 
England (including Wales), Scotland, and Ireland, though 
governed by one king, had their refpeGiive parliaments, and. 
confequently feparate eftablifhments and different laws ; 
could be confidered only as a federation. A very curfory 
review of paft events in thofe feveral portions of the united 
kingdom muft fatisfy every refleéting mind, that human 
wifdom cotild not have devifed a more prudent, or a more 
neceffary meafure, than the abolition of thofe diltin@ forms 
of legiflation, upon which our enemies ever depended for 
fupport. It is true the minds of all are not as yet recon- 
ciled to the combiaation, but we may fafely venture to pre- 
di&, that potterity will do juitice to the fagacity and in- 
tegrity of that minifter who bound our whole population 
to each other, by mutual advantage ; a much {tronger tie 
than could poffibly be effected by federation. 

FEDIA, in Botany, a name which originated with 
Acdanfon, and feems to be derived trom Fedus, an ancient 
word for Hadus,akid. This derivation might at leaft be 
probable, if the Media of Adanfon, like that of fubfequent 
authors, included the Lamb’s Lettuce, but it contilts of 
Faleriana fidirica only, to which the name is not in that 
fenfe appropriate, except by a very lax concatenation of 
ideas. Stilllefs furely can it be deduced trom fedus, filthy, 
foctid, or mean.—Adanfon Fam. des Pl. v. 2. 152. Gaertn. 
t. 86. Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 18. Michaux Boreali-Amer. y. 1. 
18. (Valeriana; Linn. Gen. 22. Schreb. 29. Willd. Sp- 
Pl. v. 1. 175. Sm. Fl. Brit. 37. Juff. 195. Valerianella ; 


‘Tourn. t.52. Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 5. Locufta; ibid. t. 6. 


Polypremum ; Adanf, loc. cit.) Clafs and order, Triandria 
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Dipfasee, Juli. 

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, very fmall, with three 
or four teeth, at length varioufly dilated, permanent. Co,. 
of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube gibbous ; border five-clefi, 
regular or irregular, bluntifh. Stam. Filaments three, fome- 
times four, five, or fix, inferted into the corolla, awl-thaped, 
ereGt, nearly as long as the border ; anthers rouadifh. Pip. 
Germen inferior, of three cells ;, ftyle thread-fhaped, the 
length of the ftamens; ftigma notched. Peric. Capfule 
coriaceous or membranous, not buriting, crowned with the 
calyx, of two abortive cells and one fertile. Sced folitary, 
ovate, fmooth. : 

Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, with three or four teeth. 
Corolla of one petal, five-cleft. Capfule crowned, without 
valves, with oxe fertile cell. Seed folitary. 

Perhaps this genus may properly be feparated from 
Valeriana, but it is a quettion of fome difficulty. their na- 
tural affinity being very great, and the ftruGure of the parts 
of frutification in both extremely various. J edia confiils 
of 12 {pecies in Vahl’s Enumeratio Plantarum, that author 
railing to the rank of fpecies, feveral herctofure efteemed 
varieties of Valeriana Locufla, Linn. Sp. Pl. 47. Engl. Bor. 
t: Sir. Among thefe are V. dentata, Sm. Vl. Brit. 1385. 
Engl. Bot. t..1370. 

F. cornucopie (Valeriana cornucopia ; Linn. Sp. P). 44 
Sm. I'l. Grae, Sib. t. 32.) is one of the handfomeft, but it 
is onc that moft betrays a ftriG relationthip to Vaérisna, 
and perhaps ought to combine the uvo genera. If every 
Faleriana had.that feathery crown to the fruit, of which 
no traces are found in the flower, and which makes fo 


ditt 


would be obvious and certain, and when they are ; ro- 
perly examined, in flower and in fruit, it may be found te 
hald good. If not, we prelume Fedia can f{earcely be fup 


ported, 
FEDOA, 


FEDOA, ih’ Ornithology, the great Godwit, a  {pecies 


of Scolopax, which fée. 

Fenoa, is alfo a name given by Willughby and Ray to 
the Stone-Curlew or thick-kneed buitard, the CHarapRius 
Oevdicnemus. . 

FEE, Feup, Peudum, Feodum, or Ficf, an eftate, land, 

tenement, lordfhip, or the like, held of a fuperior lord, 
on condition of fealty, homage, or, other acknowledg- 
ment. 
The word is derived by fome authors from fedus, as arif- 
ing from a treaty o: alliance made with the lord; but the 
opinion of Selden feems the beft authorized, whe deduces 
it from the Saxon, feoh, fripendium, the fee being a kind of 
prebend to live upon; and accordingly we find, that im an- 
cient! times it was ufed for the wages and appointments of 
officers. It is obferved by Pontopiddan, in his Hiflory of 
Norway, that in the northern languages odh fignifies pro- 
perlys and therefore feedoh, or feudum, will denote /iipendiary. 
property. 


The term fee is properly applied to lands and tenements, 


which, we hold in perpetual right, on condition of an ac-. 


knowledgment of fuperionty in a higher lord. | See 
TENURE. 3 

'Yhe writers on this fubjeét divide all-lend and tenements 
wherein a man has a perpetual eftate to him and his heirs 
into allodium and feudum. F 

Alindium is defined to be a man’s own land, which he 
pofleffes merely in his own right, without acknowledgment 
of any fervice or payment of any rent to another; and this 
is property in the higheft degree. 

Feuduni, or fee, is that which we hold by the benefit of 
another, and for which we do fervice or pay rent, or both, 
tothe chief lord ; in which'fuperior the ultimate property 
of the land refides. And therefore fir Henry Spelman de- 
fines a feud or fee to be the right which the vaflal or tenant 
hath in lands, to u/e the fame, and take the profits to him 
and his heirs, rendering to the lord his due fervices: the 
mere. allodial propriety of the foil always remaining -in the 
lord. This allodial property no fubje@t ‘im England has ; it 
being a received, and now undeniable, principle in the law, 
that all the lands in England are holden mediately or imme- 
diately of the king. ; 

Originally a feud was only an eftate for life; and thofe 
to whom it was granted were called waffalli, who by fuch 
means were brought to a ftriéer difcipline and obedience 
to the princes, and were bound to ferve them-in wars. 

The origin of fees or feuds is one of the darkeft and 
molt intricate points in modern hiftory. Some attribute 
the invention to the Lombards. Sir Thomas Craig in- 
clines to this opirion, and fays, that the Lombards, after 


they were fubdued by Charlemagne, not only retained their. 


ancient cuftoms, but at the return of that emperor into 
France tranfmitted them with him into the remoteft parts 
of that kingdom. In reality, the conftitution of feuds 
had its original from the military policy of the Northern or 


Celtic nations, the Goths, Huns, Franks, Vandals, and. 


Lombards, who fpread themfelves over Europe at the de- 
clenfion of the Roman empire. ‘This is’ rendered probable 
by the demand which the Cimbri and Teutones, nations of 
the fame original, are recorded to have made on the Ro- 
mans on their firft irruption into Italy, about a century be- 
fore the Chriftian era. They demanded of the Romans, 
“ Ut martius populus aliquid fibi terre daret, quali ftipen- 
dium: ceterum, ut vellet, manibus atqte armis fuis utere- 
tur ;” i.e. they defired fends to be allowed them, which 
they 


were to hold by military and other perfonal fervices. - 
(L. Florus, lib. iii. cap. 3.) Having brought this conititu-_ 


FEE 


tion from their own countries,’ they contirined “it in their 


. re{pective colonies as the moft likely means to fecure their 


new acquifitions ; and for this purpofe the victorions gene- 
ral allotted large diftris of land to the fuperior officers of 
the army ; and thefe again diftributed fmaller parcels to the 
inferior officers and more deferving foldiers. However, the 
feudal policy was only brought by degrees into that ftate, 
which we find eftablifhed in the empire’ under Conrade the’ 
Salic, who was the firft emperor that rendered fiefs here- 
ditary, and in France under Hugh Capet. Sir Thomas 
Craig has diftinguifhed four {tates of the feudal law ; its in- 
fancy, comprehending the period between the firlt overflow- 
ing of the northern nations and the year 6503 its child- 
hood, the time in which fiefs, which were before annual, 
or at moft for life, were extended to the fons of the vaflal, 
and.no farther, viz. from the year 650 to the year 80e,, 
when Charlemagne was crowned emperor; its adolefcence, 
from the times of Charlemagne to thofe of Conrade II. or 
the Salic, who began his reign in the year 1024, and not 
only confirmed the inheritance of fiefs to the fons and grand- 
fons of the vaffals, but permitted one brother to fueceed 
another in his paternal eltate: but even after the alteration 
made: by Conrade, it was not uncommon in Germany to 
grant fiefs only for life; a charter of this kind occurs as 
late as the year 13763 and its maturity from this period 
forward, when feuds were permitted to defeend to collaterals 
as far as the feventh degree. Others find fome appearance, 
of the duties of a vaflal to his lord, in the ancient relations 
between the patron and his client; and others look for its 
rife in the Roman Beneficia. 

The emperors, it feems, diftributed lands among the 
ancient legions on condition of their holding themlelves 
ready at all times to take up arms in defence of the fron- 
tiers of the empire, which affords us a good image enough 
of feuds, though in all probability their firfl origin fhould 
be traced higher; but in procefs of time their nature was 
changed, and duties were annexed to thein which originally 
were not. . 

Du-Moulin makes no doubt, but that thofe diftribu- 
tions of land called denefices, were the firft matter of fees > 
for which reafon he ufes the terms denejice and feud pro- 


. mifcuoufly, as if they were the fame thing ; and yet 


there was a good deal of difference between them, as there 
was neither fealty nor homage, nor the other feudal rights 
annexed to the benefice ; and that the benefice was not he- 
reditary. } . 4 ; 

Probably benefices, (fee Brnericr,) began then to be 
called feuds, when they became hereditary ; and when thofe 
of whom the benefices were held began to demand faith 
or fealty from them. This fealty feems to conftitute the 
fees the word fee itfelf fignifying, in the ancient Norman 
language, faith. 

There is no fixing the precife era when thefe changes com- 
menced ; for fees, {uch as they now are, were not blifhed 
all at once; but in different couutries they took place at 
different times, and in different manners. 

The great lords, after the deftruction of the Roman em- 
pire, having in feveral parts ufurped the property of their 
benefices,. laid likewife hold of the jurifdiétion, and made 
their vaffals their fubjects; fo that each became a fort of 
petty fovereign in his own territory. : 

Mezeray obferves, that the donation of fees to the no- 
blefle of France commenced under the reign of Charles 
Martel. 

Hugh Capet, when he came to the crown, was himfelf 
fo little eftablifhed that he durft not eppofe thofe ufur- 
pations, and was forced to fufier what he-could not, 

redrefs. 


FEE. 


fedrefs. See Le Fevre, De l’Origine des Fiefs, and Al- 
taferra’s- Origines -Feudorum primoribus Galliz. See 
Fevpum. iam 
The origin of fees in England, Camden carries as fat 
back as the time of Alexander Severus. That prince have 
ing. built a wall in the north of England to prevent the in- 
curfions of the Pits, he fome time after began to negle& 
the defence thereof, and gave, as Lampridius, in Vita Alex. 
Severi, affures us, the lands conquered from the enemy to 
thofe of his captains and foldiers, whom that author calls 
< limitarios duces, &-milites ;”’ 7.¢. captains‘and foldiers of 
the frontiers; but it was on this condition, that their heirs 
fhould continue in the fervice, and that the lands fhould 
never defcend to private perfons; i..c. to fuch as did not 
bear arms. That prince’s reafon was, that people, who in 
ferving, defended their own, would ferve with a great deal 
more zeal than any others. Such, according to Camden, 
was the rife of fees in our nation. Britan. p. 651. 
However, the feudal polity originally derived from the 
Northern ‘nations, and gradually eftablifhed on the conti- 
nent of Europe, was not univerfally received in England, 
thongh fome traces of it may be difcerned in the times of 
the Saxons, who'were firmly fettled in this ifland as early 
as the year 600, and incorporated with the national confti- 
tution, till the reign of William the Norman ; and this was 
done not by the mere arbitrary will and power of the con- 
-queror, but by the univerfal confent of the common coun- 
cil of the kingdom, on the fame principle of felf fecurity 
which had before induced the other nations of Europe to 
adopt it. The era of formally pal essay 2 the. feudal te- 
nures by law was probably the latter end of the year 1086, 
when the king was attended by all his nobility at Sarum, 
_and all the principal land-holders fubmitted their lands to 
the yoke of military tenure, became the king’s vaffals, and 
did homage and fealty to his perfon. This ingraftment of 
the feudal tenures and other cuftoms of Normandy upon 
the ancient Saxon laws of Edward the Confeffor, produced 
a different political fyftem in this country, and changed both 
power and property in many refpeéts; for thofe hereditary 
eftates of the Saxon nobility and gentry which were allodial, 
and not fubje& to any feudal fervice, were converted into 
feuds, and other lands which were of a feudal nature, and 
holden by military fervice, haying been. granted only at will, 
or for a certain number of years, or at moft for life or lives, 
and the grants of which were. called benefices, were made 
hereditary fiefs: The feudal rights claimed in confequence 
of this eltablifhment by the king over his tenants, and by 
them over their’s, were confiderably mitigated by the char- 
ter of Henry J. But, notwithttanding this charter, for- 
mer. grievances were'revived and aggravated by Henry and 
his fucceflors, till in the reign of king John, they became 
fo intolerable, that they occafioned his barons, or principal 
feudatories, to rife up in arms againft him; which at length 
produced the famous great charter, (fee Macna Cuarra,) 
at Runningmeed, which, with fome alterations, was con+ 
firmed by his fon Henry III. Upon the whole it appears 
from the hiflory of feudal tenures, and the alterations that 
have taken place with regard to them, in the fucceflive 
fteigns of Henry I., John, Henry ITE, and Charles, that 
the liberties of Englifhmen are not (as fome arbitrary wri- 
fers would reprefent them) mere infrmgements of the king’s 
prerogative, extorted from our princes, by taking advantage 
of their weaknefs ; but a reftoration of that ancient contti- 
tution, of which our anceftors had been defrauded by the 
art and fineffe of the Norman lawyers, rather than deprived 
by the force of the Norman arms. See Conquest. 
~ Although the barbarous nations, which framed the feudal 


fyftem, and from which it feems to have originated, fettled 
in their new territories at different times, came from different 
countries, {poke various langnages, and. were under the 
command of feparate leaders, the feudal policy and laws 
were eftablifhed, with little variation, in every kingdom of 
Europe. Hence fome have concluded, that all thefe na- 
tions, notwithftanding fo many apparent circumftances of 
diftinétion, were originally the fame people. It may, how- 
ever, with greater probability, be afcribed to the fimilar {tate 
of fociety and of manners to which they were accuftomed 
in their native countries, and to the fimilar fituation in which 
they found themfelves on taking poffeffion of their new do- 
mains. Asthe conquerors of Europe had their acquifitions 
to maintain, not only againft fuch of the ancient inhabitants 
as they had f{pared, but againft the more formidable inroads 
of new invaders, felf-defence was their chief care, and feems 
to have been the fole object of their fir inititutions and 
policy. Inftead of thofe loofe affociations, which, without 
diminifhing their perfonal independence, had been fufficient 
for their fecurity, while they remained in their original 
countries, they faw the neceflity of confederating more clofely 
together, and of relinquifhing fome of their private rights in 
order to obtain public fecurity. Every freeman, therefore, 
upon receiving a portion of the lands which were divided, 
bound himfelf to appear in arms againft the enemies of the 
community. This military fervice was the condition upon 
which he received and held his lands; and as they were ex- 
empted from every other burden, that tenure, among a war- 
like people; was deemed both eafy and honourable. The 
king, or general, who led them to conqueft, had the largeft 
portion allotted to htm; and he parcelled it out among thofe 
who entered into an obligation to bear arms in his defence, 
His chief officers imitated his example, in diftributing por- 
tions ef Jands'anong their dependants, upon the fame con- 
dition. Thus, a feudal kingdom refembled a military ef- 
tablifhment rather than a civil inftitution. The names of a 
foldier and'a freeman were fynonymous. Every proprietor 
of land, girt with a fword, was ready to march at the fum- 


‘mons of his fuperior, and to take the field againft the com- 


monenemy. ‘The feudal government, however, though ad- 
mirably calculated for defence againit the aflauits of any 
foreign power, was defeétive in its provifions for the interior 
order of fociety. The bond of political union was extremely 
feeble; and the fources of anarchy were innumerable. The 
powerful vaffals of the crown foon extorted a confirmation 
for life of thofe grants of land which, being at firft purely 
gratuitous, had been beftowed only curirg pleafure. They 
then fucceeded in having them converted into hereditary 
poffeffions ; and at length in tendering them unalienable. 
‘Phe crown vaffals, after having fecured the pofleffion of their 
lands and dignities, were led by the feudal inftitations.to 
new, and {till more dangerous encroachments on the ptere- 
gatives of the fovereign. They obtained the power of fu- 
preme jurifdiGtion, both civil and criminal, within their own 
territories; the right of coining money; together with the 
privilege of carrying on war againft their private enemies in 
their own name, and by theirown authority. Subordination 
was almott loft, and perfons of fuperior rank afpired at inde- 


‘pendence. Hencea kingdom, confiderable in name and extent, 


was broken into as many feparate’ principalities as it contained 
powerful barons. A thoufand eaufes of jealoufy and dif- 
cord fprang up among them, and gave rife to as many wars. 
Every country in Europe, wafted or kept in continual alarm 
during thefe endlefs contefts, was filled with caiftles and 
places of itrength, ereéted for the fecurity of the inhabitants, 
not againit foreign force, but againit internal hottilities. 
Indeed an almoft univerfal anarchy prevailed, The guilty 

elcaped 


: as a Je 


-efcaped punifhment, and the innocent could not find pro- 
tection. Such was the ftate of Europe with refpect to the 
interior adminiftration of government from the 7th to the 
rith century. his fyftem likewife prevented nations from 
adtiug with vigour in their external operations. Befides, 
the feudal anarchy had a fatal influence on the character 
and improvement of the human mind. Without the pro- 
tection of regular government, and the certainty of per- 
fonal fecurity, it cannot be expeéted that men will make 
any progrefs in the arts and fciences, or aim at attaining re- 
finement in tafte or manners. In lefs than a century after 
the barbarous nations fettled in their new conqueits, almoft 
all the effets of the knowledge and civility which the 
Romans had f{pread through [Europe difappeared. The 
human mind, neglected, uncultivated,*and depreiled, funk 
into the moft profound ignorance. ‘I'he inhabitanss of 
Europe during this period were not only ftrangers to the arts 
which embellith a polifhed age, but dettitute of the virtues 
which abound among people who continue ina fimple itate. 

Having curforily mentioned feveral of the difadvan- 
tages and pernicious effects of the feudal fy{tem, and they 
were fufliciently great, we ought not to omit fome few cir- 
cumftances that may be alleged in its favour. This  {yf- 
tem, in its very nature, {tood oppofed to the arbitrary power 
of the crown, and provided for the political liberty of all 
thofe who poflefled any portion of landed property. This 
fyftem alfo nourifhed a manly and vigorous fpirit, which, 
however hurtful in fome of its immediate effects, has been 
eminently ferviceable in the progrefs of fociety. We mutt 
add, that the feudal fyftem caufed even the clergy, too/fre- 
quently the tools of abfolute monarchs, to be the great 
aflerters and promoters of freedom. This faét is afcer- 
tained by various inftances that occur in our own hiftory. 
The bifhops, in confequence of the feudal tenures, found it 
their intereft to unite with the barons and great landholders 
in refilting the encroachments of our princes ; and they did 
it, in feveral cafes, with diftinguifhed ability and fuccefs. 
"The bifhops were particularly m{trumental in obtaining the 
famous Macna Cuarra (which fee.) The moft import- 
aut and valuable articles of that inftrument were probably 
owing to Stephen Langton, archbifhop of Canterbury. 
With refpeé& to the clergy in general, notwith{tanding the 
ignorance and bad conduct of too many of them, and the 
abfurdity of their tenets, they were very ufefal in mode- 
rating and reftraining the diforderly fpirit of the feudal 
times. They often interfered in the caute of humanity aud 
jultice. They were the only depofitaries of the knowledge 
and literature that remained in the world ; and the monattic 
inftitutions, in particular, were the chief prefervers of agri- 
culture, and of both the neceflary and elegant arts. 

But to return from this digreflion. ‘The diforders in the 
feudal fyftem, together with the corruption of tafte and 
manners confequent upon thele, which had gone on in- 
créafing during a long courfe ef years, feem to have attained 
their utmoft point of excefs towards the clofe of the 11th 
e:ntury. From that era we may date the return of go- 
verument aud manners in a contrary direétion ; and it is not 
difficult to trace a fucceffion of caufes and events which 
contributed to abolifh confufion and barbarif{m, and to in- 
troduce order, regularity, and refinement. Among the 
principal of thefe we recount the Crufades, the formation 
of cities into communities, corporations, or bodies politic, 
and granting them the privilege of municipal jurifdiction ; 
for when the inhabitants of cities obtained perfonal freedom 
aud municipal junifdiction, they foon acquired civil liberty 
and political power. The feudal fyftem, however, did not 
decline with equal gradations in all parts of Europe. li 


did not decline fo faft in Scotland as in England ; nor, while 
it was a feparate kingdom, did their commons ever acquire 
the fame power. This was owing to the low ftate of com- 
merce, induftry, and arts, among the Scots. 

We may obferve that there are confiderable remains of 
the feudal fyftem at this day in Europe. In Germany it 
fubfitts, in many refpeéts, as much as ever. The hufband- 
men of Poland are confined to the glebe; as they are alfo in 
Bohemia, in Swabia, and in other parts of Germany ; and 
even in France, in fome provinces remote from the capital ; 
we fee, faid Voltaire in his time, fome remains of this flavery. 
The mott vifible traces of this fyitem in England are in the 
forms of law ; almoft all the remains of the feudal fyitem 
in England, except thele forms, having Leen abolifhed in 
the reign ot Charles II. by aét of parliament. The feudal 
law carried with it a fyftem of prvate rights, which fwal- 
lowed up all others wherever it came, and involved likewife, 
in giving effeét to thefe rights, a fyflem of ‘ forms,” which 
remain even where the original rights are no more. It is 
particularly worthy of notice, with refpeét to the feudal 
fyftem, that a form of government fo uniform in its ‘princi’ 
ples fhould have branched out, as it were, under different’ 
circumitances, into other forms fo totally different from one 
another as are the coniftitutions of the feveral European 
{tates ; which were almoit all, originally, equally feudal, 
and, therefore, neceflarily fimilar to one another. But what 
is moft of all remarkable with refpe& to the feudal fy{tem is, 
that a form of government, fo ill calculated to fecure the 
moit valuable ends of fociety, a conflitution fo totally in- 
confiftent with fecurity and liberty, and fo unfriendly to 
commerce and {cience, fhould, in feveral initances, have ter- 
minated, by the natural courfe of things, in governments 
under which men enjoy the greateft fecurity, together with 
all defirable liberty; and where the utmott {cope is given to 
the genius of man in the extenfion of arts, manufaétures,. 
commerce, and fcience. Lord Lyttelton’s Hilt. of King 
Henry. II. vol. i. p. 59, &c. vol. iti. p.97, kc. Black 
{tone’s Comm. vol. 1i. cap. 4. Robertlon’s Ch. V. vol. i. 

All our lands in England (the crown-land, which is in 
the king’s own hand, the right of his crown, excepted) are 
of the nature of feud or fee. For though many have land 
by defcent from their anceftors, and others have bought 
lands, yet land cannot come toany, either by defcent or pur- 
chafe, but with the burden that was laid on him who had 
the novel fee, or who firit received it as a benefice from his 
lord to him, and fuch as fhould defeend from him, or to 
him it fhould be otherwife conveyed and transferred ; fo that, 
no man has diredum dominium; 1. é. the very property or 
domain in any land but the prince in’ right of his crown. 
(Camd. Britan. p. 93.) Though he who has fee has jus per- 
petuum, and utile dominium, yet he owes a duty for it; fo 
that it is not ftri@ly his own. Indeed, as much is im- 
ported by the terms in which we exprefs our highett right in 
lands, &c. the moft a man can fay is, “ I am feifed of this 
Jand in my demain, or demefne as of fee.’? ; 

The grand and fundamental maxim of all feudal tenure is 
this ; that alllauds were originally granted out by the fove- 
reign, and are therefore holden, either mediately or imme- 
diately, of the crown. The grantor was called the proprie. 
tor, or Jord, who retained the dominion or ultimate pro- 
perty of the feud or fee; and the grantee, who had only the 
ufe and poffeffion, according to the terms of the grant, wag 
ftyled the feudatory, or va//al, another name for the tenant. 
or holder of the lands. The manner of the grant was by. 
words of gratuitous and pure donation, ‘“ dedi et conceffi,’? 
which are itill the operative words in our modern deeds of 
feoffment. . ‘Chis was perfe¢ted by the ceremony of corpo- 


J BEE, f 


tal inveftiture, or open and notorious delivery of poffeffion in 
‘the prefence of the other vaflals, which perpetuated among 
them the era of the new acquifition, at a time when the 
art of writing was little known ; and therefore the evidence 
of property was repofed in the memory of the neighbour- 
hood ; who, in cafe of a difputed title, were afterwards 
called upon to decide the difference, not only according to 
external proofs adduced by the litigant parties, but alfo 
by the internal teftimony of their own private knowledge. 
The vaffal or tenant took an oath of fealty (fee Feary), 
and upon inveftiture did homage to his lord; (fee Ho- 
mAGE.) This was followed by the fervice which he engag- 
‘ed to perform to his fuperior or lord, in recompence for the 
land which he held. In pure, proper, and original feuds, 
this fervice was two-fold ; to follow, or do /wit to the lord 
in his courts in time of peace ; and in his armies or warlike 
retinue, when neceffity called him to the field. At the firft in- 
troduétion of feuds, which were gratuitous, they were pre- 
carious, and held at the wi//of the lord ; who was thenthe fole 
judge whether his vaffal performed his fervices faithfully. 
Then they became certain, for one or more years. Among 
the ancient Germans they continued only from year to year ; 
as an annual diftribution of lands was made by their leaders 
in their general councils or affemblies. (See Tacit. de 
Mor. Germ. c. 26. and Czfar de Bell. Gall. 1. 6. c. 21.) 
In procefs of time, feuds began to be granted for the Jife 
of the feudatory. But they were not yet hereditary, though 
‘occafionally granted by the favour of the lord to the chil- 
dren of the former poffeffor, on payment of a fine or ac- 
knowledgment to the lord, which was called a relief. 
Afterwards feuds were by degrees univerfally extended be- 
yond the life of the firft vaffal to his fons, or to fuchof them 
as the lord fhould name; but as the fons died off, their 
fhares reverted to the lord, without defcending to their 
children, or to their furviving brothers.’ But when a feud 
was given to a man and his /eirs, in general terms, a more 
extended rule of fucceflion took place ; and when the feuda- 
tory died, his male defcendants in infinitum were admitted 
xto the fucceffion, and in defeét of them, fuch of his male 
collateral kindred as were of the blood or lineage of the firlt 
feudatory, and no others. The defcent being confined to 
males, originally extended to all the males alike ; but this 
being found inconvenient, and Aonorary feuds (or titles of 
nobility) being introduced, which could only be inherited 
by the eldeft fon; in imitation of thefe, military feuds (or 
thofe now defcribed) began in moft countries to defeend ac- 
‘cording to the fame rule of primogeniture, to the eldeft fon 
‘in exclufion of all the reft. The feudatory could not 
aliene or difpofe of his feud, nor could he exchange, nor 
mortgage, nor devife it by will, without the confent 
of the lord. When feuds .ceafed to be military, they 
began to be bought and fold, and deviations were made 
‘from the old fundamental rules of tenure and fucceflion. See 
TENURE. i 
It fhould be obferved, that our Englifh lawyers do very 
rarely (of late years efpecially) ufe the word fee in this its 
‘primary original fenfe, in contradiftinG@ion to a/lodium or 
abfolute property, but generally ufe it to exprefs the con- 
_tinuance or quantity of an eflate ; fo that a fee in general 
fignifies an eftate of inheritance, being the higheit and 
moft extenfive intereft that a man can have in a feud ; 
tand in that fenfe of the term it is applicable to, and 
»may be had in, any kind of hereditaments, either corporeal 
or incorporeal; with this diltinction, that of a corporeal 
‘inheritance a man fhall be faid to be feifed in is deme/ne, as 
‘of ee of anincorporeal one, he fhall on'y be faid to be 
~~ Vor. XIV. 


* , 
rs 


feifed as of fee, and not in his demefne. (Litt. § fo.) 
Blackftone’s Comm. vol. ii. p. 106. 

In the ftat. 37 Hen. VIII. cap. 16. fee is alfo ufed for 
Jands vefted in the crown 3 but it is from ignorance,ot the 
import of the word ; for fee cannot be without fealty {worn 
toafuperior ; but the king owns fealty to no fuperior but 
God alone. 

Fee is divided in our laws into fee-ah/olute, called alfo 
fee-sfimple 5 and fee-conditional, alfo called fee-tail. See 
Feup. 

Fee, Franf. See Frank. 

Fer-/imple, feudum fimplex, is that whereof we are feized 
tous and our heirs for ever. Or it denominates an abfolute 
inheritance, clear of any condition, limitation, or reftriGion 
to particular heirs, but defcendable to the heirs general, 
whether male or female, lineal or collateral. It is a general 
rule, that the word /eirs is neceflary in the grant or dona- 
tion, in order to make a fee or inheritance ; but this rule 
does not extend to devifes by will, nor to fines and reco- 
veries confidéred asa {pecies of conveyance, nor to creation 
of nobility by writ, though in creations by patent, the word 
heirs mutt be inferted ; nor to grants of lands to fole corpo- 
rations and their fucceffors; nor finally, to the cafe of the 
king, in whom a fee-fimple will veit, without the words 
heirs or fucceffors in the grant. 

Fer-iail, feudum taliatum, is that whereof we are feifed 
with limitation to us and the heirs ef our body. See 
Tat. ; 

Fee-tail is of two kinds, general and fpecial. 

TFee-tail general, is where lands and tenements are given 
to a man and the heirs of his body begotten. So thatif a 
man feifed of: fuch land by fuch gift marry one or more 
wives, and have no iflue by them, and at length marry 
another, by whom he hath iffue, this iflue fhall inherit the 
land. 

Fee-tail {fpecial, is where a man and his eife are feifed of 
lands to them and the heirs of their two bodies; where, in 
cafe the wife die without iffue, and he marry another by 
whom he have iffue, this iffue cannot inherit the land, and 
therefcre it is called /pecial tail. 

This fee-tail {pecial has its origin from the ftat. of Weftm. 
2.13 Edw. I. cap. 1. Before that ftatute, all land given 
toa man and his heirs, either general or {pecial, was reput- 
ed inthe nature of a fee ; and therefore fo firmly held to 
him, that, any limitation notwithftanding, he might alienate 
it at pleafure: for redrefs of which inconvenience the 
{tatute provides, that if a man gives lands in fee, limiting the 
heirs to whom it fhould defcend, with a reverfion to himfelf 
and his heirs for default of fuch former heirs, the form and 
meaning of the: gift fhall be obferved. . 

Eftates, in general and fpecial tail, are farther diverfified 
by the diftinétion of fexes in fuch entails ; for both of them 
may be in tail male or female; as if lands be givento a man 
and his heirs male of his body begotten, this is an eftate in tail 
male. general; but if to a man and the feirs female of bis 
body on his prefent wife begotten, this is ar eftate in tail fe- 
male /pecial ; and in cafe of an entail male, the heirs fe- 
male fhall never inherit, nor any derived from them ; nore 
converfo, the heirs male, in cafe of a gift in tail female. 
(Litt. § 21,22.) As the word Aeirs is neceffary to create. a 
fee, fothe word Jody, or fome other words of procreation, 
are neceflary to make it a fee tail, and to afcertain to what 
heirs in particular the fee is limited; though in wills and 
teftaments greater indulgence is allowed. The incidents to 
a tenancy in tail, under the ftatute Weltm. 2. are chiefly 
thede (Co. Litt. 224.) :° r. That a tenantin tail may commit 

Ee waite 


FEE 


awafte on the eftate-tail by felling timber, pulling downhoufes, 
or the like, without being impeached or called to aecount for 
the fame. 2. That the wife of the tenant in tail fhall have 
her dower or thirds of the eltate-tail. 3. That the hufband 
of a female tenant in tail may be tenant by the courtefy of 
the eftate-tail. 4. That an eftate-tail may be barred or de- 
ftroyed by a fine, by a common recovery, or by lineal 
warranty defcending with affets to the heir. By fubfe- 
quent ftatutes, eltates-tail may be aliened, are liable to for- 
feiture for high treafon, and are chargeable with reafonable 
leafes, and with fuch debts as are due to the crown on {pe- 
cialties, or have been contracted with fellow fubjeCts ina 
courfe of commerce. 

Fre, Bafe, or qualified, 1s a conditional fee that has a 
qualifieation fubjoined to it, and which mutt be determined 
whenever this qualification is at an end; asinthe cafe of a 
grant to A. and his heirs, tenants of the manor of Dale ; 
whenever the heirs of A. ceafe to be tenants of that manor, 
the grant is entirely defeated. Black{tone’s Comm. vol. ii. 
chap. 7. See Enrait. 

Fex-expedant, feudum expedativum. 
ExPrecrantT. 

Frr-farm, or ferm, feudi-firma, or feo-firma, is a tenure of 
lands by which they are holden to a perionand his heirs for 
ever, under a certain annual rent. 

Fee farm takes place upon the creation of a tenancy, when 
the lord referves to himfelf and his heirs either the rent 
for which it was before let to farm, or at leaft a fourth part 
ofthe rent, aud that without homage, fealty, or other fer- 
vices, more than are efpecially comprifed in the feoffment. 
Yet it would appear by Fitzherbert, that the third part of the 
value may be appointed for the rent, or the finding of a 
chaplain to fay divine fervice, &c. And the nature of it is 
this; that if the rent be behind, and unpaid for the {pace of 
two years, then the feoffer or his heirs have action to recover 
the lands as their demefnes. 

Fee-farm rents of the Crown, are {uch rents as iffue to the 
kings of England from their ancient demefnes, many of 
which were alienated from the crown in the reign of 
Charles 11. 

Fee is alfo ufed for the compafs or circuit of a manor or 
lordhhip. Thus Braéton, ‘‘in eadem villa, & de eodem 
feodo.”’ 

Fer is alfo ufed for a perpetual right incorporeal: as to 

have the keeping of the perfons in fee, rent granted in fee, 
sand office keld in fee, &c. 

Fre, Knight’s. See Knicut’s Fee. 

Fee alfo fignities a reward or ordinary due given a perfon 
for the execution of his office, or the performance of his 
part in his refpeétive art or fcience. 

Thus, the lawyer, barrifter, and phyfician, are faid to 
have their fees; i.e. confiderations for the pains taken with 
the client or patient. If a perfon refufe to pay an officer 
his due fees, the court will grant an attachment againft 
him, to be committed till the fees are paid ; and an attorney 
“may bring an a€tion of the cafe for his fees againft. the 
‘client that retained him in his caufe. With us, fome have 
faid that a counfel can maintain no aétion for his fees, 
which are given uot as /ocutio vel conduédio, but as guiddam 
honorarium ; not asa falary or hire, but as a mere gra- 
tuity, which a counfellor cannot demand without injury to 
his reputation. This, however, has been held otherwile. 
F.N.B. 121. 1 Brownl. 73. 31 H. VI.c. 9. 

Fees alfo denote feveral perquifites or allowances paid to 
public officers by perfons who have bufinefs with them. 
The fees due to the officers of the Cuftom-houfe are 
vexprefsly mentioned in a {chedule or table, which is hung 


See Estarr, and 


Br FE 


up to view in the faid office, and in all other places where 

the fees are to be paid; and if any officer fhall offend, by 

acting contrary to the regulations therein contained, he 

fhall forfeit his office and place, and be for ever after inca- 
able of any office in the Cuftom-houfe. 

The fmallnefs of the falaries of divers of the king’s fers 
vants is compenfated by the perquifites or fees of honour, 
The fees paid to the feveral officers by every perfon upon 
his being knighted amount to 78/. 13s. 4d. And if it be 
done within the verge of the court, there is 3/. more to the 
fix pages of the bed-chamber, which brings.it to 81/, 
Every knight of the moft noble order of the garter pays, 
upon his inftallment, if Prince of Wales, 66/. 135. 4d. 3 ifa 
duke 20/.; if a marquis 16/. 18s. 4d.; if anearl 12/. 135. 4d. 
The fees due for the entrance into the houfe of lords are as 
follows : 


LrepaiSepats 
Prince of Wales - 30 0.0 
An Archbifhop - 27 0, 0 
A Duke - = e2Jal Oud 
A Marquis es TohyG.) § 
An Earl - © .d4w OO 
A Vifcount - 12)10: 90 
A Bithop - - 14.0.0 
A Baron - - 0; 0. 40 


Thefe fees are paid by every peer on his firft introduction 
to the houfe, both on his original acceflion to a title, and 
his advancement to a higher one, and by every bifhop upoa 
his firft confecration, and upon any future promotion. 

The homage-fees due on the acceflion of a peer are, 


: opinkeeiate 
Prince of Wales - 703 6 8 
Ditto, as Earl of Chefter 203.0) Siuad. 
A Duke - - B5O Bs oud 
A Marquis . ienid 2I2 oe LOs 7 
An Earl - 1s 203563 ct 
A Vifcount - - T5Plo Teasd: 


A Baron - =, 150,05 4A: 

Befides the fum charged in the king’s books, every bifhop 
pays, on his confecration or promotien, as homage-fees, 
312/, 105. 4d. and an archbifhop double this fum. 

FEED, in Rural Economy, the portion or quantity of 
oats or other fort of grain or proverder, which is given to a 
horfe or other animal at one time. The term allo implies 
the fattening of different forts of live ftock, as neat cattle, 
fheep, &c. 

FEEDER, in £ngineery, is acut or channel, fometimes 
called a carriage or catch-drain, by which a ftream or fupply 
of water is brought into a canal; fometimes the ftream of 
water itfelf, which is fo fupplied toa canal, is called a 
feeder. See Cana. 

Feepers, in Rural Economy, fignify by graziers thofe 
neat cattle which are bought in exprefsly for the purpofe 
of being fed off, } 

Feepers of a Vein, in Mining, are the fhort crofs veins 
which appear to branch from it in fome inftances, and are 
fo called from the vulgar notion that thefe feed or fupply 
the vein with ore: frings and /eadings are fometimes ufed 
as terms for thefe {mall crofs veins. 

FEEDING, in Rural Economy, the a& or procefs of 
fattening any fort of live ftock on a farm. 

Frepine of Caitle, the procefs of rendering them in a 
{tate proper for the butcher. It likewife fignifies the fod- 
dering of them. 

Feepinc Hou/e, or Shed, is that fort of farm-building 
which is conftruéted for the purpofe of fattening neat 
cattle. It fhould have a dry warm fituation, be capable of 

7 free 


ECELE 


free ventilation, and be well fupplicd with proper conve- 
niences for the reception of food and water. See Carrie 
Sheds. 

Feepinc Grounds, fuch Jandsas are fet apart for the fat- 
tening of different forts of live ftock. They are chiefly 
thofe of the rich deep pafture kinds. 

FeepinG-Piece, a field or portion of grafs land which is 
employed for the purpofe of grazing animals. It is ad- 
vantageous to have fuch a piece near to the houte. 

Frerepinc-Down, the practice of eating down grafs lands 
with different forts of live flock. In neq Jays fome prefer 
mowing the few firflyears, from the fuppofition that 
grazing is more injurious to them ; but the fuperiority of 
thefe different praétices has not yet been fully afcertained. 
See Lavine down to Grafs, and Pasture. 

Feepinc-Ground, in Mining, is uled by fome miners to 
denote certain kinds of foil or rock, which are fuppofed to 
feed or to fupply ore to veins in their vicinity : itisa certain 
fact, that forme beds of limeftone in Derbyfhire, called 
bearing-meafures, have generally ore in the veins which in- 
terfeét them, when often the fame veins contain little or 
no ore between the meadures dbove or below thefe bearing 
meafures. ! 

Frepine, Foul, inthe Manege. See Four. 

FEEJEE, in Geography, an ifland in the Southern 
Pacific ocean, about three days’ fail from Tongataboo, in 
the direétion of N. W. by W. It is reprefented as a high 
but very fruitful ifland ; abounding with hogs, dogs, and 
fowls, and all the kinds of fruits and roots that are found 
inany of the others, and as being much larger than Tonga- 
taboo, to the dominion of which it feems to be fubje@, as 
the other iflands of the Archipelago are ; although, on the 
other hand, Feejee and Tongataboo frequently make war 
upon each other; and the inhabitants of the latter appear 
to be much afraid of thofe of the former, who were really 
formidable on account of their peculiar dexterity in the ufe 
of bows and flings, and alfo on account of the favage prac- 
tice prevalent among them of eating the enemies whom they 
killed in battle. The more northerly part of this numerous 

roup was difcovered by Tafman in 16435 and it is the 
fans clufter of iflands and reefs that was explored by the 
Duff Miffionary fhip, and where fhe experienced the greateft 
dangers that attended her voyage. Thefe iflands were 
named by Tafman ‘ Prince William’s Ifland,’? and 
s¢ Heemfkirk’s fhoals.’? They extend northward to the 
latitude of 15° 33'. Captain Bligh fell in with the eaftern- 
moft of them in W. long. 178°, and purfuing a north- 
weftern courfe he found the group to extend 4° weitward 
from the firft iflands. He faw feveral of them that had frem 

© to 40 leagues of coalt, which appeared fertile and plea- 
Patly variegated with hills and vallies. In 1792 he paffed 
to the north of the firft iflands difcovered by him in 1789 ; 
and having croffed his former tracks, he doubled the 
fouthernmoit ifland of the groupin S. lat. 19° 15’. E. long. 
178°. "The canoes of the iflanders attempted to overtake 
him, feemingly with hottile defigns. The moit weftern part 
of this group was difcovered by captain Barber in 1794, in 
his paflage from Port Jackfon to the N.W. coaft of Ame- 
rica. He faw fix of the iflands, the largeft of which he 
placed in E. long. 175° 15’. The natives, who feemed un- 
accuitomed to trade, exhibited hoftile appearances ; and 
aGtually attempted to board his fhip. It is not certain 
whether all thete iffands are conneéted with, or independent 
of, each other; but they are thought to be fubject to 
Tongataboo, The inhabitants, however, are of a diiting 
race, {peak a different language, and, befides {pears and 
slubs, make ufe of bows and arrows in battle. In this 


FEG 


refpe& they refemble moft of the iflanders who inhabit the 
larger countries to the weftward, and differ from all that 
have yet been difcovered to the eaftward of the group. 
The natives of the Friendly iflands regard the people of 
Feejee as fuperior to themfelves both in military prowefs and 
mechanical ingenuity; their weapons and clothing being 
wrought in a more matterly ftyle ; and fome manufaétures, 
efpecially that of earthen veflels, being carried on at Feejee, 
which are not attempted at Tongataboo. They had alfo 
dogs at Feejee, when there were none in the Friendly 
iflands.. The ftature of the Feejeeans is fuperior, their 
complexions are darker, and their hair approaches to wool. 
They moreover retain the practice of eating the bedies of 
enemies whom they have killed, which is now abnorred by 
all the lighter race, except the inhabitants of New Zea- 
land. 

FEEL, in the Manege, they fay to feel a horfe in the 
hand ; that is, to obferve that the will of the horfe is in the 
rider’s hand, that he taftes the bridle, and has a good appui 
in obeying the bit. 

To feel a horfe upon the haunches, is to obferve that he 
plies or bends them, which is contrary to leaning or throw- 
ing upon the fhoulders. 

FEELERS, Antenna, in Natural Hiflory, are the 
horns, as they are ufually called, upon the heads of infe@s, 
See Entromococy. 

FEELING, in Phyfology, the power in any organ of 
receiving the impreffions of external objeéts, and of con- 
veying thefe to the brain, fo as to caufe fenfation ; or of ex- 
hibiting the fame phenomena from alterations in the ftate of 
the organ itfelf. In this explanation the word is eqaivalent 
to fenfibility, and denotes the capacity of being aéted upon, 
and of acting again on the fentient principle : thus we fay 
that any part has much or little feeling, &c. In a more 
confined fenfe, this word fignifies the fenfe of touching, 
which is the particular mode of fenfibility belonging to the 
furface of the body. The fubje& is explained under the 
articles Brain, SenstBitity, and SKin, 

FEESURA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the 
kingdom of Kaarta; 28 miles W. of Kemmoo. 

FEET, a town of Norway, in the government of Ag- 
gerhuus ; 36 miles N.N. E. of Frederickttadt. 

Freer Prefentation, in Midwifery, a {pecies of preter- 
natural or crofs birth, in which, on the buriting of the mem- 
branes, during labour, one or both the feet of the child 
come down into the vagina, inftead of the head. In’ this 
cafe, the pains ufually ceafe, and do not recur again, until 
nearly the whole of the liquor amnii is drained away, which 
frequently is not completed in lefs than three, four, or 
more hours. This fufpenfion of the pains is apt to excite 
uneafinefs in the patient, or her attendants, and the accou- 
cheur is often preffed to give affiltance, which he muft how- 
ever avoid doing, until, by the recurrence of the pains, he is 
fatisfied that the uterus is contracted, fo as to come again 
into contaét with the body of the child. He may thea 
gradually, and moderately affitt, during the pains, in drawing 
down the legs of the child; itill keeping in mind the rule 
to be obferved in all cafes, where delivery is to be per- 
formed by art, not to empty the uterus too haftily. 

When the breech is delivered, the accoucheur will attend 
to the pofition of the child, and if the belly be placed to- 
wards the pubes of the mother, turn it towards the facrum, 
and then complete the delivery in the manner dire&ed under 
the article Lasour, preternatural. 

FEG, in Agriculture, a term ufed provincially to fignify 
the tough dead grafs which remains in paftures after they 
have been eaten down by ftock. 

Kez FEGALLE, 


FEI 

FEGALLE, or Facauo, Cape, in Geography, a cape 
on the coaft off#kgiers, called by the Moors ** Ras Azin- 
toure.”” N. lat. 35° go’. E. long. o° 54’. 

FEGARI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon; 
yo miles’S. S. E. of Meaco. 

FEGESAK, or Vecrsax, a town of Germany, in the 
duchy ‘of Bremen ; eight miles N. N. W. of Bremen. 

« FEGLINA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra; feven 
miles S. E. of Cofenza. 

FEHRABAD: See Farapar. ’ f 

FEHRENBACH, a town of Germany; in the lordfhip 
of Furftenberg ; 16 miles E. of Fribure. 

FEHRNBELLEIN; a town of Germany, in the Middle 
Mark of Brandenburg, on the Rhine; 28 miles N. W. of 
Berlin.” N. lat.52° 53’. E. long. 12° 50’. 

FEI, a town of China, of the third rank, in Chang- 
tong.—Alfo, a river of Perfia, which runs into the Mes, 
eight miles S. E. of Suc Sambil, in Chufiftan. 

FEID. See’Farp. 

FEIDERSDORF, in Geography, 2 town of Germany, 
in the principality of Culmbach; eight miles S.W. of 
Culmbaeh. 

FEIGNED Action, in Law. ‘See Faint adion. 

* Feionep (fue. See Feigned Issue. 

FEILITSCH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in 
the principality of Culmbach ; three miles N-E. of Hof. 

FEINT, in Fencing, ‘a falfe attack, ora thew of making 
a ftroke or thruft, in one part, with defign to induce the 
adverfary to form a parade for guarding that part, and 
leaving fome other part unguarded where the thrutt is really 
intended. , 

Feints are either fingle or double, high or low, without 
or within, &c. in prime, in tierce, in quart, in demi, and 
in the whole circle; of one, two, or three meafures. 

The fimple feint is a mere motion of the wrift, without 
ftirring the foot, &c. 

‘Fern, in Rhetoric, a figure whereby the {peaker touches 
on fomething, in making a fhew of paffing it over in filence. 
"Fhe Latins call this pretermiffio. 

Feint-ditack, in the A%i/itary Art, is a manceuvre re- 
forted to on a variety of occafions, but efpecially when the 
defences of a town, &c. are to be carried by ftorm. 
However eafy it may appear to diftraét the attention of 
the defenders, or to attract it to a wrong direétion, {uch is 
not actually the cafe in general. This rufe de guerre has 
been fo very frequently praétifed, that none but the mott 
nnguirded commanders are to be deceived by the mere dif- 
play of an armed force in a quarter where the works are 
not abfolutely infignificant, or reduced to a defencelets flate. 
A feint-attack, it is to be recolleéted, mutt affume fuch a 
form as fhould give a moift impofing air; it fhould carry 
with it fuch evident power, as at the lea{t fhould refeue it 
from deftruétion in the event of the garrifon feeing through 


the device, and either allowing the affailants to advance, _ 


under the idea of complete fuccels, into a {nare, or making 
a fally, Sach as fhould leave no room for boalting of the 
effect of the entérprize ; in either cafe, ruin will generally 
follow. 

The immenfe variety of ‘cafes, an{ of fituations, that 
could be adduced, would, if individually treated in this 
work, trefpafs far beyond the ordinary importance of the 
article among our readers in general; the fubjeG& might 
fwell an ample oG@tavo. We mutt therefore confine ourfelves 
to obferving, that feint-attacks generally fucceed belt in the 
dark, and ought in eyery inftance, where cavalry is at hand, 
to be fupported by fuch a force of that defcription as 
fhould fuffice to cover a retreat. If it is known that the 


ik. TE ESL 


place is well-manned, the feint-attack fhould not be con- 
fined to one part ; feveral fhews of ftorming parties fhould 
be made, under the previous caution of having a body of 
cavalry between two fuch indications, ready, to aid either 
that may be purfued. When a garrifon is weak, there may 
arife much benefit by changing the feint-attack into a 
feint-retreat ; thereby inducing the defenders to quit their 
works, and to advance within the reach of fome latent force, 
‘Where it is accvrately afcertained that a feint, and not a 
real attack is made, the belt policy is for the defenders 
either fo remain perfeétly quiet behind their walls, if the 
fituation be fecure; or to keep up a thin fire, from riffes 
men, fo as to make each fhot take effeét, yet at the fame 
time referving the difpofable force under cover, as much as 
poflible concealed, fo as to fall fuddenly on the affailants 3 
who may be expeéted to pufh forward, under the idea of 
meeting but httle refiftance. 

Where equal forces are oppofed, the feint-attack is ex- 
tremely hazardous ; and, even under certaim advantages, in 
point of numbers, cannot be too cautioufly adopted. If 
the main aflanlt fhould not be fuccefsful, the worlt of con- 
fequences may ordinarily be expected ; as not only -willmuch 
lofs be fuftained in that quarter, but the means of refcuing: 
the fmaller party be completely fuperfeded by that neceffity 
which felf-prefervation ever impofes. We do not mean to 
deny that the moft brilliant refults may attend the meafure 
when favourably circumftanced, but to caution thofe who, 
from adventitioufly reading of the few fuccefsful iffues, 
entertain fuch fanguine expectations, as to caufe their banifh- 
ing all ideas of defeat, from giving too — feope to ex- 
pectation ; and, at all events, from indulging in the {pecu- 
lation without the bett intelligence, the beft means of 
approach, and the certainty of being able to effeét their 
retreat. It is to be carried in mind, that in all probability, ’ 
information of the intended affaults will reach the befieged, ' 
fo as to give ample {cope for preparation accordingly ; or, 
to fay the lealt, that they may be competent to form a 
cerrect opinion, regarding the intentions of their opponents ; 
in either cafe much may be apprehended. : 

‘FEINTE, an old French mulical term, to exprefs the 
alteration of any note or interval, bya fharp ora flat. Te 
is properly the generical term for diefes and accidental flats. 
Rouffeau fays, this word is no longer in ufe 3 but no» 
other is fub{tituted in its room. ‘The Fear of ufing fuper-' 
annuated words daily enervates and impoverifhes our lan- 
guage; its greateft enemies are the puriits. The fhort, or 
chromatic keys on a harplichord, now denominated fharps 
and flats, ufed to be called feintes. "The keys which are white 
ufed to be black, becaufe our coarfe and vulvar artifls never © 
thought of making the clavier black to fet off the ladies 
hands. Short eighths in organs and old inftruments are 
likewife called feintes coupé, or cut keys.” ; 

FEIRA, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the pro- 
vince of Beira ; 10 miles S. of Oporto. thot 

FEISOUN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern- 
ment of Diarbekir ; 40 miles N. of Diarbekir. 

FEISTRITZ, atown of the duchy of Stiria, four miles 
N. of Muchrau—Alfo, a river of the duchy of Stiria, 
which runs into the Save, nine miles N. E. of Laybach.— 
Alto, a town of the duchy of Carinthia; 10 miles N, E. 
of Saxenburg. 

FEI-TCHIN, a town’ of China, of the third rank, 
in Chang-tong ; 25 miles $.S. W. of Tei-nan. oie 

FEITKINGE, a town of Sweden, in the province of © 
Schonen ; fix miles E. of Chriftianftadt. : 

FEIUM. See Fayoum. : easly 


FEL 


FEKETEBANJA, a town of Hungary; 28 miles 

N. E. of Zatmar. ; 
FEKETELO, a town of Tranfylvania ; 23 miles S. W 

of Colofvar. 

FEKETEPATAK, a town of Tranfylvania; 25 miles 

S. W. of Colofvar. : 
FEKETE-PATOR, a town of Hungary, 18 miles 

S.S.E. of Grof-Wardein. 75 F 
FEL, Map. in Biography, a finger in the French opera 

at Paris, of high renown, and durable favour. She was the 

daughter of an able organift at Bourdeaux, born 1716, and 
received at the great opera in 1733. Her fweet, pure, and 
filver-toned voice delighted the public 20 years, aud would 
have continued in faydur twenty years more, if bad health, 
and a feeble cheit, had not obliged her to quit the tage in 

1759. Mad. Fel fung equally well in French and Latin, 

and was one of the French who had beft fucceeded in 

Ttalian. Her voice was always as young and aftonifhing as 

ever, to the fmall number of friends to whom fhe devoted 

the laft years of her life, and who cherifhed her perfonal 
qualities as much as they did her vocal talents. La- 
borde. © 

Fer, inthe Materia Medica of the Ancients, the name 
of a fruit much ufed by them in ftomachic medicines, but 
very badly defcribed to us. All that we know of the mat- 
ter is, that there were three fruits brought from the Indies 
at that time, and called bel, fel, and fel; they were all of the 
fame virtues, and feemed nearly allied to each other in all 
refpects. Serapio tells us, that the fruit fel was about the fize 
of the piftachia nut, and fomewhat refembled it in fhape ; 
and Avicenna obferves, that it was an [Indian medicine, 
bitter, and hot, like ginger; and that it was ufed as a ftoma- 
chic. Healfo fays the fame thing of the two other fruits ; 
whence it appears they were nearly the fame thing. 

* Fevyin Medicine. See Garr. 

| Feu Terre, gall of the earth, a name by which fome au- 

thors have called the {mall centaury, becaufe of its great 

bitternefs. 
FELAGUS, in our Lew Books, was ufed for a com- 
panion or friend, who was bound in the decennary for the 
ood behaviour of another. In the laws of king Ina, it is 
faid, if a murderer could not be found, the parents of the 
rfon flain fhould have fix marks, and the king forty; if 
fe had no parents, then the lord fhould have it; “et fi do- 

ainus non habet, felagus ejus.’? Leg. Ine, cap. 15. 

. Felagus is faid to be “ quafi Gde cum eo ligatus.”” 
FELAPTON, in Logic, one of the moods of fyllogifms. 
Tn a fyllogi{m in felapton, the firft propofition is an uni- 

verfal negative; the feeond an univerfal affirmative ; and 

the third a particular negative. 

. FELDBACH, in Geography, a town in the duchy of 

Stiria; 14 miles N. of Rakeliburg. 

FELDER, a river of Germany, which rifes in Henne- 
berg, and runs into the Werra, 2 miles N.E. of Vacha. 

_ FELDES, 2 town of the duchy of Carniola; 14 miles 


N.W, of Crainbure. 
» Fetpes-See, a lake of the duchy of Carniola; 2 miles 
S.W. of Feldes. . 


FELDKIRCH, Covunry or, a {mall country of Ger- 
many, formerly in the circle of Swabia, but now a part of 
the Tyrolefe, bounded ou the north by the county of 
Montford, on the ealt by Pludentz, on the fouth by the 
Grifons, and on the weit by the Rhine. 

» Fevpxircn, the capital of the above-mentioned county, 
well built, ani fituated on the Ill, near the Rhine. The 
inhabitants enjoy the privilege of choofing vheir own ma- 
giftrates, and of refufing to furrender any who are under 


FEL 


the law of the empire, and of not being fummoned by any 
provincial judges; 28 miles N/N.E. of:Coire. N. lat 
47° 12’. E. long. 9° 48. 

FELDKIRCHEN, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ; 
13 miles N.W. of Clagenfurt. “ 

FELDSBACH, a river of Auftria, which runs into the 
Danube, 3.miles below Grein. 

FELDSBERG, a town of Germany, in Carinthia, be- 
longing to the archbifhop of Salzburg; 4 miles N.E. of 
Saxenburg. © 

FELDSBURG, a town of Auttria’; 28 miles N.N.E. 
of Vienna. N. lat. 48° 42’, E.long. 16° 43’. 

FELD-SEE, a lake in the duchy of Carinthia; 8 miles 
N.W. of Velach. 

FELDUAR, a town of Hungary, near the Danube, 
fupported by fifhing in this river; 12 miles S.E. of Symen- 
tornya. 

FELE, Sr. a town of Naples, in Bafilicata; 7 miles 
N.N.E. of Muro. 

Feve Homagers, was anciently ufed for the faithful fub- 
jes. But it feems the word fhould be written feal ho- 
magers, 

FELENBRUNN (Ober), in Geography, a town of 
Auftria; 3 miles N.W. of Sonneberg. 

FELenBrunn (Unter), a town of Auftria; 8 miles N. 
of Korn-Neuburg. 

FELENGA, a‘f{mall ifland in the gulf of Venice, near 
the coait of Iftria. N. lat. 45° 52'. E. long. 14° 4’. 

FELETINO, a town of: Italy, in-the Campagna di. 
Roma; 8 miles N. of Aletri. 

FELETZ, a town or diftrit of Ruffia, in the govera- 
ment of Orel, on the left fide of the river Soffva. 

FELIBIEN, Micwuaen, in Biography, was bon in 
1665, and brought up to the church. He joined-at an 
early age the congregation of Benedictine monks, and is 
author ef many books on practical piety ; but is more par- 
ticularly known for his “ Hiftory of the Abbey of Sr. 
Denis,’ adorned with figures, and illuftrated with learned 
differtations. Through the fame which he acquired by this 
work, he was chofen by the magiftrates of Paris to write the 
hiftory of that capital. In 1713 he publifhed his pro. 
f{pectus of the intended work, and proceeded in the labour 
till he was arrefted in his progrefs by the hand of death in 
1719. It was afterwards completed in five volumes folio, 
and publifhedin 1725. Moreri. 

Feipien, James, was born, in 1636, at Chartres, and 
by intenfe application became a proficient in biblical know- 
ledge, -He obtained confiderable preferment in the church, 
and in 1695 was promoted to the archdeaconry of Vendome, 
in which city hé died, in 1716, at the age of 80. His prin- 
cipal work as an author was entitled ‘* Pentateuchus Hitto- 
ricus, five quinque libri hiftorici, Jofue, Judices, Ruth, pri- 
mus et fecundus Regum, cum Commentariis ex fonte He- 
braico, verfione 70 interpretum, et variis auctoribus col- 
leGtis,” 4to. 1703. This was intended.as a continuation of 
Janfenius’s commentary on the Old Teitamont. It was 
written with fo much freedom and boldnefs, that it was 
fuppreffed by a decree of council. The author obtained 
leave to republifh-it, having firit pruned away its objection- 
able paflages. The copies of the original publication are 
now extremely {carce, and objects of great curiofity. Mo- 
reri. : 

FELICE, Sr. in Geography, a town.of Italy ; 17 miles 
N.N.E. of Modena,—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the pro- 
vince of Leon. 

FELICIEN, Sr. a town of France, in the department 
of the Ardeche, and chief place of a canton in the ditriad 

8 er 


Ey Es 


ef Tournon ; 9 miles W. of 'Tournon. The place contains 
3,589, and the canton 8,079 inhabitants, on a territory of 
1474 kiliometres, and in g communes, 

FELICITA, or Ferice, Sr. a town of Italy, in the 
Campagna, near the coaft of the Mediterranean, at the foot 
of mount Circelli, fuppofed to be built on or near the {cite 
of the ancient Circei, but not well inhabited; 10 miles 
S.W. of Terracina. 

FELICITY, in Mythology, a deity hoth among the Ro- 
mans and the Greeks. The Romans had multiplied their 
divinities to a great number before they elevated Felicity to 
this rank. It was above 600 years after the building of 
Rome, that Lucullus, upon his return from the war with 
Mithridates and Tigranes, built a temple to her. Pliny 
adds (1. 35. c. 12.), that this general enjoined the ftatuary 
Archefilaus to make the ftatue of that goddefs; but that 
they both died before it was finifhed. Lepidus, general of 
the cavalry, had alfo, according to Dion (1. 44.) dedicated a 
temple to that goddefs. The Greeks, likewife, honoured 
the fame goddefs under the name of Eudaimonia and Ma- 
earia. Felicity is often reprefented upon the Roman me- 
dals, either under the figure of a woman holding in her hand 
the cornucopia, or under fome other fymbol, with the legend 
s¢ Felicitas Publica,” or ‘ Felicitas Aug. Felicitas Tem- 

orum.”” 

FELICUDA, in Geography, one of the Lipari iflands, 
anciently called, Phenicufa. N. lat. 38° 34'. W.long. 14° 2!. 
This ifland, as well as Alicuda, which are the two extreme 
Liparian iflands towards the welt, difplay proofs of their 
having anciently contained volcanoes. “In Felicuda there is 
a {pacious cavern, called the Grotto of the Sea-ox, which, 
from an aperture of 40 feet high, opens into a hall near 200 
feet long, 120 broad, and 65 high. This cavern is formed 
ef lava, and is only acceffible by fea. Spallanzani (vol. iii, 
p- 99-) fuppofes, that it was occafioned by the action of the 
gafes in the lava, when fluid ; as there are examples in Aitna 
of caverns, much deeper, produced by a fimilar caufe. 

FELIPE, Sr. a town of Mexico, in New Bifcay ; 36 
miles N.W. of Parrel —Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the 
province of Mechoacan; 100 miles N. of Mechoacan.— 
Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia, fituated 
on the declivity of a mountain, at the foot of two caftles ; 
which form an amphitheatre. It was formerly called Xavi- 
ya, and was once one of the molt beautiful towns in Spain ; 
but as it took part with Charles III. in 1707, Philip V. 
ordered it to be demolifhed, and caufed a new town to be 
built, which he called St. Felipe ; 2g miles S.S.W. of Va- 
lencia. N. lat. 39°. W. long. o° 46/.—Allo, a town of South 
America, in the province of Venezuela; 7o miles 5. of Vene- 
zuela.—A fo, a town of New Mexico, in New Navarre; 85 
miles W. of Cafa Grande.—Alfo, a bay called St. Jago, 
on the N. coaft of Terra Auftralis del Efpiritu Santo, dif- 
covered by Quiros in 1626. S. lat. 14°55’. E. long. 
167° 8'.—Alfo, a town of New Mexico, on the Bravo ; 40 
miles S. of Santa Fe. —Alfo, a town of Brazil, formerly 
called “ St. Luis de Marignon,” capital of the jurifdi€tion 
of Maranhao. S. lat. 2°30’. W.long..45° 36.—Alfo, a 
town of Brazil, in the jurifdiction of St.Paul.—Alfo, a 
town of the ifland of Cuba; 55 miles S.E. of Havanna. 

FELIS, in Zoology, a genus of quadrupeds in the order 
Fer, the eflential character of which confilts in having fore 
teeth, the intermediate ones equal; grinders three on each 
fide ; tongue befet with briftles backwards; and the claws 
retra¢tile. 

This ferocious tribe, confifting altogether of about 23 
fpecies, befides an amazing number of varieties, is diftin- 
guifhed by their fharp and formidable claws, which are 


FEL 


lodged in a fheath, and are capable of being extended’ or 
drawn in at pleafure. They lead a folitary and ravenous 
life, and never unite for mutua! defence or {upport like thofe 
of the herbivorous kinds of animals, but feek their food. 
alone, and are frequently enemies to each other. ‘Though 
differing greatly in fize and colour, they are allied co 
each other in difpofition, being ferce, rapacious, and 
artful, and are endued alfo with confiderable ftrength. 
They run with fpeed, eafily climb trees, and when falling 
from a height alight on the feet. They are carnivorous, 
and refufe vegetables, unlefs extremely preffed by hunger. 
When in fight of their prey, they wave their tails, and feize 
it by a fudden {pring The females bring forth feveral 
young at a birth, and have eight teats, four of which are 
pectoral, and four abdominal. 


Species. 


Leo. Tail long; body pale tawny. Felis Jeo, Linn. 
Felis cauda elongata, corpore helveolo, Schreb. Felis cauda 
in floccum definente, Brifl. Leo, Gefner, &c. Lion. 

The form of the lion is ftrikingly bold and majettic, cors 
refponding with the generofity of his nature ; and from the 
magnitude of his fize, his ftrength, agility, and courage, he 
reigns the fuperior of all other quadrupeds. A lion of the 
largeft dimenfions meafures about eight or nine feet in 
length, from the nofe to the bafe of the tail, and the latter 
itfelf nearly four feet. ‘Thofe of {maller fize, when full 
grown, are about five feet long, independently of the tail. 
The afpe& of the lion, when he prefents his front full to 
the view of the obferver, is impreffively grand; his head 
large and rounded, his forehead {quare, his fhaggy flowing 
mane, which he can ereét at pleafure, furrounding his awful 
front, his huge eye-brows, his round and fiery eye-balls, his 
pendulous lips, and formidable armament of his teeth, cons 
{pire altogether to render his appearance terrific. The ears 
of the lion are fmall, and of-a rounded form; his face co- 
vered with fhort and clofe hair, ofa pale tawny colour; the 
mane, defcending from the upper part of the head, falls over 
the fhoulders, and hangs down almoft to the knees; the 
belly and breaft are covered likewife with long hair. The 
reft of the body is covered with very fhort hair, excepting 
the point of the tail, which is furnifhed with a bufhy tuft. 
The hinder parts of the lion are rather difproportionate to 
the front, his pofterior limbs being comparatively longer, 
and the latter have befides a naked appearance when con- 
trafted with the fhagginefs of its anterior afpe&. The legs 
are flefhy and mufcular; the length of the claws is about 
an inch and a quarter, very hooked, and of a whitifh colour; 
the claws being retraétile, can be extended or withdrawn 
into the membranaceous fheath at pleafure, and their points 
are generally acute, as they are never extended, except when 
the animal feizes on its prey. 

The lionefs is fmaller than the lion, being fearcely three- 
fourths the fize of the latter; fhe is alfo deftitute of the 
mane, and her fur is of a whiter caft om the fides and 
belly. 

It has been obferved generally, by fome writers, that 
in warm climates quadrupeds ufually attain to a far more 
confiderable fize, and are naturally ftronger than in the cold 
or temperate climates, and that they are likewife more fierce 
and hardy, as their natural qualities feem to correfpond with 
the ardour of the climate. This remark can apply only to 
certain tribes, or at leaft admits of many exceptions ; but 
with regard to the lion in particular is ftri@ly true. The 
fions, naturally the inhabitants of ‘the hotter regions of the 
earth, thrive beft in the burning waites of the torrid zone ; 
in thofe defarts whence mankind are driven by the rigorous 

i heat 


a? 


PEL 1S. 


heat of the climate, the lion reigns fole mafter; its difpo- 
fition feems to partake of the ardour of its native foil, and 
under the influence of a fcorching fun it becomes larger, 
more powerful, fierce, and terrible than in other parts of 
the globe. It is thus that the lions of mount Atlas, whofe 
fummits are oftentimes covered with fnows, are neitker fo 
ftrong nor fo ferocious as thofe of Biledulgerid or Zaara, or 
the defarts in the interior of the vait continent of Africa. 
In thoie barren watftes the lion is the dread of travellers, anf 
the fcourge of the neighbouring provinces. Happily the 
fpecies is not numerous, and is faid to be diminifhing in 
number ; for if we may credit the teftimony of thofe who 
have traverfed thefe regions within the fpace of the laft 
century, the number of lions is not near fo confiderable as 
they were formerly, and their number indeed appears to de- 
creafe daily. The Romans brought many more lions out of 
Libya in one year for their public fpectacles than could be 
found at this time inthe country. Scylla, the diGator, for 
example, exhibited during his pretorfhip a hundred lions; but 
in this refpect he was far excelled by Pompey the Great, who 
brought together in the grand Circus no lefs than fix hun- 
dred animals of this fpecies, three hundred and fifteen of 
which were males: and it is recorded alfo of Czfar the difta- 
‘tor, that he colleéted altogether no Jefs than four hundred for 
the fame purpofe, that of public exhibition. Itis remarked 
by modern writers, that the lions of Turkey, Perfia, and the 
Indies are lefs numerous than formerly ; and indeed we are 
affured by the beft of the late French travellers, that there 
are at prefert no lions throughout Turkey. 

As this formidable and courageous animal makes a prey 
of moft other animals, and is himfelf the prey of none, this 
diminution in the number of the fpecies can be attributed 
only to the increafed population cf mankind: and it is alfo 
‘well obferved, that the courage of this animal diminifhes, 
and its caution and timidity become greater as it approaches 
the habitations of the human race. The quality of his 
‘courage, though natural, is exalted or deprefled according 
‘to the fuccefs with which he is accuftomed to employ his 
force. In thofe regions, the exclufive empire of which has 
been refigned to him by man, the lion is alone formidable. 
Accultomed to meafure his ftrength by that of all other 
animals which he encounters, the habit of conqueft renders 
‘him haughty and intrepid. Having never experienced the 
ftrength of man, or the power of his arms, in{tead of be- 
traying fear at his approach, the lion difdains and fets him 
at defiance. Wounds irritate but do not terrify him; nei- 
ther is he difmayed at the fight of numbers. A fingle lion 
of the defart has been known to attack a whole caravan ; 
and if, after a violent and obftinate engagement, he found 
himfelf weakened, he retreats fighting, and always keeping 
his face to the enemy. But acquainted with man, and the 
power of his arms, or ingenuity, he lofes his natural forti- 
tude, and feels fenfible of his inferiority; and hence the lion, 
in the neighbourhood of the villages of the: Indians and 
Africans, has been known to fly before women, and even 
“children, and fuffer itfelf to be driven by them from its lurk- 


ing-place. 
aThis alteration in the difpofition of the lion fufficiently 
demonftrates that it will admit of a certain degree of educa- 
tion. The page of hiftory informs us of lions yoked in tri- 
umphal chariots; that of Mark Antony, when hé appeared 
‘in the ftreets of Rome, accompanied by his miftrefs Cytheris, 
-was drawn by lions ; and other inftances of a fimilar nature 
might alfo be adduced, Lions have been occafionally trained 
to the arts of war, or the chafe, by the ancients, and it is 
affirmed of thefe, that they never employed their ftrength 
er courage but againit their enemics, The lion (ays 


Buffon) when taken young, and brought up amongft do+ 
mettic animals, is eafily accuftomed to live, and even {port 
innocently with them. He is gentle and careffing to his 
mafter, and if he fometimes refumes his natural ferocity, he 
feldom turns his rage againft his benefaGors. He has alfo 
been known to difdain the infults, and pardon the offenfive 
liberties of weaker animals. When led into captivity, he 
difcovers fymptoms of uneafinefs, without anger or peevifh- 
nefs ; on the contrary, he affumes the habits of gentlenefs, 
obeys his mafter, careffes the hand that feeds him, and fome- 
times {pares the animals that are thrown to him for prey. 
By this aét of generofity he feems to confider himfelf as for 
ever bound to proteét them ; he lives peaceably with them, 
allows them a part of his food, and will rather fubmit to the 
inconveniencies of hunger than deftroy the fruits of his own 
beneficence. 

Notwithftanding this generofity and placability of dif- 
pofition, it fhould however be remembered, that the paflions 
of the lion are impetuous and vehement, and it is not to be 
expected, that on all occafions the impreffions of education 
will be fufficient to counterpoife them. We are well affured, 
from ocular obfervation, that the keepers of thefe animals 
frequently play with them, and witha degree of familiarity, 
little fhort of temerity, put their hands in their mouths, 
pull out their tongue, or hold them by the teeth, or even 
beat them, all which the animal feems to bear with fullen 
compofure. But it is neverthelefs dangerous to let the lion 
fuffer from hunger, or provoke him by ill-timed teazings ; 
the mildaefs of his temper is liable to irritation, and has been 
known to refent the imprudent chattifements of bis keeper. 
Labat informs us of a gentleman who kept a lion in his 
chamber, and employed a fervant to attend it, and who as 
ufual mixed his careffes with blows. This was borne by the 
lion for fome time. One morning, however, the gentleman 
was awakened by an unufual noife in his room, and drawing 
his curtains afide he perceived it to proceed from the lion, 
which was growling over the body of the unhappy man, 
whom it had juft killed, and had feparated his head from 
his body. The terror and coniternation of the gentleman 
may be eafily conceived ; he flew out of the room, and for- 
tunately obtained fufficient affiftance to fecure the animal 
from committing further mifchief. 

The appearance of the lion is truly expreffive of the mag- 
nanimous qualities of his nature, his gait is ftately, his looks 
determined, his eyes glowing with peculiar luttre, infpire 
terror, and: his voice is tremendous. The force of his muf& 
cular ftrength is apparent from his prodigious leaps and 
bounds, which often exceed twenty feet; by the lively 
motion of his tail, a fingle {weep of which is fufficient to 
throw a man to the ground; by the facility with which he 
moves the fkin of his face, and the faculty of ereéting and 
agitating the hair of his mane when irritated. 

Lions are very ardent in their amours ; when ‘the female 
is in feafon, fhe is often followed by eight orten males, whe 
roar inceffantly, and enter into furious engagements till one 
completely overcomes the reft, takes peaceable poffeffiou of 
her, and carries her off to fome fecret recefs. All the 
paffions of the lion, the foft paffion of love not excepted, are 
exceffive. From the reports of the French naturaiilts, the 
amours of thefe animals differ in no refpe& trom thofe of 
the common cat, and frequent opportunities have occurred 
of late years in the menagerie of the mufeum of natural 
hiftory in Paris to verify the truth of this obfervation ; 
they are not on thofe occafions more cordial than the cat, 
and like that animal growl and wrangle as though offended 
with each other, the female efpecially. The lionefs is 
naturally weaker and more timid than the lion, but-fuch is 

the 


FF E.LIJS, 


the flrength of her attachment for her young, that for their 
fupport {he becomes more ferocious ad terrible than the 
lion himfelf, makes her excurfions with more -boldnefs, 
attacks and deftroys without diftin@ion all other animals, 
and carries them reeking to her cubs, whom fhe thus inftracts 
to fuck their blood, and tear their flefh. She brings forth 
her .young in the moft fecret and inacceffible places, and 
’ when afraid that her retreat will be difcovered, endeavours 
to conceal the traces of her feet, by returning frequently 
on her fteps, or effacing them by brufhing the ground with 
her tail. When the danger is great, fhe will fometimes 
tran{port her young from one place to another in her mouth, 
or if obitruéted in this attempt to fave them fhe becomes 
furious, and defends them to the laft extremity- 

The length of time the lionefs goes with young is 
vatioufly ftated by different writers; /Elian fays two months, 
and Philoftratus fx months ; among the moderns the period 
of geftation is {aid to be five months, and the beft authors 
feem to agree in this conclufion. From very recent obferva- 
tion, it neverthelefs appears that neither of the above ftate- 
ments is correét; it has been clearly afcertained by 
La Cépéde, that the lionefs goes with young one hundred 
cand eight days, or rather more than three months anda half. 
The number of young brought forth by the lionefs at a 
time is alfo generally mifreprefented. Ariftotle believed 
that at the firit birth-the lionefs conflantly produced either 
five or fix young; moft.commonly only five; and at each 
fucceeding litter progreffively one lefs, till fhe brought 
forth but a fingle whelp, and after that fhe became barren. 
This early naturalift was deceived, but his information is 
neverthelefs more juft than that of other ancient writers 
before his time, who fuppofed the lionefs never produced 
but a fingle litter, the young, inftead of being brought 
forth as in other animals, tearing an opening through the 
dide of their mother, and thus effeGting their efcape, at the 
expence of her life. Among the writers of later times it is 
ufually admitted that the lionefs has feveral litters in her 
life, and at each birth preduces about three or four whelps. 
The lionefs occafionally breeds in a {tate of confinement in 
Europe, inftances of which are known in Britain; but 
whether the time of geftation in thefe animals has been well 
determined by the obfervation of Englifh naturalifts feems 
rather doubtful. A lionefs in the menagerie at Paris, about 
two months gone with young, produced an abortive birth 
of two foetufes, the fkin of which was perfectly {mooth, 
the hair not haying at that period began to grow. ‘T'wenty- 
one days after this the female was in heat, and was known 
‘to receive the embraces of the lion five feveral times in the 
fame day. From that time every fymptom of pregnancy 
appeared; and on the ro$th day after, at feven ia the 
morning, the pains of birth commenced; at five in the 
evening, the ufual hour of repait, the lionefs in vain at- 
‘tempted to eat the food prefented to her, the pains, almoit 
every inftant repeated, compelling herto abandon it. The 
keeper, obferving this, entered the den, and made the animal 
{wallow fome olive oil, which feemed rather to relieve her ; 
about ten o’clock fhe brought forth a living whelp ; in half 
an hour after another, and a third at a quarter paft eleven. 
The above were all males. ‘This occurred in November 
i801. About the end of March following the male was 
again admitted to the fame lionefs, and on the 15th of July 
1802, fhe had a litter of two female whelps, fo that the 
period of geftation in the latter inftance was much the fame 
as in the former. | 

The lions, when firft born, are rather larger than a half- 
grown kitten ; at leaft three or four we have feen that were 
brought forth in the Tower did not exceed that fize, or 


about a foot in length from the back of the head. to. the 
origin of the tail. Their colour is a mixture of reddifh and 
grey, with a number of {mall brown bands, which are moft 
diftinét on the dorfal fpine, and near the origin of the tail 5 
and thefe ftripes fearcely difappear ia the whelps a twelve- 
month old, and they continue at the teat about the fame 
time. The mane of the male begins to make its appearance 
when the animal is about three years, or three years and a 
half old: the age ot maturity is faid to be about the fixth 
or feventh year, in the female at the fixth year. 

Naturalilts are not agreed as to the ordinary period of life 
in this animal, which is varioufly ftated, at from about 20 
to 50 years or more. Buffon, reafoning from the fize and 
conttitution of the lion, and the time required for his arriv- 
ing at his full growth, concludes that it ought to be about 
25 years, or feven times the fpace of three or four years, as 
it has been afferted of the lion that he acquired maturity in 
three or four years after his birth. It is, however, afcer- 
tained, that in fome inftances the lion lives much beyond 
that time. The great lion called Pompey, which died in 
the Tower, is recorded to have lived in captivity above 70 
years ; and one brought from the river Gambia died there 
a few years fince at the age of 63. A 

The lion feldom quits his den, or goes abroad in the mid- 
dle of the day, but commences his depredations at twilight, 
and returns before the morning. The roaring of. the lion, 
when in queft of prey, is faid by Buffon to refemble the 
found of diftant thunder, and, being echoed by the rocks and 
mountains, appals the whole race of animals, and puts them 
to fudden flight ; but he frequently varies his voice into a 
hideous fcream, or yell. The lion, when hungry, will at- 
tack any animal that prefents itfelf ; but he is fo formidable 
that all endeavour to avoid him, and this cireumftance 
often obliges him to conceal himfelf, and lie in wait, that 
he may take his prey by furprife. For this purpofe he 
crouches on his belly in fome thicket till his prey approaches, 
and then with a prodigious leap he feizes it at the firft bound. 
Should he mifs the obje&t, we are told he defifts from farther 
purfuit, and, turniag back towards the place of his ambuth, 
meafures the ground ftep by ftep, and again lies in wait for 
another opportunity. 5 ‘i 

The lurking place of the lion is generally chofen near a 
{pring, or by the fide of a river, where he has an oppor- 
tunity of furprifing fuch animals as refort to the water to 
quench their thir. In burning deferts, where rivers and 
fountains are denied, they live in a perpetual fever,.a fort of 
madnefs fatal to every animal they meet with. The lien is 
fuppofed to be deftitute of fcent in that fuperior degree 
which moft animals of prey poffefs, and to hunt by the eye 
alone. Many hiftorians have even reprefented him as incapa- 
ble of finding his prey except by accident, and that he is 
obliged to the jackal, a quadruped of excellent fcent, for the 
difcovery of it. This is an erroneous fuppofition ; the jackal 
does not attend the lion to [provide for him, but, being a 
{mall and feeble creature, follows his track to pick up the 
refufe of fuch animals as the lion deftroys, and does not con- 
defcend entirely to devour. The ftreegth of the lion is fo 
prodigious, that it is even affirmed a fingle ftroke of his 
paw is fufficient to break the back of a horfe, and that he 
carries off a middle-fized ox, or buffalo, with eafe. The 
lion is faid to devour as much food at once as will ferve him 
for two or three days, and when fatiated to remain in a ftate 
of reft or retirement in his den, tillimpelled again by hunger 
to leave it, and prowl in fearch of prey. The reverfed 
briftles with which his tongue is befet are fo large and 
ftrong, that he readily lacerates the fkin of other animals 5 
and his teeth fo powerful, that he breaks and crufhes the 

~ bones” 


FELE!ES. 


bones with perfect facility, and often fwallows them with 
the fleth. It is eftimated that about fifteen pounds of raw 
fleth is fufficient for the ordinary fubfiftence of each lion 
daily. He endures hunger better than thirft, and laps in 
drinking like a dog. 

The roaring of the lion is ftrong and leud, but when he 
is irritated his cry is fhorter, repeated more fuddenly, and 
is {till more terrible than the roaring ;_ befides which, at fuch 
times he beats his fides with his tail, ftamps with his feet, 
ereéts and agitates the hair of his head and mane, moves 
the fikin of his face, thews his teeth, and lolls out his tongue. 
According to Dr. Sparrman, “ the roaring of thelion con- 
fifts in a hoarfe inarticulate found, which at the fame time 
feems to have a hollownefs in it, fomething like that pro- 
ceeding from a {peaking trumpet. The found is between 
the German w and an 9, being drawn toa greater length, and 
appearing as if it came from out of the earth; at the fame 
time, that after liftening with the greateit attention, I could 
not exaGtly hear from what quarter itcame. The found of 
the lion’s voice does not bear the leaft refemblance to thun- 
der, as M. de Buffon, tom. ix. p. 22. from the voyage of 
Boullaye de Goux, affirms it does. In fa, it appeared to 
me neither peculiarly piercing nor tremendous; yet, from 
its flow prolonged note, joined with noGiurnal darknefs, and 
the terrible idea one is apt to form to one’s felf of this ani- 
mal, itmade me fhudder, even in fuch places as I had an 
Opportunity of hearing it in with move fatisfaction, and 
without having the leaft oceafion for fear. We could plainly 
perceive by our cattle when the lions, whether they roared or 
not, were reconnoitering us at a {mall diftance. For in that 
cafe the hounds did not dare to bark in the leaft, but crept 
quite clofe to the Hottentots; and our oxen and horfes 
fighed deeply, frequeatly a back, and pulling flowly 
with all their might at the ftrong {traps with which they 
were tied up to the waggon. ‘They likewife laid themfelves 
down on the ground and {tood up alternately, appearing as 
if they did not know what to do with themfelves; or rather, 
jut as if they were inthe agonies of death. It is indeed 
a wonderful circumitance that the brute creation fhould 
have been taught merely by nature to be in dread of the 
lion; for our horfes and oxen were all from places where I 
am certain they could have no knowledge of this dreadful 
adverfary of theirs; fo that in this we muft admire the 
bounty of providence, which, while it has fent fuch a tyrant 
as the lion amongft the animal creation, has likewife 
taught them to difcern and diftinguifh it with trembling aud 
horror.” 

We might naturally conclude that the roaring of the lion 
would prove ferviceable to the other animals, by operating 
as a warning for them to betake themfelves to flight; but 
as he puts his mouth to the ground when he roars, the found 
is diffufed equally to a contiderable furrounding diftance, 
and it is hence impoffible to diftinguifh the precife {pot from 
whence it iffues. This increafesthe alarm; the intimidated 
animals fly backwards and forwards in all directions, and 

yeing dark, very often run to the very place from whence 
the found proceeds, and which they meant to avoid. When 
the lion walks, his gait is flately, grave, and flow, though in 
an oblique direction, His movements are not, however, 
equal, but confift of leaps and bounds, which prevent him 
from ftopping fuddenly, and make him often overleap his 
mark. ould he chance to mifs his prey, the Hottertets 
affirm that he turns flowly round towards the place where 
he lay inambufh, proceeding thither ftep by ftep, and, as it 
were, meafuring the exact length between the two points, 
in order to find how much he exceeded or fell {hort of the 
mark to which his leap bad been dire&ed. 

te Vor, XIV. 


The character of the lion for courage and generofity is te 
be admitted, according to Dr. Sparrman, with confider- 
ableabatement. < It is not in magnanimity, fays this wri- 
ter, as many will have it to be, but in an infidious and cow- 
ardly difpofition, blended with a certain degree of pride, that 
the general character of the lion confifts ; though hunger 
mutt naturally have the effect of now and then infpiring fo 
ftrong and nimble an animal with uncommon intrepidity 
and courage. Moreover, being accuitomed always itfelf to 
killits own food, and that with the greateft eafe, as meeting 
with no refiftance, and even frequently to devour it reeking 
and weltering in its blood, it cannot but be ealily provoked, 
and acquire a greater turn for cruelty than generofity ; but, 
on the other hand, not being accuftomed to meet with any 
refiftance, it is no wonder that, when it does, it’ fhould 
fometimes be faint-hearted and crett-fallen, A yeoman, a 
man of veracity (Jacob Kok, of Keehoe river), related to 
me an adventure he had, in thefe words : ** One day walking 
over his lands with his loaded gun, he unexpedicdly met 
with a lion. Being an excellent thot, he thought himfelf 
pretty certain, inthe pofition he was in, of kalling it, and 
therefore fired his piece. Unfortunately he did not recolleé 
that the charge had been in it for fome time, and confequent- 
ly was damp, fo that his piece hung fire, and the ball, falling 
fhort, entered the ground clofe to the lion. In confequence 
of this he was feized with a panic, and took direéily to his 
feet ; but being foon out of breath, and clofely purfued by 
the lion, he jumped up on a little heap of ftones, and there 
made a {tand, prefenting the butt end of his gun to his adver- 
fary, fully refolved to defend-his life as well as he could te 
the utmoit. My friend didnot take upon him to determine 
whether this pofition and manner of his intimidated the 
lion or not; it had, however, fuch an effe@ upon the crea- 
ture, that it likewife made a itand, and, what was fill more 
fingular, laid itfelf down at the diftance of a few paces from 
the heap of ftones, feemingly quite unconcerned. The 
{portfman in the mean while did not dare to ftir a ttep from 
the fpot: befides, in his fight, he had the misfortune to 
lofe his powder-horn. At length, after waiting a good 
half hour, the lion rofe up, and at firft went very flowly ; 
and ftep by ftep, as if he had a mind to fteal off, but as 
foon as it got to a greater diltance it began to bound away 
ata great rate.”’ 

The fame author relates alfo another occurrence to the fame 
effect, but which, being attended with circumftances more re- 
markable than the former, has been mere frequently re- 
peated; the-itory is interelting, and onght not to be omit- 
ted. ‘ Anelderly Hottentot, fays this writer, in the fer- 
vice ofa Chriftian, near the upper part ef Sunday river, or 
the Cambdebo fide, perceived a lion following him at a 
great diftance for two hours together. Thence he naturally 
concluded that the lion only waited for the approach of 
darknefs in order to make him his prey, and in the mean 
time could not expec any other'than to ferve for this fierce 
animal’s fupper, inafmuch as he had no other weapon of 
defence than a ftick, and knew that he could not get home 
before it was dark, But as he was well acquainted with the 
nature of the lion, and the manner of its feizing upon its 
prey, and at the fame time had leifure between whiles to 
ruminate on the ways and means in which it was moit likely 
that his exiitence would be put an end to, he at length hit 
upon a method of faving his life. For this purpofe, initead of 
making the beft of his way home, he looked out for a hilp- 
krans (fo they generally call arocky place, level and plain at 
the top, and having a perpendicular precipice on one fide 
of it), and fitting himfelf down on theedge of one of thefe 
precipices, he feund, to his en joy» that the lion likewile 

F . made 


FEL 1S, 


made a halt, and kept the fame diftance as before. Asfoon 
as it grew dark, the Hottentot, fliding a little forwards, 
let himfelf down below the upper edge of the precipice upon 
fome projecting part or cleft of the rock, where he could 
juit keep himfelf from falling. But in order to cheat the 
lion ftill more, he fet his hat and cloak on the ftick, making 
with it, at the fame time, a gentle motion juft over his 
head, and alittle way from the edge of the mountain. This 
crafty expedient had the defired fuccefs. He did not ftay 
long in this fituation before the lion came creeping foftly 
towards him likea cat, and mi'taking the ficin cloak for the 
Hottentot himfelf, took his leap with fuch exa€tnefs and 
precifion, as to fall headlong down the precipice dire@tly 
clofe tothe {nare which had been fet up for him.’? 

This is not the only inftance of the lion being enfnared by 
a ftratagem of this kind. In the out-houfes and wafte 
grounds about farms, where a lion has been upon the watch 
for fome animal and miffed it, or where they have reafon to 
expe one, they fet up the figure of a man, clofe by the 
fide of feveral loaded guns; fo that thefe difcharge them- 
{elves into the body of the beaft at the very inftant that he 
{prings, or throws himlelf upon the dreffed figure. This is 
done with fo much eafe and fuccefs, that they fcarcely ever 
think it worth the trouble in Africa to take the lions alive, 
nor are they often at the pains to conftruét pit-falls for their 
capture. 

Dr. Sparrman remarks, as a fingular trait in the hiftory of 
the lion, that though, accerding to many, it always kills his 
prey immediately if it belongs to the brute creation, it con- 
tents itfelf, however provoked, with merely wounding the 
human fpecies in the firft moment of feizure ; or at lea{t to 
wait fome time before he gives the fatal blow to the un- 
happy victim. In feveral places through which the travel- 
ler paffed, the natives mentioned to him by name a father 
and two fons, who were faid to be ftill living, and who, 
being on foot neara river on their eftate in fearch of alion, 
were unexpectedly furprifed by him; the foremoft was 
thrown down by him, but the other two had juft time to 
fhoot the lion dead on the fpot, after it had lain almolt acrofs 
the youth fo nearly and dearly related to them, without 
having done him any particular injury. He alfo faw, near 
the upper part of Duyven-hoek river, an elderly Hottentot, 
who at that time had under oue eye, and beneath the cheek- 
bone, the ghaftly marks of the bite of a lion, which did not 
condefeend to give him any other chaftifement for having, in 
eompany with his matter, hunted him with intrepidity, 
though without fuccefs. It was related likewife of a farmer 
and captain in the militia named Bota, who had lain for 
fome time under a lion, and had received feveral bruifes from 
the beat, befides being bitten very much in one arm, but 
who.ina manner had his life given him by this noble animal. 
“TI -do not rightly,” fays Dr. Sparrman, * know how to ac- 
count for this mereiful difpofition towards mankind. Does 
it proceed from the lion’s creater re{peét and veneration for 
man, as being an equal to, or even a mightier tyrant than, 
himfelf. among the animal creation? Or is it merely from 
the fame caprice which has fometimes induced him not only 
to {pare’the lives of men or brute creatures, who have been 
given up to him for prey, but even to carefs them and 
treat them with the preateft kindnefs? Whims and freaks 
of this kind have, perhaps, in a great meafuré, acquired the 
lion the reputation it has for generofity ; but I cannot 
allow the fpecious name, facred only to virtue, to be lavith- 
ed ona wild beaft. Slaves, indeed, and wretches of fervile 
minds, are wont with this attribute to flatter their greateft 
tyrants ; but with what fhow of reafon can this attribute 
be beftowed upon the moft powerful tyrant among quadru- 


peds, becanfe it does not exercife an equal degree of cruelty 
upon all occafions? That the lion does not, like the wolf, 
tiger, or fome other beafts of prey, kill a great deal of game 
or cattle at one time, perhaps proceeds from this, that while 
he isemployed in attacking one or two of them, the remain- 
der fly farther than it accords with the natural indolence of 
this beaft to follow them. If this be calledgenerofity, a 
cat may be ftyled generous with regard to rats; as [ 
have feen this creature in the fields, among a great num- 
ber of the latter, where fhe could have made a great 
havoe at once, feize on a fingle one, and run off with it. 
The lion, and the cat likewife, very much refemble each 
other, in partly fleeping out, and partly palling away, ina 
quiet ina¢tive ftate, a great part of their time in which 
hunger does not urge them to go in queft of their 
rey.” 

The ftrength of the lion, according to the fame intereft- 
ing traveller, is very confiderable. He was informed that 
this animal was once feen at the Cape to take an heifer in 
his mouth, and though the legs of the latter dragged on 
the ground, yet he feemed to carry her off with the fame 
eafe that a cat does arat; and it had likewife in its courfe 
to leap a broad dyke, which it accomplifhed without diffi- 
culty. This happened near Bofhiefman river; the lion was 
perceived by a hunting party of Hottentots dragging his 
prey from the plain to a neighbouring woody hill they 
however purfued, and forcing the lion to leave it, made a 
prize of it themfelves. The lion is however faid to be not 
fufficiently powerful to overcome an animal of fuch ftrength 
and fize as the buffalo, without having recourfe both to 
agility and ftratagem. With this view it fteals on the buf 


-talo, and faftens with both its paws upon the mouth and 


noltrils of the beaft, and keeps {queezing them clofe toge- 
ther, till at length the creature is ftrangled, wearied out, 
and dies. Attacks of this kind have been witnefled by the 
colonifts, and the buffaloes have fometimes efcaped, bearing 
at the fame time the marks of the lion’s claws about their 
mouth and nofe. The lion on fuch oeccafions ventures, how- 
ever, to affail the buffalo at great peril ; for if another buf- 
falo fhould approach, he would not fail to attack the lion, 
and the ftrength of the two buffaloes would be more than 
{ufficient to overpower their affailant. The lion, it is faid, 
unlefs prefled with hunger, will not always attack the buf- 
falo ; a traveller had once an opportunity of feeing a female 
buffalo with her calf, defended by a river at her back, keep 
for along time at bay five lions which partly furrounded 
her; but did not, at leaft as long as the traveller looked on, 
dare to attack her. ‘There is an inftance alfo recorded of a 
lion being trampled to death by a herd of cattle, which he 
was urged to attack (probably by hunger) in the broad 
day light. : 
‘Az the Cape the lion is frequently hunted by the colonifts 
both for the fake of the flefh, which, though poffeffing a 
{trong and difagreeable flavour, is eaten by the negroes ; 
and alfo for the fkin, which thofe people ufe as a mantle, 
or abed. In the day time, and on the open plain, from 
ten to fixteen dogs will eafily overcome a lion of the largeit 
fize. Nor is there any necefiity that the dogs with which 
the lion is hunted fhould be very large, and trained up to 
the fport, as Buffon thinks they ought to be, the objet 
being perfectly well accomplifhed with the common farm- 
houfe dogs. As the lion is lefs fwift than the dogs, the 
fatter eafily appreach him, when, from a greatnefs of foul; 
and a fullen degree of magnanimity, the Hon turus round, 
and waits for the attack, fhaking his mane, and+roaring 
with a fhort and {harp tone, or fits down to face them. 
The hounds then.furround him, and, rufhing upon him, all 
7 ; at 


Pek 1 1eSs 


at once, are thus, by their united efforts, able to {ubdue, or 

tear him in pieces: hé has feldom time to give more than 

twoor three flizht ftrokes with his paws, each of which is 
_ attended with the death of one of his affailants. 

Buffon afferts that the lion may be hunted on horfeback, 
but that the horfes mult be trained to it, which, however, 
Dr. Sparrman affures us, is not the cafe, as the eolonifts 
hunt the lion with common hunting horfes ; the latter he 
deferibes to be as eager in purfuit of this formidable 
animal as in that of the antelope. ‘ Our horfes,” fays 
he, <* the very fame as had feveral times, in the manner 
above-mentioned, fhewn their difquictude when the lion 
happened to be in the vicinity of them, and which were 
not in the leaft trained to the chafe, once exhibited a 
pat in the purfuit of two large Jions equal to that which 
they had fhewa at other times im chafing the timid gazels ; 
though in fact hunting horfes feem to partake much more 
of their mafler’s pleafure in the chafe. I remember in par- 
ticular, at Agter Bruntjes Hoogtee, I rode a horfe, which, 
by a tremulous found iffuing from its cheft, cocking up its 
éars, and prancing and capering, difcovered, in an unequivo- 
cal manner, its ardour in the chafe, whenever it came in 
fight of the larger kind of game. There have eyen been 
inftances of- hunting horfes, who, when the bunter has 
jamped off their backs in order to difcharge his piece, but 
has miffed his mark, have, in their eagerneis for the chafe, 
not allowed him time fufficient to mount again, but fol- 
lowed the game alone for hours together, clole at its yery 
heels, in all its turnings and windings.” ‘This ardour for 
the purfuit of the lion is only fhewn, however, we are to re- 
member, according to Dr. Sparrman, by the horfes trained 
to the purpofes of hunting; for he has told us on another 
occafion, that their common horfes, as well as their oxen, 
fighed deeply, and betrayed fuch fymptoms of fear, as even 
to lie down panic-ftruck when the lions were reconnoitering 
them; and thefe affurances feem ftrongly to confirm the 
obfervation of Buffon; namely, that it is neceflary the 
horfes with which the lious are hunted fhould be trained 
to the purpofe, or be at leaft accuitomed to the purfuit of 
beafts of prey, and the perils attendant on their chafe. It 
furthermore appears from the fame author, that it is only on 
the plains that the hunters ever venture to go out on horfe- 
back in this chafe. If the lion remains in the coppice or 
wood on a rifing ground, they endeavour to teaze hira with 
the dogs till he comes into the plain. They allo go in par- 
ties of two or three together, or even more, in order to af- 
‘fift and refcue each other, in cafe the firft fhot fhould not 
take place. When the lion fees the hunters at a great dif- 
tance, it is allowed univerfally that he flies from their ap- 
proach with all poffible fpeed, in order to efcape ; but if 
ey chance to difeover him at a fmall diftance only from 
them, he retires with fullen dignity, and at a-flow pace, as 
‘though he were above betraying by his actions any fymptom 
of apprehenfion. . This, therefore, alfo {hews, that when pur- 
fued with vigour, he is foon provoked tu retiltance, or at leatt 
difdains any longer to fly. He flackens his pace, and. at 
length only flides flowly off, ftep by ftep, at the fame time 
watching his purfuers obliquely, till he finally makes a full 
paufe, and, turning round upon them, fhakes his mane, roars 
with a fhort and fharp tone, expreflive of his indiznation. 
and appears ready to Pate on them, and tear them in pieces. 
This is the moment for the hunters te be on the fpot, or 
within a convenient diftance, to commence the attack ; not 
ina body, but at proper intervals from.each other. The 
foremoft huntiman, or he that is moit advantageoufly potted, 
and has the beft mark of that part of the lion’s body nearett 
his heart or lungs, muft be the firit to jump off his horfe, 


and, fecuring the bridle by putting it round his arm, 
difcharge his piece; then, in an infant recovering his feat, 
muft ride obliquely athwart his companions; and in fine, 
giving his horfe the reins, muft truft entirely to the {peed 
and fear of the latter to convey him beyond the reach of 
the lion, fhould he have only wounded him, or abfolutely 
mifled him. Under either of thefe circumftances a fair 
opportunity prefents itfelf for fome one of the other hunters 
te jump off his horfe immediately, as he may then difcharge 
his piece with effet, and fave his companion. If this fhot 
fhould mifs likewife, a third fportfman rides after the lion, 
which at that time is in purfuit of the firft or fecond, and, 
{pringiag off his horfe, fires his piece as foon as he arrives 
within a proper diftance, aud the animal prefents itfelf in a 
favourable pefition. Inthe event of the lion turning again 
and attacking this purfuer, the other hunters return to his 
refeue with their pieces ready charged, having loaded them 
on horfeback while flying from the wild beaft. No isflance, 
it is faid, has ever been known of any misfortune happening 
tothe hunters in chafing the lion on horfeback. ‘The re- 
mote parts of Africa are moft expofed to the ravages of 
wild beafts, and the colonifts in thofe diftri@s, from the 
habits of hunting them, become excellent markfmen. The 
lion, which has the.boldnefs to feize on their cattle, the 
motft valuable part of their property, and that fometimes 
even at their doors, 1s as odious to them as he is dangerous 
and injurious; and hence they confequently feck out his 
lurking places, and purfue him with the greateft ardour ard 
delight. 

It is rather with the view of exterminating thefe formi- 
dable beafts of prey that the Africans hunt them ; though, 
as already obferved, the flefh is eaten by the negroes: the 
greafe allo, which is of a penetrating nature, is ufed in medi- 
cine, and their fkin ferves as a cloak or mantle, and was for- 
merly wore as fuch only by perfons of diftin&ion. On 
fome occafions alfo lions feem to conftitute a part of the 
eftablifhed pomp of royalty in the eaftera world. The 
monarch of Perfia, as appears from the travels of Mr. Bell, 
has on the days of audience two large lions, fecured by mean 
of golden chains, on each fide the entrance of the hall of 
fiate. 

The anatomy of the lion is deferibed by Bartholinus in 
1671, and in the Tranfactions of the Royal Society of 
Peterfburgh for 1771. 

Trorts. Tail long; body varied with long dark 
ftreaks. Tigris maculis virgatis, Ludolf. Felis flava, ma- 
culis longis nigris variegata, Brill. Cauda elongata, corpore 
maculis omnibus virgatis, Schreber. Tigris, Gefner,, &c. 
Ligre, Buffon. Royal tiger. 

It is difficult to form any jut conclufion either as to the 
fize or beauty of this tremendous animal frontthe individuals 
retained captive from early life in our menageries; and where, 
from the {mallnefs of their dens, and confequent un- 
cleanlinefs, their want of exercife, and of thefe habits of 
life which render them robuit, their growth muft naturally 
be fuppreffed, and their robe exhibit an infinitely lefs decree 
of brilliancy than when they roam at large in their native 
deferts. 

The fize of this animal, according to fome authors, is 
larger, and, according to others, rather {maller than the 
lion ; and.in this refpe& the comparifons by different tra- 
vellers vary materially, fome affi ‘ming that it is the fize of 
the deer, others of the horfe, and fome acain even of the 
buffalo. There indeed appear to be two or more diftin@ 
animals confounded under the general name of tiger, in the 
fame manner as the panther has been cailed the leopard, and 
the cougouar the panther ; and all, as well as the jaguar, are 


es indifere 


FE L127 


indifcriminately termed tigers by varieus writers, a circum- 
itance that has given rife to no {mall degree of confufion. 
The true tiger is the largeft and moft powerful of thefe ani- 
mals, and which has obtained the appellation of the royal 
tiger in teftimony of this pre eminence, Buffon relates, on 
the authority of M. de Lalande Magon, that the latter had 
feena tigerin the Eaft Indies fifteen feet in length, including 
the tail; but this even is inferior to others recorded by tra- 
vellers. L’Abbé Richard fays they have tigers at Tonquin 
eighteen feet in length. The height of the tiger, according 
to Fouche d’Obfonville, is four feet ten inches, and the 
length nine feet from the front to the bafe of the tail; and 
Grandpré, in his voyage to India, defcribes tigers as large 
as oxen. 


Tigers are peculiar to Afia, and are not, as fome authors 
fuppofe, inhabitants of the new continent ; and moreover 
they are confined to the warmer parts of Afia, and princi- 
pally to India and the Indian iflands, though the fpecies ex- 
tends as far north as China and Chinefe Tartary. They 
abound moft in Malabar, Bengal, and the kingdom of 
Siam, and Tonquin, 


A more beautiful animal than the tiger does not exift ; 
he is as unrivalled for the brilliancy and elegance of his fury 
as he is diftinguifhed for his ferocity, and the want of every 
quality which, asa beaft of prey, could palliate the nature of 
his difpofition. His whole figure is expreflive of the powers 
of his ftrength and activity. The head is fhort and 
roundifh, the ears fhort, and the armament of his teeth truly 
formidable. Thé general:colour of his fur isa deep tawny, 
or yellow orange, which is of a deeper hue on the back 
than the fides; and the face, throat, and underfide of the 
belly are nearly white : the whole body is traverfed by nume- 
rous perpendicular ftripes of black, and the tail is alfo annu- 
lated with the fame. In different individuals the colours 
vary in the brightnefs of the yellow-orange, which contti- 
tutes the ground-colour of the fur, and the intenfity of ihe 
bands of black, with which it is relieved; thefe bands are 
in fome parts double, in others fingle, and are fewer in num- 
ber about the head and under parts of the body than on the 
upper. The tiger is the moft rapacious of all carnivorous 
animals ; fierce without provocation, and cruel without ne- 
ceffity, his thirft for blood is infatiable; although glutted 
with tarnage he is not appeafed; he feizes, and tears in 
pieces every animal with equal fury and rapacity, nor ever 
defifts fo long asa fingle objéét remains in fight that he can 
vanquifh; he lays watte the country he inhabits ; flocks and 
herds fall indifcriminately victims to his fury, his cruelty, and 
cunning; he attacks the elephant, the rhinoceros, and 
even braves the lion himfelf; he neither fears the fight nor 
the oppofition of men, whom he frequently makes his prey, 
and is even faid to prefer human flefh to any other. The 
tiger feems to have no other inftin@ than a conftant thirft 
after blood, and which often ftimulates him to devour his 
young, or the cubs to tear the mother in pieces for defending 
them. Sometimes he lies in wait on the banks of rivers, 
where the heat of the climate obliges other animals to repair 
for drink, but from the velocity of his flight he is equal to 
the chace of the fleeteft animals, and oftentimes purfues 
them to their inevitable deftru€tion. 


The ftrength of the tiger is'fo great, that when it has 
killed a deer, a horfe, or even a buffalo, it carries off the 
prize with fuch eafe, that it feems no impediment to its 
flight. ‘This it does to prevent interruption, as it can devour 
the flaughtered animal in the woods more at its leifure. The 
moment the animal he attacks is overcome, it plunges its 
head into the body, asif to fatiate itfelf with the blood ; and 


when large it commonly tears out the entrails to facilitate 
its conveyance to the retreats of its lurking place. 

Neither force, reftraint, nor violence can fubdue the fero~ 
city of the tiger; he is equally irritated with good as bad 
treatment, and is fo infenfible ef its keeper, that he would 
equally tear the hand that feeds him, as that by which it is 
chaftifed, It is neverthelefs admitted that the tiger, when 
very young, has much playfulnefs and fome docility. In 
Bewick’s quadrupeds it is related, that a young male tiger, 
lately brought from China in the Pitt Eaft Indiaman, at 
the age of ten months, was fo far dometticated, as to allow 
every kind of familiarity from the people on board. It 
feemed to be quite harmlefs, and was as playful as a kitten. 
It frequently flept with the failors in their hammocks, and 
would fuffer two or three of them to repofe their heads upow 
its back as upon a pillow, whilft it lay ftretched out upon 
thedeck. In return for this it would, however, now and 
then fteal their meat. Having one day taken a piece of 
beef from the carpenter, he followed the animal, took the 
meat out of its mouth, and beat it feverely for the theft, 
which punifhment it fuffered with all the patience of a dog. 
It would frequently run out on the bowiprit, climb about 
the fhip like a cat, and perform a number of tricks, with an 
agility that was truly aftonifhing. There was a dog on 
board the fhip with which it would often play in the moft 
diverting manner. From thefe circumftauces, one might 
be led to fuppofe that the difpofition of the tiger, like that 
of many other animals, was capable of fome degree of cul- 
ture. But, as this author remarks, it ought to be remem- 
bered, that at the time this one was taken on board the 
fhip it was only a month or fix weeks old; and when arrived 
in this country it had not quite completed a year. How 
much longer its good humour might have continued it is 
impoffible to fay ; but it is not to be doubted that its inno- 
cent playfulnefs would not have formed a part of its cha- 
raéter when arrived at maturity, at leaft there is every reafon 
to conclude this, when we recolle& that moft of thofe tigers 
kept in our menageries have been made captives when very 
young, and muft neceffarily acquire that ferocity ef charac- 
ter which fo invariably diftinguifh them from inftin& only, 
not from their habits or manners of life. 

As the tiger attacks all animals, without exception, it has 
not unfrequently to fufiain the moft arduous confliés with 
the rhinoceros, the elephant, and even the lion ; and its 
combat with either occafionally proves fatalto one or both 
of the combatants. 

It is affirmed of the tiger, that if it happens to mils his 
aim he does not purfue his prey, but, as if afhamed of his 
difappointment, runs off with fpeed. In the beginning of 
the lait century fome ladies ard gentlemen, being on a party 
of pleafure under the fhade of fome trees near the banks ef 
a river in Bengal, obferved a tiger preparing for its fatal 
{pring, when a lady, with almoft unexampled prefence of 
mind, furled a large umbrella in the face of the animal, which 
inftantly retired, and thus gave an opportunity of efcaping 
frem fo terrible a neighbour. Another party had not, how- 
ever, the fame good fortune, but in the height of their ev- 
tertainment loft, in an inftant, one of their companions, who, 
being feized and carried off by a tiger, was never heard of 
more. Another diftrefling accident, of a fimilar kind, took 
place fo lately as the year 1792, the particulars of which, as 
related by an eye-witnefs, muit be ftrong in the recolleétion 
of many readers. The unfortunate victim of this event was 
Mr. Munro, the fon of fir He&tor Munro. ‘* We went,’” 
fays the writer of the narrative, “on fhore at Sangar ifland 
to fhoot deer, of which we faw innumerable traéts, as well as 
of tigers; notwith{tanding which, we continued our a 

on 


Pee eT 6. 


fion till near three o’clock, when, fitting down by the fide of 
ajungle to refrefh ourfélves, a roar like thunder was heard, 
and an immenfe tiger feized on our unfortunate friend, and 
rulhed again into the jungle, dragging him through the thick- 
eft bufhes and trees, every thing giving way to his monftrous 
ftrength ; a tigrefs accompanied his progrefs. The united 
agonies of horror, regret, and fear rufhed at once upon us. 

I fired on the tiger; he feemed agitated; my companion 

fired alfo, and, in a few minutes after this, our unfortunate 

friend came up to us bathed in blood. Every medical affiit- 

ance was vain, and he expired in the {pace of twenty-four 

hours, having received fuch deep wounds from the teeth and 

claws of the animal as rendered his recovery hopelefs. A 

large fire, confifting of ten or twelve whole trees, was blazing 

by us at the time this accident took place, and ten or more 

ef the natives with us. The human mind can fearce form 

any idea of the fcene of horror. We had hardly pufhed our 

boat from that accurfed fhore, when the tigrefs made her 

appearance, almoft raging mad, and remained on the fand 

all the while we continued in fight.’ A fimilar fate at- 

tended ene of the fervants in’ the retinue of Grandpré, a 

French traveller in India, a tiger, rufhing on the party, 

feized him, and carried him.off. 

Marfden fays, the number of people killed by the tigers 
in fome parts of India is incredible. In Sumatra the 
natives are fo infatuated that they feldom kill them, as they 
have a notion that they are animated by the fouls of their 
anceftors ; and from this weak and fuperltitious idea fuffer 
themfelves to be devoured without attempting by their 
united ftrength to deftroy thefe rapacious creatures. In 
other parts of India, where the ufe of fire-arms is unknown, 
the devaftations committed by the tigers exceed all calcu- 
lation ; in the provinces of the mountainous and waody 
traéts of the Tonquin, for example, whole villages are de- 
populated by them. L’Abbe Richard {peaks of a fingle 
tiger entering one of thofe villages and deftroying four or 
five and twenty perfons, there being no fire-arms to retitt 
him, and the inhabitants endeavouring to efcape death by 
flying in all direétions, fuch as were purfued became an eafy 

rey to the deftru€tive monfter. The woods of Sundry, 
and others adjacent to the banks of the Ganges, and its tri- 
butary rivers, are celebrated as the refort of tigers, and 
it is dangerous to navigate thofe waters clofe along the fhore, 
the tigers having fometimes even the audacity to plunge into 
the water to attack the men in their boats. 

Pliny has incurred the cenfure of fome modern writers 
for defeeibing the tiger as an animal of tremendous fwiftnefs, 
‘* animal tremendz velocitatis;”’ which they fay is applicable 
to his {pring when darting on his prey, and not to the 
f{wiftnefs of his pace when running. In thisremark they are 
contradi€ted by two travellers of authority, namely, Pere 
Gerbillon, and Mr. Bell, the firft of whom fpeaks of it as 
an animal of vaft fwiftnefs, and the other faw a race between 
‘a tiger and a fwift horfe, whofe rider efcaped merely by 
rufhing into the midft of a circle of armed men. One point 
does not, however, appear to have been confidered ; it is 
not unlikely that the animal {poken of by Pliny under 
this appellation may be the tiger of the moderns ; yet, from 
the very flight account he has left us, this is not certain : 
(vid. Jib. vii, c, 18.) and if it be really the animal 
intended, there is {till no caufe to diltruft its accuracy, for 
the tiger muft be a creature of amazing fpeed. The ac- 
counts given by writers of the attachment fhewn by the 
tigrefs to her young, the manner in which fhe defends them, 
or if carried away endeavours to regain them, and the fury 
of her condu& for their lefs, is a repetition only of the 
obfervations made by Pliny, or with little variation, She 


is at all times furious, but when robbed of her young her 
rage rifes te the utmoft extremity. She then braves every. 
danger, and purfues her plunderers, who are ufually mounted 
on the fwifteit horfes, fo clofely, that they are often obliged 
to releafe one in order to retard her: this fhe ftops to con- 
vey to fome thicket or place of fafety, and then again 
haitens after the hunters, who may be compelled to drop 
another of her cubs in the fame manner in order to efcape 
with thereft. ‘The hunters on,this arduous occatfion are gee 
nerally provided with boats on the neareft river, or the fhore 
of the fea, to which they retreat with all {peed, the tigrefs 
purfuing them to the water’s edge, and when her hope of 
recovering them is loft, fhe exprefles her agony by the moft 
hideous howlings. ilies 

The amours of thefe animals are ferocious in the extreme: 
it has not hitherto been well afcertained how long the 
tigrefs goes with young, but it is commonly believed to 
be about the fame period as the lion: they have about four 
or five young at each litter: 

Among the Chinefe the fkin of the tiger is held in much 
higher efteem than it is by Europeans, and forms an article 
of drefs for perfons of particular diftinétions; and it befides 
ferves as a covering for the feats and cufhions in the houles 
of the great, and in their halls of public juitice. The Indians 
pretend that the fat of the tiger ic an univerfal remedy for 
all external ailments. The tongue, dried and reduced to 
powder, is a fpecific for difeafes of the nerves ; their eyes 
have alfo fome i aginary virtues, and probably many other 
parts of the animal are alike confidered as fovereisn remedies 
for different maladies of the human frame. i 

Hunting the tiger is a favourite diverlion of the great in 
the eaftern parts of the world, and is always conduéted with 
much pomp and ceremony. When the monarch, priuces, 
or nobles hunt the tiger, they are ufually mounted on ele- 
phants; and their retinue, confifting of hunters and fol- 
diers, attend, fome on horfeback and others on foot. Com- 
bats between the tiger and the lion, orthe elephant, are alfo, 
on fome grand occafions, the amufements of thofe eaftern 
nations. They confider the tiger as a more powerful animal 
thar the elephant, and therefore cover the head of the latter 
with a kind of fhield previeufly to the engagement. Some- 
times the tiger is matched azainft two elephants at once, in- 
ftead of one, and even then the iffue may be doubtful from the 
fuperior dexterity of the tiger. Tachard has given an account 
of a battle of this kind at Siam, of which he was an eye- 
witnefs. The heads, and part of the trunks of the two 
elephants, were defended from the claws ef the tiger by a 
covering made for the purpofe. They were placed in the 
midit of a large inclofure. One of them was fuffered to ap- 
proach the tiger, which was confnaed by means of cords, 
and received two or three heavy blows from the trunk 
of the elephant upon its back, which beat it to the 
ground, where it lay for fome time as if it were dead ; 
but though this attack had greatly abated its fury, it 
was no fooner untied, than, with a horrible roar, it made 
a {pring towards the trunk of the elephant, but which 
that animal dexteroufly avoided by drawing it up, and, 
receiving the tigér on his tufks, threw him up into the 
air. The other elephant was then allowed to affit, and 
after giving it feveral heavy blows, would undoubtedly have 
killed it, if an end had not been put to the combat. Under 
fuch reftraints we cannot be furprifed the refult was un- 
favourable to the tiger. We can only be aftonifhed at its 
pe and fiercenefs, that after being difabled by the firit 
attack of the elephant, and whillt yet held by its cords, it 
would venture to continue fuch an unequal confli&, 

Tigers are deitroyed by various means, befides that of 

bunting, 


m 


Fara Ls hs: 


hunting, or combat; divers contrivances, machines, and toils 
having been invented by the more ingenious tribes of Indians 
for this purpofe. One, the moft {imple and effedtual, feems 
to be that of faftening an animal toa tree inthe known track 
of the tiger, whieh they eafily difcover by the foutiteps, and 
placing near the {pot a veflel filled with water faturated with 
arfenic ; the tiger, after devouring its victim, eagerly drinks 
the water to quench his thirft, and thus inevitably becomes 
oifoned and dies. 

Parpus. Tail long; body marked above with orbicular 
fpots, beneath with {tripes. Schreber. Panthera, Gefn. 
Pantheré, Buff. - Panther. } 

Leoparpus. Tail moderate ; body fufcous, with nearly 
contiguous biack fpots. Erxleb. Schreb., &c. Leopard, 
Buff. 

The difference between the panther and the leopard is fo 
very trivia] and ambiguous, that it has been long confidered 
deubtful amos naturalifts whether they are in reality {pe- 
cifically diftinét or not ; and indeed it feems to be fo nearly 
decided of late years that they are the fame by the beit 
writers, that we cannot entirely refufe our affent to this con- 
clufion, The panther is the largelt of thefe two animals, 
and in point of fize ranks next to the tiger, meafuring about 
five or dix, and, in fome inftances, feven feet, from the nofe 
to the origin of the tail, and the tail itfelf nearly three feet. 
The hair is fhort and {mooth, and the general colour fine 
tawny yellow, thickly marked over the upper parts of the 
body, fhoulders, and thighs, with roundifh black {pots, 
difpofed into circles, contifting of four or five {pots, with 
fometimes a fingle dot in the middle. On the face and legs 
the {pots are fincle. The breaft and belly are white, the 
former with dufky tranfverfe flripes, the latter, and alfo the 
tail, with large irregular {pots of black. The head is mo- 
derate in length, the ears pointed, the eyes pale yellow, 
and its whole afpeé fierce and cruel.—The leopard is about 
four feet in length from the nofe to the origin of the tail, 
and the latter about two feet long. ‘The predominant co- 
Jour is yellowifh, of a paler hue than that of the panther, 
and more inclining to lutcous ; the {pots with which it is 
diverfified are alfo black, and difpofed in circles, but are 
{maller, clofer, and lefs diftin& than in the panther, and 
the {pace in the centre of the rings, formed by the difpo- 
fition of the marginal feries of fpots, is ufually plain. 
This is the general appearanee of the two above-mentioned 
animals, but they vary in colour, and alfo in the fize and 
form of the {pots, and ocellated marks in different indivi- 
duals. The fuppofed varieties of the panther and leopard, 
defcribed by fome travellers and other writers, cannot be 
mentioned with implicit confidence; fuch are the black 
leopard, and leffir leopard. 

Both the panther and the leopard abound in the interior 

of Africa, from Barbary to the remotelt parts of Guinea, 
and are the fcourge of every country they inhabit. The 
panther, from its fuperior fize and ftvength, attacks the 
Jarger quadrupeds, and is extremely deltruétive among the 
camels and horfes; the leopard commits dreadful havoc 
among the herds and flocks of goats, fhetp, and other 
animals, and the different kinds of game. 
_ Thefe animals frequent the banks of rivers, and take 
their prey by furprife, either lurking ia thickets, from 
which they dart on them when they approach within a con- 
venient diftance, or creeping on the belly till they reach their 
viGim: they climb trees in purfuit ef monkies and fmaller 
animals with perfect cafe; it is only when prefied with 
hunger that they attack man. 

Travellers relate that the flefh of thefe animals is of ex- 
cellent favour, and white as veal. The Indians and Ne- 


grocs eat it, but prefer that of thé dog: they however take 
it in pitfalls for the fake of the flefh, as well as the 
fkins, which latter fell for a high price. Collars, bracelets, 
and other ornaments compofed of the teeth of thefe ani- 
mals, alfo conititute an article of finery in the drefs of the 
negro-women, and are efteemed the more valuable as 
charms to repel the power of witchcraft. ‘ 

Uncia. Tail long; body whitifh, with irregular black 
{pots. Erxleb. Once, Buff. 

The once is about three feet and a half long from the 
nofe to the tail, ftrong, the back long, and the legs fhort. 
The hair islong, and of alight grey colour, tinged with yel- 
low, and paler on the breaft and belly ; the head is marked 
with {mall round fpots, with a larger {pot of black behind 
each ear; the back is beautifully varied with a number of 
oval blotches rather darker, and furrounded witha margin 
of black dots ; the {pots on the fides are more irregular, and 
thofe on the legs and thighs fmall, feattered, and few in 
number; the tail is long, and full of hair, and is irregularly 
marked with large black fpots. 

This is f{uppofed to be the panther of Pliny, and the 
{maller panther of Oppian. © It inhabits the northern parts 
of Africa, Perfia, and China, and is faid to abound in the 
Thyrcanean foreits. "The once, according to mott writers, 
is trained to the chafe like the huntiag tiger ; but it is con- 
je€tured that Tavernier, upon whofe relation this is fiated, 
was deceived, and that the animal he means is no other than 
the felis jubata. 

Onca. Tail moderate; body yellowifh, with black, 
rotundate, angulate {pots, yellow in the middle. Schreb 
Pardus aut lynx Brafilienfis, jaguara didus, Lufitanis | 
Ray. Jaguara, Marcgrat. American tiger, or jaguar. , 

The colour of this animal is bright tawny; the upper 
part of the head ftriped with black ; the fides beautifully 
variegated with irregular oblong ocellar fpots; the thigh 
and legs are variegated with black fpots without centra 
{paces ; breaft and belly whitifh ; tail not fo long as the 
body, above marked with large black fpots in an irregular 
manner, beneath with f{maller fpots. 1 

This fpecies grows to the tize of the wolf, or larger, 
and inhabits the hotter parts of America, from the ifthmus 
of Darien to Buenos Ayres; at Brazil it bears the name of 
janouara;.at Paraguay, and in other parts of South 
America, it is called yagouarcté. > 

The jaguar is neither fo timid, nor fo indolert as fome 
writers have reprefented; it is fierce and deilru€live to 
man and beaft: like the tiger it plunges its head into the 
body of its prey, and fucks out the blood before it devours 
the flefh. It runs fwiftly, and by means of its talons af, 
cends the loftieft and fmootheft trees with a facility that is 
inconceivable, when in purfuit of quadrupeds, that endea- 
vour, by climbing up the trees, to effeét theirefcape. The 
Indians, who are much afraid of this animal, entertain 
filly perfuation that it prefers them to the white haat 
who perhaps are better prepared to repel its attac s, and 
are not therefore fo often annoyed by it. Int elling 
through the deferts of Guiana they light large fires in the 
night time, to prevent thefe animals from attacking them. 
The howl of the jaguar is dreadful ; their cry plaintive, 
grave, and ftrong, like that of the ox. The female is fup- 
pofed to produce only two young at a birth. , 

Parpvatis. ‘Tail long; upper part of the body ftriped, 
beneath fpotted. Felis pardalis, Schreber. Ocelot, Buff. 
Mexican cat, or ocelot, ed 

Greatly refembles the common cat, but is three or four 
times its fize, meafuring in length about four feet, and its 
height two feet and a half. : 


In 


FELIS- 


In the variety of its markings, as well as colours, the 
ocelot is extremely beautiful, the male efpecially. The 
general colour is bright tawny above, with the brealt, belly, 
and lower part of the fides, together with the limbs, white. 
A black ftripe extends from the top of the head, along the 
back, to the origin of the tail; the forehead is {potted with 
black, as are alfo the legs; the fhoulders, back, and rump 
are finely variegated with ovate blotches and interrupted 
longitudinal bands of a deeper tinge than the ground colour, 
the edges of which are black; the fpots are generally 
marked in the middle with a fingle {pot of black, the ftripes 
with a feries of black dots difpoled at nearly an equal dif- 
tance from each other. The tailis diverfified with blotches 
of an irregular form and black at the tip. In the female 
the fur is neither fo vivid in colour, nor fo beautiful in 
variety. y 

The ocelot inhabits the hotter parts of South America, 
where it inhabits mountainous fituations, and refides chiefly 
among trees, like the lynx, or caracal; it lies in wait upon 
the boughs concealed among the leaves, and feizes its prey 
by darting on them from its lurking-place, when they ap- 
proach within a convenient diftance. Sometimes it fur- 
prifes them by ftratagem, extending itfelf along the boughs, 
where it can be feen as if it were dead, and {pringing on 
them when, from natural curiofity, they approach within its 
reach; monkeys are often caught by the ocelot in this man- 
ner. It is faid to prefer the blood of animals to their fiefh. 
Though voracious and fierce, it is of a timid nature, and fo 
afraid of dogs that, when purfued by them, it flies to the 
woods for fafety. The inhabitants of South America call 
it chibigouazou. 

The ocelot is not uncommon in Paraguay, though, from 
its manners of life, and the fecre¢y of its retreats, it is fel- 
dom feen ; its vifits to the poultry-yards in the farms con- 
tiguous to the woods are often afcertained by its foot-iteps 
and the devaftation committed. The ocelot never leaves its 
lurking-places in the day time, nor even in the night, when 
‘the'moon fhines; it is under the obfcurity of the darkeit 
nights, and when the weather is tempeftuous, that it ven- 
tures fo far as the neighbouring farms in queit of prey. 
Each of the retreats of the ocelot appears to be inhabited 
by a male and female, with their family of young; and 
though there may be many ocelots in the fame woods their 
haunts are feparate. They are faid to have about two 
young ones at a litter. 

Some years ago a male and female ocelot that had been 
taken very young were carried to France. At the age of 
three months they became fo ftrong and fierce, as to killa 
bitch that was given them to nurfe. When a live cat was 
thrown to them they fucked its blood, but would not tafte 
the flefh. The male feemed to have a great fuperiority 
over the female, infomuch as never to allow her to partake 
of the food till his own appetite was fatistied. Ina ftate 
of captivity the ocelot has been known to eat about five 
pounds of meat daily ; three or four poundsare the ordinary 
allowance. 

Ticrina. Tail long'; bedy fulvous, flriped and {potted 
with black, beneath whitifh. Erxl.  elis ex gri/eo fla» 
vefcons, maculis nigris variegata, Brill. Felis fera tigrina, 
Barr. Margay, Buff. 

The margay is confidered by fome late continental writers 
as the fame animal with the ocelot, in a lefs advanced {tate 
of growth ; but it appears to be more generally admitted 
asa variety of that ieaciees It is a native of Guiana, 
Brazil, and various other parts of South America. In 
point of fize it refembles the common+wild cat, The 
ground colour is bright tawny ; the face ftriped downwards 


with black; the body is marked with ftripes and {pots of 
black ; the breaft and infide of the legs white, with black 
{pots ; tail long, and marked with alternate {pots of black, 
tawny and grey. Like the ocelot it lives in woody fitua- 
tions, chiefly refiding in trees, and is faid to breed in the 
hollows of them. It is of a fierce difpofition, preys on 
birds, and produces two young at a birth. ‘ 

Jupara. ‘ail moderate; body fulvous, with black 
{pots; neck maned. Schreber. Erxl. Zyger-wolf, Kolbe. 
Guepard, Butt. Maned, or hunting leopard. 

This animal is about the fize of a greyhound, the ufual 
length being about three feet and a half; the head is fmall, 
the body long, the ears fhort, and the tail about twenty 
inches. The body is of alight tawny brown above, marked 
with fmall round black fpots, which are fcatterei over the 
back, fides, head, and legs; the belly is. white, and the 
tail marked on the upper fide with three large black fpots. 
In feveral of the above particulars this animal-agrees with 
others of the cat or tiger kind, but that by which it may be 
at once diftinonifhed from every other of the fame tribe is 
the mane on the collarand between the fhoulder, a chara&ter 
no other animal of this genus is known to poffefs ; the hairs 
which conttitute the mane are about five inches long, and 
fufficiently cSpious to be diltinguifhed. 

The fpecies of tiger, or leopard, which the Indians train 
forthe purpofe of hunting the antelope and other bea(ts of 
chafe, has been deferibed fo vaguely, and under fuch dif 
fimilar names, that we cannot {peak precifely, but it is pra- 
fumed the animal intended mult be of this kind. The hurb- 
ing tiger, according to the reports of travellers, is carried 
in a {mall kind of waggon, chained and hoodwinked, till ir 
approaches the herd, when the animal is unchained and fuf- 
fered to purfue the game. At firft it creeps along with its 
belly clofe to the ground, ftoppiug and concealing itfelf till 
it gets an advantageous fituation ; it then darts towards its 
prey with amazing agility, and, after five or fix bounds, 
feizes it, and brings it to the ground. Should it not fue- 
ceed in the firft effort, it fhews no inclination to renew the 
attempt, but gives up the point and returns to its matter. 

Concotor. ‘Taillong; body fulvous, without-{pots ; 
beneath whitifh. Felis concolor, Schreb. Felis. ex: favo 
rubefcens, mento et infimo ventre albicantibusy Brill. Puma 
S- leo Americanus, Hernand. Cuguacuerana, Maregr: Cou- 
gouar, Buff. 

The puma, or cougouar, is fometimes called the Ameri- 
canlion. It is the largeit of the beaits of prey known to 
inhabit the uew continent, meafuring in length rather more 
than five feet from the nofe to: the tail, and the tail itfelf 
meafuring two feet eightinches. ~The form is flender, the 
body being long; and the animal ftanding highon his legs. 
The predominant colouris pale brownifh red, inclining in 
fome parts to blackifh, efpecialiy on the back, which is 
darkett.. Its chin is white; breaft and belly tinged with 
afh-colour,, as are likewife the intides of the legs; the tail 
inclines:to dufky ferruginous, with the tip black. 

This is an animal of great itrength and fiercenefs, prey- 
ing on cattle and deer, to attack which it will {wim rivers, 
and burft through the bounds of inclofures.. Sometimes it 
is faid to climb trees, and watch the opportunity of {pring- 
ing on’ fuch animals as pafs beneath. The {pecies is coms 
monin Guiana, Brazil, and Mexico, and is found in various 
parts.of North America, from Canada to Florida. 

Notwithftanding its ferocity, the couguar, when brought 
into captivity, is allowed to become almoft as gentle as the 
common cat, allowing itfelf to be carefled, and permitting 
boys to mount on its back. When fatisfied with eating, it 
conceals the reft of its food ;. purs like the.cat, and fome- 

tumede 


Ri EILASS: 


times howls dreadfully. The flefh of this animal is white, 
and is eaten by the American Indians, who efteem it excel- 
lent food. The fur is foft, and forms an article of winter 
-clothing amongfl thefe people. 

Discotor. ‘Tail long; body above black, beneath 
whitifh. Felis difeolor, Schreber. Felis nigra, Erxl. Le 
cougouar noir, Buff. Jaguar, or black tiger, Penn. 

This inhabits the fame parts of America as the former, 
and refembles it pretty nearly, except in colour, which is 
dufky, and in general plain. The throat, belly, and infide 
of the legs are pale afh; the upper lip white, and furnifhed 
with long whifkers, and the eye-brows befet with long hairs ; 
at each corner of the mouth is a black fpot ; the ears are 
fharp-pointed, and the paws white. ‘The tail is of the fame 
colour with the ret of the body. 

The black tiger isa cruel and ferocious creature, and 
greatly dreaded by the Indians, but is fortunately not com- 
mon; it grows to the fize of an heifer of a year old, and is 
remarkable for its ftrength ; its form, like that of the puma, 
is rather flender. M. De la Borde relates of the black 
tigers that they frequent the fea fhore, and cat the eggs de- 

ofited there by the turtles. They alfo devour alligators, 
care, and fifhes, and fometimes the buds and tender leaves 
ofthe Indian fig. They are excellent {wimmers. In order 
to catch the alligator, according to this writer, they lie 
down on their belly at the edge of the river, ftrike the wa- 
ter to make anoife, and immediately that the alligator raifes 
its head above the water, the tiger darts his claws into the 
eyes, and drags it on fhore. 

Carus. Tail long and annulated. Gmel. F. catus ; 
cauda elongata, auribus equalibus, Linn. Fn. Suec. 3. 

The wild cat (ferus) is diftinguifhed from the varieties of 
the domeftic cat by the fuperiority of its fize, meafuring 
four or even almoft five feet in length from the muzzle to 
the end of the tail. It is comparatively more robuft, and 
poffefled of far greater ftrength and {pirit. The head is 
larger, andthe face flatter; the teeth and claws more for- 
midable ; and the colours and {tripes in general nearly uni- 
form. The fur is grey, mixed with yellowifh, and fome- 
times flightly tinged withtawny. A dark lift extends along 
the back, from the head to the origin of the tail, and the 
back, fides, and flanks tvaverfed with a number of blackifh 
lines, which originating in the longitudinal dorfal line, point 
downwards, in nearly a perpendicular direétion towards the 
belly, like the ftreaks in the fur of the tiger. The tail is 
thick, and marked with alternate bars of black and whitifh 
grey, and the middle of the throat and breaft, and the 
lower part of the belly, are ufually of the fame colour. 

Cats are found in a {tate of wildnefs in many of the forefts 
of Germany, and, from the nature of its haunts, acquired 
among the old writers the names of felis fylveilris, and 
catus fylveftris. Some writers affirm that the wild cat, 
which may be truly confidered as the parent ftock of our do- 
meftic cats, is confined to the woods of Europe and Afia. 
Others affert that wild cats are found with very little variety 
in almoft every climate; they exifted, according to thofe 
authors, in America before its difcovery by the Europeans, 
and it is advanced in argument, that one was brought to Co- 
lumbus, which was of the ordinary fize, and of a brownifh 
grey colour, with along tail. It isalfo concluded to be a 
native of Africa, as Sparrman defcribes one fhot at the cape, 
which, he fays, was fimilar in every refpe& to théfe of Eu- 
rope; this wasofa grey colour; and meafured from the 
nofe to the tail almoft twenty-two inches; the tail was 
thirteen inches long, and its height about a foot and a half. 
Its inteitines were full of moles and rats. 

In this country. the wild cat is the largeft and moft de- 


fiructive beaft of prey extant, if we except the fox s the 
bear and the wolf, which in early. times infelted our woods, 
being wholly extirpated. . Formerly the wild cat was aban- 
dant in our forefts ; and were confidered among the beails of 
chafe, as appears by a charter of Richard II. to the 
abbot of Peterborough, which grants him permiffion to hunt 
the hare, fox, and wildcat. This animal. was hunted chief- 
ly for the {port it afforded, the flefh being ufelefs, and the 
fkin bearing an inferior price ; at leaft it was not efteemed 
of the moft luxurious kind, for it was ordained that no ab- 
befs or nun fhould ufe more coftly apparel than fuch as was 
made of lamb’s or cat’s fkins. The wild cat is now become 
rare in Britain, one was killed fome years ago in Cumber- 
land, and another in Warwickfhire, which latter isin the 
colleG@tion of Mr. Donovan. In the Hebrides, and the north 
of Scotland, the wild cat is fuppofed to be more frequent 
than in South Britain. They are taken in traps, or by 
fhooting. 

It prefers woods in mountainous fituations, and living on 
trees, preys on birds and the fmaller quadrupeds, fuch as 
rats, mice, bats, and f{quirrels; it alfo purfues rabbits and 
hares, makes great havoc among poultry, and will even 
kill young lambs, kids, and fawns. It is dangerous in the 
chafe of thofe animals to wound them flightly, for they 
defend themfelves with great fpirit, attack the dogs with 
fury, and even faften on the {portfman, and, from the 
ftrength of their talons and teeth, can prove themfelves no 
defpicable enemies. 

The common domeftic cat, catus domefticus of the 
Linnzan fyftem, felis vel catus of Gefner, and felis do- 
meftica of Briffon and Jontton, derives its origin from 
the former, and is fo infinitely varied in its appearance 
from culture and domeftication, as to baffle all defcrip- 
tion. Schreber diftinguifhes the domeftic kind from that 
exifting in a ftate of wildnefs, by its fmaller fize, and the 
comparative fhortnefs as well as thicknefs of the hair. 
Among: the principal varieties of the domeftic cat, we 
may mention thofe entirely black, or black with white 
{fpots. White without {pots or variation ; white with black 
f{pots; white with brown fpots. Dun or grey, plain or 
with little variation ; or greyifh, with darker ftripes, which 
laft approaches neareft in appearance to the parent ftock. 
There are alfo many varieties {potted with white, black, 
and fulvous, occafioned by croffing the breed of the com-~ 
mon with the Spanifh or tortoife-fhell cat, which latter is 
fuppofed by naturalifts to conftitute a diftinét breed, though 
not {pecifically different from our domettic cat. 

We can add nothing to the general hiftory of an animal 
fo fully defcribed as the prefent fpecies, and whofe manners 
of life are familiar to every reader. It is reprefented as an 
ufeful but deceitful domeftic. Although hen young it is 
playful and gay, it poflefles at the fame time an innate malice 
and perverfe difpofition, which increafes as it advances to ma- 
turity, and which education inftruéts it to conceal, but not 
to fubdue. Conftantly bent upon theft and rapine, though 
in a domeftic ftate, they are full of cunning and diffimula- 
tion; they conceal all their defigns, feize every opportunity 
of doing mifchief, and then, fentible of their mifconduG, fly 
from punifhment. Thus they affume, it is faid, the habits 
of fociety, but never its manners; for they have only the 
appearance of friendfhip and attachment. _ Nothing can be 
more illiberal, however, and oftentimes more unfounded, 
than general obfervations. We are too apt to deduce un- 
limited inferences from certain traits in particular individuals, 
or which may be evinced under peculiar cireumftances, and 
thus eftablifh the character of a whole race of animals from 
the moit partial views. In fome degree the reproach at- 

tached 


Soe 


FELIS. 


tached to the character of the cat from its want of gratitude 
and attachment to its benefactors may be true, but furely 
not to the extent deferibed ; and we are to confider, alfo, 
that the treatment or the inftruction this animal receives is 
not always of fuch a nature as to excite attachment. We 
beftow chaftifement, and expeCt fondnefs in return ; we be- 
tray apathy, and require affection ; or we defire gratitude 
for favours which are not worthy of that fentiment ; and 
that without refleGting that the cat is of all others the moft 
unreftrained of our domettics ; one of thofe inmates which, 
even under our own roofs, leads a life of independence, and 
is carefled and admired only in proportion as fhe exhibits 
thofe proofs of ferocity towards the minor race of animals, 
which in{pires her with the worlt paffions of her race, a love 
of carnage, cruelty, and unrelenting vengeance; a propen- 
fity to deftroy all creatures fhe has the flrength and addrefs 
toovercome. Thus early inured to habits of rapine, fhe be- 
comes the tyrant of her inferiors, while to larger animals, 
and to man, fhe owns obedience, rather becaufe fhe is fenfi- 
ble of her own weaknefs, and looks up to them for protec- 
tion, than from any tie of friendfhip or regard. The hand 
that minifters to her wants and fupplies her food fhe may re- 
fpect ; few of the mott ferocious beaits of prey are deftitute 
of this attachment, and none reduced by culture to dometti- 
cation. Thus reared and tutored, we inftrué her to be ra- 
pacious when fhe can conquer ; we teach her to be deceitful 
towards thofe fhe cannot overcome ; and then accufe her of 
diffimulation becaufe ‘he profits by our inftruction. The 
iugeuious Sonnini, overlooking thofe propenfities of the cat 
inherent in her nature, or imbibed from culture, is anxious 
to place this animal in its moit amiable point of view ; his 
reflections are juft, but we are to remember that it is 
ferocity, at lealt to a certain extent, and not mildnefs, 
that befits the cat for that ftation in fociety which it is 
deftined to fulfil; and that thofe traits of character, which 
‘alone conititute its value as a domeitic, at the fame time 
that they cannot fail to render it rapacious and deceitful, 
ought furely not to have been forgotten in defcribing the 
difpofition of this valuable animal. «* The cats,”’ fays Son- 
ninl, in {peaking of thofe found in Egypt, “ are gentle and 
familiar ; they have no diftruft of man, the ferocious charac- 
ter, which, in fome parts of France, render them a race of 
animals rather wild than domeitic: but thefe differences are 
“as much the work of man as the effect of climate, In 
the department where I live, and in thofe adjacent, the 
cat, efpecially in the country, is the moft miferable of beings, 
next to the horfes fet apart for hufbandry. Mailers and 
fervants agree in hunting the cat, in beating her, in pelting 
her with ftones, in worrying her to death by dogs, after 
having almoit flarved her to death. If hunger, which her 
leannefs clearly witnefles, incites her to {py the moment for 
flealing a little morfel, the pretended thief, becaufe nature 
would not fuffer her to let herfelf die of abfolute want, pays 
with her life the addrefs fhe has employed to fupport it. 
How is it poffible that cats fhould not affume, under the 
difcipline of fuch maiters, whofe cruelty to animals borders 
on barbarity, a wildnefs of phyliognomy, an imprefs of fe- 
rocioufnefs? And if you compare thofe wretched cats of 
my country with fuch as are entertained at Paris, where, 
more kindly treated and fheltered from perpetual alarm, they 
are of an amiable familiarity, you will have a new proof of 
the influence which the character of man exercifes over that 
of the brute creation.”” 

The cat brings forth twice or fometimes thrice in the 
courfe ofthe year. She goes with young about fifty-five or 
fifty-fix days, and produces five or fix young at each litter. 
The female exhibits every degree of maternal tendernefs 


Vou. XIV, 


for her young, and often conceals them, left the male,_as is 
fometimes the cafe, fhould devour them; and, if apprehentive 
of being difturbed, fhe will remove them, one by one, in her, 
mouth, to fome other place of greater fecurity. 

Cats are in particular attached to the place where they 
were brought up, and if carried elfewhere feem loft and 
bewildered, and frequently take the firlt opportunity of 
efcaping to their former haunts. 'Thefe animals have been 
known to return to the place from whence they were carried, 
though at miles diftant, and though they could not poffibly 
have any knowledge of the road or fituation that would 
lead to it. 

This animal is about eighteen months before it acquires its 
full growth, and about ten years is the ufual period of its 
life ; fome remarkable inftances of longevity are, however, 
recorded, cats having lived to the age of twenty years, or 
more. It is generally remarked, that cats can fee in the dark, 
which is not abfolutely true, yet it is certain that they can 
fee with much lefs light than moft other animals, owing to 
the peculiar {truéture of the eye, the pupil of which is ca- 
pable of being contraéted or dilated in proportion to the 
degree of light by which they are affeGted. During the day 
the pupil of the eye is perpetually contracted ; and it is 
with difficulty that it can fee by a ftrong light, but, as in the 
twilight, the pupil refumes its natural roundnefs, the animal 
enjoys perfect vilion, and takes advantage of this fuperiority 
to difcover and furprife its prey. The cry of the catis loud, 
piercing, and clamorous; and, whether expreflive of anger 
or of love, is equally violent and hideous. When pleafed the 
cat purs and moves its tail: when angry {pits, hifles, growls, 
and ftrikes with its feet, it is alfo faid to emit a fetid fmell 
at fuch times, and climb with great agility. In hunting and 
feizing its prey, the cat exhibits all the aGtions of the 
tiger, lying in wait, crawling on the belly, wazging the tail 
when preparing for its leap, and bounding on it when with- 
in aconvenient diftance. The cat is averfé to water, cold, 
and unpleafant {mells ; it delights in certain perfumes, and 
is in particular partial to the aromatic emanations of the va- 
lerian, marum, and cat-mint, and, if not prevented, would in- 
fallibly deitroy the plants of this kind, growing in yvardens, 
by rubbing itielf againft them, and trampling over them. 
The cat drinks fparingly ; eats flefh and fifh, the latter of 
which it prefers, and feldom eats vegetables, unlefs prefled 
with hunger. It is proverbial, that the cat wathes behind 
its ears before a florm; that when it falls from a height ir 
alights on the feet, and that it is tenacious of life. The eyes 
have a fomewhat phofphorefcent or fparkling appearance in 
the dufk; andthe hair being dry emits an electric fire which 
is vifible in the dark; the fur is indeed faid to yield the 
electric {parks fo readily, that if, in frofty weather,a cat be 
placed on a ftoo] with glafs feet, and rubbed for a certain 
time, in conta& with the wire of a coated phial, the latter 
will become effeGually charged by that means. 

Tn the days of Howel Dda, or Howel the Good, whe 
reigned a fhort time before the Norman conqueit, the 
domeitic cat was valued at a confiderable price, both on 
account of its fearcity and utility, and its life proteéted by 
law. The price of the kitten, before it could fee, was to 
be apenny ; till proof could be given of its having caught 
a moufe, two-pence, after which it was rated at four-pence, 
a great {um in thofe times: it was, however, required, that it 
fhould be a good moufer, have its claws whole, and, if a 
fernale, be a careful nutfe; but if it failed in any one of thefe 
good qualities the feller was to forfeit a third part of its 
value. If any one fhould tteal or kill the cat that guarded the 
prince’s granary, he was either to forfeit a milch ewe, her 
fleece it lamb, or as much wheat as, when poured on the 

Gg cat 


FELIS. 


eat ffpended by the tail (its head touching the flocr), 
would form a heap high enough to cover the tip of the for- 
mer. 

The cat was held in high veneration by the ancient 
Egyptians. When a cat died ina houfe, the owner of the 
houfe, Herodotus informs us, fhaved his eye-brows ; they 
carried the cats when dead into confecrated houfes to be 
embalmed, and. interred them at Bubaftis, a confiderable 
city of Lower Egypt. If any: killed a cat, though by 
accident, he could not efcape death. Thefe laws were 
politically ufeful; it was neceflary to put under the immediate 

roteétion of the laws a fpecies of animals whofe protection 
was indifpenfable againft the prodigious multitudes of rats and 
mice with which Egypt was infeited, aud the moft effeCtual 
means of procuring refpect for them was to render them 
objects of deification. Cats, no longer regarded facred in 
Egypt, are neverthclefs to this day treated with the utmoft 
care in that country, and are to be found in all the houfes. 
The cats are trained in fome of the Grecian iflands to attack 
and deflroy ferpents, with which thofe iflands abound. 

The following are confidered as permanent varieties, or 
aiftin@ breeds, of the common cat fpecies, felis catus. 

Angora cat, the hair of which is filvery-white, filky, and 
Jong, that furrounding the neck longeft. ‘This is the moft 
beautiful of all the varieties ; its nofe and edges of the lips 
are fine rofe colour; the eyes in general blue or yellow, and 
of a fparkling brilliancy, and its whole afpe& mild and com- 
pofed. The hair is of a dazzling whitenefs, remarkably 
thick and long, and the tail, when elevated above the body, 
forming a beautiful plume. Angora, the place celebrated 
forthis race of cats, isin Afia Minor, not far from Smyrna ; 
the camlets manufaétured with the hair of this animal is 
celebrated for its beauty and finenefs throughout A fia. 

Tortoife-/bell cat, Hifpanicus, Gmel. Chat d’ E/pagne, Buff. 
is black. varied with white and orange. 

Blue cat, ceruleus, Gmel. Chat des Charireux, Buff. 
Blaue kaze, Kolbe. The hair of this is blue-grey. It was 
eriginally a native of Ruffia, from whence it has been dif- 
perfed, and cultivated in various parts of Siberia. 

Red cat, ruber, Gmel. Rothe kaxs, Kolben. This is 
diftinguifhed by having a ftreak of bright red running along 
the ridge of the back to the tail, and Jofing itfelfin the grey 
and white on the fides. It is found at the Cape, and the 
fin is much valued from a fingular idea the colonifts entertain 
that it affurdseafe in the gout. 

Japan cat, Chat fauvage Indien, Vofmaer. This is de- 
feribed as being about the fize of the common cat, and has a 
tail ten inches and a half long; the ears are upright and 
“ pointed ; colour of the face and lower part of the neck 
whitith ; breaft and lower belly clear grey, mixed with black, 
difpofed in tranfverfe ftreaks. Along the back is a broad 
band of black, which extends over the upper part of the 
tail; the lower part is femi-annulated with black and grey. 
Its cry is faid to refemble the mewing of a great cat. 

Guiana cat, Penn. Felis Guigna, Molin. According to 
Molina this is a native of Chili, and is the fize of the com- 
non cat. Its haunts are inacceffible foreits. The colour 
is tawny, marked with round black fpots, rather lefs than 
halfan inch in diameter, and extending the whole length of 
the back clofe to the tail, The head in this and the fol- 
lowing is rather larger in proportion than in the common cat. 

Corololo-cat. Felis Corololo, Molin. Like the former this 
inhabits forefts, and preys on mice and birds. The colour is 
white, marked with irregular fpots of black and yellow, 
and the tail encircled with black to the tip. Tail rather 
larger in proportion than in the common cat. 

We cannot conclude this. enumeration of the varieties of 


the common eat without obferving, that it is extremely proe 
bable, when the three laft mentioned animals become Lae 
underftood, they may be found fpecifieally diltin@ ; whee 
ther alfo the variety faid to oceur in China, which has pen- 
dulous ears, and fur variegated with black and yellow ; and 
the Madagafcar cat with twifted tail, be of the fame fpecies 
with the common eat, feems rather undetermined. The 
felis manul of Gmelin appears, on the contrary, to be uo 
other than a variety of the common cat. 

Manut. Tail elongated, and annulated with black; 
head {potted with black, and marked with two lateral black 
bands. Pallas. 

Inhabits the waftes of Tartary and northern Afia. Its 
fize is that of the fox, but its form is more robuft in pro- 
portion. The colour is tawny ; the cheeks with two dufk 
Imes running obliquely from the eyes; the fect are ob- 
{curely ftriped with dark lines; the tail longer than that 
of the domettic cat, thickly befet with hair, and encircled 
with ten diftin& black rings, three of which neareft the tip 
are placed fo contizuous as almoft to touch each other, 
This is confidered as a variety of the common wild cat, felis 
catus. 

Capensts. Tail rather long, and annulated with black ; 
body fulvous, with ftripes above, and fpots beneath black’; 
ears naked with’a lunated white fpet.—Felis capenfir, 
Gmel. Felis tigrina capenfis, Fort. A&. Angl. v. 71. 
Cape tiger, Penn. 

This animal appears to be of the fame as that deferibed 
by Labat under the name of ’Nnufli, and which he ftates te be 
the fize of a dog, witha coat as much ftriped and varied as 
that of atiger. Its appearance he tells us befpeaks cruelty, 
and its eyes fiercenefs ; but it is cowardly, and gets its prey 
oaly by cunning and infidious arts. When Dr. Forfter 
touched the fecond time at the Cape ef Good Hope, namely, 
in 1775, an animal of this fpecies was offered to him for fale, 
but this he declined, becaufe he was apprehenfive,as oneof the 
legs was broken, it would not live till they reached Eng- 
land. It was brought in a befket to his apartment, 
where it remained about twenty four hours, and this allowed 
him fufficient time to deferibe it with greater accuracy than 
had been previoufly done, and in fome degree of obfervin 
its manners and economy. Thefe he found to be perfe@lly 
analogous to thofe of our domeftic cats. It ate frefh meat 
raw, and was very much attached to its feeders and be- 
nefaGtors: though it had broke the fore-leg by accident 
it was very eafy. After it had been feveral times fed by 
Dr, Forfter it followed him like the common cat. It was 
pleafed when careffed, and, in token of its gratification 
rubbed its head and back againft the clothes of the perfon 
who fed it, and purred at the fame time like the domeftie 
cat. This animal had been taken when quite young, and 
was not above eight or nine months old when defcribed, yet 
it had nearly, if not entirely, attained to its full fize 
Dr. Forfter was told that the fpecies lives in the ‘moun- 
tainous and woody tracts; and that in their wild ftate 
they are highly deftrutive to the hares, rabbits jerboas. 
young antelopes, lambkins, and the whele of the eatiieted 
race. This animal is fully deferibed in the 71ft volume of 
the Philofophical Tranfactions. 

Cuavus. ‘Tail moderate; annulate near the tip, w 
is black ; body brownifh yellow ; ears brown on Es ae 
fide, and bearded with black at the tip. Gul 
Cae lynx, Penn. : soho 

efembles the wild cat in manners, voice, and food. Ite 
general length is about two feet fix inches from the nofe to 
the tail, though in fome inftances it has been known. to 
meafure three feet. The prevailing colour is yellowith 


- browng 


FELIS. 


brown, with the breaft and belly much brighter, or more 
inclining to orange colour; the tail reaches. only to the 
flexure of the legs, and, befides the black tip, has three 
obfcure black bands at fome diftance from it ; and on the 
infide of the legs near the bend of the knee are two dufky 
bars ; the tufts at the extremity of the ears are black. 

The fpecies was firft defcribed by Guldenftedt in the 
TranfaGtions of the Royal Society of Peterfbergh; it is found 
in the woods and marfhy traéts.on. the borders of tKe 
weftern fide of the Cafpian fea, and in the Perfian provinces 
of Ghilan and Mafenderan, and is frequent about the mouth 
of the Kur, the ancient Cyrus. 

Seravat. Tail rather fhort ; body marked above with 
roundith dufky {pots ; orbits of the eyes and belly white. 
Erxl. Le ferval, Buff. Chat-pard, Perrault. 

An animal much refembling the lynx in form, but 
{maller, the ears are alfo deftitute of that tuft of hair fo 
confpicuous at the tip in the lynx, and the tails, compara- 
tively tothe general fize of the animal, rather fmaller. The 
fpecimen*defcribed by the French academicians meafured 
two feet and a half from the nofe to the tail, and the latter 
was eight inches long. The colour on the head, back, and 
fkdes are fawn colour, the throat, belly, and infides of the 
legs white, and the whole furface is covered with {mall, but 
very diltinét {pots of black, which are not difpofed in rofes 
like the fpots on the panther, but feparate. As in the 
lynx the head is large, the feet alfo are ftrong and thick, 
and the eyes brilliant. 

' The ferval inhabits the mountainous parts of India and 
Thibet, where it refides chiefly among trees, from which 
it rarely defcends, but, feeding on birds, purfues them by 
leaping among the branches, or from one tree to another. 
in its difpofition it is extremely fierce, but avoids mankind 
unlefs provoked, when it darts furioufly upon the offender, 
‘and tears and bites in the fame manneras the panther. The 

rovincial name of this animal among the natives of Malabar 
¥s maraputa; the Portuguefe eitabliihed on that coaft call 
it ferval.: ; , 

Caracat. Tail rather fhort, and with the body reddith 
brown; ears outwards black, tip black and bearded. 
Siyah-ghufh, Charleton. Lynx cauda vitulina, Klein, 
Earacal, Buffon. Perfian cat, Peon. Perfian lynx. 
~~ The caracal, or Periian lyus, refembles the common lynx 
in figure and afpeét, and uearly correfponds in fize. It 
‘differs from that animal in not being {potted ; its hair is 
sougher, andits colour diffimilar ; the tail longer, and of an 
faniform colour with the reft of the body; its face is of a 
‘more lengthened form, and its difpofition more ferocious. 
~The fpecies inhabits only the warmer climates, and is com- 
‘moni Perfia, India, Barbary, and other parts of Afia and 
“Africa. — In the Perfian language it is called fyah-gufh, and 
‘in the Turkith karrah-kulak, both which fignify the cat 
‘with black ears. The caracal is faid to follow the lion, 
rand to feed on the remains which that animal leaves of its 
“prey, and for this reafon it is called among the Arabs the 
‘lion’s guide. Its height is alsout that of the common fox, 
-but is ftronger and more robult; and Dr. Charleton men- 
‘gions one which killed a hound, and tore it inftantly in 
‘pieces,- notwithftanding the vigorous defence of the 
‘latter. i 
©» 'This animal, though tamed with extreme difficulty, when 
taken young, and reared with great caution, may be trained 
“for the knits It isemployed with fuccefs in the purfuit of 
‘the {maller tribes of quadrupeds, but it is faid, whenever it 

# meets with one that is fuperior to it in ftrength, that it lofes 
“its courage and gives up the chale. Herons, cranes, peli- 
‘eins, peacocks, and others of the larger kinds of birds, is 


takes by furprife, and overcomes with ‘fingular addres. 
When it has feized its prey, it holds it falt in its mouth, 
and lies upon it fome time motienlefs, 

There are feveral varieties of the caracal, according to 
different authors. .The caracal of Barbary, deferibed by 
Buffon on the authority of Mr. Bruce, has the ears red on 
the outfide initead of black ; the tafts on the ears are black, 
the tail white at the tip, annulated with four black rings, 
and fome black marks behind the legs. It is the animal 
which Mr. Bruce names the booted lynx, and is roit pro- 
bably f{pecifically diftinét. Another fuppofed variety im 
habits Bengal, and has the tail as long as the legs; and ‘a 
third the tail white, with four black rings at the extremity 5 
the firft of the two laft mentioned is perhaps a diftinct 
{pecies. 

Rura. Tail rather fhort, berieath and at the tip whites 
above banded with black ; body tawny fpotted with brown; 
ears bearded at the tip. Schreber. Buy cat, Penn. 

Twice the Gze of the common cat; its colours a brizht 
bay, obfcurely marked with {mall dufky {pots; the lips, 
throat, and whole underfide of the body and limbs whiteé 
From beneath each eye three curved blackifh flripes pafs 
down the cheeks, and the upper part of the infide of the 
fore legs is marked with two black bars. The hair is 
fhorter and {moother than that of the common lynx, aad 
the {pecies inhabits America. 

Lynx... Tail obfcurely annulated, and black at the tip; 
head and body whitifh-tawny {potted with black; ears 
bearded at the tip. Schreber. Pinuum dafypus, Nierembs 
Lynx, Aldr. Le lynx, Buff. 

The lynx is about the fize of the fox, or of a middling 
dog. The colour varies, but is generally of a pale-grey, 
with a very flight reddifh tinge ; the back and whole of the 
upper parts ob{curely fpotted with blackifh or duiky ; tail 
white, with the tip and rings black. The throat, breait, 
and belly are white ; and the fur remarkably thick and foft. 
The eyes are of a pale yellow colour, aud its whole afpe@ 
milder than that of the panther or once. 

Writers defcribe feveral {uppofed varieties of this animal, 
one of which is white with dark fpots, another yellowith- 
white above, and beneath white with dufky fpots, and a 
third correfponding with the latter, but marked with {pots 
ftill more diftin&. The fpecies is fo generally diffufed 
throughout Europe and Afia, and inhabits fuch various 
climates, that we are not to be aftonifhed that fuch varieties 
fhould exift. The true lynx is found in the great forefts in 
the north of Germany, in Lithuania, Mulcovy, Siberiay 
and the northern parts of the old continent ; but it admits 
of confiderable doubt whether it inhabits fouthern Afias 
The lynx of the Levant, Barbary, Arabia, and other hot 
countries, is certainly the caracal, apd the fur of this is 
known by being deflitute of {pots. 

In the mufeum of natural hiltory in Paris, is a preferved 
fpecimen of an animal called ** Le lynx du Canada,” a fup- 
pofed variety of the common lynx ; its length is two feet 
three inches from the nofe to the extremity of the body, 
and its height twelve or thirteen inches. The hsir is long, 
ia mixed with white hairs, and is {potted like the 
European lynx, but differs in the length of the tail, and the 
tuft of hair on the ears being fmaller. There is another 
2 of in Miffiffipi, which has the tuft at the extremity of 
the ears fmaller than that Jait mentioned, the tail more 
flocky, and the hair clearer ia colour. In thofe northern 
climates however, where the vicifiitudes of the feafons are fo 
feverely experienced, it is to be contidered that the fur of 
animals vary in colour according to the feafon. ‘Thus the 
winter fure are exceedingly digerent from thof of dumsnor 

Gg2 “ 


FEL 


jn all the animals that inhabit the north of America, er 
Europe. The fur of the American lynxes is moft beautifui 
in winter, and bears a higher price than thofe of fummer, 
and it is not only on account of their beauty thefe are pre- 
ferred, they are more valuable for their foftrefs and warmth. 
The fame may be obferved of northern Europe and A fia. 
The farther they are taken to the northward the whiter is 
the fur, and the {pots more diftinc. The moft elegant of 
thefe are called frbys, and is taken near the lake Balkath, 
in Uf>ec Tartary. It is larger than the European lynx, 
meafuring five feet from the nofe to the tip of the tail, of 
which the tail meafures about fix inches. The {kin fells in 
that cotntry for about twenty fhillings fterling. Vait 
numbers of thefe fkins are exported annually to China and 
Europe. 

The lynx is a very deftru@tive animal. It feeds on 
weafels, ermines, fquirrels, and other fmall quadrupeds, 
which it purfues to the tops of the higheft trees. The 
lynx alfo watches the approach of larger animals, as the 
hare and even the deer, and darts upon them from the 
branches of trees where it lies concealed, feizes them by the 
throat, and fucks their blood; after which it abandons 
them and goes in queft of other game. It often eats no 
more of the fheep or the goat than the brain, the liver, and 
the inteftines. The fight of this animal is remarkably quick, 
which enables it to diicern its prey at a great diftance, and 
it is fo artful, that it will fometimes dig under the doors to 
gain admiffion into the fheep-fold. When attacked it 
throws itfelf on its back, and {trikes defperately with its 
claws. The howl of the lynx is not unlike that of the wolf, 
and it frequently exprefles its malignity by a kind of fnarl- 
ing fcream, From the ferocity of its nature the lynx 
cannot be tamed. 

The poetical fictions of the ancients refpeéting this 
animal are not unknown ; they feigned that the chariot of 
Bacchus was drawn by lynxes ; that its fight was fo pene- 
trating that it could fee through the moft opaque bodies, and 
that its urine was converted into precious ftone. Pliny 
confounds the lynx with the once, and {peaks of it as a 
native of Ethiopia: the fame writer, however, in another part, 
feems to have known the true lynx of the moderns, and 
informs us, the firft lynx that was feen at Rome was brought 
from Gaul, which country might at that time produce this 
animal, as the Alps and Pyrenées were known to have done 
at a later period. 

FELIX I. in Biography, pope, and a faint in the Ro- 
>man calendar, was born at Rome, and fucceeded in the pon- 
tificate in the year 269. Little more is known of this 
pontiff than that he reigned, and in his time a perfecution 
was commenced by Aurelian againft the Chriitians, to 
which, it has been fuppofed, that Felix fell a facrifice, after 
he had filled the papal chair between five and fix years. 
In the third volume of the “ Colleétio Conciliorum’’ is a 
fragment of a letter which this pope wrote to Maximus, 
bifhop of Alexandria, againit the tenets of Sabellius and 
Paul of Samofata, and which was read in the councils of 
Chalcedon and Ephefus. Moreri. 

Fexix IL. pope, though by fome writers denominated 
anti-pope, was a native of Rome, and archdeacon of that 
church when pope Liberius was banifhed by the emperor 
Conttantius in the year 355. At this time the emperor and 
the Arian party were determined to place in the Roman 
fee a perfon more favourable to the meafures whigh they had 
adopted againft Athanafius than Liberius, who had refufed 
to fign his condemnation ; they fixed upon Felix for that 
{tation. ‘This excited much difcontent, which kindled into 
infurrection; and the emperor recalled Liberius on the 


ET 


condition that he fhould jointly, with Felix, prefide over 
the fee. ‘lhe people were {till indignant, and joined in ge- 
neralacclamation, “ ‘There is but one God, one Chriit, one 
bifhop;”? and as foon as Liberius returned, they drove Felix 
out of the city with every mark of deteitation. Upon 
being expelled from the city, to which the emperor in the 
fequel confented, he withdrew to a {mall eftate, which he 
had on the road to Porto, and there {pent the remainder of 
his life in retirement. He died in 365. Many centuries 
after his death it was a fubje€&t of warm and even fierce con- 
tention, whether he was to be confidered as a pope or not $ 
and, in 1582, it was determined by pope Gregory XIII. 
that the caufe of this pope fhould be folemnly tried, when, 
with the aid of a well concerted miracle, it was agreed 
that his title was valid. Moreri. 

Fecix III. pope, was fon of a prefbyter at Rome, and 
is thought to be the great grandfather of pope Gregory, 
furnamed the Great. He was elevated to the papal throne 
in the year 483, when he was chofen fucceffor to Simplicius, 
by the unanimous vote of the people, clergy, and fenate, 
He had not been long called to this high office before he 
found an opportunity, of which he was very defirous, of at- 
tempting to extend the influence of the Roman feo over the 
eaftern churches. Legates were accordingly difpatched for 
this purpofe, who carried letters to Zeno the emperor, and 
Acacius the patriarch of Conitantinople, conjuring them, 
as they valued the falvation of their fouls, not to fuffer a 
heretic to fitin the fee of St. Mark. They had orders alfa 
to cite the patriarch to appear in perfon, or by proxy to 
juitify his condué in an aflembly of bifhops before St. Peter. 
With thefe ixftrutions they fet fail for Conttantinople ; but 
when they had arrived at Abydus on the Hellefpont, they 
were arrelted by order of the emperor, and thrown into pri- 
fon, where they were harfhly treated and threatened with 
death, as difturbers of the public peace. They were at 
length fuffered to depart, bringing back letters from the 
emperor and Acacius to the pope in juttification of their 
own proceedings. Felix immediately aff2mbled a council 
of Italian bifhops, by whom the legates were declared to 
have behaved in a manner highly prejudicial to the Catholic 
caufe in the Eaft, aud to be unworthy of the epifcopal dig- 
nity. Felix next engaged the council to undertake the 
trial and condemnation of Acacius. ‘The pope, on this oc- 
cafion, affumed an authority, when promulgating the fen- 
tence pronounced again{t him, for which, it is faid, there is 
no precedent in church hiftory. That fentence the pope 
tranfmitted to the emperor and clergy, enjoining them to 
fubmit to the facred laws of the church, and adding, that 
they muft renounce Peter Mongus, the heretic before re- 
ferred to, who had been countenanced by Acacius in oppo- 
fition to Talaia, the depofed patriarch of Alexandria, or 
that of the apoftle Peter. The fame fentence was con- 
veyed to Acacius, who treated the pope and his anathemas 
with the utmoft contempt, and in turn anathematized him, 
cutting him off from his communion, and ordering his name 
to be ftruck out of the facred diptychs. This conduét of 
Acacius was approved by the emperor, the church of Con- 
ftantinople, and by almott all the eaftern bifhops, who united 
ina feparation from the communion of the pope. Such 
was the origin of the firft {chifm between the Greek and 
Latin churches. In the year 487 Felix convened a fynod 
at Rome, to difcufs the queftion refpeéting the reconciliation 
of thofe to the Catholic church, who had been baptized or 
re-baptized by the Arians during the Vandal perfecution in 
Africa. About the year 488 Fravita fucceeded Acacius as 
patriarch of Conitantinople, when meafures were immedi- 
ately taken to bring about a reconciliation between the 

4 eaftern 


FE L 


eaftern and weflern churches, which Felix rejected, unlefs 
the name of Acacius was firll ftruck out of the facred dip- 
tychs. The fame inexorable temper proved an obftacle to 
the defired union during the patriarchate of Euphemius, 
the fucceffor of Fravita. Ou the death of Zeno in 4gr, 
_ Felix wrote to Anattafius his fucceflor, congratulating him 
on his acceffion to the throne, intimating an expectation, 
that under his authority the intere{ts of the true faith would 
be refpeéted and promoted. The emperor paid no attef- 
tion to this letter, and Felix died before he could have any 
opportunity of witneffing his refentment at the negle& of 
the exhortation. He was, as our account will fhew, an en- 
terprifing, ambitious, and arrogant man, more devoted to 
the extenfion of the papal power, than the true welfare of 
the church. In the 4th volume of the Collectio Con- 
ciliorum”’ are fifteen letters afcribed to him, and Dupin 
has taken pains to diftinguifh between the genuine and {pu- 
rious. Moreri. Mofheim. 

Ferix IV. pope, a native of Beneventum, was raifed to 
the papal fee on the death of John, in the year 526. He 
was appointed to this high dignity by king Theodoric, who, 
when the fenate and people were divided in their fupport 
of rival candidates, thought proper to interpofe his au- 
thority, and fix upon a perfon of a moft exemplary life, and 
every way worthy of the pontifical dignity, but whom the 
contending parties had overlooked. The people at firit 
oppoled his authority, but fubmitted when the king agreed 
that in future they fhould be allowed to choofe whom they 
pleafed, fubje& to his coufirmation. After this Felix was 
ordained to his office, and prefided over the Roman fee 
about four years. He died in 530. Three letters in the 
qth volume of the ‘ Collectio Conciliorum’”? have been at- 
tributed to him, but the firft two are not regarded as ge- 
nuine. Moreri. 

Ferix V. See Amapveus VIII. and Evcenivus IV. 

Fexrx, bifhop of Urgella, in Catalonia, in the eighth 
@entury. See Evipanp. 

Fexix, St. in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Pacific 
ocean, N.N.W. of Juan Fernandez, not far from the coaft 
of Chili. S.lat. 26? 10’. W. long. 80° 46’.—Alfo, atown 
of France, in the department of the Upper Garonne, and 
chief place of a canton in the diftri& of Villefranche ; 22 
miles E.S.E. of Touloufe. The place contains 3>38, and 
the canton 11,458 inhabitants, on a territory of 185 kilio- 
metres, and in 13 communes.— Allo, a town of France, in 
the department of the Aveiron; fix miles S.E. of St. Afrique. 
—Allo, a town of Brazil, in the government of Goyes, on 
the river Tocantin. S, lat. 15° 36’. W. long. 49° 36'. 

Fexix, Cape, a cape on the welt coaft of the ifland of 
Sumatra. N. lat. 4°. E.long 96°. 

FELIZAN, a town of France, in the department of 
Marengo ; 12 miles E. of Atti. 

FELIZES pve Gatteco, S¢, a town of Spain, in the 
province of Leon; eight miles N.N.W. of Ciudad Rodrigo. 
» FELL, Jonn, in Biography, fon of Dr. Samuel Fell, dean 
ef Chrift-Church, Oxford, was bornis the year 1625. He 
received his grammar learning at Thame, in Oxfordfhire, and 
from thence was admitted a {tudent at Chrilt-Church college 
in 1636, when he was but eleven years of age. In 1640 and 

1643 he took his degrees of B.A. and M.A., and about the 
Jattter period he bore arms for king Charles I. within 
the garrifon of Oxford, and obtained the rank of enfign. 
In 1643 he was ejected from his {tudent’s place by the par- 
liamentarian vilitors, from which time, till the reftoration 
of Charles II., he lived in retirement at Oxford, joining 
many royalifts in privately ufing the liturgy and rites of 
the church of England at Merton college. After the 


FEL 


veftoration he was appointed prebendary of Chichefter ; 
canon, and then dean of Chrift-Church in 1660, when he 
was created doétor in divinity, and appointed one of his 
majeity’s chaplains in ordinary. He was, in every refpeét, 
a great benefactor to Chrift-Church college, of which he 
was the head. He applied himfelf to the reftoration of its 
difcipline, and to the promotion of learning and religion 
among its members; and by his own benefactions, together 
with what he procured from others, he made many import- 
ant additions to the buildings of the college. From the year 
1666 to 1659 he filled the office of vice-chancellor of the 
univerlity with the highelt reputation. In 1675 he was 
promoted to the bifhopric of Oxford, with leave to hold 
his deanery, in order that his college and the univeifity 
might {till enjoy the benefit of his fervices. To the former 
he continued through life a liberal benefactor, and at his 
death left an eftate for the fupport of ten exhibitioners. As 
one powerful means of promoting literattire, he paid great 
attention to the improvement of the univerfity prefs, and 
became himfelf editor of numerous ancient and modern 
writers. From the time of his becoming dean of Chrilt- 
Church to his death, he annually publifhed a book, gene- 
rally aclaflical author, with a preface, notes, and corrections, 
which he prefented as a new-year’s gift to the ftudents of 
his houfe. He was a liberal bencfaétor likewife to the 
poor and diftrefled. When he had filled the fee of Oxford 
ten years his health began to fink under his exertions, and 
the anxiety which he felt on account of the changes at- 
tempted to be brought about in religion by king James IT- 
He died in 1686, leaving behind him the general character of 
a learned and pious divine, of an excellent claffical fcholar, 
ot a great afferter of the church of England, of another 
founder of his own college, and of a patron of the whole 
univerfity. When the Royal Society was inftituted, Dr. 
Fell was among the alarmifts at the innovation pon the 
Ariftotelian fyftem, and encouraged Stubbe to write feveral 
pieces againft the members, charging them with intentions 
to bring contempt upon ancient and folid learning, to under- 
mine the univerfity, and even to deitroy the eltablifhed re- 
ligion and introduce popery. Dr. Fell was author of the 
life of Dr. Henry Hammond; he publifhed fome other 
original pieces. He tranflated, with the affiftance of per- 
fons employed by himfelf, «« Hiftoria et Antiquitates Uni- 
verfitatis Oxonienfis,”? &c. in two volumes, folio. In his 
tranflation he omitted fome things which Anthony Wood, 
the author, requefted the public not to impute to him. He 
publifhed an edition of the Greek Teitament, aod was 
author and editor of a great many other works, for an ac- 
count of which, fee Biog. Brit. 

Feit, Jon, a Proteftant diffenting minifter, was born 
at Cockermouth, in Cumberland, in the year 1732, and 
rofe, by his talents and application, from a humble fta- 
tion and mechanical employment, to confiderable repnta- 
tion as a {cholar and adivine. He finifhed his education 
for the minittry at the academy at Mile-end, in the vici- 
nity of London; and was much aided and encouraged 
by Dr. Walker, one of his tutors, who took pleafure in 
promoting the literary attainments of thofe who were com- 
mitted to his care. Mr, Fell was one of his favourite pu- 
pils, and in the progrefs of his years appeared to have 
availed himfelf in avery high degree of the advantages 
which he had enjoyed under the initruGion of his tutor, 
His firft fettlement, as a paitor, was at Thaxted in Effex, 
where he formed a conneétion with a congregation of the 
independent denomination in the year 1770, and where he 
continued for féveral years ; uniting with his paftoral duties 
the fuperintendance of a refpectable boarding-fchool. As 

a {chool- 


FEL 


-a fchool-nafter and a preacher he was highly efteemed and re- 

fpected. When a vacancy of refident and claffical tutor oc- 
curred in the academy where he had received his education, 
then removed from Mile-end to Homerton, he was earneftly 
urgedto acceptthis office ; which, on account of feveralunplea- 
fant circumf{tances that attended it, arifing partly from do- 
mettic difcord, and partly from the unkindnefs and illiberality 
of fome of the friends of the inftitution, proved in the event the 
occafion of great uneafinels, and ferved, indeed, to embitter 
and to accelerate the termination of his life. Although he 
was difcharged from his office by a vote of the majority of 
his conflituents, he was patronized after his difmiffion by a 
very re{pectable minority, who deviled plans for his future 
fubfiftence and comfort. With this view they engaged him 
tto deliver twelve le ures on the evidences of Chriltanity, 
for which the fum of 200/. was contributed; and an active 
friend opened for him a fubfeription which was fufficient 
for purchafing an annuity of 1o0/. His conftitution, how- 
ever, was broken down by the treatment he had fuffered ; 
.and the irritation of his mind was increafed by his anxiety 
for duly dilcharging the fervice he had undertaken, and thus 
requiting the generolity of his friends; fo that he did not 
long live to enjoy the provifion which had been made for 
him. Four of the propofed le&ures were delivered in the 
four firft months of the year 1797 to crouded auditories ; 
‘but a complicated diforder, under which he languifhed for 
four months, prevented his profecution of them, and termi- 
nated his life on the 6th of September in this year, in the 
65th year of his age. The courfe of lectures was com- 
pleted by Dr. Hunter, and the whole feries formed a volume, 
which was publifhed after the death of Mr. Fell. ‘The theo- 
logical fentiments of Mr. Fell were Such as are ufually de- 
nominated Calviniflic ; but he combined with his fleady at- 
tachment to thema great degree of charity and candour 
towards thofe who differed from him. We knew him well; 
and though his temper was fomewhat irritable, he was a 
pleafing and inftruétive companion. His memory was re- 
tentive ; his reading various; and his knowledge extenfive, 
‘To the interefts of civil and religious liberty he, was ar- 
dently devoted ; and of thefe interefts he was an able advo- 
cate. . Under the article Farmer we have mentioned fome 
of his moft elaborate publications. Befides thefe, he 
was alfo the author of the following works: viz. ‘ An 
Effay on the love of one’s Country,” 8vo. ‘ Genuine 
Proteftantifm, or the unalienable rights of confcience de- 
fended,”’ 1773, and 1774, Svo. ‘* The Juftice and Utility 
of Penal Laws for the dire€tion of Confcience examined,’’ 
1774, 8vo. Remarks on the Appendix of the Editor of 
Rowley’s Poems, &c.”? 1783, 8vo. “ An Effay towards 
gn Englifhh Grammar, with a Differtation on the natural 
and peculiar. Ufe of certain hypothetical Verbs in the 
Englith Language,” 1784, 12mo. &c. Gen. Biog. 

Fer, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes employed to 

denote the {kin or hide of an animal. : 
’ Fevr, a‘term applied to the knocking down of animals 
which are to be killed. ‘he axe is moftly employed in this 
‘bufinefs, but fhould be difcontinued, and that of pithing 
‘be madevufe of in its place. 

Fert, in Mining, fignifies fmall pieces of lead ore, and 
{par, which have paffed through a riddle with openings 
‘about an inch fquare.  Fell-fleet fignifies large pieces of 
fattage, or feagh, that is, refufe fpar. 

* FELLA, in Geography, a river of Carinthia, which runs 
into the Drave, near Machling. 

Feria, Cape, a cape on the weft coaft of Calabria. 
IN, fat. 39°38! Es long. 16° 24 


FEL 


FELLENBERG, a town of the Tyrolefe ; four miles 
W.S.W. of Infpruck. ; 

FELLETIN, a town of France, in the department of 
the Creufe, and chief place of a canton in the diftrié of 
Aubuffon; 21 miles $.S.E. of Gueret. N. lat. 45° 53. 
E. long. 2°15'. ‘The place contains 2666, and the can- 
ton 10,713 inhabitants, on a territory of 2074 kiliometres, 
and in 10 communes. The chief article of trade is cattle, 
and near it is a medicinal fpring. , 

FELLIN, a town of Naples, in the Lavora; 13 miles 
E.N.E. of Naples. ‘ ty 

FELLING, a town of Auftria; ro miles W.N.W. of 
Crems.—Alfo, a town of Auidtria; 11 miles $. of Vienna. 

Fruuinc of Limber, in Rural Economy, the operation of 
cutting down trees for the purpofe of timber. In the per- 
forming of this fort of bufinefs attention fhould in the firft 
place be paid to the feafon of the year, efpecially where 
the timber is of the oak kind. or {uch as is to be peeled for 
the bark, as it will only peel, or, what the workmen term 
run, at a particular pertod, which is generally in the {pring 
months, juft before the leaves expand. With many other 
forts of timber trees this is not, however, neceflary to be 
regardeds but they fhould, in general, be cut down pre~ 
vioufly to the leaves appearing. ; 

Tt is the praétice of fome, where any fort ef tree is te 
be cut down in the above intention, firft to take off any 
branches that may be likely to injure it in its fall, much harm 
being frequently done to trees for want of care in this refpe&ts 
Where the branches or limbs are of confiderable fize, 
they fhould be cut on both fides, clofe to the bole, in order 
to prevent their {plitting. In cafes where the trees are not 
grubbed up, they fhould be cut.as clofe to the roots as pof- 
fible, by which there will be a faving of the moft valuable 
part of the timber. : 

In the work of felling there is confiderable art to make 
them fall in the beft way, which is only known by thofe 
voodmen who have had much experience. Where a large 
fall is therefore to be made, it is of much advantage to 
have men of this kind to undertake the bufinefs. The 
price of felling is regulated by a variety of different cir- 
cumftances, as the kind of wood, the fize of the trees, the 
nature of the fituation, &c.; but the work is often done 
by the tree, or at a fixed price fora certain number of trees. 
See Woops and Timber. ° . 

FELLINGSBRO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, 
in Weftmanland ; 24 miles W. of Stroemfholm. ‘ 

FELLIS, a mountain of Africa, in Adel; 50 miles W. 
of cape Guardefui. : 

FELLOWS, or Feruiss, in 4rtillery, ave fix-pieces of 
wood, each of which forms an arch of acircle, and thefe, 
joined all together by, duledges, make an entire circle, 
which, with a nave, and twelve {pokes, form the wheel of 
a gui-carriage. 

Their thicknefs is ufually the diameter of the ball of the 
gun they ferve for, and their breadth fomething mores 
Their dimenfions are as follow: for a 24 pounder, five 
inches thick, and 6: inches broad; for a 12 pounder, 
44 inches thick, and fix inches broad; for a fix pounder, 
four inches thick, and 53 broad, &c. made of dry elm. 

FELLOWSHIP, Company, or Partnerfbip, in aca) 
metic, is a rule ef great ufe in balancing accounts among 
merchants and owners of {hips ; where a-number of perfons 
putting together a general flock, it is required to give 
every one his proportioual fhare of lois or gain. : 

The golden rule, feveral times repeated, is the bafis of fel- 
lowfhip, and fully anfwers all queftions of that kind: for, as 
the whole itock is to the total thereby gained or loft, fo 

2 : eacly 


FEW 


each man’s particular ftock is to his proper share of lofs or 

ain. Wherefore, the feyeral {ums of money of eyery part- 
her are to be gathered into one fum for the firlt term ; the 
common gaia or lofs for the fecond ; and every man’s parti- 
cular fhare for the third; and the golden rule is then to be 
wrought fo many times as there are partners, 

There are two cafes of this rule, the one without, the 
other with time. Mi 

TELLOWSHIP without time, is where the quantity of ftock 
contributed by each perfon is alone contidered, without 
any particular regard to the length of time that any of 
their monies were employed. An example will make this 
procefs eafy, 

A. B. and C. freight a fhip with 212 tons of wine; A. 
laying out 1342/. B. 1178/. and C. 630/. towards the fame; 
the whole cargo is fold at 32/. per ton. Query, what fhail 
each perfon receive ? 

Find the whole produce of the wine by multiplying 212 
by 32, which yields 6784. Then, adding together the 
feveral flocks, 1342, 1178, and 630, which make 3150, the 
work will itand thus: - 

1342—Anfw.—2890, 1993, Kc. 
3150: epae| 118 ——-———- 2537,0006, &c. 
~& 630 ————+ 1356,8. 
3150 

Ferrowsuip with time, ufually called the Double rule 

of Fellow/bip, is where the time during which the money, 
&c. wereemployed, entersintothe account. An example 
will make it clear. 
_ A. B. C. commencea partierfhip the firft of January, 
for a whole year. A. the fame diy difburfed 100/. of which- 
Re received back again, on the firft of April, 20/. B. 
pays, on the firft of March, 60/. and more, the frit of Au- 
guit, rool. C. pays, the firft of July, 140/. and the firft of 
O&ober, withdraws 40/. Atthe year’s end their clear gain 
3s 1427. Query, what is each perfon’s due? 

A.’s 100/. multiplied by three months, the time it was in, 
makes 300/. and the remaining 80, by nine months = 720, 
in all 1020/. of A.’s contribution. For B. 60 into 10, 
gives 600; and 1o@ into 5, 500; inall rroo/. for B. For 
C. 140 into 3,. gives 420; and Ico into 3, is 300 ; in all 
4201. forC. Now, 1oz0 + 1100 + 720 = 2840 for the 
common antecedent, and the gain 142, is for the general 
eynfequent ; the rule will ftand thus: 

1c20—An{w. 51 
» 28402142 { L109O—— 55 
‘ 72. —-— 36 


Proof 6784 


Proof 2840 


142 


N.B. All the particular times (if not fo given) muit be 
seduced into one denomination, viz. into years, months, 
weeks, or days. 

FELLY, in Agriculture, is a term which is. fometimés 

rovincially applied to the breaking up of a fallow. It is 
fikewife the name of a part of a wheel. 

FELNA, in Geography, a.diftri& of Ruffia, in the go- 
vernment of Smoleniko, fituated on the Defna. 

_ FELO, Care, the S. W. point of Sicily. N. lat. 37° 46'. 
E. long. 12° 27'. 

Ferro de /e, in Law, is he that commits felony, by willingly 
and deliberately killing himfelf; or doing any unlawful malici- 
ous act, the confequence of whichis his own death ; as if, 
attempting to kill another, he runs upon his antagonilt’s 
{word ;. or, fhooting at another, the gun burfts and kills 


FEL 


himfelf, (1 Hawk, P. C. 68.1 Hal. P, C. 413.) The 
Saxons call him /e/f-bane. He mult be of the age of difcre- 
tion, and compos mentis. But if areal lunatic kills himfelf 
in a lucid interval, he is a felo de feas much as another mam 
(1. Hal, P.C. 412.) 

A felo de fe is to be interred without Chriftian burial, 
with a ftake driven through his corpfe ; and is to forfeit his. 
goods and chattels, real and perfonal ;. but he may makea 
devife of his lands, becaufe they are not fubjeGted to any 
forfeiture. (Plowd. 26:1.) However, thefe forfeitures are 
generally faved by the verdi€t of the coroner’s jury, who find 
lunacy. See Suicrpe. 

If a perfon felo de fe is fecretly made away with, fo that 
the coroner cannot view his body, prefentment is to be made 
of it by juftices of peace,. &c. in order to entitle the king to 
the forfeiture of goods. 

FELON, in Surgery... See Wuitiow. 

Fston wort. See Sovranum. 

FELONIOUS Homicips. See Homicipe. 

FELONY, Fexonsa, was anciently ufed for 4 violent 
and injurious action of a vaffal, or tenant, againft his 
lord. 

Menage derives the word from félonia, formed of fe/o, or 
fello, which occurs in the capitulars of Charles the Bald, and 
is fuppofed to come from the German feblen, or Saxon 
faelen, to fail, or be. delinquent. Others derive it from the 
barbarous Latin ai/ania. Lord, Coke, Nicod,- &c. derive 
it 2 fello, gall, as being {uppofed to be done maliciouily. 
Others derive it from the Greek Gnacw, to deceive. But the 
learned Spelman, with greater probability, deduces it from 
two northern words, wiz. fee, which fignifies fef,, feud, or 
beneficiary eflate, and Jon, which fignifies price.or value 3. 
fo that felony is the fame as pretium feudi, the confideration: 
for whicha man gives up his fief; agreeable to the com- 
mon expreffion, {uch.an a¢t is as much as your life, or eftate,. 
is worth. 

In this fenfe felony was equivalent to petty-treafon, or 
it was a crime next below high treafon.. The crime of felony 
imported confifcation of the fee, to the profit of the lord. 

All thofe aéts, whether of a criminal nature +r not,. 
which at this day are generalty forfeitures of copy-hold: 
eftates, are ftyled fe/onia in the feudal law. 

FeEtony wasalfo applied to an injury of the lord to:his 
vaffal, which imported a forfeiture of the homaze and fer- 
vice thereof, and made it revert to the fovereign. 

Fidelity and felony are reciprocal: between. the lord and 
the vaffal. 

Feuony, in the general acceptation of law,.comprifes 
every fpecies of crime, which occafioned, at common law, 
the forfeiture of lands or goods. This meft frequently 
happens in thofe crimes for which.a capital punifhment ei- 
th r was or isliable to be infli@ted ; for thofe felonies which 
are called clergyable, or to which the-benefit of clergy ex- 
tends, were anciently punifhed with death in lay or unlearn- 
ed offenders, though now-by the flatute-law that punifhment 
is, for the firft ewer univerfally remitted. (See Benerrr 
of Clergy.) Treafon itfelf (fays Coke, 3 Init. 15,) was 
anciently comprifed under the name of felony. And not 
only all offences now capital are in fome degree or. other 
felony ; but this is likewife the cafe with fome other of. 
fences, which are not punifhed with death ;.as fuicide, where 
the party is already pay homicide by chance medley, or 
in felf-defence ; and petty larceny or pilfering ; all. which 
are, ftriGly {peaking, felonies, as they fubje& thofe who 
commit them to forfeitures. So that upon the whole, the 
only adequate definition of felony feems to be this, vis. “ an 
offence which occafionsa total forfeiture of either lands or 

goods, 


FEL 


goods, or both, at the common law ; and to which capi- 
tal or other punifhments may be fuperadded, accordiug to 
the degree of guilt.” (Blackft. Com. vol. iv.) The idea of 
felony is fo generally conneéted with that of capital punifh- 
ment, that it feems hard to feparate them; and to this 
ufage the interpretations of law now conform. For if a 
flatute makes any new offence felony, the law implies that 
it fhall be punithed with death (viz. by hanging), as well 
as by forfeiture, unlets the offender prays the benefit of 
clergy. (Hawk. P. C.i. c. 41. ii. c. 48.) So where a tla- 
tute decrees an offender to undergo judgment of life and mem- 
ber, the offence becomes a felony, though that precife word 
be omitted ; but the words of the ftatute muft net in fuch 
cafe be the leaft doubtful or ambiguous. (1 Hawk. 
PCC a1.) 

Tevony isalfo ufed, in Common Lac, for any capital of- 
fence, perpetrated with any evil intention. : 

Though capital punifhment does by no means enter into 
the true idea and definition of felony, the true criterion of 
which is forfeiture ; for in all felonies which are punifhable 
with death the offender lofes all his lands in fee-fim- 
ple, and alfo all his goods and chattels ; but in fuch as are 
not fo punifhable, his goods and chattels only. 1 Inft. 

gt. 

In a ftri@er fenfe, felony denotes all capital crimes below 
treafon. : 

Felony includes feveral f{pecies of crimes, fuch as petit- 
treafon, murder, theft, homicide, fodomy, rape, wilful 
burning of houfes, receiving of {tolen goods, &c.; breach of 
prifon, refcue and efcape, after one is arrefted or imprifoned 
for felony, and divers others found in the ftatutes, which 
are daily making crimes felony, that were not fo be- 
fore. 

Felony by the common law is againft the life of a man, as 
murder, manflaughter, felo de fe, a defendendo, &c. againlt 
a man’s goods, fuch as larceny and robbery ; againtt his 
habitation, as arfon and burglary ; and againit public juttice, 
as breach of prifon. 3 Intt. 31. 

Piracy, robbery, and murder upon the feas, are felonies 
punifhable by the civil law, and alfo by ftatute. 1 Intt. 

re 
Felony is eafily diftinguifhed from treafon. 

From leffer crimes it is diftinguifhed by this, that its 
punifhment is death, though not univerfally ; for petty 
larceny, 7. ¢. ftealing of a thing under the value of twelve- 
pence, is felony, according to Brook, though the crime be 
not capital, but only a lois of goods. ‘Fhe reafon Brook 
gives for its being felony is, that the indiétment runs, #/o- 
nice cepit. 

Till the reign of Henry TI. felonies were punifhed by pe- 
cuniary fines ; that prince firft ordered felons to be hanged 
about the year 1108. 

Yelony is of two kinds; the one /ighter, which for the 
firit time is entitled to the benefit of clergy ; as man-flaugh- 
ter. The other, more heinous, is not allowed the privi- 
lege. 

ar dchy is alfo punifhable by lofs of all lands, not intailed ; 
and all goods and chattels, both real and perforal; though 
the {tatutes make a difference in fome cafes concerning lands, 
as appears by ftat. 37 Hen. VIII. 

Felony ordinarily works corruption of blood, unlefs the 
ftatute, ordaining the offence to be felony, provide other- 
wife; asthe ftat. 39 Eliz, cap..17, 

The punifhment of a perfon for felony by our ancient 
books is to lofe his life ; to lofe his blood, as to his ancef- 
try, fo as to have neither heir nor polterity ; to lofe his 


goods; andtolofe his lands. (4 Rep. 124.) A felony by 


PEL 
ftatute incidentally implies, that the offender fhall be fub- 
jet to the like attainder and forfeiture, &c. as is incident to 
a felon at common law. (3 Init. 47. 59. 90.) 

Private perfons may arreit felons by their own authority, 
or by warrant from a juftice of peace ; and every private 
perfon is bound to affift an officer in taking felons. But owe 
ought not to be arrelted upon fulpicion of felony, except 
‘there be probable caufe fhewn for the ground of the fufpi- 
cion, (1. Lil. Abr. 603.) A private man cannot juftify 
breaking deorsto take the perfon fufpected ; but he doth 
this at his peril, Whereas officers may break open a houfe 
to take a felon, or any perfon juftly fufpeéted of felony ; 
and if an officer hath a warrant to take a felon, who is killed. 
in refitting, it is not felony in-the officer ; but if the offi- 
cer is killed, it is otherwife. Dalt. 289. 

Perfons indiéed of felony, &c. where there are ftrong 
prefumptions and circumt{tances of guilt, are not repleviable ; 
but for larceny, &c. when perfons are committed, who are 
of good reputation, they may be bailed. 

Ifa perfon be committed to prifon for one felony, the 
juttices of gaol delivery may try him for another felony, for 
which he was not committed, by virtue of their commiffion. 
(1 Lil. 622.) - 

It is not very eafy to re-capitulate the vaft variety of of- 
fences that are made felony by innumerable ftatutes, which 
the feenrity of fociety has required. We mutt refer for 
particulars to the appropriate’articles as they occur. - 

Trrony, Appeal of. See Avrra. 

Freiony, Compounding of. See THrrr-norte. 

Frerony, Difcovery of. See Discovery. 

Frvony, Mit/prifion of. See Misrrision. 

FELOOPS, in Geography, a people of Africa, who 
inhabit a confiderable traét of country between the Gambia 
and the Rio Grande. 

FELORE, a river of Africa, which runs into the Se- 
negal, 60 miles above Galem. 

FELSBERG, atown of Heffe Caffel, with an 
caftle on a rock ; 12 miles S. of Caffel. ; 

FELSTIN, a town of Anttrian Poland, in Galicia; 40 
miles S. W. of Lemberg. 

FELSITE. See Ferspar. 

FELSPAR, Feldspath, Germ. Of this mineral there 
are the following {ub-fpecies: adularia, common fel{par, 
compact felfpar, continuous felfpar, Labrador felfpar. 

1. Adularia. Moonflone, Kivw. The colour of adularia 
is yellowifh, greenifh, or milk-white, and in certain direc- 
tions it exhibits a difplay of filvery and pearly colours, owing 
to the different reflections of light from the laminz of which 
it is compofed. It occurs either in mafs or cryttallized. 
Its primitive figure is an irregular oblique-angled parallelopi- 
ped, of which the faces are fmooth and well defined, and 
form an angle with each other of go’; while the faces in the 
third dire€tion are uneven, and form with the others angles 
of 120° and 111° 28’. It alfo prefents the following modi- 
fications: 1. An oblique four-fided prifm, bevilled on two 
of its oppofite fides. 2. An oblique four-fided prifm with 
dihedral fummits. 3. A fix-fided prifm with dihedral fum- 
mits. 4. A double cryftal in the form of a reCtangular 
four-fided prifm, compofed of two half cryftals united to- 
gether in oppofite direGions, 5. A quadruple cryital, com- 
pofed of four cryftals of var. 2. united together by their 
fummits, and mutually penetrating each other, forming a 
crofs confifting of four triangles united round a common 
centre. 

The furface of the cryftals is fmooth, and often ftriated 
longitudinally. They are for the moft part middle-fized or 
large. The external luitre is fhining and fomewhat pearly ; 

the 


ancient 


FELSPAR. 


the luftre of the principal frature is biight-fhining, that of 
the crofs fraéture is fhining, between vitreous and pearly. 
Tts longitudinal fraéture is perfectly foliated ; its crofs frac- 
ture is fmall conchoidal, It breaks into rhomboidal frag- 
ments. It is fometimes compofed of flraight lamellar diftinet 
concretions, It is tranflucent, pafling to tranfparent. Its 
hardnefs is inferior to that of quartz, but greater than that 
of common felfpar. It is ealily frangible; fp. gr. = 2.5 
fo 2.6. It has been aaalyfed by Vauquelin, with the fol- 
lowing refult, 


Silex iptherier, 404 
Alumine . iy ZO 
Lime . 6 2 
Rotathwee route. nA! 

100 


Adularia was firft found by H. Pini in the mountains 
furrounding St. Gothard, in Switzerland, efpecially in 
the fummit called Mont Adula, (whence its name.) It 
here occurs in cryttals, liming the cavities of micaceous 
{chittus. 

2. Common Felfpar.—The colour of this mineral is milk- 
white, yellowith, greyifh, and reddifh-white, alfo wax- 
yellow, and ochre-yellow, fleth-red, blood and brick-red, 
leek-green, mountain-green, and, rarely, verdegris-green. 
It occurs in mafs, diffeminated, in rounded fragments, and 
cryftallized. Its primitive form, and the other varieties of 
cryftallization, are the fame as thofe of adularia: it has 
alfo been found in-ten-fided prifms, with dihedral, or other 
varioufly modified fummits. The cryftals are for the moft 
part {mall and middle-fized. Externally, this mineral is 
more or lefs fhining ; internally, it is the fame, with a luftre 
between vitreous and pearly. The longitudinal fraéture is 
perfectly lamellar, the crofs-fraéture is fine-grained uneven, 
palling into fplintery. Its fragments are rhomboidal, with 
four fhining, and two dull faces. It varies from tranflucent 
to opaque. It occurs often in large or {mall granular con- 
cretions. It is not fo hard as quartz, yet will fcratch 
glafs. It is brittle and eafily frangible; fp. gr. 2.27 to 
Zane 

Tt melts without addition, before the blow-pipe, into a 
white, fomewhat tranflucent glafs. 

Felfpar has often been analyfed, and with very different 
refults: that perhaps the moft to be depended on is of the 

reen Siberian felfpar by Vauquelin, of which the follow- 
ing is the refult : 


Silex “ 02.53 
Alumine . 1nd eO2 
IMCL ests i ae 
Oxyd of iron . nies 3 
Rotates: ing: 136 
96.85 


Felfpar, when expofed to the weather, acquires gradually 
an earthy appearance, and at length pafles into porcelain clay. 
Tt alfo occurs in a ftate of femi-decompolition in feveral va- 
rieties of granite and porphyry, where it cannot have been 
affected by the atmofphere. When in this {tate it is ufually 
of a yellowifh or reddifh-white colour, a faintly glimmering 
Juitre, and a fracture imperfectly foliated, pafling into 
earthy ; it breaks into indeterminately angular fragments, 
js opaque, and contiderably fofter than common fel{par, 
A very light-coloured variety was analyfed by Vauquelia, 
and found to confilt of 


Vou, XIV. 


Silex : ‘ Fs F "4: 

eee P pie 
ee Lofs 
100. 


Some of the coloured tranflucent varieties of felfpar 
coatain particles of mica difperfed through their fubftance, 
and thefe, when the {tone is expofed to the light, form fo 
many luminous points which relieve the colour of the fel- 
{par, and give the whale a fpangled appearance, that has a 
pleafing effet. When felfpar exhibits this appearance it 
is called aventurine (a term alfo applied to a fimilarly ¢lit- 
tering variety of quartz). The green Siberian felfpar for 
times contains {pangles of a remarkably brilliant filvery mica 
forming a very elegant aventurine. Another fine variety 
hag been procured from Fedlovatoi, an ifland in the White 
fea, not far from Archangel, confifting of a tranfparent 
hyacinth-brown bafe, with gold-coloured {pangles. 

Common felfpar is the moft generally diffufed, both as 
to its local and geological fituation, of any other mineral, 
except perhaps quartz. It is an effential conftituent of 
granite and gneifs, of fienite and greenftone : it abounds in 
all porphyries, and in many rocks of trap-formation, and in 
the greater part of the real lavas. 

3. Compad Felfpar—Felfite, Kirw. Its colour is blueith- 
white, paffing into fky-blue ; or greenifh-white, pafling into 
brownifh-green. The blue variety occurs in mafs, the 
green is either diffeminated or cryttallized. Its luftre is 
gliftening ; its fracture is very imperfectly lamellar, ap- 
proaching to fplintery ; its fragments are indeterminately 
angular; it is feebly tranQucent, and, though hard, confi- 
derably inferior to quartz. 

It is fufible without addition, though difficultly, before 
the blow-pipe, into a frit or imperfect glafs. It has not 
been analyfed. 

The blue compa& variety was difcovered by Widenmana 
at Krieglach, in Stiria, forming a granitic mafs with white 
quartz and filvery mica: the green varieties occur in greea 
porphyry and greenttone. 

4. Continuous Felfpar.—tts colour is reddifh-grey, or 
flefh-coloured ; or pale reddith-yellow, or olive-green. It 
occurs in mafs, and generally contains common cryftallized 
felfpar difperfed through it in various proportions. It is 
fometimes dull, but generally poffeffes a feeble glimmering 
luitre ; it is tranflucent on the edges; its fracture is five 
{plintery, paffisg into uneven earthy ; its fragments are inde. 
terminately angular ; its hardnefs is fully equal to that of 
common fel{par, and it is lefs britde. Ata high heat it 
melts into a porous porcelain mafs. 

5. Labrador Fel/par —The proper colour of this mineral is 
fmoke-erey, or dark-afh colour, but, on account of the 
fmall crevices between the lamelle of which it is com; 
it prefents a moft beautiful play of vivid tints, va 
cording to the pofition in which it is viewed. Of 
exhibits all the varieties from violet to fmalt blue ; of sreen, 
it difplays the 1 her tinges 


pure emerald green, and various ot 
paffing on one hand into blue, and on the other into yellow ; 
of yellow, the ufual tints are gold and lemon-yellow, 
ing into deep orange, and thence into rich copp 1, an 
tombac-brow The parts exhibiting thefe | 
lours are difpofed in irregular {pots and pate 
: fi le ke cate As 
fame {pot, if held in different politions, difplays vari 
juts. § ay een found only in detached rc 
I 


v crg- 


FEL 


pieces Internally it is fhining with a luftre between pearly 
and vitreous: its principal fraCture is perfe@ly lamellar in 
two dire€tions, the lamelle croffing each other at right 
angles ; its crofs fracture is fomewhat conchoidal ; it breaks 
into rhomboidal fragments, with four fpecular faces ; it is 
ftrongly tranflucent, pafling into femi-tranfparent. Sp. gr. 
2.6 to 2.7. 

It is fufible, without addition, before the blow-pipe, into 
a white enamel. According to Bindhcim, who alone has 
analyfed this mineral, it confifls of hee: 


Silex ¢ = A005 
Alumine . 13.6 
Sulphat of lime Ta. 


Oxyd of copper 0.7 
Ditto of iron 


Ico. 


Tt was firft difcovered by the Moravian miffionaries on 
“the ifland of St. Paul, on the Labrador coaft, and has fince 
been found in Ingermannland, in Norway, and in the vici- 
nity of lake Baikal, in Siberia. 

Tt is in confiderable eftimation among lapidaries for or- 
namental works. 

FELT, a kind of ftuff, either of wool alone, or of 
wool and hair; neither fpun, croffed, nor woven, but de- 
‘viving all its confiftence from its being wrought, and fulled 
with lees and fize, and afterwards fafhioned on a block or 
mould, by help of fire and water. 

Caftors, camels, and coneys hair, lambs, and fheeps wool, 
&c. are the moft ufual ingrediente of felts; and hats 
of all kinds are the works they are chiefly employed 
in. 
The felt intended fora hat, being fufficiently fulled, and 
prepared, is reduced into one piece, fomewhat in the figure 
of a large funnel ; in which ftate it remains ready to be put 
into form, and becomes a hat. See Har. 

FELTING, in the Manufadures, denotes the operation 
by which the fur, hair, and wool of animals are wrought into 
a {pecies of cloth, without either {pinning or weaving. A 
hatter feparates the hairs from each other by ftriking the 
wool with the ftring of his bow, thus caufing them to 
{pring up in the air, and they then fall in every direction on 
the table, fpread and diftributed in fmall flocks, which the 
workman covers with a cloth, flightly moiftened ; preffing 
it with his hands, and moving the hairs backwards and for- 
wards in different directions. In this manner the different 
fibres are brought againft each other, and their points of 
conta&t confiderably multiplied ; and the agitation gives 
each hair a progreffive motion towards the root, in con- 
fequence of which the hairs become twitted together. As 
the mals becomes compact, the preflure fhould be increafed, 
jn order to keep up the progreffive motion and twifting of 
the hairs, which is thus performed with greater difficulty. 
The various fibres of the materials being thus by a gra- 
dual preffure in different direCtions made to interweave and 
crofs each other, form a piece of ftuff of a foft and {pongy 
texture; upon this firft piece is placed another, formed in the 
fame manner, and fometimes a third or fourth, according 
to the nature of the materials, and the intended thicknefs 
and confiftence of the work. Thefe different pieces are 
fucceffively brought together, and difpofed in a form {uitable 
to the article which is to be fabricated; and in order to 
efieG& the cohefion, the operator ufes a number of preflures 


FEL 


and alternate motions in different direétions, during which 
he preferves the fapplenefs and flexibility of the material by 
flight afperfions of water. The next operation is fulling, 
which fee. he hair intended for the manufaéturing of 
hats is always cut off with a fharp inftrument, and not 
pulled up by the roots; becaufe the bulb of the hair, 
which would come out with it in the latter cafe, would ren- 
der the end which was fixed in the {kin very obtufe, and 
nearly deitroy its difpofition to unite with the adjacent 
hairs. The hairs fhould not be iftraight like needles, for 
then there would be no compaétnefs in the ftuff. The 
fibres of wool having naturally a crooked form, that fub- 
{tance is well adapted to the operation of felting. The 
hair of beavers, rabbits, hares, &c. being ftraight, cannot 
be ufed in felting, till it has been prepared for the purpofe. 
See Har. 

FELTON, the Rev. Witt1am, in Biography, pre- 
bendary of Hereford, and a dilettanti mufician, above the 
common clafs of gentlemen performers. . He wasa good 
organ-player, and had a neat finger and powerful hand for 
common divifions, and the rapid multiplication of notes. 
As a compofer he imitated Handel’s organ concertos, and: 
produced three fets, in which there were two concertos that 
were theught worth playing in London by Stanley at the 
Caftle Concert, and Butler at Ranelagh. Two of his airs, 
with variations, were long the pride of every incipient 
player on the harpfichord in town and country. 

FELTRI, in Geography, a town of Italy, and capital 
of the Feltrin, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of the patriarch 
of Aquilea; fituated at the foot of mountains generally 
eovered with {now, which renders the air cold. The prin- 
cipal trade of the place is iron. The town has broad and 
well paved ftreets, a {plendid town-houfe, a large and fine 
market place with fountains, a cathedral church, which. 
yields a good income to the bifhop, three monafteries and 
three nunneries, a pawn-bank, and fpacious fuburbs, feated 


‘ina plain. The number of inhabitants is eftimated at 5,200 5 


53 miles N.W. of Verona. 
8. 

FELTRIN, a {mall diftri& of Italy, bounded on the 
north by the Bellunefe, on the eaft and’ fouth by the Trevi- 
fan, and on the weft by the Trentin and Vicentin. It is 
28 miles in length, and ten in breadth, and produces a 
fufficiency of grain, and an abundance of fruit, efpecially 
fine nuts, wine, filk, black cattle, fheep, fire wood, and- 
game. The air is falubrious. This: territory contains, 
befides the capital, 120 villages, 20 parifhes, and 42,000 
inhabitants. The only place of note is Feltri. ‘ 

FELTRINO, a river of Naples, which runs inte the 
Adriatic, 4 miles S.E. of Ortona. 

FELTRO, Morto pa, in Biography, a painter of 
grotef{que or ornamental works. “He was born at Florence 
in 1468, and there he firft ftudied the art of painting. His 
peculiar genius direGting him to paint in the grotefque ftyle, 
he went young to Rome, the grand emporium of works of 
the ancients in that kind, which he eagerly fought for 
among its antiquities and ruins, The veltiges of temples, 
baths, grottos, tombs, &c. fupplied him with a great 
variety of ftudies, whofe elegance of ftyle he effeCually 
imitated, and became eminent in that manner. It is no 
{mali praife of him that Giorgione employed him to intros 
duce the ornamental parts of fome of his grandeit com- 
potitions. 

FELUCCA, or Fexucco, alittle veffel with from ten 
to fixteen banks of oars, not covered over, much ufed in 
the Mediterranean as a paflage boat. The natives of <Bar- 
bary employ boats of this fort as eruifers, 

The 


N. lat. 46° 2'. E, Jong. 11° 


FEM 


"The word is formed from the Arabic felkon, a /bip. 

It has this peculiarity, that the rudder may be applied 
either in the head or ftern; there being difpofitions in both 
to receive it. For fize, it may be compared to a floop or 
Billop- It is rigged and navigated like galleys; which 

ee. 

FELUDSJE, Fereya, or Felicha, in Geography, a 
{mall ifland in the N.W. part of the gulf of Perf, near 
the coait of Arabia. N. lat. 29°45’. E. long. 48°. 

FEMALE, the fex that conceives and bears fruit. 

An animal that generates within itfelf, is called female ; 
and that which generates in another, male. 

The female,- in quadrupeds,. and even in birds, is ufually 
fmaller and weaker than the male; though in birds of prey, 
as the falcon, hawk, &c. it is otherwife ; the female being 
bigger,. ftronger, bolder, hardier, and more courageous. 

The like is obierved in moft infe&s, particularly {piders ; 
to that degree, that M. Homberg affures us, he has 
weighed five or fix male garden-fpiders againft one 
female of the fame fpecies, which has been equal to 
them all. ; 

For the numeral proportion of males to females, fee Mar- 
RIAGE. : 

- Naturalifts alfo diflinguifh male and female plants; male 
and female flowers, &c. 


Femare Flowers, in Botany. See Ferrire Flow- 


ers. 
Femare Flute-Player, See Fuure, Lamia, and 
AmBuBasz. 


Femare Screw. See Screw. 
_FEMBLE-Hemp, in Rural Economy, a name given in 

fome diftrits to the female hemp. 

FEME Covert, in Zaw, denotes a married woman; 
who is alfo laid to be under covert-baron. 

By the law of England, afeme-covert committing a bare 
theft in company with, or by coercion of, her hufband, is 
not deemed guilty of felony ; neither does fhe become accef- 
fary to a felony, by receiving her hufband who has been 
guilty of it, as he does by receiving her. But if fhe com- 
mit a theft by the bare command of her hufband ; or trea- 
fon, murder, or robbery, in his company, or by his coer- 
cion, or keep a bawdy-houfe with him, fhe is punifhable 
in the fame manner, as if fhe was fole; and generally if fhe 
be guilty of any offence not capital, fhe may be indiéted, 
&c. without making the hufband a party. But if the in- 
cur the forfeiture of a penal ftatute, the hufband mutt be 
made defendant in the action or information. (Hawk. P. C. 
bime.1 

Peo the Romans, a married woman was as capable 
ef making a will as a feme-fole, but with us fhe is not 
only utterly incapable of devifing lands, but of making a 
teftament of chattels, witout the licence of her hufband. 
For all her perfonal chattels are abfolutely his. Yet by her 
hufband’s licence fhe may make a teftament, and the huf- 
band, upon marriage, frequently covenants with her friends 
to allow her that licence. The queen confort is an excep- 
tion to this general rule, for fhe may difpofe of her chattels 
by will, without the confent of her lord (Ce. Litt. 133.); 
and any feme-covert may make her will of goods, which 
are in her poffeffion in autre droit, as executrix or admi- 
niftratrix, for thefe can never be the property of the huf- 
band ; and if fhe has any pin-money, or feparate mainte- 
nance, it is faid fhe may difpofe of her favings thereout by 
teftament, without the controul of her hufband. (Prec. 
Chan. 44.) A feme covert may purchafe an eftate without 
the confent of her hufband, and the conveyance is good 
during the coverture, till he avoids it by fome a& declaring 


FE Xi 


his diffent. (Co. Litt. 3.) See more on this fubje& under, 
the article CoverTurRe. 

Feme /ole, an unmarried woman, whofe debts contraGted 
before marriage become thofe of her hufband after it. If a 
feme fole makes her will, and afterwards marries, fuch fub- 
fequent marriage is efteemed a revocation in law, and en- 
tirely vacates the will. See Custom of London. 

FEMERN, in Geography, an ifland of Denmark, in 
the Baltic, feparated from Helftein by a narrow ftrait, 
called «* Femern Sound,”? about 27 miles in circumference. 
It contains the town of Burg, and a few villages. This 
ifland, though fmall, has always been confidered as one of 
the keys of Denmark towards Germany. There is a fort 
at the landing-place from Holfteia. _N. lat. 54 230 
E, long. 11°. 

FEMININE, or Foeminine, in Grammar, one of the 
genders of nouns. 

The feminine gender,is that which denotes the noun or 
name to belong toa female. In the Latin, the feminine 
gender is formed of the mafculine, by altering its termina- 
tion; particularly by changing us into a. Thus, of the 
mafculine Jonus equus, a good horfe, isformed the feminine, 
bona equa, a good mare; 10, of parvus homo, a little man, is 
formed parva famina, a little woman, &c. In French, the 
feminine gender is exprefled, not by a different termination, 
buta different article: thus, /e is joined to a male, and /ato 
a female. 

In Englifh, we are generally more ftriG, and exprefs the 
difference of fex, not by diflerent terminations, nor by dif- 
ferent particles, but differeat words ; as doar and /ow, doy 
and girl, brother and filer, &c. though fometimes the femi- 
nine 1s formed by varying the termination of the male into 
cfs, as in abbot, albefs, &c. 

Feminine Rhymes. See Ruyme. 

FEM-OWL, in Ornithology, an Englifh name ufed in 
Shropfhire, and fome other counties, for the caprimulzus, or 

oat-fucker, called alfo the churn-owl. It is a very beau- 
tiful bird, and more refembles the cuckow than the owl- 
kind. See Caraimurcus. 

FEMSIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, inthe 
province of Smaland; 50 miles W. of Wexio. 

FEMUR, or Os Femoris, in Anatomy, the bone of 
the thigh. See Extremiries. 

FEN, in Agriculture, a term commonly made ufe of to fig- 
nify lands which are of the foft, boggy, or marfhy kind; and 
which, from the great ftagnation aad retention of moifture, 
are difpofed to the growth and production of different coarfe 
vegetables, as well as to become unhealthy for thofe who 
inhabit them. In different diftri&s of the kingdom, as in the 
counties of Lincoln, Cambridge, and thofe which adjoin 
thera, immenfe tracts of this defcription of jands are ftill to 
be met with ; which, by proper rreans, fuch as thofe of 
inclofing, effectual draining, paring and burning, and the 
growth of fuitable kinds of crops, might be rendered of 
vaft impertance to individuals as well as the nation, but 
which in their prefent {tate afford f{earcely any thing, except 
rufhes, feeds, fedge, and coarfe grafles. 

The lands of this kind differ in their qualities according 
to the progrefs they have made to the ftate of firmnefs from 
the gradual depofitions of earthy matters; in fome cafes 
being quite folid, while, in others, they are covered with 
water, except fome {mall portions which rife above the 
furface in particular places. The former are moitly without 
any rivers paffing into or through them, but the latter have 
commonly {prings rifing in them, and become the fources 
of rivers. 

The firft fort of fen lands is moitly injured by the &ag- 

Hh2 nation 


FEN. ‘ 


nation of fuch waters as come upon them from the higher 
grounds during the time of floads or heavy falls of rain, 
from their being generally of confiderable extent, and for 
the moft part lying perfe€tly flat, without the leaft fall to 
difcharge or take them off. They of courfe continue upon 
them until they ave taken up by the procefs of evaporation. 

The other is con{tantly in a great meafure covered with 
water, only having fomewhat more dry ground during thofe 
feafons which are long free from rain. ; 

In the drainage of thefe forts of lands, which conftitutes 
their chief fir improvement, the operator muft be prin- 
cipally dire@téd by the circumftances of the particular cafes, 
their fituations, and the nature of the caufes from which 
the wetnefs proceeds. See Draintnec of Land. 

In fome inftances they will not only require the proper 
cutting of deep and furface drains, and ditches; but often 
extenfive embanking, when ai the borders of large rivers 

- or the fea, as well as flood-gates to prevent the influx of water 
during the time of floods or high tides. And occafionally 
likewife other machinery in the nature of fen or lifting mills, 
in order to throw or difcharge the water over the banks. 
See Mirus 

In cafes which arife from fprings, as well as thofe which 
are produced by the ftagnation of furface water, it will 
frequently be neceflary, in order to effect their drainage, to 
have one or more deep open cuts, brought up in a proper 
dire€tion from the loweft point at which the water can be 
difcharged. Into this various other, either furface or other 
drains, muft ke formed, in fuitable directions, according 
to the nature of the cafes, that the water may be effectually 
carried off. In the execution of the bufinefs it will confe- 
quently be firft neceffary to afcertain the moft depending 
part of the iand by proper levelling with a fpirit or other 
level, fuixable to the purpofe. Whete this is not carefully 
done, the drainage can feldom be accomplifhed in a proper 
manner. 


Prefent Value, Dr. 


By the weft fen 


To prefent value of 
By the eaft fen 


all the common 
rights in the eaft 
and weft fens 


nee) Sel Ae) 


Dedu& the former value 


Net improvement 


By the Wild- 


more fen 


To prefent value 
of the common 
rights in the 
Wildmore fen 


Net improvement 


PRIS 13) 7 


more fens - 


} 10,661 2 25 20 


The main drain or drains, in eafes of this kind, fhould 
conttantly have fufficient depth and width to readily dif- 
charge the water from the whole extent of the level; and 
the flood and tide waters be kept as much as poffible from 
flowing upon the lands by proper embanking and the ufe of 
flood-gates, as faggefted above. See Emaanxmenr and 
FLoop-Gate. 

In moft other points the drainage of thefe forts of lands 
may be conduéted in the fame way as for common draining, 
See Draininc. 


When fen lands have been rendered fufficiently dry by - 


proper draining, and are become in a ftate of proper 
folidity for carrying on the operation of tillage, where 
they contain much coarfe vegetable matter upon their fur- 
faces, the moft advantageous method is to begin by paring 
and burning, which will afford an excellent preparation for 
acrop of rape, or even turnips where the lands are free from 
too much ftagnant moiflure ; and either of thefe kinds of 
crops will leave the grounds in excellent condition for 
potatoes, beans, or cabbages, with which they fhould be 
con{tantly cropped until they are brought into a fuitable 
{tate for the growth of grain, when a few crops of this fort 
may be taken in alternation with thofe of the green kind, 
keeping it always in mind that the great object isto lay 
them down as foon as poflible to grais, for which they are 
in general the beft calculated. 

In the introduétiga of grain crops, it is for the moft patt 
the beft to begin ‘with: oats, as fuch forts of land are com- 
monly well edapted to them, The other kinds may after= 
wards be had recourfe to according to circumftances. 

It has been ftated by the writer of the “* Survey of the 
County of Lincoln,” that the probable improvement that® 
might be made by the inclofing, draining, paring and burn- 
ing, and judicious cropping of the ea{t and weit fens in that: 
diftri&, would not be lefs than is ftated below. 


Improved Value, Cr. 


Val. per 
Acre. | Rent. 


Ang Rae Be 
- 16,924 2 20 
= 12,424 3 39 15 


16,924 10 9 
9.318 14 11 


Total improved value, Cr. 


4173 5 0 


22,070 o 8 


Val. per 


A. R. P. A 
Acre 


10,661 13 13 


Dedu& Dr. as oppofite — 


nang) 


a 


; The whole improvement of the eaft and weft ad i sae ale 


FEN 

Tt is remarked, that the calculation is drawn from the 
average of the common rights of two different parifhes, thefe 
of Lufhby and Revefby, the one being detached a coniider- 
able diftance from the common, and the other greatly nearer, 
which furnifhes a tolerable data for the whole of the towns 5 
and if thofe two parifhes common rights produce a given fum, 
and their two flares of land-tax amount for Lufhby, 40/., 
Revefby, 237 /.; all the parifhes which have rights upon 
the fens, amounting to 3975 /. 15s. produce the fum of 
4173/. 55. per year, which gives the prefent value of the 
common rights upon thefe fens, from 29,349 acres, at about 
2s. 10d. the acre; when, by the improvement from an inclo- 
fure, the fame 29,349 acres would produce 26,243 /. per 
year, which averages about 175. 11 d. the acre, and which 
8 the moderate average value; although there are certain 
lands taken in to defray the expence of draining the weit 
fen, let by auGtion for 34s. the acre ; in the average about 
4,000 acres in farms. 

It is fuggeited, that the chief reafon why thefe fens are 
fo unprofitable in their prefent ftate, is from the diforder in 
ftocking ; becaufe human nature being in its various capa- 
cities anxious of property, fome perfons, from avarice, or a 
wifh to get rich at once, itock fo largely as tosinjure them- 
felves, and oppreis the common; others, in the line of 
jobbing, put in great quantities of itock to fel! again, which 
are altogether injurious to the fair commoner, who only 
ftocks with what his farm producessf Becaule, {uppote 
one man ftocked a paiture of 29,349 acres, he would con- 
fider the different forts of cattle to be depaftured thereon, 
for each to thrive and yield their proportionable fhare of 
profit ; but if 3,000 men ftock, they have different views 
of {uppofed intereft; fome increafe their breed of fheep, 
beafts, horfes, geefe, &c. There are inflances of a cot- 
tager renting five pounds fer year having fifteen hundred 
or two thoufand breeding geefe, which mutt injure his 
neighbour of five pounds fer year, who has got only a few 
fheep, ora cow. ‘The chief proprietors of thefe fens have 
long had their improvement in contemplation, efpecially 
fince fo many infertor neighbouring commons have been 
embanked and inclofed to fuch advantage, and particularly 
as it is evident that if this was the ee, they would pro- 
duce a yearly rent of 26,243/. 5s.8d. There are plough 
farms being eftimated to produce three years rent, 78,729/. 
175. which increafe of property would, it is fuppofed, employ 
more poor, maintain more farmers, increale trade, and 
produce great quantities of grain, which now cotts Englith 
money to import from foreign nations. ‘The reafons why 
the proceeding has been fo long delayed has been the 
extent of the undertaking, and the intermixture of large 
mortmain eftates, with fome differences in the rights be- 
tween the foke of Bolingbrooke and Holland town. This 
great work has however fince, we believe, been accomplifhed, 
and a va{t extent of valuable land reclaimed and brought 
into the {tate of cultivation. 

It was formerly fuppofed that fens were of great ad- 
vantage to thofe who refided in the vicinity of them, in 
the large quantities of fowl and fifh which they afforded ; 
but this does not appear to be really the cafe, when the 
value of the land in other views is fully confidered. The 
kinds of wild-fowl with which they principally abound are 
thofe of the wild-duck and teal forts, which are often ex- 
tremely numerous, being” taken in decoys, and conveyed to 
‘the London markets. 

The fith are chiefly: pike and eels, which ate in great 
numbers of large fize, and taken without any very great diffi- 
culty; but they are faid not to be fo delicate for eating as 
thofe of fome other fituations, 


FEN 


But the principal benefit was probably derived from the 
vaft number of geefe that were kept upon them, as, befides 
their ufe as food, they afforded very confiderable profits in 
the feathers and quills. It is fhewn by the books in the 
cuftom-houfe at Bofton, in the county of Lincoln, that 
formerly there were not unfrequently fent away from that 
place, in one year, the quantity of three hundred bags of 
feathers, each bag containing one hundred and a half weight. 
They pluck the geefe feveral times in the year for the feathers, 
and oxce for the quills. See Featuers’and Goose. 

Fen, in Rural Economy, the name of a pernicious dif- 
temper to which the hop is particularly expefed. It con- 
fifts of a mould or mofs, which grows with great rapidity, 
{preading itfelf greatly, and occafioning much injury in the 
hop plantation. The fine fmell and condition of the hop are 
in this Way very much impaired. 

FENCE, in Agriculture, aterm fignifying any fort of 
conftruétion raifed for the purpofe of inclofing land, fuch 
asa bank of earth, a ditch, hedge, wall, railing, ‘paling, 
or any fimilar kind of ereétion. 

It-feems evident that fences only became known, and were 
recurred to, as the paftoral flate of fociety difappeared ; 
and that during that of the feudal fyitem they were but 
little neceflury, except in the cafe of villages, for the pur- 
pote of incloting the little portions of grafs lands, which 
were {cattered about them; or in particular inftances for 
protecting the more expofed parts of parifh fields, while 
they were kept‘in the itate of corn. 

In this country, however, fences are now generally pre- 
valent, except where the remains of the feudal praétice is 
ftill permitted to continue; or where the appropriated 
mountains and high lands are managed under the fheep 
fy{tem ; and where the extenfive ranges of chalk hills in 
the ftate of appropriation, which are more favourably 
fituated and conduéted under a mixed kind of cultivation, 
are ftill wholly open. Thefe hills are, however, particularly 
fuited to the fheep hufbandry, the more elevated, bleak, 
and leaft fertile parts of them having conftantly been kept 
in the ftate of fheep walks by their occupiers. Confequently 
large flocks of fheep’are preferved on them under the care 
of fhepherds, who attend them during the day, and fold 
them in the night, by which praétice the crops are 
effeGtually proteéted from injury. 

But whether this fyftem of management be praper or the 
contrary, it is clear that wherever horfes, neat ‘cattle, or 
{mall numbers of fheep,. which have not the attendance of 
fhepherds, are the patturing flock, fences become eflential 
to the due cultivation of the land. 

The materials which are the muft commonly employed in 
the railing of fences are, earthy fubftances, living plants of 
various kinds, ftones, bricks, and wood of different forts. 
Iron, and even rope, or cord, are likewife occafionally made 
ufe of for forming fences. ; 

The firlt of thefe, thongh frequently made ufe of in the 
forming of fences, are far from being good materials for 
the purpofe, as they foon begin to decompofe by the action 
of the air, and monlder away, leaving any fort of plants thar 
may have been fet upon them in a naked and expofed con- 
dition. In moft fituations they likewife become fo dry and 
parched: by the heat of the fun in the fummer mo: ths, that 
the plants never thrive properly upon them. They are alfo 
very apt to be thrown down by neat cattle aud theep, rub- 
bing againft them in hot feafons. Thefe mound fences are 
much met with in different counties, as Devonfhire, Lanca- 
fire, and in fome parts of Wales. 

‘The fecond fort of fubitances for the purpofe of fences 
affords great variety, there being many kinds of plavts that 


anfwer 


FENCE. 


anfwer perfeAly well, but the beft are unqueftionably the 
white thorn and the holly. The black thorn, hazel, and 
crab-tree, may likewife be ufed in the fame way. Fences 
made with fome of thefe forts of plants are by much the 
beft and moft durable. 

Several other kinds of plants may likewife be employed 
int forming live fences, as the willow, the elder, the birch, 
and the alder for moift fituations; the beech on thofe that 
are high and expofed ; and the elm and hora-beam where 
they are low and the foil inclined to be heavy.. Thefe two 
laft are, however, but little had recourfe to in this intention. 
Of the willow there are many forts, all of which may be 
cut into truncheons of fuitable lengths, and planted out in 
that way. 

Stones and bricks make excellent fences, both ia refpec 
to convenience and durability ; but they are moftly much 
too expenfive, except where they are abundant, and labour 
cheap. The latter can only be employed on particular oc- 
cafions, and under particular circumitances, cbiefly where 
ornament is required. On hilly, low, mountainous, and 
other ftony-expofed fituations, where live fences cannot be 
raifed without great difficulty, and fhe'ter is not required, 
walls are capable of being had recourfe to with advantage, 
and are commonly the motl proper fort of fence for the pur- 
pofe. In lefs elevated diftri&s, where thefe forts of ma- 
terials are readily procured, fences of the wall kind are 
likewife not unfrequently met with, as conitituting the di- 
vifion of lands merely in the flate of tillage, as well as for 
the confining of the inferior forts of live ftock. Their 
appearance is, however, extremely naked and difgufting. 

Wood is a fort of material which is certainly the wort 
and moft expenfive that can be had recourfe to in the con- 
itruction of fences; as whether it be the {maller forts of 
wood for the forming of dead hedges, the defending of the 
banks of ditches, &c.; or the larger kind of timber-wood 
employed in making paling, railing, and other fimilar 
fences, it may be faid to be in a conftant progreflive ftate of 
decay from the very period uf its being put up. It can of 
courfe be very rarely made ufe of as a fence, except in the 
cafe of dead hedges, where living ones cannot be raifed ; 
and for inclofing about the farm-iteads and parks, or other 
pleafure-grounds, where ornamert is required, or in the 
form of paling, for proteéting new-planted quickfet 
hedyes, &c. 

The two laft materials can evidently never be had recourfe 
to as farm-fences from their expenfive nature; it is only 
in ornamented grounds, where a peculiar degree of neatnefs 
is required, that they can be employed. The latter is a 
very perifhable kind of material, and the former ftands in 
need of frequent expenfive painting, to preferve it from 
decay. 

Fences may be capable of being divided, from the na- 
ture of their conftruction, into two clafles or kinds, as 


1. Simple Fences. 
2. Compound Fences. 


‘The firft clafs, or divifion, comprehends all thofe which 
are fufficient of themfelves for the purpofes of inclofure, 
without requiring the affiftance of any other fort ; as thofe 
of fimple ditches, dikes, hedges, walls, palings, rail- 
ings, &c. 

The fecond fort comprifes all fuch kinds as ftand in 
need of the affiftance of fome other kinds, im order to 
guard and protect them in their young growth, or which 
may render them more fafe and fecure when farther ad- 
vanced; as hedge and ditch, or bank, hedge ditch and_pa- 
ding, hedge ditch and railing, double hedges, hedge and 


wall, hedge ditch and wall, hedge ditch and trees, hedge, 
or hedge, wall, and belt of planting, and others of the 
fame kinds. 

After this arrangement and divifion of fences, it will be 
proper to confider the different kinds in a feparate manner, 
in order to explain more fully their particular nature and 
advantages, as well as the moft proper methods of con- 
ftruGting and preferving them fo as to render them the moft 
durable. 

Simple fences.—Thefe are moftly formed with much 
lefs trouble, and kept in order with far lefs difficulty, than 
thofe of the compound kind. 

Oper ditch, or water fence.—This fort of fence confilts 
fimply in a ditch of confiderable width and depth, which 
is kept as full of water as poflible. It has been remarked 
by a late writer on this fubjeét, that though ditches now 
form a part of that clafs of fences which are termed com- 
pound, they in their fimple and original {tate were confidered 
rather in the light of open drains; and in place of being 
looked upon as a fence, their greateft benefit was fuppofed 
to arife from their receiving or carrying off the fuperfluous 
moiiture from the inclofed field.. Ina variety of inflances, 
ditches are made for this purpofe only, where there is no 
intention whatever to inclefe the field. They are, however, 
fometimes meant as. fences; but, in fuch cafes, they are 
made very deep and wide, and the earth taken out of them 
is fometimes formed into a bank, the height of which, 
when added to. the depth of the ditch, forms a tolerable 
barrier. In general, however, the greateft value of the 
ditch is met with, when it is ufed in conjunétion with other 
fences, as will ke feen under the fecond clafs, or compound 
fences. ? 

The forms of ditches are various; fome of them being 
of an uniform width both at top and bottom ; others are wide 
above, and have a gradual flope downwards ; thofe of a third 
kind have one fide floping, and the other perpendicular. 
For whatever purpofe the ditch is meant, however, the 
floping form is by much the belt, as it not only colts lefs 
money in the digging, but is at the fame time much more 
durable, and has a neater appearance. Where open ditches 
are indifpenfably neceflary for the drainage of the field, the 
floping ditch is preferable to every other, as the fides are not 
liable to tumble in or be undermined, or excavated by the 
current of the water, when properly executed. The flope 
fhould be confiderable, perhaps not lefs than three times the 
width at top that it is at bottom. The advantages of this 
conftruétion will, however, be more fully explained in fpeak- 
ing of hedge and ditch fences. 

It has been remarked that the open ditch, with a wall or 
perpendicular fides, is liable to much objeGion both in its 
fimple and compound ftate: that in its fimple flate the fides 
are perpetually tumbling in, efpecially after frofts or heavy 
rains ; and if the field round which thefe ditches are made 
has any confiderable declivity, the bottom is undermined, 
and large maffes tumble down, bringing the hedge along 
with them. Thefe circumftances are of themfelves fufficient 
to bring this kind of ditch into difcredit ; hut while they 
are thus improper as open drains, owing to the circumftances 
we have mentioned, their fhape is, it 1s conceived, the beft 
poffible for a covered drain, as the broader thefe covered 
drains are at bottom the more water will they carry off; 
with this additional benefit, that, by being broad below, 
they are lefs liable to choking, or obitruion, thanif they 
were narrow ; in which cafe a fingle itone or two clapping 
clofe together, will fo far interrupt the courfe of the water, 
and fo much fand and mud will accumulate behind them, as 
to render the deain ufelefs: whereas, when there is a fuffici- 


ent 


FENCE. 


ent breadth at bottom, if the water is obftruéted by one 
ftone, it readily finds a paflage in fome other place. 

The open ditch, or water fence, is moft commonly employed 
inlow, marfhy, and fen-land fituations ; and where it is made 
of the width of not lefs than half a ftatute pole, and is ca- 
pable of being preferved conftantly full of water, it may be 
zn eligible fence, even in the fummer feafon. But in open 
extenfive trafts, where the Jagd is much expofed, from its 
affording little thelter, it is obvioufly an improper fence. 
In fevere frofts it alfo lofes its qualities as a fence again{t 
fheep ; and when they are more flight, and the ice covered 
with fnow, but not fufliciently folid to fupport the weight 
of fheep, often betrays them to their deitru€tion. In par- 
ticular fituations it is, however, the only fort of fence that 
can be had recourfe to. A reprefentation of this fort of 
fence is guite unneceflary, as the following will, in fome 
meafure, fhew it. 

Simple ditch, and bank of earth.—This is a kind of 
fence which confifts fimply of a gradually floping ditch, in 
which the earth that is removed in forming itis laid up into 
a back on one of the fidés, leaving a {earcement, or project- 
ing {pace of fix or eight inches on thie fide where the bank is 
formed, to prevent the earth from tumbling in and filling up 
the ditch. The earth orclay, in fome places, is likewife ga- 
thered into heaps, after being taken out of the ditches, and 
ufedas manure. This fort of fence is reprefented in the for- 
mer ftate in Plate XVIII. (Fence) Agriculture, at fig. 1, in 
which ais the opening, and 4 the bank of earth on the fide. 

Double ditch with intermediate bank of earth—This is a 
kind of fence not often uled, unlefs in cafes where it is meant 
either to plant hedges or trees on the bank between the 
ditches. In fome cafes, however, double ditches are made, 
where there is no intention whatever of planting either 
hedges or trees, and in feveral inftances are highly valuable. 
Confidered as a fence, it has an evident advantage over the 
fingle ditch, asthe earth taken out of the two ditches, when 
properly laid up in the middle, forms a pretty fteep bank of 
a formidable appearance, which, without any other addition, 
makes a very tolerable temporary fence. For the purpofes 
of open drainage the double ditch is excellently adapted, 
efpecially by the fides of highways, where the lands have a 
confiderable declivity towards the road ; the ditch next the 
field, by receiving the water on that fide, prevents it from 
overflowing and wafhing the road, a cireumftance which very 
frequently happens in fuch fituations: while the ditch on 
the fide next the road, by receiving and carrying off the 
moiiture that falls upon, and which would otherwife lodge 
there and deftroy it, keeps it conftantly dry and in good re- 

air. ‘The double ditch is alfo ufeful in dividing high from 
ioe flat lands, particularly where the high grounds flope 
very fuddenly down upon the low fields; that next the 
high ground, by receiving the water from it during heavy 
falls of rain, faves. the inferior grounds from inundation, 
while the ditch on the other fide ferves.as an open drain for 
the lower fields. It is trufted that it will not be thought 
foreign to the prefent fubject to mention, that where double 
ditches are made in the immediate vicinity of high grounds, 
or on the fides of highways, care fhould be taken to prevent 
the water from the furrows, or fide-drains, from running 
into the main ditch at right angles. Where this is neglect- 
ed, much trouble and inconvenience arife; as when the 
water comes from a height, during heavy rains, in a 
ftraight line into the ditch, it prefles with accumulated force 
againft the fides of it; and if the foil is of a loofe inco- 
herent vature, the bank will be undermined and wathed 
away in many places. To prevent this, nothing more is 
conceived requifite than to alter the direction ofthe furrows, 


or {mall fide-ditches, a few yards from their opening into 
the main ditch ; and, in place of permitting the water to 
fall upon the bank in a {traight line, to give the furrows or 
fide-ditches a gentle curve ; by that means, inftead of falling 
into the ditch in a ftraight line, and acting againft the bank 
in the manner defcribed, the furrows will empty themfelves 
into it in an oblique dire€tion, and, by joining immediately 
with the ftream in the ditch, will be prevented from having 
any bad effe& upon the bank. It is obvious that the water, 
by thus having its direétioa changed, can do no harm to the 
fides of the main ditch : and what is of advantage, the earth 
and fediment brought along with it from the high grouad, 
inftead of being depofited in that place where the cuts enter 
the maia ditch, which feldom fails to be the cafe where the 
water falls into it ina ftraight dire@tion, are carried off alon 

with it; and though this fediment ultimately falls to the 
bottom ef the ditch, yet, as it falls down gradually in its 
courle, it is equally divided over the whole, and occafions no 
ebltration in any particular part of the ditch. This form 
of fence is fhewn at fig. 2. in the fame plate, in which a, a, 
are the two ditches, and 54 the intermediate bank of earth. 

Where foils are moift and retentive, this is often a bene- 
ficial method for raifing live fences, both with the thorn, and’ 
other forts of hedge-plants. 

There are other methods of conftruGting fences of this 
nature. They are in fome cafes formed by raifing up long. 
piles of earth between two fod facings, in a battering man- 
ner, or leaning fomewhat inwards towards each other, to the 
neceflary heights and widths, as will be feen below. 

Various other modes of planting on banks of this nature 
raifed to different heights, have alfo been praGtifed in differ- 
ent diftricts of the kingdom: 

Bank of earth-with serpendicular fod-facing and Sipe be. 
hind.—This, it may be obferved, is a very common fort of 
fence, and in fome fituations extremely ufeful, as in making 
folds, for inftance, for the confinement of fheep or cattle. 
It is alfo valuable on the fides of highways, for defending. 
the adjoining grounds, and for laying off clumps or belts of 
planting in the middle or corners of arable fields, for inclofing 
ftack-yards, cottages, gardens, and other fimilar purpofes. 
The front of the bank is made with the fod pared off from 
the furface of the floping ditch, and the mound at the back 
with the earth taken out of it. In all cafes, it is remarked, 
where this fence is ufed in the field, the perpendicular front 
fhould be made on the outfide, and the bank on the infide of 
the field. But when it is employed for folds, the front 
fhould be on the infide of the fold, as in that way it will not 
only prefent a much more formidable appearance to the 
fheep or cattle, but the depth of the ditch will be an addi- 
tion to-the height of the bank ; and’the earth taken out of 
it being laid behind will ferve as a kind of buttrefs to fap-- 
port the facing of fod, and give it a degree of firmnefs and 
durability, far fuperior to that of the common turf walls, or 
fold-dikes, as they are generally termed in North Britain. 
When this fence is properly conftruéted, a work at which 
the labourers in that part of the kingdom are now pretty 
expert, it lafts a confiderable time; but in its moit perfect 
{tate it is only to be coniidered as a temporary expedient ; for 
however neat it may appear, or however well it may aufwer 
the purpofe at firft, it ultimately lofes its value. Where 
wood for paling is fcarce, orcannot be had, and where other 
materials for the fhelter or protection of young hedges are 
equally {canty, this may be ufed with advantage for a time, . 
and will both fhelter the young hedge aud inclofe the field ; 
but where permanent lines of inclofing are intended it 
fhould never be had recourfe to, as however cheap it may 
be in the firft infkance, it is by no means durable. It is 

5 reprelented 


FENCE, 


reprefented at fir. 3. in which a fhews the half-feétion of a 
high road; 2 the floping bank of earth on the fide; and ¢ 
the perpendicular facing of turf or fod in the front. 

Perpendicular earth-cvall.—T his is a {pecies of fence that 
may be occafionally had recourfe to with advantage, as in in- 
clofing rabbit-warrens, and other fimilar cafes, where better 
forts of materials cannot be provided, except at too great 
expence. 
the fods foon decay, and begin to moulder down. And by 
neat cattle, fheep, aud {wine fuch fences are foon thrown 
down and deftroyed. When it is employed, it fhould have 
tke ditch on the infide or piece of ground that is inclofed, 
and be firmly built with turfs or fods cut out from the fur- 
face of it, being well backed with the earth taken from 
below. It is fhewn at rg. 4. in the fame plate. Under the 
head wall-fences below, this fort of wall is more fully ex- 
plained, in {peaking of turf-valls. 

Ha-ha, or funk fence —It has been obferved by Mr. So- 
merville, that this defeription of fence is calculated chiefly 
for fields that require no fhelter, and where an uniform un- 
broken profpeét is an object to be preferved, as is the cafe 
in pleafure-grounds, gardens, and extenfive lawns; but 
in all fituations where fhelter is wanted, the funk fence 
ought to be avoided, unlefsa hedge is planted upon the top 
ofit. The form of the funk fence very nearly refembles the 
mound of earth with the perpendicular facing of turf juit 
defcribed, with this difference, that the facing of the former 
is turf or fod, and the height of the fence depends entirely, 
or in a great meafure, upon the depth of the ditch. While 
thefe funk fences are either faced with brick, dry-ftone, or 
ftone and lime, and are of various heights, according to the 
ideas of the proprietor, or the circumflances of the cafe. 
In the Agricultural Report drawn up for the northern 
-diftriéts, in the account of Cromarty the following defcrip- 
tion of the funk fence is given: ‘ Upon the line where this 
fence is intended, begin to fink your ditch, taking the earth 
from as far as eight feet outward, and throwing it up on the 
infide of the line. This ditch and bank is not made quite 
perpendicular, but inclining inward towards the field as it 
rifes; to this is built a facing of dry-ftone, four feet and a 
half im height, one and three-quarters broad at bottom, and 
ene foot at top, over which a coping of turf is laid: the 
ditch or funk part forms an excellent drain. The wkole of 
this is there performed when the ftone can be procured at 
about a quarter of a mile diftance, for 6d. per yaid.?? But 
in other cafes it will ttand greatly higher, according to the 
diftance of thexmaterials, the price of labour, and various 
ether circumftances. It isa fort of fence which is feen at 
Jig. 5- in the annexed plate. 

With regard to the advantages of ditches as fences, it has 
already been obferved, that none of the different kinds of 
ditches taken by themfelves are to be confidered as good 
fences, with the fingle exception of the funk fence, which 
is under the neceffity of being claffed along with them, 
‘This la{t fort anfwers the double purpofe of an open drain 
anda fence. But though ditches in their fimple ftate, are 
thus defedtive as fences, their nfeis attended with many ad- 
vantages ; not only in draining the field, but in affording a 
fupply of earth, which, under proper management, may be 
converted into excellent manure. Where the foil in which 
ditches are made is deep, and of a good quality, the earth 
taken out of them, if it is either made intoa compott with 
lime or dung, or even {pread by itfelf upon the adjoining 
fields, will greatly increafe their fertility, and prove a lafting 
and valuable improvement. Even where the foil is mofs or 
clay, it may be converted to the fame valuable purpofe by 
urning : mofs being burnt, and the afhes ufed as a »manure 


But it is only a temporary kind of inclofure, as. 


in many parts of the kingdom ; and the fame is the cafe 
with clay. It has been found in the marfhes of Somerfet~ 
fhire that the clay taken out of the ditches and burnt is, 
upon trong tenacious foils, highly valuable ; as it breaks 
their cohefion, andby that means renders them not only 
lefs retentive of moifture, and of courfe eafier cultivated, 
but alfo much more favourable to the growth of plants, by 
affording room for the roots to extend and ftretch themfelves 
out in fearch of food. 
any of the compound fences, will be further feen below, and 
under the article ditch and hedze. 

Compound ditch f.nce.—This is that fort of fence in 
which the ditch is only a couftituent part, being combined, 
with fome other, in order to form a perfect fence. 

Double ditch and hedge.—This isa kind of fence fome- 
times employed in the inclofing of land. In confidering the 
double ditch as a fimple fence, its ufe, and the various fitua- 
tions in which it is applicable, whether as a fence or an open 
drain, have been noticed. To what has been mentioned, 
we may add that the cuftom of inclofing with double ditches, 
and a hedge in front of each, is now praétifed in many parts 
of the kingdom, efpecially upon what are termed cold lands ; 
from an idea, that a fingle row of plants would not grow 
fufliciently {trong or thick to form a proper fence, ‘The 
advocates for this fort of fence farther allege, that in addi- 
tion to the two rows of plants forming a more fufficient 
fence, an opportunity is afforded of planting a row or rows 
of trees in the middle of the bank, as reprefented at fig. 6, 
in the plate. 

It has been obferved that the double ditch and hedge is 
liable to many objeétions; the expence of forming the 
ditches, the hedge-plauts made ufe of, and the ground occu- 
pied thereby, being double of what is requifite in a fingle 
ditch and hedge. From twelve to eighteen or twenty feet 
is the leait that is required for a double ditch and hedge ; 
this fpace, inthe circumference of a large field, is fo confi- 
derable, that upon a farm of 500 acres, divided into fifteen 
inclofures, the fences alone would occupy above forty acres. 
By throwing up a bank in the middle, the whole of the 
nourifhment, not only of both hedges, but alfo of the row 
of trees, is confined folely to that {pace, which, from its 
being infulated by the ditches, and elevated fo much above 
the common furface, not only curtails the nourifhment of 
the hedges and row oftrecs, but expofes them to all the in- 
juries arifing from drought, froft, &c, The idea of two 
rows of plants making a better fence than one, is certainly ne 
good reafon for fuch an unneceffary wafte of land and money, 
as in almoft every inftance, where the plants are Ki. 3 
adapted to the foil and climate, one row will be found quite 
fufficient ; but, if it fhould be preferred to have two rows, 
the purpofe will be anfwered equally well witha fingle ditch, 
or even without any ditch at all; forin every fituation where 
the foil is tolerably dry, and the fields much elevated above 
the level of the fea, the ditch, except for the purpofe of 
drainage, may be difpenfed with. 

In addition tothe double ditch, and while the hedges are 
ftill young, the fence is fometimes ftrengthened by a paling, 
either of young firs or other wood placed upon the top of the 
bank ; in other cafes, a dead hedge is put in the middle, be- 
tween the two quick hedges ; and not unfrequently an open 
wall, refembling a Galloway-dike, made with round ftones, 
is placed in the fame fituation ; any of which, when pro- 
perly executed, not only inclofe the field completely for the 
time, but alfo very effectually fhelter the young plants that 
conititute the fence. Under every circumftance this is a 
very expenfive fort of fence. 

Simple hedge fences.—Thefe are of two kinds; either 

i fuch 


Their value, as making a part of - 


a 


FENCE. 


fuch as are made up of dead materials, or fuch as are formed 
of living plants, ef fome fort or other. They are like- 
wife made in different ways according to cuftom and cir- 
cumftances. 

Dead hedges—It may be obferved that thefe are made 
either with the prunings of trees, or the tops of old thorn, 
beech, or other hedges that have been cut down ; and are 
principally intended for temporary purpofes, fuch as the 
protection of young hedges till they have acquired a fuffi- 
cient degree of ftrength to render them fencible without 
any other aflittance. For this purpofe the dead hedge is 
well adapted, and lafts fo long as to enable the live fence to 
grow up and complete the inclofure. 

In many cafes, however, dead hedges are had recourfe to 
as the fole fence, and where there isno intention of planting 
quicks, or any other hedge. J'rom their very perifhable 
nature, however, they are found to be exceedingly expen- 
five ; fo much fo, indeed, that, after the firft or fecond year, 
they cannot be kept in repair at a lefs expence than froma 
fifth to atenth part of the value of the land, and fome- 
times more. When dead hedges are meant for the protec- 
tion of young live fences, if the quick fence is planted upon 
the common furface, the dead hedge is made ina trench or 
furrow immediately behind it, in {uch a way as to prevent 
the fheep or cattle grazing in the inclofed field from injuring 
it. Where the quick fence, however, is planted upon the 
fide of a ditch, the dead hedge is, for the moft part, made 
onthe top of the mound formed by the earth taken out of 
the ditch ; thefe are called plain dead hedges, being made 
by cutting the thorns or brufh-wood, of which they confitt, 
into certain lengths, and flicking or putting them into the 
earth. They are called plain, in oppofition to other de- 
{criptions of dead hedges, where more art is ufed ; fuch as 
the dead hedge with upright ftakes wattled, and the com- 
mon plaited hedge, bound together at the top with willows; 
but of which the reader will be able to form a much better 
idea than can well be conveyed by words, by confulting the 
annexed plates ; in which fig. 7. reprefents a dead hedge in- 
clining a little, placed upon the plain furface in the ordinary 
manner; jig. 8. the common dead hedge ; which, it is ob- 
ferved, is almoft the only fence met with in feveral of the 
counties of England, with the thorns or deac wood let into 
the earth about twelve or fourteen inches, and faftened at 
the top with willows or hazels; fig.g. fhews the wattled 
dead hedge, with ftrong upright pofts, or what is generally 
termed {lack and rife, orin Scotland {take and rice, and in 
fome places ftaff and band. This lait, and the one imme- 
diately preceding it, form, it is remarked, very handfome 
fences ; it is only to be regretted that they are not perma- 
nent ones, feldom lafting above a year or two. ‘This defe& 
is complained of in many of the reports publifhed under the 
authority of the Board of Agriculture. The words of the 
furveyor of one of which are; ** dead fencing fupplies the 
place of live, which occafions an eternal expence to the oecu- 
pier; ift, in purchafing the fencing fluff, and bringing it from 
a confiderable diftance; and, zdly, in the delay of his interett, 
by reafon that the land occupied by a dead fence might fuf- 
tain alive one, which would not only anfwer the prefent 
purpofe, but, in place of decaying, would be annually im- 
proving.”? The truth of this obfervation cannot be difputed ; 
as the foil and climate, in almoit every fituation where thefe 
dead hedges are complained of, are fuch, that hedges of live 
plants would not only grow, but could be made at equal, 
perhaps lefs expence, than thefe temporary erections ; and 
with this advantage, that, in place of decaying, and occa- 
fioning an endlefs lofs and expence for repairs, they would 
‘be every year growing itronger, would require little expence 


Vou. XIV. 


to fupport them, and, in place of the forlorn decayed ap- 
pearance which dead hedges never fail to give a country, 
they would at once fhelter and ornament it. It cannot, there- 
fore, in the opinion of Mr. Sommerville, be too ftrongly re- 
commended to proprietors and farmers, in thofe parts 
where dead hedges are at prefent fo much ufed, and fo 
juttly complained of, to fubftitute live hedges in their place ; 
the expence of doing which will be trifling, and the benefit 
arising therefrom immenfe. 

In carrying a plan of this kind into execution, there is no 
occafion to throw fuch fields as are at prefent inclofed with 
thefe temporary fences open; quite the contrary: the dead 
fences ought to be preferved till the young plants have at- 
tained fuch a itrength and fize as to enable thei to form a 
good fence without any auxiliary aid. In that way the 
inclofure will not only be preferved, but the dead fence, 
from the fhelter it will afford to the young plants, will ac- 
celerate their growth, and render them much fooner ufeful 
than they would otherwife be. This change of fyitem 
would be at once pleafant and profitable to all concerned; 
the expence of inclofing, which is at prefent feverely felt, 
would be done away ; the appearance of the country con- 
fiderably improved, and the public benefited in a great de- 
gree; and, asno doubts can be {tated as to the praética- 
bility of this {cheme, it is trufted that the bare mention of 
it will be fufficient to diétate a better fyftem of inclofing 
to thofe concerned. The idea entertained by fome land- 
lords, that, provided a farm is once let, with the ufual bur- 
den upon the tenant of fupporting the fences, the nature of 
the fence is of no importance tu them, deferves the ftrongeft 
and moft pointed reprobation: indeed, it could fearcely befup- 
pofed that men, who haveapermanent intereft in the property, 
would reafon in fuch a manner. There can be no doubt, if 
lands are let to a good tenant for a term of years, that the 
landlord is certain of drawing his rent during the currency of 
the leafe, whatever the expence of fupporting the fences 
may be; but if this tenant isa man of fenfe, the offer he 
makes will proceed upon the value he has in his own mind 
formed of the nature of the foil, and the expence which 
muft unavoidably arife from cultivating and fheltering it, 
and bringing the produce to market: the farmer who has 
not made, or is not capable of making fuch a calculation, 
can never be a defirable tenant to any proprietor; but if the 
tenant poffeffes this neceflary knowledge, the yearly rent 
he will offer for the farm will be lefs in proportion to the 
fum which he expeéts annually to expend in conftruéting 
or fupporting thefe fences. It is trufted, that but very 
flender obfervation is neceffary to convince intelligent pro- 
prietors or farmers, that the fubftitution of live for dead 
fences will not only make the inclofures more perfeét, but 
will make an addition to the annual yalue of the property, 
equal to, if not greater, than the expence at prefent in- 
curred in keeping thefe dead fencesin repair. Tt need hardly 
be added, that as the greateft value of thefe fences confifts 
in their completing inclofures, and fheltering the young 
hedges till they arrive at a certain age, they fhould never 
be thought of by either proprietors or farmers, except for 
thefe or other temporary purpofes. 

In the making of ali forts of dead hedge fences, confi- 
derable art is required to perform it ina proper manner, 
and fo as to become the moft durable and lating poffible. 
Whatever the nature of the materials may be which are to 
be employed in this way, they fhould be neatly depofited 
and wrought into the fence, according to the manner in 
which it is to be made. 

Live hedges—Thefe may in general be confidered as 
the ordiuary farm fences of this country. And, except in 


Ii parucular 


‘FENCE. 


particular fituations and cireumftances, and for particular 
purpofes, they are unqueftionably the moft proper and 
ufeful, 

It is found, that in diftriis which have been for a confider- 
able length of time inclofed from the pattoral or forett itate, 
without having previoufly undergone cultivation, the hedges 
are feemingly of great age, having mottly crooked irregular 
diretions, as if originally formed out of the brufhwood of 
fuch foreits, or waltes. While, in other cafes, coppze- 
woods of different forts are found growing on low wide 
banks, which feem as if they had been formerly gathered 
in the woods, and afterwards planted in fuch banks. The 
practice of planting out full grown plants in this way has, 
however, been long, in general, difcarded in this kingdom, 
and young hedges chiefly raifed with plants of a few years’ 
growth, planted in different ways according to fituations 
and circumitances, being firlt reared for the purpofe in fome 
proper place. 

In refpec: to live hedges, it may likewife be further ob- 
ferved, that they are in general made either entirely with 
ove kind of plants, or a mixture of different kinds; and 
for this purpofe almoit every tree or fhrub known in Britain 
are either wholly or in part employed. 

Under the head Incrosinc of Land fome account will 
be given of each; but there are certain circumftances com- 
raon to all of them, and upon which the fuccefs of every 
attempt made to rear good fences will be found ultimately 
to depend. Thefe circumftances are, ift, the plants being 
fuited to the foil and climate ; 2dly, the preparation of the 
earth or foil; 3dly, the time and mode of planting ; 4thly, 
the age of the plants; 5thly, the fizeof them; 6thly, the 
drefling or pruning of the tops and roots before planting ; 
ythly, weeding and hoeing them while growing; Sthly, 
trimming and after-management ; gthly, filling up the gaps 
in hedges; 1othly, difeafesto which hedge-plants are liable, 
and their remedies. 

With regard to the firlt, it has been obferved, that upon 
the proper choice of plants fuited to the foil and climate 
where the hedge is to be made, the fuccefs of every attempt 
to inclofe with live fences will be found to depend. A mind 
given to obfervation, and capable of applying it in practice, 
may receive confiderable affiltance upon this point by attend- 
ing carefully to the indigenous trees or fhrubs which thrive 
beit, and attain the greateft fize and perfection, upon par- 
ticular foils and in certain climates; by an attention of this 
fort many plants, which are feemingly of {mall value at pre- 
fent, might, it is remarked, be rendered highly ufeful by 
planting hedges with them. But though an obfervation of 
this kind will in fome initances ferve as a guide, and lead 
the perfon who makes it vo eertain ufeful practices, it is 
not always to be depended upon, as there are many fitua- 
tions where neither trees nor fhrubs, fit for making hedges, 
are to be met with in an indigenous fate ; and even when 
they are met with, their nature will not admit of their being 
tran{planted. Fortunately in thefe cafes, though nature 
affords no guide to aflift us in the choice of the plants, we 
fhall find fufficient direSion from the experience of the 
country, by carefully noting the circumftances of foil and 
ehmate under which certain plants that have been intro- 
duced into them have profpered, and either rifen into trees, 
or made good fences. In {peaking of the nature of in- 
clofing land, notice will be taken of the great lofs which 
attends the fence, and the plants of which it confilts, in not 
bemg properly adapted to the natural circumitances of the 
foil they are meant to inclofe. Many miftakes of this kind 
might be enumerated ; efpecially in the more elevated fitua- 
tions, where great labour and expence have been employed 


to raife hedges of hawthorn, which, after many years’ care 
and attention, were found totally unfit for fuch inclement 
regions. In fuch fituations, experience has now fufficiently 
proved that good fences can be reared in a fhort time with 
beech, birch, larch, and the Huntingdon willow: hedges 
of thefe kinds ought, therefore, to be the only ones ufed 
in hilly countries, or upon cold wet foils, The three firlt 
upon the dry foils, and the laft, with the addition of poplars, 
upon fuch as are wet, or marfhy. In the low country, how- 
ever, and in the lefs elevated part of the uplands, the white 
thorn will be found the beft upon all the dry, or moderately 
dry parts of the foil; efpecially the different kinds of loamy, 
fandy, or gravelly lands: upon clays, or cold weét foils, hows 
ever, beech, crab, birch, poplar, willow, and alder, may be 
ufed with advantage. ‘Vhe birch, poplar, alder, and Hunt 
ingdon willow, are peculiarly calculated for the coldett, 
wetteit, and molt marfhy parts; while beech, crab, &c. 
will be found to anfwer beft upon the tiff clays. Hazel, 
{weet-briar, mountain-afh, or rowan-tree, and indeed all 
the different kinds of foreft trees that are at prefent known 
to delight in dry foils, may alfo be employed for making 
hedges in the low lands with fuccefs; but which-ever of 
thefe is ufed, they fhould, if poffible, be without mixture, 
or have as little of it as poffible. See Incrosine of 
Land, 

It may be remarked, that it is feldom indeed that any 
foil, however good, will be found equally favourable to the 
growth of plants fo very oppofite in their nature; this cir- 
cumftance alone. will render their growth unequal, and of 
courfe make the fence faulty and defective. Thefe defects 
in the fence, and inequalities in the growth of the plants, 
will increafe with time, become every day more apparent, 
and be every day more fenfibly felt ; as the plants which 
have thus acquired the afcendency will continue to keep it, 
and not only fhade the weaker ones, and prevent them from 
enjoying the influence of the fur and air, but alfo deprive 
them of nourifhment. Independent of thefe coufiderations, 
there is another, it is obferved, of equal, perhaps greater 
moment, that requires to be mentioned: allowing the foil 
to be equally favourable to the growth of the whole plants, 
of which the mixture confifts, there are certain plants which 
are highly insmical to the growth of others, when planted 
in their immediate vicinity ; ivy and honey-fuckle for in- 
ftance, when mixed with thorns, or other plants ina hedge, 
never fail to deftroy fuch of the hedge-plants as they falten 
upon ; indeed mofs, which is known to be one of the worlt 
ewemies to all hedges, is not more dangerous, or more cer 
tainly ruinous; even the different kinds of f{weet-briar, 
brambles, &c. have the fame effect; and in the end never 
fail to produce a gap in that part of the hedge where they 
grow, by rubbing, corroding, and {mothering the thorns 
or other plants of which the Ecc confifts. 

There is one plant that may, however, be employed in 
mixture with the white thorn, without any inconvenience 
of this nature, and with the advantage of rendering the 
hedge more formidable, as well as much more ornamental. 
This is the common holly. It thrives remarkably well in 


fuch combination where the foil is fufliciently dry, and not. 


too heavy. 

In what regards the fecond point, or the preparation of 
the foil for hedges, and even plantations, it is remarked 
that, though at prefent fhamefully neglected, it is neverthe- 
lefs one of thofe points intimately conneéted with, indeed 
eflential to, their fuccefs. Except in a very few inftances, 
however poor the foil may be, or however itrong the cohe- 
fion of its parts, no attempt is made either to break that 
cohefion by proper tillage, or improve its quality by en- 

riching 


FEN CE, 


riching or alterative manures; the young plants being for 
_the moft part laid upon the old furface, which has perhaps 
never been opened by the labour of man, and their roots 
covered with the earth taken out of the ditch, confifting 
very often of the pooreft and coldett ri//, or of earths loaded 
with iron, or other metallic impregnations. ‘To thofe who 
have confidered the matter with the {malleft attention, the 
fate of fuch a hedge will not appear doubtful ; the furface 
upon which the plants are laid will be fo hard and imper- 
vious to the roots, as to preclude the poflibility of their 
penetrating it ; of courfe their only chance of either extend- 
ing themfelves, or procuring nourifhment, is by fpreading 
out between the furface and the mound made by the earth 
taken out of the ditch, or by ftriking up into the mound, 
where, though the foil will be fufficiently open to admit of 
this, the roots, in place of finding an eftablifhment in a fitua- 
tion friendly to their growth, will very often be either 
ftarved or poifoned. In the culture of the grain, and the 
whole of our moft ufeful and valuable vegetables, proper 
preparation of the foil by tillage and manure is, it is re- 
marked, deemed indifpenfably neceflary ; and experience 
has fufficiently evinced, that ypon the perfection of the 
tillage, and the quality and judicious application of the 
manures, the fuccefs of the farmer or gardener, and the 
value of their crops, entirely depend. Is it not ftrange 
then, that the fame farmer whe 1s convinced of the utility 
and neceffity of tillage and manures for his other crops, and 
who would think himfelf for ever difgraced, were he to fow 
or plant grain, or any other ufeful vegetable upon an un- 
ploughed, dirty, unmanured field, fhould, without fhame 
or compunétion, commit a hedge, which is to form the in- 
clofure of the field, and upon which a confiderable part of 
its future improvement is to depend, to the earth without 
any one of thefe aids? Incredible as it may appear, this is 
however certainly the faét ; unlefs, as has formerly been ob- 
ferved, in a few inftances where better fenfe and ftronger 
obfervation have diftated a different mamagement; it being 
‘the uniform cuftom in moft plans of improvement, be the 
quality of the foil what it may, to mark off the line of the 
tence, dig the ditch, and commit the hedge-plants to the 
éarth, without any previous preparatien, either by tillage 
or manures. 
~ In every inftance where a hedge is to be made, the ground 
fhould, it is contended, be previoufly prepared by a complete 
fummer fallow, in order to deftroy the weeds; when this is 
accomplifhed a certain proportion of dung, lime, or compeft 
fhould be laid on the traét upon which the hedge is meant 
to be planted ; after this is done, and the manure properly 
incorporated with the foil, a furrow fhould be drawn with 
a common plough about the end of November ; in this 
furrow the plants fhould be placed, and the earth, thus im- 
pregnated with the dung or compoft, drawn up to and trod 
firmly about their roots. When the foil has been previoufly 
eleared of weeds in this manner, and a fufficient quantity of 
manure beftowed, the hedge, if the plants are healthy, and 
fuited to the foil and climate, may be committed to the 
earth, with every profpeé and chance of fuccefsful growth. 
With regard to the third circumftance, or the time and 
mode of planting, it is contended, that of whatever plants 
the hedge is to be made, they ought always to be put into 
the ground, either before winter, or very early in the {pring, 
before any vegetation takes place. In this way, if the 
plants have been carefully taken out of the nurfery ground, 
and no material injury done to their roots by laceration, 
pruning, or otherwife, their growth receives {carcely any 
check, and-they make more progre{s in one year, than they 
would de.in three or four years under different management. 


The beginning of November, or any time during the month 
of January, feems the moft proper time for planting 
thorns. 

The holly, where it is made ufe of, muft however have a 
different treatment, and be planted out at a very different 
feafon of the year, as upon thefe its fuccefs and progrefs 
feem wholly to depend. The proper time for .tranfplant- 
ing or removing this fort of plants is about the middle of 
the fummer feafon, as at this period they are found to 
{carcely fuffer any check from the operation. From the 
want of knowledge of this faét numerous hedges of this 
fort have failed; as, when removed during the winter months, 
plants of this kind are almoft certain to be deftroyed ; while, 
under the contrary circumi{tances, they grow with certainty, 
and in the moft rapid manner. In putting them into the 
foil, their root fibres fhould likewife be as little trimmed off 
as poffible, and the ground fhould not be in too moth a 
ftate. 

The mod? of planting thorn, and other forts of hedges of 
that kind, differs in different places, and even in the fame 
place according to the nature of the hedge: when hedges 
are made in the face of a ditch, bank, mound, or wall, the 
univerfal praétice is to lay the plants horizontally, either 
upon the furface, or upon a paring of fod or earth taken 
from it ; and afterwards cover them in fuch a manner as that 
about feven or niae inches of their length fhall be covered 
with the foil, and about three inches left projecting with- 
out it. In this way, fufficient room is left for the roots 
ftretching out and forming an eitablifhment for the plant, 
while the part left projecting is fo fhort as not to be able to 
produce above two, or at moft three good fhoots, which, 
from the fmallnefs of their number, will be vigorous and 
ufeful ; whereas, if a greater length had been left without 
being covered, the fhoots would have been more numerous 
and ot courfe weaker; the future value of the hedge 
depending entirely on the number and ftrength of the firft 
fhoots the plants make. We have already hinted at the 
neceflity of preparing the foil properly by tillage and ma- 
nures ; and in this mode of planting, namely, upon the plain 
furface in the face of a ditch, bank, mound, or wall, it is 
equally neceflary as in any other ;-dung, lime, or compoit, 
ought to be laid upon the tra@, and pointed in with afpade, 
and in place of laying the earth taken out of the ditch 
indifcriminately upon the roots of the thorns, care ought to 
be taken to cover them with the beit of the furface mould ; 
by fuch treatment, having a well prepared, well manured, 
bed below, and a covering of good earth above, the roots 
of the plants have not only abundant room to fpread, but 
have alfo plenty of nourifhment ; this gives them a decided 
advantage at their firft ftarting, and enables them to make 
more progrefs in two or three years than they would other- 
wile do in twice that length of time. In the bank method 
of planting hedges, there is much variety in the heights to 
which the banks are raifed, but the proper height mutt pro- 
bably be direéted by the nature of the foil and the fituation. 
And befides the horizontal mode of laying in the plants inte 
the banks, there are other methods prattifed ia particular 
cafes. 
In refpeé to the manner of planting a hedge upon the 
common furface it is very fimple ; a furrow, about eight or 
nine inches deep, is made with a common plough upon the 
tra&t that has been previoufly limed and dunged : to render 
the furrow as clean as poflible the plough fhould be drawn 
twice along it; one labourer then goes along the furrow 
with a bundle of plants under his arm, which he drops in 
handfuls of fix or eight together at certain diftances: when 
he has gone over perhaps a huadred yards ia this manner, 
Ti\2 he 


F-E Ni@1E: 


he rétutns tothe fartherend, where he began to drop the 
plants; and, taking up the firlt handful, begins to fet them 
in the bottom of the furrow, not in a direétion perpendicular 
to the horizon, but inclining a few degrees in the fame direc- 
tion that the fence runs. ‘Thefe the labourer places, leaning 
againft the perpendicular fide of the furrow, at the requifite 
diftance from each other, as from four to. fix or eight inches: 
having placed the whole of them in this manner, he covers 
them with the earth from the other fide, or that which has 
been turned up by the plough: when this: operation-is 
finifhed, he fets a foot on each fide of the hedge, and, begin- 
ning at one end of it, goes flowly along, treading the earth 
elofe to the roots of the plants the whole way ; the foil is 
then pointed with a fpade on each fide, which finithes the 
operation. Where the neceflary pains have previoufly been 
taken to pulverize the foil, a fingle labourer will, with great 
eafe and exaétnefs, plant feveral hundred yards of thorns or 
other hedge-plants in the courfe of one day. 


Another method confifts in one labouring man receiving 
the plants, by two or three at a time, from another, who 
carries a bundle of them, fetting them in the middle of the 
furrow, with the top reclining a little, and drawing a 
quantity of earth from each fide with his foot to cover the 
roots: when about fifty or a hundred yards are completed 
in this way, each labourer takes a common garden rake ; 
and draws up a fufficient quantity ef earth to each fide of 
the plants; treading the furface with their feet, as they go 
along, in fuch a manner as to bind the foil moderately, 
and at the fame time fet the plants in a ftraight line. 


And athird mode of practice confifts in harrowing the 
tra& or line of the hedge, or raking it with a garden rake, 
then ftretching a line along it, laying out a furrow with the 
{pade, and afterwards planting the thorns or other plants, 
and laying the earth to them in the manner defcribed in the 
above methods. The laying out a furrow with the fpade in 
this way admits of the work being done with great neatnefs 
and accuracy; but it is attended with confiderably more 
labour and expence, and, after all, appears to poflefs no 
great {uperiority over planting with the plough. In fome 
cafes the hedge is planted with the dibble, but it will be 
feen below that this praGtice muft be an improper one; for 
if the plants have the whole of their roots preferved, and are 
planted witha dibble, inftead of the fibres being properly 
{pread out, as they always ought to be, they will be crammed 
together into a very narrow {pace, with their points flaring 
upwards; or, in other words, looking out of the foil, in place 
of dipping into it: or, if by much pruning they are cut fo 
clofe as to be made fit for going into the dibble hole 
in an eafy manner, their growth will fuftain a very fevere 
check by fuch injudicious pruning. In confidering hedges 
as forming the conftituent parts of compound fences, the 
circumftanees connected with the planting of each will be 
more fully defcribed and pointed out. 

In regard to the ftate of growth or age at which hedge- 
plants may be ufed with the greateft advantage and pro- 
priety, it may be obferved that it is extremely common, 
particularly where young hedges are made with quickfets, 
to plant them out at one, two, or three years old, but fel- 
dom exceeding this laft age. Plants of this fort, when-put 
into the earth at a proper feafon of the year, upon a line of 
fence which has been prepared in a proper manner, and which 
are afterwards kept clean by a careful attention, and the earth 
foft and loofe, by regular weeding and digging, feldom fail 
to form good fences : fuch young plants are, however, it is 
fuggetted by fome, long in a ftate of infancy, and require 
great nurfing,and the moft complete protection to bring them 


to perfe€tion, and are liable to be either much hurt, or toe 
tally deftroyed by many accidents that would produce little or 
no effeét upon older and ftronger plants. It is the opinion 
of many fenfible and well-informed people, that much time 
might be faved in the rearing of hedges, and the fences be 
much more perfect and ufeful, if older plants were employed 
for that purpofe. Three years old is certainly the youngeft 
that fhould be planted, and if they are even fix or feven years 
old, fo much the better: the prevailing idea that plants of this 
age will not thrive if tranfplanted, is, it is faid, totally un- 
founded ; as, with proper care, they not only grow readily, 
but make excellent fences in one half of the time that younger 
plants ufually do, with this additional advantage, that they 
are much lefs liable to be killed or injured by froft, 
drought, weeds; or the other caufes that affeét younger 
plants. Thorns of fix or feven years old, in place of being 
no thicker than a common {traw, will be at a medium more 
than an inch in circumference; we leave thofe who are 
judges to determine how far a plant of this lait defeription 
will be fuperior to one of two years old, and how much 
fooner it will anfwer the purpofe ofafence. It is, however, 
very material to obferve that, where plants of this age and 
fize are ufed, the moft complete care fhould be taken to 
preferve the roots as entire as poffible. ‘The degree of 
pruning which may be ueceffary before planting will be 
mentioned afterwards. In refpeét to the fize of thorns, or 
other hedge-plants, it may be neceflary to obferve, that, 
when the plants are once obtained, they fhould be feparated 
into forts, according to their fizes and apparent ftrength, 
picking out the largeit firft, and fo on downwards. This 
will be attended with feveral very material advantages, 
which thofe who have made obfervations on the iubje& will 
very readily underftand : plants of the fame fize and {trength, 
when planted together, keep pace with each other; no one 
of them takes from the earth more than its own fhare of 
nourifhment, of courfe, the growth of the whole is regular 
and uniform, and the hedge, when arrived at a certain age, 
becomes a fubftantial efficient fence of an equal height 
throughout, and free of any gaps: whereas, when no pains 
have been taken in afforting the plants, and they are planted 
promifcuoufly, great and {mall, itreng and weak, the con» 
fequence is, that the ftrongeft plants very foon outgrew fuch 
as are weaker, and not only overtop them, but alin deprive 
them of that nourifhment which they fo much require: as 
the hedge advances in age the evil becomes greater, {mall 
ftunted plants, and innumerable gaps appearing throughout 
the whole line of the fence; thefe are interf{perfed with others 
remarkable for their ftrength and luxuriance, the whole 
conveying to the mind not the moft diftant idea of utility. 
And the worlt part of it is, that, when hedges have been 
thus neglected in the beginaate no pains or induftry on the 
part of the farmer will be fufficient to render them ufeful 
afterwards: there being nothing more difficult thai that of 
repairing the defects of a hedge, after the third or fourth year 
ofits growth. ‘This afforting of hedge-plants has, it is con- 
tended, a farther advantage ; namely, that of putting it in 
the power of the perfon who plants the hedge to put down 
the large, itrong, healthy plants upon the pooreft part of the 
line of the fence, and to fet fuch as are {maller and weaker 
upon the richer and more fertile parts. He has it alfoin his 
power, by a more careful preparation of the foil, and be- 
ttowing a greater portion of manure upon the {paces where 
the {mall plants are fet, to give them that nourifhment and 
afliftance which they require, and which would very foon 
enable them to forma fence equal to that part occupied 

by the ftrongeit plants that have been employed. 
With regard to the dref§ing and pruning of nedgesaigate 
before 


FENCE. 


before they are put into the earth, there is perhaps no part 
of the fyitem of managing them, or foreft-trees, more hurt- 
ful and defe&tive than that now purfued in the common 
nurferies. It is a very common praétice with nurferymen 
in the fpring, when they wifh to clear their ground for other 
urpofes, to take up great quantities of therns and other 
hed e-plants, and after pruning the tops, and cutting off 
nearly the whole of the roots, to tie them up in bundles, and 
lay thefe bundles in heaps till they are called for. In that 
mutilated ftate they often remain for many weeks, with the 
mangled roots naked and unprotected, expofed to every in- 
clemency of the weather before they are fold. The confe- 
quence is obvious ; the fevere pruning, by curtailing the 
number of the roots, and depriving the plants of the means 
of drawing their nourifhment from the earth, would of itfelf 
prove an effectual check to their future growth, even if they 
were planted immediately after this fevere trimming ; but by 
being allowed to remain fo long expofed to the weather 
afterwards, the tender fibrous extremities of the remaining 
roots are moft of them deftroyed, and when the plants are 
then put to ufe, they are not only half dead, by being fo 
long expofed> above ground, but are, as it were, infulated, 
and their conneétion with the earth cut off by the fevere 
pruning and deftruGion of their roots. Under thefe un- 
favourable circumftances they muft remain in the ground till 
rew roots are produced, during which period they fuffer a 
total want of nourifhment, and if the foil be dry, and much 
warm dry weather follows the planting of the hedge, many 
of the plants will perifh befere they are capable of pufhing 
out and producing a number of new roots fufficient for their 
fupport. Accordingly, many of them fail from thefe caufes, 
and numbers of hedges which, under different management 
and with {mall trouble, would foon have been complete 
fences, are-full of gaps, and remain for ever after in an im- 
perfect fate. When thorns or other hedge-plants are thus 
feverely handled, and their roots and tops fo unmercifully 
cut off, they refemble cuttings more than plants, and mutt 
remain a very long time in the earth before they are capable 
of fending out new roots, or drawing from it a quantity of 
nourifhment adequate to their fupport. Were nurferymen 
and others, who raife thefe plants, to beftow the {malleft at- 
tention upon the fubjeét, common fenfe would digtate a very 
oppofite treatment. Men of obfervation know, that in 
every inflance where either trees or herbaceous plants are to 
be tranfplanted, the more carefully they are taken out of the 
und the more numerous and entire their roots, and the 
Falden they are again put into the earth, the lefs check will 
they receive, and the quicker and ftronger will they after- 
wards grow. If thefe obfervations are juft, how faulty and 
defe&tive mutt the fyftem we have juft now defcribed appear! 
Indeed nothing can be more repugnant to nature and com- 
mon fenfe than to fuppofe, that when plants of any defcrip- 
tion are removed from the fituation in which they are grow- 
ing, and fent to fuch a new eftablifhment in a different foil, 
and perhaps a worfe climate, they will thrive better by 
having their roots cut off, and being almoft entirely bereft 
of the means of obtaining nourifhment. With equal pro- 
bability might fuccefs be expected from planting a colony 
with people, after having completely mutilated them by 
cutting off their hands, pe out their eyes, &c. In 
place of this treatment, the defeé&ts of which are fo obvious, 
and the confequences refulting from it fo hurtful, no hedge- 
plants fhould be lifted-out of the nurfery-ground till the day 
on which they are to be re-planted ; and initead of digging 
them with a f{pade, by which they are often much injured, 
they fhould be taken up with dung-forks with flrong round 
prongs, taking care to difengage the roots carefully from the 


foil ; and, in place of the fevere pruning and dreffing already 
mentioned, every root, even to the fmalleft fibre, fhould be 
carefully preferved, and the ufe of the knife confined entirely 
to the neceflary curtailing of the tops. Where this care is 
taken, and the plants are put into the ground at a proper 
feafon, they will fuffer no kind of check, and when the 
{pring arrives grow luxuriantly and with a vigour much 
greater than is commonly the cafe. 

It may be farther obferved, that much of the benefit 
arifing from an attention to the foregoing circumitances 
will depend upon the after-management of the hedge. 
Complete weediag, loofening, and laying new earth to the 
roots for the firlt three or four years, dre indifpenfably requi- 
fite ; for whatever pains may have been previoufly taken in 
dunging and fummer-fallowing the foil, unlefs it is properly 
attended to, and kept clean afterwards, this dunging and 
fummer-fallowing, in place of being ufeful, will prove hurt- 
ful to the fence ; as the manure and tillage, by enriching 
and opening the foil, will encourage and promote the 
growth of weeds, which, under circumf{tances fo peculiarly 
fortunate, will become fo luxuriant as either to deftroy or 
materially injure the growth of the hedge, unlefs they are 
kept down by frequent and complete cleanings. Thefe 
weedings are of two kinds, and ought to be conduéted in 
two different ways. If the weeds are principally annuals, 
a flight fcufle with a hoe will be perfectly fufficient, and 
this to be repeated as often as a new crop of weeds appears; 
but when the weeds in place of annuals are compofed of root- 
weeds, or, in other words, of perennial or biennial plants, 
the extirpation of thefe laft will be attended with more 
trouble. With weeds of this defcription feuffing will not 
an{wer, as though the tops may be cut off by that opera- 
tion, the roots remain, and not only furnifh repeated crops 
of the fame weeds, but alfo rob the hedge of its proper nou- 
rifhment. In place, therefore, of {cuffing and cutting off 
the tops of fuch weeds with a hoe, the ground ought to be 
carefully dug with a dung-fork, of the kind already de- 
{cribed for lifting thorns. An inftrument of this fort is 
preferable to a {pade, as it euts none of the roets of the 
hedge, loofens the ground fufficiently and at the fame time 
admits of the weeds being readi\y aad eafily picked out. 
The firft weeding of this kind that is given to a young 
hedge fhould be early in the {pring, when, ifit is completely 
done, there will be little occafion for any farther trouble 
during the feafon. Cleaning at that period has a farther 
advantage, namely, that of loofening the foil at the exaét 
time when the roots are beginning to fpread and extend 
themfelves ; wheréas, when it is delayed till the fummer, 
the weeds have attained a confiderable fize, have di prived 
the hedge of much nourifhiment, and the opening of the foil 
then expofes the roots of the hedge to the parching heat of 
the fummer fun. In the cleaning of young hedges, efpe- 
cially fuch as are fituated in the face of « ditch or bank, it 
is the univerfal cuftom for the laboure: fkim off the fur- 
face with a fpade, and let it fall into the bottom of the 
ditch. ‘This operation, though it gives the hedge an ap- 
pearance of cleannefs, is attended with fome very confider- 
able difadvantages ; repeated parings of this kind, in the 
face of a ditch or bank, in a few years walte the front fo 
much as in fome degree to undermine the hedge, which 
after froft or wet weather is apt to flide and tumble down ; 
the paring off and throwing into the bottom of the ditch 
fo much earth, together with the roots and weeds it contains, 
very foon choaks and fills it up. 

Notice will afterwards be taken of the neceffity of con- 
ftructing hedge-fences in fuch a way as that the hedge tha!l 
not project immediately from the front, but fhall be placed 

upon 


BY Nee. 


ypona fhelf, or what is termed a fcarcement, of not lefs than 
twelve or fourteen inches broad. By fuch management the 
hedge will run no rif whateyer of being undermined by the 
earth falling into the ditch, and may be kept clean with as 
much eafe asa. common garden-border. The proper method 
of cleaning a hedge, planted in this manner, feems to be that 
of digging the border with a fhort-pronged fork in the 
fpring, picking out fuch of the weeds as can be readily 
taken up by the hand, and afterwards raking it witha gar- 
den-rake ; this laft operation, along with its making the fur- 
face fmooth, and giving the work a finifhed look, will allo 
bring out a great number of the fmalle{t roots that had 
efcaped the labourer’s notice in digging it with the fork. 
Some imagine that by a flight weeding once or twice a year 
for the firlt two or three years after the hedge is planted, 
they do all that is requifite; this, however, isa mi{take ; 
for though a hedge may, by care and attention for the firft 
five years of its growth, attain fuch a height as will prevent 
it from being {mothered by the weeds, {till it will fuffer 
much injury from them, not fimply by the nourifhment they 
take from the hedge, though that mutt be confiderable, but 
by the effet they have upon the lateral branches near the 
root, many of which they kill, and by that means render 
the fence open and naked at the bottom. Skilful hedgers 
are well acquainted with this circum{tance, and very pro- 
perly confider annual cleanings and loofening the foil about 
the roots as equally neceffary to the welfare of the hedge as 
the other operations of {witching, pruning, &c. &e. The 
apparent trouble and expence of cleaning every defcription 
of hedge yearly will no doubt prefent a formidable obfta- 
cle to the practice; but, when properly confidered, this 
labour and expence will be found more apparent thaa real ; 
for if a proper weeding has been given when the hedge was 
firft planted, and the earth well opened, the only trouble 
required afterwards will confift in giving the ground on each 
fide of the hedge a flight fenflle with a hoe, a work at 
which a labourer will be able to doa very great deal in the 
courle of aday. 

To this practice of keeping hedges clean with a view to 
promote their growth, is to be added another motive, of 
-equal, indeed of fuperior, moment: round moft of the 
inclofed fields in Britain, the {pace occupied by the fence 
is confiderable ; and as no part of this {pace is under the 
plough, it isleft to produce fuch plants as nature or acci- 
dent may have brought into the foil; thefe, by being fuf- 
fered to grow, and their feeds to ripen yearly, are wafted 
by the wind into the adjoining fields, where they multiply 
beyond conception, and create an endlefs trouble to the oc- 
cupier, rendering abortive a great part of the labour and 
expence incurred in fallowing. A perfon who is fenfible of 
- the advantage arifing from the extirpation of weeds of every 
defeription, either in the fields or their immediate vicinity, 
muf feel a confiderable degree of painto obferve, about the 
end of fummer clouds of the winged or bearded kind rifin 
from the fide of every hedge or highway with the fightelt 
breeze of wind, and {cattering themfelves over the adjoining 
fields, which have been perhaps fallowed the year before at 
a heavy expence; the evilis undoubtedly great, and affects 
the innocent as well asthe guilty, it being no uncommon 
thiag for the beft farmers to have their fields rendered foul 
by the wind blowing the weeds of their flothful dirty neigh- 
bours upon them. The remedy is eafy: let every farmer 
be obliged to cut down the weeds round the whole line of his 
fences, fo early in the feafon as to prevent them from running 
to feed; and let the truftees of every county, in making 
contracts for the repair of the public roads, bind the cone 
traGors to cut down the weeds annually, The kabour of 


thefe operations will be very trifling, and their benefit to the 
public fearcely to be calculated. ; 

It may be remarked, that in loofening the earth about 
the roots of hedges, whether old or young, it will be of ad- 
vantage, if there is foil enough to admit of it, tolayup a 
few inches of it to the roots ; doing this frequently encou- 
rages them to push out branches near the bottom, which 

revent them from growing thin and open, a fault to which 
almoil all hedgesare liable, if due pains are not taken ta pre- 
vent it. When a hedge has been planted in the face of a 
ditch, bank, or mound, with a proje¢ting {pace or {carcement 
before it of fufficient breadth, a fupply of new earth may 
be laid up to the roots every two or three years, from the 
fediment let fall by the water in the bottom of the ditch; 
this fediment is in general the richeft of all foils ; and as it 
is neceflary to remove it from the bottom of the ditch, for 
the purpofe of cleaning the water courfe, employing it in 
this way not only faves the trouble of carrying it elfewhere, 
but promotes the growth of the hedge, and gives the fence 
a much more finifhed look. Upon the fides of highways 
the fame thing may be done with advantage, not only to the 
hedge, but the road alfo ; for though there may be no ditch 
to require cleaning, yet as moft of the highways in Britain 
have a greater or lefs declivity towards the fides, the de- 
cayed materials of which the road is, made, together with 
the horfe dung and other matters dropped upon it, are 
wafhed down from the top to the fides, where they accumu- 
late in confiderable quantities ; fhovelling this carefully up, 
and laying it to the roots of the hedge, afford the plants at 
once protection and nourifhment. Where hedges are 
planted upon the plane furface, the earth can be laid up to 
the roots with great eafe; and at each cleaning it certainly 
fhould be done. The trouble of doing fo is trifling, the ad- 
vantage very confiderable in many points of view. 

In {peaking of the pruning and after-management of 
hedges, it isobferved, that though a itriét attention to the 
foregoing circumftances, during the infancy of the hedge, 
is highly neceffary to produce healthy vigorous plants, a 
very confiderable part of its beauty and future value will de- 
pend upon thefe being properly performed. 

It may be remarked, that there is, perhaps, no part of 
the fubjeét upon which a greater contrariety of opinion at 
prefent prevails, than the age at which the pruning of 
hedges ought to commence, the manner of that pruning, or 
the feafon of the year at which it may be given with the 
greatett poffible advantage, and the leait rifk ; the practice 
with fome is to prune from the firit year, not only the 
lateral branches, but the tops alfo ; and they give as a rea- 
fon, that cutting off the extremities of the fhoots contri- 
butes to the thickening of the hedge, by making them 
pufh out a great number of new ones. The fallacy of this 
argument, and the mifchief with which the praétice is at- 
tended, we fhall have occafion to notice afterwards. As to 
the manner of pruning, or the form of the hedge, thefe 
feem with many to be matters of indifference, no attention 
being paid to drefling them in fuch a way as to have them 
broad at bottom, and tapering gradually towards the top ; 
many of them being sot only of one width from top to 
bottom; and not a few much heavier and broader above 
than below, it is obvious that fuch hedges can neither leok 
well nor be ufeful. 

The feafon at which they are trimmed is, in many in- 
ftances, it may be obferved, an improper one; for in place 
of choofing that time when the plants are leait in danger of 
fuffering from an effufion of their juices, which is either at 
a late period in the autumn, or very early in the fpring, the 
pruning ts given in the fummer feafon, when vegetation is in 

8 its 


y 


FE 


its prime, and the plants are full of juices: the check and 
injury they muft receive, from having the whole of their 
extremities cut off at that period may eafily be con- 
ceived, 

When {peaking of the treatment of hedge-plants before 
they are put into the ground, notice has been taken of the 
neceffity of preferving the roots as much as poffible, and at 
the fame time fhortening the tops: this lait operation has 
two good effe&ts; for by curtailing the top and branches 
the roots have lefs to nourifh ; and by leaving only two or 
three inches of the top above ground, in place of growing 
up with a fingle item, it fends out two or three; and as 
thefe. {trike out from the plant fo near the earth, each of 
them has the fame effeét, and flrengthens the hedge as 
much as the original {tem would have done by itfelf; with 

this addition, that in place of one prop or fupport, the 
hedge will have three or four. After this firft pruning, 
however, no hedge fhould be touched, or at leat very 
gently, for fome years: from an inattention to this cir- 
cumftance, and the injudicious application of the knife or 
fhears at an early period, many young hedges are rendered 
ufelefs, which, under different treatment, would have made 
excellent fences, with one-half the trouble that was re- 
quired to deftroy them. ‘The praétice of cutting over the 
tops yearly, which is done with a view to render the hedge 
thicker and more perfeét, is one of thofe mutakes which 
one would naturally have fuppoled common fenfe and ob, 
fervation would have fooner corrected 3 the effect produced 
being, in almoft every inftance, the very reverfe of what 
was intended = fhortening the main ftem of a thorn or any 
other plant makes it brufh out a number of {mall {tems im- 
mediately at the place where it has been cut; and if this 
operation is repeated once or twice a-year, every one of 
“thefe is again fub-divided, as it were, by fending out more 
branches; thus, in a courfe of years, during which the 
hedge makes very {mail progrefs upward, if it be ex- 
anined, inftead of being found to confilt of {trong vigorous 
plants, with a good main trunk, each reaching from top 
to bottom of the hedge, and a feflicient number of lateral 
branches throughout the whole length of it, it will be found 
by duch repeated cuttings, in the fame ftuated fituation, as 
certain young trees and fhrubs that are frequently cropped 
by theev or cattle. From the repeated crops of young 
fhoots which the tops fend out after every clipping, and the 
great quantity of nourifhment neceflary to fupport fuch ad- 
itional numbers, the lateral fhoots at the bottom, upon 
the ftrength and numbers of which the value of the hedge 


* ina great meafure depends, are flinted in their growth, and 


foon die 3 the hedge, of courfe, becomes open and naked 
at the bottom, and confequently ufelefs as a fenee. Where 
a hedge has been thus ruined, there is no remedy but cutting 
it over, clofe by the ground ; this will immediately produce 
a number of healthy, vigorous, upright {tems, which, 
under proper management, will foon forma good fence. 
From the firft year of planting, till the hedge has rifen to 
the height of five or fix feet, the main dtems ought to be 
left untouched, and the pruning confined folely to the fide 
branches, leaving thofe next the root pretty long, and 
gradually tapering towards the top; this pruning of the 
fide branches will make them fend out many new {hoots 
from their extremities, which, by repeated trimmings, will 
become fo thick as to fill up every interftice from top to 
bottom of the hedge ; while the main items, by being left 
untouched, continue their growth upward, till they arrive 
at the neceflary height, when they may haye their extre- 
mities cut off with perfect fafety. When a hedge has at- 
tained the wifhed-for height, all that is requifite afterwards 


INL CTE. 


is regular {witching with a hedge-bill, preferving it pretty 
broad at bottom, and drawing it gradually to a point at 
top ; this form of a hedge is pleafant to the eye, is well 
calculated to ftand the weather, and, by being thus above 
the nourifhment that would have been waited in fup- 
porting a thick, bufhy, over-grown top, Is retained by 
the branches at the bottom, which are thereby ftrengthened, 
and their numbers confiderably increafed ; while the trunk, 
by having no more exertion to make in an upward direétion, 
becomes every year ftronger and thicker. A hedge of this 
fort, in full leaf, has the appearance of a folid wall, and, 
when viewed after the leaves are fled, prefents to the eye a 
fet of mafly growing piles, fo ftrong and formidable as ta 
bid defiance to any attempts that may be made to break 
through them. A hedge-fence trimmed in this way is re- 
prefented at fg. 10. in the plate to which we have referred. 

Cutting over old live hedges —With refpe&to the cutting 
down of old hedges, the above dire¢tions and obfervations 
apply, it may be obferved, with ftriét propriety, only to 
fuch as have been regularly attended to from the time of 
their being planted: as there are, however, innumerable 
hedges in the kingdom, which, by being negleGted, have 
grown up to a great height, have become open and naked 
below, and bufhy and unmanageable at top ; it is of confe- 
quence to point out the means of reducing fuch hedges to 
a moderate fcale, and rendering them ufeful. This pur- 
poie, it may be flated, can only be effe&ted by cutting them 
down, and procuring from their itumps a growth of new 
fhoots, which, with proper management, will foon make a 
perfect fence, If the fields inclofed by fuch hedges are al- 
teruately in pafture and tillage, the period moft proper for 
cutting them down is when the field is to be ploughed. 
Under a corn crop the confinement of the ftock is no longer 
an objet ; and by the time the field is again brought under 
the plough, the hedge, if properly treated, will have ac- 
quired itrength enough to become a good fence. 

This operation is performed in feveral different ways ; 
in the firit the hedge is cut over, about a yard above the 
furface, and is left in that ftate without any other pains 
being taken with it; if it has originally been good, and 
the plants thick enough at bottom, this kind of cutting 
will aafwer the purpofe perfectly well, and in a few years 
the hedge will, with proper drefling, become both a neat 
and an ufeful fence. A hedge cut ever in this way, with 
one year’s growth of new fhoots upon it, is reprefented at 

Jig. 11. in the plate. 

However, in this mode, when there has been a deficiency 
of plants, and the hedge is cut over in the manner above- 
mentioned, innumerable gaps will appear, which, without 
fome art, it will be impoffible to fill up. It has alfo this 
farther difadvantage, that if either hories or cattle attempt 
to leap into, or out of, the inclofure, the fharp points of 
the itakes are apt to run into their bellies; this, aecording= 
ly, often happens, and many valuable horfes and cattle are 
killed, or greatly injured by fuch means. 

Another, and indeed 2 preferable mode of cutting down 
old hedges, is, to cut afourth part of the plants over, to 
the height which the fence is intended to be made, and 
to bend down and warp the remaining three-fourths with 
thefe upright items. This method very effectually cures the 
gaps and opennefs below, and, with flight attention, foon 
makes a good fence. At fg. 12. is a reprefentation of a 
hedge done in this method of cutting. 

And a third way of cutting over old hedges, is that of 
taking them off clofe by the furface ; this practice, where 
the plants are numerous, and there are no gaps in the hedges, 
anfwers very well; but when there is a deficiency of plants 

in 


FENCE. 


in any part of the hedge, the want will be very apparent. 
This lait mode, though much inferior to the one im- 
mediately preceding, is neverthelefs greatly preferable to 
that firft deferibed, as the young fhoots fent out from the 
ftumps, by being fo near the ground, will in fome mea- 
fure remedy the defeéts occafioned by the want of original 
plants, whereas, when the old plants are cut at the diftance 
of about a yard, or four feet above the furface, the young 
fhoots produced by the cutting will be fo high, as to leave 
the hedge open at the bottom, and very thin. 

There is another method of cutting down old hedges ; 
but which is yet but very little pra¢tifed, which is firlt to 
cut them down even with the. furface of the bank, &c. and 
afterwards to cover the ftumps completely over with the 
earth taken out of the ditch, or from the road fide. 
When this is carefuily done, it 13 afferted that every fingle 
root fends out a great number of young vigorous fhoots, 
each of which, by branching out from the ftamp below the 
furface, fends out roots, and acquires an eltablifhment for 
itfelf: by this means, the bottom of the hedge becomes fo 
thick, that neither fheep, cattle, nor indeed any animal,. can 
break through it. 

In which-ever of thefe ways the hedge is cut down, the 
direGtions formerly given for the management of young 
hedges fhould be ftriétly attended to, as loon as the young 
fhoots have made fome progrefs ; the fide branches fhould 
be trimmed, and the hedge put into a proper fhape, pre- 
ferving it broad and fullat bottom, and tapering gradually 
towards the top, as fhewn above. ‘The fame caution is alfo 
te be obferved with regard to the upright fhoots, none of 
which fhould be fhortened till the hedge has attained the 
withed-for height. It is furprifing what clofe beautiful 
fences.are raifed in this way, ina few years, from the ftumps 
of fome over-grown ufelefs hedges ; which, at the fame time 
with their being naked below, and of courfe faulty as fences, 
occupied four times the fpace they ought to have done, to 
the great lofs both of the proprietor and farmer. 

The obfervations formerly made with regard to the pro- 
per feafon for pruning and {witching young hedges apply 
with equal, indeed greater propriety to the cutting down ef 
old ones; as, if this operation is done at an improper feafon, 
from the largenefs of the {tumps, the extent of wounded 
furface expofed to the weather, and other circumitances, 
the plants are in imminent danger of being deitroyed ; in- 
deed this very often happens when, through ignorance or in- 
attention, the proprietors of hedges have them plafhed or 
cut over during fummer. It is unneceffary in this place to 
enter into any digreffion as to the ufe of leaves and branches 
to plants of every defcription ; it is fufficient for the prefent 
purpofe to ftate what experience and common fenfe have 
abundantly proved, viz. that the lofs of either, efpecially 
when the plants are in a growing ftate, and the juice circu- 
lating through them, is in moft cafes attended with the de- 
ftruction of the plant ; indeed the thing {peaks for itfelf ; 
the juice of the plant, inftead of being employed in nourifh- 
ing the top and branches, flows in great abundance through 
the feétion of the trunk, and by finding fo ready an exit, 
draws from the root a quantity of nourifhment, far exceed- 
ing the proportion required for its former fupport ; by fuch 
an unufual drain, the plants are exhaufted, or, as is com- 
monly faid, they bleed to death. It is to be obferved, how- 
ever,that every defcription of plants is not equally affected by 
a fummer cutting ; thofe that are moft juicy and fucculent, 
and have the largeit circulating veflels, always fuffering more 
than‘fuch as are of a harder texture, have {maller pores, and 
lefs fap circulating through them. The birch, larch, pops 
Jaz, willow, and, in general, all plants that contain a large 


proportion, either of refinous or faccharine matter, are to be 
ranked in the firft clafs; the different kinds of thorn, crabs, 
&c. &e. belonging to the fecond; the former are almoft in- 
fallibly killed by a fpring or fummer pruning ; while the 
fame operation is often practifed upon the latter with lit- 
tle apparent injury. But though we thus readily admit 
that one defcription of plants will furvive an operation by 
which others would be killed, it by no means follows that 
they are not injured thereby ; there are, indeed, too many 


proofs to the contrary, asin almoft every county there are’ 


thorn-hedges met with, that have been plafhed or cut over 
infummer ; and which, though they have not died in con- 
fequence of the operation, yet, by the lofs ofjuices, and the 
expofure of their naked trunks and wounded extremities to 
the parching rays of a fummer fun, have been fo much 
weakened, as to prevent them from putting out new fhoots, 
and have ever afterwards remained ina naked ftate, exhibit- 
ing an appearance no way better than that of a dead-hedge. 
This picture is the very reverfe of what, a st different 
treatment, would have been the cafe; as when the old plants 
are cutover at a proper feafon, ahealthy luxuriant crop of 
young fhoots never fails to be produced. 

The proper feafon for cutting over hedges is either ata 
late period in the autumn, or very early in the fpring ; at 
both of thefe periods the plants are equally fafe from injury ; 
at the former, the juices are retiring towards the root, and 
early in the {pring they have not begun te rife. In either 
cafe, no danger whatever canarife from the bleeding of the 
plants, as, long before the circulation takes place, the 
wounds occafioned by the cutting will be completely healed ; 
all cuttings or trimmings ought therefore to be done at one 
or other of thefe periods. The fame remarks alfo apply to 
os modes of cutting over and repairing fences mentioned 

elow. 

Plafbing hedges.—T here is a practice in many of the Eng- 
lith counties, which iscommon in refpeét to fences; that of, 
after the plants have attained the wifhed-for height, cutting 
their ftems about half through, within a few inches ot the 
bottom ; then bending thema little down, all in one dire@tion, 
and binding them together at top with willows, as repreferted 
atig. 3. in the fecond plate on fences. This, when properly exe- 
cuted, forms a very pretty neat looking fence, but is Hable to 
feveral objeGtions. By the cutting of the plants fo near the 
root, unlefs great pains are taken, there is a chance of cut- 
ting them too much ; indeed, in fome inftances, they are cnt 
through altogether; the value of the hedge is by this means 
leflened, and gaps appear in many parts of it. ‘The binding 
at top being of dead wood foon decays ; and the plants 
either rife up, if they have not Leen very much cut, or if 
the cutting has been deep, they are apt to be blown to one 
fide, and even broken over by the wind. Owing to thefe 
caufes many hedges, where the plants are fufficiently nu- 
merous and healthy, and which, with little trouble, would 
have formed beautiful and ufeful fences in a fhort time, have 
their value impaired, and are rendered faulty and defective. 
Cutting the {tem too much fubje&ts them to another evil, 
namely, the mifchief arifing frem heavy falls of fnow, by 
which, when the quantity is confiderable, efpecially if there 
is a high wind to accumulate it about the hedge, it is there- 
by prefled down, and many of the plants break entirely 
over. 

The practice noticed above, of cutting one-third of the 
ftems over, at the height of about four feet from the furs 
face, leaving thofe as Tandtedi and warping them with the 
others that have been left of the full length, makes a much 
ftronger fence, and one that is lefs liable to injury, either 
from the attempts of cattle, or from the wind, or hea 

6 fall 


FENCE. 


falls of fnow. What adds to its value is, that the warping 
and binding of the bufhes, being done with live wood in 
place of decaying, as is the cafe when willows or hazels 
are made ufe of, grow ftronger with time, and the plants 
are in the end as completely interwoven, as to form a fence, 
which nothing can exceed either for clofenefs or dura- 
bility. The way in which this operation is commonly 
done is liable to one objection, however, it being cultomary 
to trim away the whole of the branches before the ftems 
are bent down: this renders it, no doubt, a much eafier 
bufinefs for the workman; but it materially injures the 
hedge, leaves it thin and open in many places, and gives it 
not only an unpleafant appearance to the eye, but makes it 
lefs ufefulasa fence. This defeét is not in general repaired 
for ayear or two; whereas, by leaving as many of the fide- 
fhoote as poffible upon that part of the plants that is to be 
Jaid horizontal; and, after the whole hedge is warped, trim- 
ming it neatly with a hedge-bill, it will form at once a folid 
and ufeful fort of fence. Hedges done in this way are re- 
prefented at figs. 11. and 12. in the firit plate on fences. 
Where, however, the bufinefs of plafhing hedges is exe- 
cuted ina proper manner, the above objections will ina 
great meafure lofe their force. This is the cafe in the 
county of Hertford, and the method of performing the 
work is this; the hedgers firft begin to clear the old hedge 
of all the dead wood, brambles, and other irregular growing 
rubbifh, leaving all along the top of the bank the ftraighte!t 
and beft growing ftems of the thorn, hazel, elm, ath, oak, 
fallow, and beech, as well as other kinds, to the number of 
about five or fix in the yard. But where there are any 
gaps, or places that are thin of live wood, more are left on 
each fide of them. This being done, they have recourfe to 
the repairing of the ditches, which fhould not be lefs than 
three feet by two and a half, having the width of fix inches at 
the bottoms in dry foils; but in fuch as are wet, not lefs 
than four feet by three, and one at the bottom. The whole 
_of the earthy materials which are raifed from the ditches is 
laid up on the banks with great care, the overlooker being 
attentive to the matter. When the ditches have been thus 
finifhed, the men begin with the hedges. Such of the ftems 
of the plants as are left in cutting the old hedges over, 
that are found growing in the line where the new hedge is 
to run, are cut off at the height of three feet from the top 
of the bank, being referved for hedge-{takes to the hedge 
which is to be raifed. ‘This is an excellent practice, as fuch 
ftakes, from their being immoveable and incapable of rot- 
ting, keep up the new hedge in fuch a manner that it never 
falls, or leans in any direétion. The dead hedge-ftakes are 
in the next place driven firmly inte the bank, where they 
are wanted, fallows or willows being moftly chofen in order 
that they may take root and grow. The remainder of the 
live wood which had been left {tanding is then plafhed down 
by the hedgers. In executing this part of the work they 
make two cuts in each of the fticks, one ftroke being 
given near the ground, and the other at the diftance of eight, 
ten, or twelve inches above it, but only juit deep enough to 
flit out a part of the wood between the two cuts, leaving the 
ftem fupported by a little more than the bark, or about a 
fourth part of its firft fize. It is then laid down along the 
top of the bank, and interwoven with the hedge-itakes. 
All the plants are ferved in the fame way, and where 
they are not fufficient to fill up and complete the hedge, 
dead wood is had recourfe to; but this fhould be avoided 
as much as poflible, from its injuring the living plants in its 
decay. The work is completed by running an eddering 
along the top of the fence in the manner which is practifed 
in making dead hedges. 
Vor. XIV. 


The making of this fort of hedge fence is a matter which 
requires great exaétnefs and judgment in order to perform 
Itina proper manner. It is, however, moftly done by thofe 
who are ina great meafure ignorant of its nature, often 
cutting the plants in a downward direGion inftead of an up- 
ward one, by which they are expofed to fpeedy decay and 
deftruGtion. Where the work of plathing is weil executed, 
the cuts formed for the laying down of the plants fhould 
not be made in the manner fhewn at fig. 13. in the firft plate 
on fences ; but as is reprefented in fig. 14. 

In the execution of this bufinefs, it is very material that 
the operator be furnifhed with a hedge-bill which is per- 
fectly fharp, as the neatnefs of the work depends greatly on 
this cireumftance. The old ftubby parts of the hedge 
fhould be cut fo low as that it may be covered with the 
mould from the ditches in the after cleanings of them, and 
the layers, or parts laid down, fhould not have more con- 
nection with the old ftumps than is barely fufficient to con- 
vey the fap juice in due proportion to the plafhes, or layers, 
In this way the ftumps foon throw out plenty of young 
fhoots for a new hedge, the layers being merely defigned 
to ferve that purpofe until the young wood gets up again. 
The moft healthy and beft plants fhould always be fele@ed 
for the plafhes, and thofe defigned for ftakes fhould not be 
too large; the fize of a ftrong walking flick is quite fuf- 
ficient, as they increafe faft. It is the praétice of fome 
diftriéts to lay the plathes high, while in others they are 
laid down very low. Both thefe extremes are attended 
with difadvantages, as by the firft too much fap juice rifes 
into the plafhes for the due fupport of the bottom fhoots, 
by which they become weak and trifling, the hedge being 
of courfe left thin where the contrary fhould have been 
the cafe; and by the latter the hedge is left too low, and 
confequently more liable to injuries from cropping with cat- 
tle, &c.: the middle courfe fhould of courfe be purfued. 
After the layers, or plafhes, are interwoven with the ftakes, 
and the fuperfluous twigs of the hedge dreffed off by the 
bill, fome nick the layers in different places at the diftances 
of about a foot, by which it is fuppofed more branches, or 
fhoots, are thrown out from between the nicks, or cuts, as 
the fap juice rifes more flowly. 

It is of great advantage to the rifing of the hedges im 
thefe cafes to have the inclofures under the plough for two 
or three years after they have been plafhed. 

This fyftem of making fences fhould be more generally 
practifed in thofe diftriéts where it is yet but little known, 
by having labourers from thofe where it has been long in 
ute, as by it the farmer.muft derive confiderable adyautage 
in having hedges.which are chiefly formed of living materials 
inftead of fuch as are dead, and ‘coufequently on the con- 
ftant decay. 

In moit places the wood which is thinned out in forming 
fuch fences, will amp] y repay the expences which are in- 
curred in making them. 

A hedge plafhed in the proper manner is fhewn at fi. «5. 
ir the plate. : 

It fhould be conitantly recollected that in every operatioa 
of the above kind, in which old hedges are either cut over 
or plafhed, and bent down fo as to conititute a fence, the 
ground on each fide fhould, as foon as circumitances wi 
admit of it, be completely dug over, cleaned of weeds, an 
the earth laid up to the roots of the plants It is truly 
furprifing what numerous and luxuriant fhoots the ftumps 
fend out when managed in this way: while, on the con- 
trary, when thefe neceffary operations are negleted, fewer 
fhoots proceed from the old trunks; and of theie few a 
a confiderable proportion is choaked and deltroyed by 

Fork the 


lly 


I 
d 


FEN € tf. 


the weeds and other rubbifh in the bottom of the hedge- 
bank. 

Filling up gaps in hedges.—In refpe& to fillmg up gaps 
yn young hedges, it may be remarked, that when young 
hedges are planted, if the plants made ufe of are of a 
nature fuited to the foil, the hedge may be kept free of 
gaps with very little trouble : for this purpofeit 1s, however, 
neceflary, about the end of the firft autumn, after the hedge 
has been planted, to examine it carefully throughout its whole 
extent, and take out fuch plants as are either in a decaying 
fickly ftate, er thofe that are actually dead, and fill up the 
{paces they occupied with the ftrongeft and moit vigorous 
ones that can be found: where this care is taken for the 
firt two or three years, there will be no defeéts in the 
hedge, which will be uniformly thick and {trong through- 
eut. ~ 

But when old hedges are meant to be cut down, that 
have many gaps or open fpaces in them, fo wide as to pre- 
vent the poflibility of the young fhoots filling. them up, 
fome expedient muft be had recourfe to, in order to render 
the fence complete. This purpofe may, it is fuppofed, be 
an{wered in different ways: the eafielt, and indeed the molt 
eommon: method is, for the nedger, when he comes to a 
place where any of the plants are wanting, to take one of 
the ftrongelt plants next to it, and after giving it a gentle 
ftroke with the hedge-bill, to bend it acrofs the opening, 
and entwine its branches with the thorns on the oppofite 
fide: indeed, as has been already ftated, fome have a cuf- 
tom of cutting down only a fourth part of the ftems, and 
warping the remainder with thefe, which appear like flakes 
driven into the earth. Where the hedge is fhortened to 
within three or four feet of the ground, both of thefe 
plafhing methods anfwer pretty well, and the openings 
which would otherwife have been left, are in fome degree 
filled up; but when the old hedge is cut clofe to the earth, 
other methods of fupplying the defects become neceflary. 
One very fimple, and at the fame time very effectual mode, 
confilts in firll digging the ground pretty deep with a 
fpade, and taking one of the {trongeft plants on each fide 
of the opening, that have been purpofely left uncut, re- 
moving the earth from their roots fo much as to loofen 
them, and admit of their being bent down, and laid clofe 
to the earth in the opening, as reprefented at jig. 16. in the 
plate. They fhould then be faftened down with wooden 
hooks, or pins, and entirely -covered throughout the whole 
of their length with earth. Where this plan is properly 
executed, the plants fo laid down fend up a great number 
of young fhoots, which very foon fill up the vacancy: 
when it is practifed upon a hedge that is cut over clofe by 
the furface, no other care is requilite ; but where it is done 
with hedges that are cut at three or four feet above it, 
there will be a neceffity for placing a temporary paling in 
the gap, to proteét the young fhoots from injury, till they 
acquire a fufficient degree of flrength, as reprefented at 
Sig. Ve Plate XIX. 

It may be remarked that there is fcarcely any thing 
attempted by farmers in which.they are fo unfuccefs- 
ful as in the mending of hedges: in fome cafes the de- 
fe& is attempted to be fupplied with young. plants, 
which, from want of attention, very feldom fucceed, as 
they are not ouly (haded by the ftrong old plants on each 
fide, but are alfo deprived of their nourifhment, by their 
roots {preading inte the vacant fpace. To render. an at- 
tempt to mend the defects of an old hedge with young 
plants fuccefsful, two things are abfolutely neceflary : the 
firft is, that the whole of the roots of the old plants, which 
extend themfelves into the opening, be entirely cut off ; 


the next, that the hedge fhall be cut down clofe to the 
earth, for at leaft a yard or more on each fide of it. By 
cutting away the roots which extend themfelves. into the 
opening, the young plants are prevented from being robbed 
of their nourifhment, and cutting down the old ones, for a 
little diftance on each fide, keeps them from being fhaded, 
and allows them to enjoy the full benefit of the light and 
air: cutting down fo much of the old hedge, no doubt, 
renders the opening larger, and of courfe requires more 
railing or paling to fupply the defect; but this extra 
expence will be more than compenfated by the fuccefs 
with which it will be attended. In many inftances thefe 
vacancies are filled up with dead wood ; indeed it is a com- 
mon pra¢tice, aftera hedge is dreffed, to cram the greatelt 
part of the prunings into thefe fpaces, and under the bot 
tom of the hedge, where it is any way open or naked, 
The moft perverle imagination, it is faid, could hardly fup- 
pofe any thing more abfurd; for if it be the with of the 
owner that the plants on each fide fhould fend out new 
branches to fill up the openings, the purpofe is completely 
defeated by cramming them full of dead bruth-wood, which 
not only prevents the extenfion of the branches, but from 
the violence and injury that is committed in thrufting in 
dead thorns, the plants are often materially hurt ; and 
when this brufh-wood decays, the opening, in place of be- 
ing diminifhed, is confiderably enlarged: the mifchief is the 
fame where they are thruft under the hedge, the praétice of 
which, when continued, never fails to render it naked at 
bottom. ' 

The ufe of ftones for mending hedges is equally abfurd 
and pernicious: where dead wood is ufed in the way 
above-mentioned, the hedge, inftead of being improved, is 
made worfe. The utmoit that can be faid of ftones is, 
that though they do no additional harm, the hedge is not 
bettered by them ; and from the opening being filled up in 
that way, the defect is perpetuated, and both the ufeful- 
nefs and beauty of the fence are impaired. 

In fome initances where the attempt has been made, the 
defects of grown-up hedges have been very completely, 
and indeed almoft immediately, repaired, by planting flrong 
beeches in the openings; thefe fhould be at lealt fix or 
feven feet in height, and fhould be fupported by a couple 
of pieces of coarfe railing put acrofs the opening. If 
planted early in the winter, they fuffer no check what- 
ever, and grow fo vigoroufly in the {pring as to fill up the 
Tees the firft feafon, as reprefented at fg. 2. in the fame 

ate. 

And the ground in this, as indeed in every other cafe 
where young plants are ufed, fhould be well dug, and en- 
riched either with dung or compoft; the plants fhould be 
the healthieft and ftrongeft that can be procured, and the 
whole of their roots as carefully preferved as poffible, as 
very much depends upon proper attention in thefe refpedts. 

Difeafes of hedge-plants.—With regard to the difeafes of 
hedge-plants, it is f{uppofed that the principal one to which 
they (efpecially thorns) are liable, is heing covered with mofs, 
which, when it arrives at any confiderable height, gradually de= 
ftroysthem. Upon certain foils, fuch as till or cold wet clay, 
it may be remarked, woody plants of every defcription are 
fubject to this malady ; and as it is evidently owing to the 
nature of the foil, it becomes a matter of importance to be 
able to apply a proper remedy. Lime is well known to be 
unfriendly to the growth of every defcription of mofs, and. 
in every inftance where it is applied the mofs difappears. 
This circumftance, once known, furnifhes a cheap and ef. 
fe€tual remedy, both for preventing the difeafe upon young. 
hedges, and curing it upon fuch as are grown up. If the 


hints 


ama 


FE NCE. 


hints formerly thrown out with regard to the preparation 
- of the foil before a young hedge is planted are properly at- 
tended to, and a fufficient quantity of lime incorporated 
with the earth, let the former quality of the foil be what it 
may, its nature will be fo much altered as effectu:lly 
“to fecure the hedge from every rifk of being hurt by 
mofs. The fame remedy may be applied with equal fuc- 
cefs toold hedges, that are over-run with this vegetable 
vermin, and in which, though there may be plants enough 
in the ground, yet they are of no value, from the want of 
‘branches. To recover fuch hedges, and render them after- 
“wards good fences, they fhould be cut down clofe by the 
‘furface, cleared completely cf weeds, and the earth well 
dug for at leaft half a yard on each fideof the roots. After 
this operation, which fhould be done about the end cf au- 
tumn, the {paces fo dug fhould be well limed upon the fur- 
face 2 it fhould be fuffered to remain in that flate during the 
winter, and early in the {pring dug again, and the lime 
‘pointed in and incorporated with the foil. In the cafes 
where this has been done, the plants have fent out a num- 
ber of ufeful vigorous thoots, which foon made good hedges, 
and no mofs has afterwards appeared. It is from thefe ex- 
periments to be pre{umed, and it is hoped experience will 
‘confirm the idea, that im every cafe where either trees or 
hedge-plants are infelted with mofs, the ufe of lime, in the 
ee here pointed out, will prove a fufficient remedy for the 
evil. 

Compound hedge-fences.—Thefe are fuch hedges as do 
not wholly of themfelves conftitute or form perfect fences, 
‘but which have the addition of fome other fort to render 
them complete. 

Single hedge and ditch. —Thie is a fort of fence that may 
either havea railing, paling, or fome other defence: added 
‘to it, or be wholly without them, according to the parti- 
‘cular circumftances of the cafe. And it is a defcription of 
fence in which the ditch is of very different dimentions ac- 
cording to the nature and circumftances of it; the thorns 
being, for the moft part, as Mr. Sommerville has obferved, 
aad upon the common furface, upon what Is termed a 
4carcement, or projection of fix or feven inches, on which 
they lean, and which ferves asa kind of bed, when they 
are cleaned. By placing the plants thus far back from the 
edge of the ditch, they are in a great meafure fecured 
againft the accidents to which they would otherwife be 
liable, if they were placed immediately in the front of the 
bank ; as there are few ditches, however carefully they may 
have been made, into which the earth does not afterwards flide 
and fallin. In cafes, therefore, where the thorns are planted 
immediately in the face, or what is termed the brow of the 
ditch, if any portion of the earth falls in, it either carries 
the plants along with it, or deprives them of their nourifh- 
ment; whereas, by placing them at the diftance of fix or 
eight inches back from the front, there is no rifk whatever 
ot their being injured by the carth falling down. It ap- 
pears alfo, that the {pace commonly allowed for a fearce- 
ment is by far too little, being feldom more than four inches. 
In place of which it ought never to be lefs than twelve or 
fourteen inches. ‘his would have feveral advantages, as it 
would not only prevent all rif of the earth tumbling in, 
and bringing the plants along with it, but would at the 
fame time atford ample room for weeding the hedge com- 

letely, and drawing up the earth to the roots of the plants. 
hefe are matters of confiderable importance, and which, 
along with their dettroying weeds, promote the growth of 
the hedye, by affording fufficient pafture for the plants, and 
enabling them to refilt the effects of drought, frott, &c. 
much more completely than they would have been able to 


do if planted dire@ily in the face of the ditch. It is com- 
mon to lay the hedge-plants upon the plane furface, without 
any preparation whatever. But in other cafes, the iirit 
{p.deful that is taken out of the ditch is laid on the front, 
and the plants placed above it: whatever the foil or fituation 
may be, it is of importance to place the plants upon a bed 
of good, rich, well prepared earth, capable of affording 
them not only a due degree of nourifhmeut, but into which 
their roots may ftrike with the utmoft eafe. Upon avery 
dry foil, and in elevated fituations, it is fometimes neceffarv 
to place the hedge-plants confiderably below the common 
furface, to prevent them from iuffering by drought: where 
this is praétifed, the ditch is firft dug of the ordinary 
dimenfiens, and the earth that is taken out of it laid about 
twenty inches back from the hedge; the labourer then, 
witha fpade, cuts down a {pace about fifteen inches broad, 
and ten or twelve inches deep, along the whole front of the 
ditch ; this fpace, when cut, refembles a fhelf: an inch or 
two of the beft mould, well broke down, and pulverized 
with the fpade, is laid upon this thelf, orfcarcement, upon 
which the plants are then Jaid, not exa&ly in a horizontal 
direQion, but with the tops a few degrees higher than the 
roots. The earth taken out in forming the fhelf is then 
replaced akove the roots in fuch a manner as to form a good 
flope from the front of the ditch backwards: and where 
the foil is deep enough to admit of tiis being properly done, 
there are few fituations, however dry, where the hedge will 
run any rifk o€ fuffering from too much dry weather at any 
feafon of the year. 

It may be farther remarked, that in very cold wet fitua- 
tions this practice is reverfed ; and in place of planting the 
hedge upon or below the common furface, it is found ne- 
ceilary to raife it confiderably higher ; for that purpofe the 
firlt two {padings, or {pits, taken out of the ditch, and which 
always confift ot the beit earth, are laid about ten inches 
back from the front; this, when properly doe, forms a 
bed of from twelve to fifteen inches in thickuefs, upon 
which the plants are laid; the roots are then covered with 
the remainder of the beft earth, and the baak formed in the 
ordinary way. 

Where the hedge is either white thorn, crab, or beech, 
the precaution of raifing it above the common furface is ef- 
fential to its welfare upon cold or wet foils; and inmany of 
thefe fituations good hedges are made ia this way, that could 
not poffibly have been done by any other means. It muft ke 
admitted, however, that by railing it fo much above the com- 
mon furface, the pafture of the plants is ina great meafure con- 
fined to the bank formed by the earth taken out of the ditch; 
and, in many inftances, when the winters are fevere, and 
much black froft happens, it penetrates the bank fo com- 
pletely, as entirely to deftroy the hedge. 

In all cafes where hedges are to be made either in this or 
any other way, the foil, fo far as circumftances will admit, 
ought, as has been already noticed, to be cleared, pul- 
verized, and enriched with lime, compoft, or othe$ manures, 
which will not onlysenable them to puth away vigorouily, 
but at the fame time prevent, ina great meafure, the dif- 
tempers of mofs, or cankering, which hedges upon #tiff 
clays, or other cold wet foils, are very liable to be affected 
with, and of courfe much injured by them. 

In {peaking of the fimple ditch fence, notice was taken of 
the neceflity of giving it a proper flope, to prevent its 
tumbling in after froft, or being excavated by the rua of the 
water. Where a hedge is added to the ditch this pres 
caution is equally effential, indeed more fo, as the injury 
done to a fimple ditch can be repaired with the f{pade at 
little or-no expence ; whereas, when a hedge is planted in 


Kka 


FUE N (G.E. 


the front, any confiderable portion of the earth falling down 
brings the plants along with it, and makes a breach in the 
hedge, which no induftry will afterwards be able to remedy. 
To keep them pretty broad at top, and gradually tapering 
towards a point at bottom, ought to be a conftant and in- 
yariable rule ; ditches fo conftruéted are feldom, if ever, 
undermined, and retain their fhape for many years. Upon 
ditches fo formed, from their containing little water at bot- 
tom, the greateft preflure and action of the fluid are upon 
the upper part, and upon that, from the nature of the flope, 
its effects are loit. Thofe who have made fufficient 
obfervation know, that in every inftance where water acts 
upon a perpendicular furface (efpecially if the foil is of a 
foft incoherent nature) its force is greateft ; whereas, when 
it operates upon a floping bank its face is fhort, and it 
confequently does no injury. A knowledge of the laws of 
hydrottatics explains this. The preffure and operation of 
Auids is always in proportion to their altitude or perpendi- 
cular height. Upon a floping bank this preflure is loft ; 
and the more gradual the flope, the lefs effect the water has. 
It is owing to this circumftance that the low floping parts, 
both upon the banks of rivers, and on the fea-coa{t, con- 
tinue unaltered for many ages, while the high bold parts of 
the fhore, unlefs they are entirely of rock, are continually 
tumbling down. The fame thing holds good in regard to 
ditches ; whatever the height of the column of water may 
be in the middle, or however rapid the current, the narrow- 
nefs of the ditch at bottom, and its floping gradually up- 
wards, divides and diminifhes the force fo completely, that 
it is {carcely felt upon any part of it; whereas, when the 
ditch is wall-fided, and of one uniform width from top to 
bottom, the water, by being confined almott entirely to the 
under-part, runs away the foil, and excavates and under- 
mines the fides of the ditch, which occafions their breaking 
down and being carried away. 

In cafes where the purpofes of the proprietor or occupier 
require that the fields recently inclofed with ditch and 
hedge fhould be made fencible at once, it is very common 
either to furround them with a railing or paling placed upon 
the top of the bank, formed by the earth taken out of the 
ditch, or with a wall of coarfe loofe ftones, in the form of 
a Galloway-dike, placed alfo upon the top of the bank. 
Where {tones are in plenty, this laft forms an excellent fence 
for the purpofe of confining the cattle, and is at the fame 
time a good fhelter for the hedge. Fig. 4.1n the plate, repre- 
{ents a young hedge proteGted by an open wall of this kind, 
which anfwers well, and has a neat appearance. 

For cafes in which a railing or paling is placed upon the 
top of the bank, they are made of different materials, accord- 
ing to the circumfauces of the particular cafe ; in fome fitua- 
tions they are made of flabs, in others of laths, the prunings 
of fir plantations, &c. in all of whichg when properly exe- 
cuted, they not only anfwer the purpofe of a temporary 
fence, but at the fame time ferve as a complete protection 
to the young hedge, from the depredations of iheep and 
other forts of live ttock. 

Hedge and bank.—This is a kind of fence that confilts 
of a hedge planted upon the plain furface, with a bank or 
mound of earth raifed behind it by way of protection. A, 
very good idea of this fence may be formed from the figure, 
This bank, in fome inflances, is faced with fod on both fides, 
floping gradually towards the tep 5 while in others, and 
indeed by far the greateit number, it is only faced on one 
fide, which is nearly perpendicular, and has a gradual flope 
on the other, fimilar tothe bank made with the earth taken 
out of an ordinary ditch. The hedge is frequently planted 
at the bottom of the perpendicular fide that is faced with 


fod ; but in many cafes it is planted on the other fide, near 
the bottom of the floping bank of earth. The laft is cer- 
tainly the beft fituation for the hedge ; for if the earth with 
which the bank is made has been taken, as it generally is, 
from the fide that is faced with fod, this fencing will form 
a kind of funk fence, the bottom of which will be con- 
fiderably below the common furface : of courfe, any hedge 


planted in fucha fituation will not only be put into the worft - 


of the foil, but will at the fame time be in danger of perifh- 
ing from the moifture lodging there, and chilling the roots; 
whereas, when it is planted on the other fide, near the bot- 
tom of the flope, the plants have the beit of the foil to ftrike 
into, and are in a great meafure fecured againft the bad 
effects of ftagnant moifture and wetnefs. 

It may be remarked, that in bleak expofed fituations, 
where hedges cannot be fuccefsfully reared without fhelter 
of fome kind or other, the bank of earth is a good contriv- 
ance, as it fcreens the young plants from the inclemency of 
the weather, tillthey acquire a degree of ftrength fufficient 
to enable them to refift the rigour of the climate, which it 
is now well known many plants are able to do when they 
reach a certain age and ftrength, that would have been com- 
pletely killed, had they been expofed in the fame fituation, 
without fhelter, at an earlier period. In fuch cafes of courfe 
earthen mounds, fimilar to what has been defcribed, or ftone 
walls, are eflential to the rearing of good hedges, efpeciall 
of white-thorn, But as this fence, like the common wed 
wall, cannot be erected without a confiderable deftruétion 
of the adjoining furface, it fhould never be ufed but in cafes 
of the ftrongett neceflity. The only inftance in which it 
can be made without any lofs is upon the fides of high- 
ways, where the road is not bounded by a ditch, but flopes 
gently to each fide; in that cafe a fufficiency of turf and 
earth for facing and forming the bank may be had from the 
fide of the road. This will have a double advantage; the 
earth, if taken from the road with judgment, and in fucha 
way as to form a gradual flope from the middle towards the 
fides, will produce two very confiderable advantages ; the 
flope will keep the road perfeétly dry, and the earth taken 
from it will, with the affiftance of a flight paling, com- 
pletely inclofe the field, and ferve as a protection to the 
young hedge. It is worthy of remark, that when the 
hedge is planted behind the bank, the paling fhould not be 
upon the top, as is commonly the cafe; but on the fide 
next the field, to ferve as a protection againft the cattle 
grazing in it; when it is next the road, however, the 
paling may be placed upon the top, in which cafe it will 
render the fence more inacceflible and fecure from all forts 
of depredations. /7y. 3. in the firlt plate on fences, explains 
the manner of forming it. § 

Hedge in face of bank.—This is a kind of fence that 
differs from the former principally, in having the hedge in 
the front of the bank confiderably above the common fur- 
face, in place of having it at the bottom, as already de- 
feribed. The work is executed in the following manner : 
the bank, faced with fod on one fide, and having a gradual 
flope on the other, is raifed to the height of eighteen 
iaches or two feet; the top is then levelled, and covered 
with two inches of good earth, above which the plants 
are laid horizontally, with their tops projecting about a 
couple of inches over the edge of the bank ; the roots are 
afterwards covered with the fame mould, and the bank 
raifed to the defired height. This fence is greatly inferior 
to that already defcribed, as the hedge-plants, by being 
raifed fo much above the common furface, are liable to great 
injury, not only from the bank decaying and mouldering 
down, and by that means depriving them of their nourifh- 

ment 


—— 


MENG E. 


ment and fupport, but alfo from the effeéts of froft, drought, 
&c. In many inflances, however, it may be ufeful, efpe- 
cially in the inclofing of wet lands, where hedges would not 
thrive, if placed upon the common furface; but in fuch 
cafes it is worth while to notice, that great advantage will 
arife from placing the hedge-plants about eight or ten 
inches back from the front, upon a fort of fcarcement, 
fimilar to what is done in the common ditches. When 
planted in this way, there is little or no rifk of the bank 
mouldering down; and the fhelf or fcarcement left admits 
of the hedge being completely cleaned, and the earth drawn 
up to the roots of the plants; circumitances of importance 
in the growth of the hedge. Thiy method of forming a 
hedge is fhewn at fig. 5. in the plate. 

There is another defcription of hedge and bank fence 
which is met with principally by the fides of highways, in 
fituations where the ground has a fudden declivity towards 
the road; in thefe cafes it is common to cut down the face 
of the bank, in a floping direction, to within eighteen or 
twenty inches of the bottom, where a bed is made of about 
two feet in breadth, covered with good earth broken very 
{mall ; upon this the plants are laid, with their extremities 
about nine inches from the front ; the roots are then covered 
with eight or nine inches of good mould; the bed below 
with the projection, in this cafe, ferves the fame purpofe 
as the fearcement of the common ditch, and affords com- 
pleteroom for cleaning and drawing up the earth to the 
roots of the hedge-plants. In the conftruétion of this fence 
it is effential to give the face of the bank fuch a flope, as to 
-prevent the earth from tumbling down ; if this is neglefted, 
it will be continually falling in large maffes after every frotft, 
or fall of {now or rain. It is fometimes the practice, how- 
ever, initead of planting the hedge within eighteen inches 
ofthe bottom, as here defcribed, to flope the bank firft in 
fuch a way, as to infure it againft tumbling down, and plant 
the hedge upon the top, at the diftance of about a foot 
and a half from the verge of the bank. A hedge planted in 

- this way, when it thrives, will certainly look much more 
formidable than one planted at the bottom; but it will be 
liable to more accidents than the other, from drought, froft, 
and the falling in of the bank. It is fhewn at fg. 6. in the 

late. 

F Hedge on top of bank.—This is a fort of fence common in 
many parts of England, and alfo in fome parts of Scotland, 
and coniiits of a high bank of earth taken from the adjoin- 
ing ground, pretty broad at bottom, and tapering gradually 
towards the top, upon which the hedge is planted. It is, 
however, to be objected to on account of the great wafte of 
foil, the want of moifture, and its predifpofition to the pro- 
duction of mols. It is feen at fig. 7. This fort of fence is 
not unfrequently planted on the top with coppice-wood 
plants cut off fhort. 

Mound, or Devonfbire fence. —This is a fort of hedze and 
bank, as it coniifts of an earthen mound fix or feven feet 
wide at bottom, five feet in height, and four feet broad at 
top, being moftly carried up between two fod banks, and 
upon the middle of which a row of quicks is planted, and 
on each fide, at two feet diftance, a row of willow ttakes, 
-of about an inch in diameter each, and from eighteen inches 
to two feet long, are {tuck in, floping a little outwards : 
thefe ftakes foon take root, and forma kind of live fence 
for the prefervation of the quicks in the ‘middle.. This 
fence nearly refembles the hedge on the top ofa bank, and 
is equally expenfive in the erection ; the formation of the 
bank deprives the adjoining furface of its bett foil, and the 
plants made ufe of are liable to every injury that can pofli- 
bly arife from drought, froit, and the gradual degay or 


‘prefent a clofe firm face above the top of the bank. 


crumbling down of the mound, The addition of the willows 
to this fence is certainly a difadvantage ; if the quicks re- 
quire protection, dead-wood is equal to every purpofe that 
could be wifhed or expected ; and at the fame time poffeffes 
the additional advantage of requiring no nourifhment, and 
having no foliage to fhade the quicks or other plants. It is 
feen at fig. 8. 

Different forts of hedge-woods may be proper in forming 
fences of this nature in different foils and fituations. In 
poor thin foils, in bleak expofed diftriéts, furze is often 
found to afford a good fence, as well as confiderable fhelter. 
But in this cafe the fides fhould be kept pruned, fo as to 
In fi- 
milar expofed high traéts of land, the beech avd fycamore 
are likewife found beneficial la railing fences. But in lower, 
more favourable expofures for the growth of hedge wood, 
the hazel, oak, and afh may be had recourfe to for this 
purpofe. The fallow is alfo a fart of wood that often 
grows well on the more high and dry afpeéts, and may be 
ufefulas a fence-wood in fuch places. 

Hedge with poft and rails.—This is alfo a fort of fence 
fometimes employed; the railings being frequently employ- 
ed for the protection of hedges, a: well thofe that are plant- 
ed upon the plain furface, as for the hedge and ditch united. 
The addition of a paling is, however, more immediately 
neceflary, in cafes where the hedge is planted upon the plain 
{urface, efpecially when the fields fo inclofed are in paiture. 
If only one field is inclofed in this way, and the adjacent 
lands are under a corn crop, a fingle railing on the intfide of 
the inclofed field will be quite fufficient for its proteétion ; 
but when the adjacent fields are alfo under pafture, a dou- 
ble railing becomes necefiary ; or, in other words, a railing 
placed on each fide of the young hedge, at a fufficient dit- 
tance to prevent the fheep or cattle from cropping it ; with- 
out fuch protection the hedge plants are not only liable to 
cropping, but alfo to being trodden and deitroyed by their 
feet ; an injury which, when it happens at an early period 
of their growth caufes the plants to continue low and {tunted 
ever afterwards. Itis fhewn at fig. 9. Any fort of coarfe 
wood, as the thinnings of timber plantations, anfwer well 
for this purpofe. 

Hedge and dead hedge. —This isa fence that confifts of a 
row ot quicks, or other hedge-plants, fet either upon the 
plain furface, or in the face of a ditch or bank, having a 
dead hedge to protect them. his dead hedge anfwers a 
double purpole, namely, that of protecting the young plants 
from the injuries they may receive from cattle, or the incle. 
mency of the weather; and ac the fame time forming a tem- 
porary inclofure,» which la ll the hedge is grown up. 
Where dead hedges are made of proper materials, fuch as 
the cuttings of thorn hedges, &c. and are welllet into the 
ground, they anfwer thele purpofes very completely, and 
hould always be nfed for the protection of young hedges, 
where the materials can be obtained at aa eal e. Itis 


worthy of notice, however, that in every initance where 
dead hedges are ufed for the protection of live ones, in place 
of cramming them clofe together, as is commonly dofte, 


there fhould be a diftance of at leait three feet between them. 
In that way the hedge plants will have room to grow and 
{pread out their lateral branches at bottom; a thing effen- 
tially requfite to the formation ofa good hedge, while an 
opportunity will at the fame time be afforded of weeding the 
hedge, and loofening the earth completely on both fides of 
the plants. ‘This fort of fence is {hewn at Jig. 10. in the 
plate. 

Hedge and wall fence. —This is of two kinds, one of which 
will be afterwards deicribed, namely, a coarfe open wall, 

m 


BY BAN: 


Made of loofe flones, refembling a Galloway dike, made 
upon the top of the bank formed by the earth taken out of 
the ditch. The fecond is chiefly ufed when hedges are 
planted upon the plain furface ; in which cafe the wall, 
though thin and low, is regularly built, and anfwers the 
double purpofe' of fheltering and encouraging the growth 
of the plants, while they are in a weak tender fLate, and 
afterwards prevents the poffibility of the hedge becoming 
open below ; where gardens are entirely, or in part, fur- 
rounded’ by hedges; and in the ineclofing of. fields by the 
fides of highways, efpecially"in the vicinity of great towns, 
where dogs and other deftructive vermin are apt to creep 
into the inclofures, and annoy the {tock ; the low wall forms 
a valuable addition to the fence. It is cuftomary in fome 
cafes, after the hedge has attained a certain height, and is 
thought to be out of danger, either to remove the wall en- 
tirely, or allow it to decay. This, according to Mr. Som- 
merville, is certainly a bad practice, as it not only leaves the 
bottom of the hedge naked and open, but at the fame time 
deprives the roots of the plants of a protection to which 
they have been accuftomed, and the removal of which ope- 
rates asa fevere check to their growth. In every inftance 
where the wall is intended to be removed, care fhould be 
taken to cover the roots of the plants that are left expofed 
with good earth ; by that means they will be prevented from 
being hurt by expofure to the weather, and they will fuffer 
little, if any, check. It frequently happens, however, to 
the utter difgrace of the proprietor, that the wall is re- 
moved, and the roots of the plants left naked, and expofed 
to every injury. In fuch cafes, if the hedge has been plant- 
ed a little above the common furface, as foon as the wall is 
removed, the earth begins to moulder, and fall down, and 
continues to do fo till the plants, deprived of their fupport, 
tumble down alfo, and the hedge is by that means entirely 
ruined. A reprefentation of this fort of fence is given at 
Jig. 11. in the plate. : 

It may be remarked, that there is another defcription of 
he@e and wall which properly comes under confideration 
inthis place; that is, where the hedge is planted upon the 
top of the wall: this differs from a hedge on the top of a 
bank already defcribed, only in one particular, which is 
that of the bank being faced with ftones, inftead of fod or 
earth. When fuch a fence is attempted in a level country, 
the wall muft be very broad, not lefs than four or five feet, 
and the middle of ir filled with earth ; in fhort, the conftruc- 
tion fhould be nearly the fame as the Devonfhire fence, al- 
ready defcribed, only the facing on each fide to confilt of 
ftones in place of turf. The objeGtions made to the Devon- 
fhire fence apply with equal propriety to this, being expen- 
five in the ereétion, troublefome io keep in repair, and in 
its nature by no means durable. 

And there is {till another kind of this fence, which, it is 
obferved, in particular fituations, is extremely ufeful ; that 
is, where the land has a confiderable declivity, which ter- 
minates abruptly on the fide of a highway, or an inclofure 
running along the fide of high grounds that leans very much 
to that fide where the fence is intended to be made. This 
is commonly executed with a perpendicular front, and with- 
out any contrivance for carrying off the moifture ; in confe- 

uence of which, after bad winters, or long continued rains, 
the earth fwells, the wall burfts, and is thrown down ; when 
the wall is of dry ftone, there is, however, little rifk of this 
accident happening; as its open texture readily admits of 
the moifture paffing through it; but when the wall confifts 
of ftone and lime, ftone and clay, or any other fubitance 
that prevents the difcharge of the moifture, the earth, as 
alseady mentioned, fwells, and the wall burfts, and is thereby 


4 


C £. 


deftroyed.. In order to render a facing of this fort durable, 
it is requifite, if the wall is built with {tone and lime, or a 
mixture of clay, turf, or any other materials that refft the 
paflage of water through them, inflead of building it per- 
pendicular, as is commonly done, to give it an inclination of 
fome degrees backward, and to have openings at the bot- 
tom, at recular diftances from each other, for difcharging 
the moifture that may iffue from the bank. And jn order 
to render thefe openings as completely ufeful as poffible, it 
fhould havea {pace at the back of the wall, and immediately 
at the bottom of about twelve inches broad and the fame 
depth, filled with fmall round ftones; thefe, by ferving as a 
kind of drain, will receive the moifture that foaks down, and 
afford it a ready paflage by the openings that have been 
mentioned. This defcription of fence is fhewn at fg. 12. 
in the plate. 

Hedge in middle, or face of wall.—This is a fort of 
fence fomewhat like that laft defcribed, but which can only 
be made in the face of a bank where the land rifes imme- 
diately behind it; the pra@tice Mr, Sommerville confiders 
as new, ingenious, and deferving of attention. It is exe- 
cuted in the following manner: the faceof the bank is firit 
cut down with adpade, not quite perpendicular, but nearly 
fo; a facing of ftone is then begun at the bottom, and car- 
ried‘up regularly, in the manner that. flone walls are gene- 
rally built; when it is raifed about eighteen inches or two 
feet high, according to circumitances, the {pace between 
the wall and the bank is filled up with good earth, well 
broken and mixed with lime or compoft: the thorns are 
laid upon this earth in fuch a manner cs that at leait four 
inches of the root and {tem fhall reft upon the earth, and 
the extremity of the top fhall projeét beyond the wall. 
When the plants are thus cdtlanty laid, the roots are 
covered with earth, and the building of the wall continued 
upwards ; when completed, the wall is finifhed with a coping 
of fod, or ftone and lime. When the plants begin to vege- 
tate, the young fhoots appear in the face of the wall rifing 
ina perpendicular manner. This kind of fence is fhewn at 
jg. 1. Plate XX. 

It may be remarked, that fr James Hall, of Dunglafs, 
has adopted this mode of inclojing pretty extenfively upon 
his eftates in Eaft Lothian, and is the firft who introduced 
that plan on the eaft coaft of Scotland from Gallom, The 
appearance is at once new and handfome; the whole feems 
to be in a very thriving condition, and in feveral parts the 
hedges have made creat progrefs. . Moft of them, however, 
being young, no decifive opinion can be formed as to the 
real advantaces or defe€ts with which this mode of inclo- 
fing may be attended. Apparently, it is.liable to feveral 
ebjections. In the firft place, if from weaknefs, or other 
accidents, any of the plants fhould ficken or die, a circum- 
ftance by no means uncommon, even where every poffible 
care has been taken to feleét the ftouteft and beft; the de- 
fect thereby occafioned cannot be repaired without taking 
down the wall, at leaft as far as the place ere the hedge 
was laid; this will be found highly expenfive and incon- 
venient ; the inconvenience would, however, be lefs fenfibly 
felt, if the failure of the plants happened only in one part 
of the wall; but when, as will always be the caie, the 
plants mifgive in many different places, it will be found a 
very expentive and arduous bufinefs to take down and rebuild 
the wall in every place where two, three, or more thorns 
have failed, Were this labour and expence repaid by any ex- 
traordinary advantages, the practice might derive additional 
ftrength therefrom; that, however, is far from being the 
cafe; for though the plants m a hedge of this fort are, 
from the great quantity of earth laid upon their roots, lefs 

liable 


FENCE 


Tiable to injury from drought, froft, &c., they are at _the- 
fame time further removed from the genial influence of the 
fun and the air. 

Walls formed with or without lime nave been raifed on 
the banks behind the new-planted quickfet hedges, inftead of 
a paling or railing, to the height of about two feet anda 
half, with great fuccefs by fir George Suttie in Scotland. 
The bafe of the wall is placed about nine orten inches, or a 
foot, from the plants of the hedge, being made two tect 
thick at the bottom, battering to one at the top, and coped 
with flat ftones and turfs. Where ftones are plentiful thefe 
are found cheap and ufeful in rearing the young hedges. 

Hedge and ditch, with row of trees —This kind of fence 
differs from thofe which have been defcribed only in having 
a row of trees planted in the line of the feuce along with 
the hedge. - 

The advocates for this pra€lice fay, that by planting 
hedge-rows of trees in the direCtion of the fence, the coun- 
try isat once fheltered, beautified, and improved; and that 
the intereft of the proprietor is ultimately promoted by the 
increafing value of the timber raifed in thefe hedge rows. 
It. is alio faid that fuch trees produce more branches for 
ftack-wood, knees for fhip-builcers, and bark for the tanners, 
and they fel! at a higher price per load than trees grown in 
woods and groves. Befides, clofe-pruning hedge-row trees 
to the height of twelve or fifteen feet prevents their da- 
maging the hedge; the fhelter which they afford is favour- 
able to the vegetation both of grafs and corn; it alfo tends 
to produce an equable temperature in the climate, which is 
favourable both to the production of, and greater perfection 
and beauty in animals, and of longevity to man. Though 
the practice of planting hedge-rows of trees is very common 
(efpecially in England), though its advocates are numerous, 
and though thefe arguments are urged in its favour, yet the 
objeGions are alfo entitled to very ferious confideration. 
When trees are planted in the line of a fence, if that fence 
is a hedge, the plants of which it coniifts will, Mr. Sommer- 
ville fays, not only be deprived of a great part of their nou- 
rifhment by thetrees, but willalfo be greatly injured by the 
fhade they occafion and the weight of the drop that fails 
from them during wet weather; upon this point little rea- 
foning is neceflary, for, if we appeal to faéts we hall find 
that no good hedge is to be met with where there is a hedge- 
row of trees planted along with it. The mifchief is not, 
however, confined folely to hedges; the effects are equally 
‘bad, perhaps worle, where the tence is a ftone wall; for 
though ia this cafe the fhade or drop of the trees is hardly, 
if at all felt, yet when they have attained a certain height, 
the working andftraining of the roots during high winds are 
fuch, that the foundations of the walls are fhaken and 
deftroyed; accordingly, whenever large trees are found 
growing near itone walls, the fence is cracked and fhaken 
by every gale of wind, is perpetually falling into large gaps, 
and coits ten times the expence to keep it in repair, that 
would otherwife be required if no trees were near it. Ad- 
mitting, however, that the trees in hedge-rows were no way 
prejudicial tothe fence, which we have already fhewn is by 
no means the cafe, another argument may be fuccefsfully 
ufed againit the practice. It is feldom, indeed, that trees 
planted on hedge-raws arrive at any great fize ; qn the con- 
trary,-they are generally low and ftunted, and while they 
Oceafion a vilible lofs by the mifchief they do the fence, 
their utmoft worth, when they come to be fold, will feldom 
be fotnd adequate’ to the lofs and inconvenience they have 
occafioned. ‘his is very fatisfactorily accounted for from 
the wantiof fhelter; trees planted in hedge-rows being ex- 
pofed to every inclement blaft, by that means they are de- 


prived of what is very effential to promote their growth, 
and which is in faét the caufe why treesin large plantations 
thrive better than when they are planted fingly ; namely, the 
mutual fhelter which they afford to each other ; it being ob- 
ferved that all trees on the fkirts of plantations are much 
lower than thofe more removed from the extremity ; this 
is owing to their bearing the firft guft of the wiud which 
after being once broken its violence is gradually abated, 
and in proportion as the trees recede from the verge of the 
plantations they feel it lefs, and rifeto a larger fize and di- 
meniions. 

It may be further obferved, that hedge-rows of trees are 
in a fti/l more unprodutive fituation than thofe which form 
the fkirts of a plantation ; the latter being expofed to the 
violence of the wind only when it blows in one direction: 
this is what is generally termed the prevailing wind; when 
the gale is from any other quarter they can hardiy be faid 
to feel it; whereas, hedge-rows are expofed to the ravages 
of every blaft, in whatever direGtion it may blow. There 
are, no doubt, fome favoured fpots where not only hedge- 
rows, but even fingle trees, may thrive and attain a great 
fize, without any protection whatever; the cafes in which 
this happen are, however, but few, and can in no fenfe be 
quoted in fupport cf the general practice of planting trees 
in this manner. Where the practice is adopted, the mew 
thod fhewn at figs. 2. and 3. in the plate may be followed. 

It has been fuggefted by fome, that various forts of 
fruit-trees and fhrubs might be planted in hedge-rows, with 
great profit to the proprietor and farmer, fuch as thofe of 

the plum, bullace, cherry, apple, goofeberry, and filbert 
Kinds. How far any material benefit could be procured in 
this way to the farmer or the nation is uncertain, as few 
trials have yet been made ; but it is well known that where 
trees of any defcription are fet out in hedge-rows, they 
quickly deflroy the hedge-plants which are near them, and, 
of courfe, ruin the fence. And this would certainly be the 
cafe if they were planted in the clofe manner that has 
been-advifed. Befide, hedge-rows formed of fuch forts of 
plants alone would never become fences of any great utility 
in the view of inclofing the lands, except in the 
goofeberry, which has long been known to co 
excellent fence. This plan of raifing fruit is likew 
to various other objections, grounded on the impoflibility 
of protecting the produce. 

Hedge and ditch, or wall, with belt of plant 
fort of fence in expofed fituations is ftrikingly ulefi 
ornamental, while, upon the low grounds, it is not o: 
unneceffary, but in fome inftances abiolutely hurtful. 


ly 


Por 


inftance, in deep and broad valleys furrounded by hills, and 


fheltered from’ fevere blafts, belts of planting are not only 
unneceflary, but even hurtful avd ruinous to the ground 
they occupy, which could certainly be employed to 
greater advantage, and the original expence of inclof- 
ing and planting faved. There are many initances, botis 
in Scotland and England, of low, flat, rich lands being in- 
clofed, and completely prote€ted from the inclemency of 
the weather, without any aid whatever from this fence, 
There are other fituations, however, where, though the lauds 
are very flat, and the foil good, yet, from the want of hills 
and high grounds in the neighbourhood, they are fo much 
expofed to the fea blafts, and a current of air, pafling orer 
a great extent of country without any interruption, that 
the value of the foilis thereby very much diminifhed. The 
eninfula which forms the county of Caithnefs in Scotland 
is a ftriking proof of this: with a foil of a very good qua- 
lity and highly improveable, its value is greatly impaired 
by the cixcumftance of its being fo much expoied to fea 
WiDGS, 


FiEN CE, 


winds, which, coming from a very inaufpicious quarter, and 
blowing over a confiderable extent of country, without 
meeting with any obftacle to break the force or change 
their direction, blow with uncommon feverity ‘and fierce- 
nefs, and in that way are an effeGual check to vegetation. 
There are very extenfive tras in England, in nearly the 
fame fituation, the whole of which might at a fmall expence 
be fheltered and rendered completely produ¢tive, by inter- 
feiing the country in a judicious manner with plantations 
and hedges, either feparately or conjoined, as ih the hedge 
and belt of planting. They-fhould be properly difpofed in 
directions fo as to oppofe the moft injurious and offenfive 
winds, and where their force can be the moft effeQually 
broken and warded off. Acrofs valleys, dips, and expofed 
plains, as well as on the ridges, points, and hangs of hills, 
they may frequently be found particularly beneficial. In 
the formation of them confiderable pains and attention will 
be found neceflary. It is effential that the plants made 
ufe of fhould be well fuited to the nature of the foil and 
expofure. Where the fituations are of the bleak and bar- 
ren defcription, the larch may be mott beneficial as timber, 
but much inferior to the common fir in the view of fhelter 
in the winter feafon, when moft flood in need of. Where 
live ftock are to derive advantage in this way, the plants em- 
ployed fhould be fuch as are clofe at the bottom, otherwife 
mifchief may arife, efpecially to fheep, from fnow driving 
through and drifting on the contrary fide. Where larch is 
uled, therefore, the common fir fhould be had recourfle to 
for the outward margin, which, by being cut or headed 
down to about twelve or fourteen feet, will afford the ne- 
ceffary fhelter for a great length of time, as they would, in 
that cafe, throw out lateral branches, and become feathered 
to nearly the bottom, while the larch, by rifing to confider- 
able height, would leffen the force of the winds above, and 
render the air more mild. 

In lefs expofed fituations the beech, by retaining its 
leaves through the winter feafon while young, conttitutes a 
good plant for this purpofe. Where the foils are deep, 
the oak may alfo be ufed in the fame intention: and the 
holly is a fort of plant that, in particular cafes, is capable of 
application in the fame view. 

In every cafe where it is meant that the hedge and belt 
of planting fhall conititute a durable and efficient fence, it 
muift be made of a certain breadth; from forty to fifty feet 
is the very leaft breadth that fhould be allowed: and in 
cafes where the fituation is very elevated, and the intrinfic 
value of the foil fmall, the belts fhould be three times this 
breadth ; fuch a {pace will allow abundant room for plant- 
ing {uch a number of trees as will, by the mutual fhelter 
which they afford to each other, promote their growth, 
and protect them agaiuft the blafts which are fo feverely 
felt in thofe elevated regions. The more effeCtually 
to promote the defirable purpofe of fheltering the young 
trees, they fhould be planted very thick; perhaps four or 
five times the number that is meant to be allowed to grow 
to the full fize fhould be planted. The expence of the plants 
in the firft inflance will be very trifling, and mueh more than 
repaid by the value of the weedings after they have attained 
a certain age ; with this additional benefit, that the whole 
plantation will grow fafter, and in that way fooner anfwer 
the purpofe of fheltering the lands. Planting an extra 
number of trees is alfo beneficial in another point of view, 
namely, that of affording a choice of the moft healthy plants 
to be left, when the plantation is thinned out at firft. 
This fort of fcreen fence is reprefented at fg. 4. in the 
plate. 

Jt may be remarked that the manner of protecting thefe 


belts is different in different fituations; where wood is plen- 


tifull, a fimple paling, or ditch and paling, forms the fence ; 
where ftone abounds, a wall is frequently made ufe of; but 
in by far the greateft nurhber of cafes the ditch and hedge 
already defcribed, or funk fence with a hedge upon the top, 
are adopted; or any of thefe, when properly executed, 
will anfwer this purpofe extremely well; but as there are 
fome of them better and more durable than others, and a 
permanence ought never to be loft fight of, either in this, 
or any other mode of inclofing, it 1s of confequence to 
fix upon that which unites immediate ufe with durability. 
The ftone wall, funk fence, and ditch and hedge, are cer- 
tainly the moit durable; the two firft are indeed com-= 
plete at once, and every benefit that can be derived from their 
ufe is immediately obtained; the hedge and ditch, on the 
other hand, rifes by very flow degrees, during which the 
belts are expofed both to the weather aud the injuries arifing 
from fheep and cattle breaking into and trampling upon the 
young trees: after all, it is very feldom that ‘a hedge 
which furrounds a belt of planting forms a good or ufeful 
fence, as being very liable to fall into gaps and open places. 
Yences of this nature are obvioufly beneficial in feveral 
different points of view, as, by defending the foil and live 
{tock upon it, from too much cold and expofure; by 
warding and breaking off the more fevere winds and ftorms ; 
and by promoting a general warmth and mildnefs of the 
atmofphere in fuch fituations. : 
Hedge and ditch, or wall with corners planted.—This 
is a mode which is employed upon fome eftates inftead of the 
belt of planting. -Upon an extenfive property, and where 
the‘fields are not very large, it is a mode of inclofing that 
has a good effet upon the feenery of the country, and 
anfwers the purpofe of general fhelter extremely well. It 
certainly has a more pleafing and natural appearance to 
the eye than the {tiff formal look of a number of ftraight 
belts running in parallel lines; it is, however, greatly 
inferior to the belt of planting, for the purpofe of fheltering 
particular fields. But as in every field there is a {pace in.each 
angle that cannot be ploughed, by planting thefe fpaces, 
which would otherwife be left wafte, the country is there- 
by ornamented, and many valuable trees raifed with little 
expence, and with fcarce any wafte of land. This is a 
plan which is particularly recommended in the Stafford fhire 
Report. In every act for an inclofure, let there be,”” fays 
the writer, **a claufe obliging the proprietor of the new 
inclofed land to plant a certain number of oaks in propor 
tion to his fhare of the inclofure, and direéting the planta- 
tions to be made in the angles of the fields; by adopting 
which plan a lefs quantity of pofts and rails would be 
required, and the angles of each field would be converted 
to a profitable ufe, and corn would grow clefe up to the 
rails; whereas uo corn will now grow in fuch angles. 
This is not the only advantage that would arife from this 
plan ; the trees, full grown, would afford good fhade for 
cattle, and an eafy communication through thefe plantations 
would be from field to field. It would alfo be very orna- 
mental to the country.’? Others, however, doubt the 
utility of this practice, as, in point of fa&, the greater 
number of fuch corners are neceflarily occupied by gate- 
ways that could not, without confiderable inconvenience, 
and increafing the farmer’s labour, be made ufe of in any 
other way. ‘The method in which plantations are formed 
is fhewn at jig. 5. in the plate. .. 
Furze, or whin fence.—It is evident that hedges of this 
kind may be had recourfe to with advantage, whenever 
fuch plants are found to grow vigoroufly in a foil; and 
ethers of a better kind cannot be had. Fences of this 
nature 


FEN CE 


attire are mofily made upon mounds or banks of earth by 
- fowing the feed of the plant, Sometimes the bank is only 
floped on one fide, but at others on both; in the former 
cae the front is perpendicular, and faced with turf or 
fone. From thefe fences being raifed fo confiderably 
above the common furface, they are very liable to injury 
from froft and other caufes in fevere winters. Different 
fences of this fort are reprefested at figs. 6. and 7. in the 
late. 

Railing and paling fences.—Thefe are fuch as are con- 
firnéied cf fome fort.of woody material, either ina rough 
or more finifhed manner. In {peaking of paling or timber- 
fences in general, it has been obferved by Mr. Sommerville, 
in hisexcellent eflay on this, fubject, that in all permanent 
plans of inclofure, palings are only to be confidered in a fe- 
’ condary light; for of whatever wood they are made, how- 

ever fubitantially they may be executed, orin whatever fitua- 

tion they are wiaced, their decay commences the initant they 
are erected. The flighteft attention will be fufficient to 
convince every perfon of obfervation of this truth. Where 
jermanent ufe therefore is required, palings ought never to 
be adopted ; but for ornament in pleafure-grounds, or for 
the proteétion of young thorns, they are highly valuable, 

When the different kinds of palings come to be {poken of, 
_ notice will be taken of the mode 4 conftruGing each ; but 

ns there are certain circumftances which may be confidered 

as commor to al! palings, this is judged the moit proper 
place to mention them. 

In all cafes where either dead hedges or palings are ufed, 
the decay and ultimate lofs of the fence is owing to that 
part of it which is let into the ground being retted by the 
moifture. Where dead hedges are planted, it is no eafly 
matter to provide a remedy againit this evil; as the ftems 
are fo numerous, that to give each of them a preparation 
that would completely defend it from the effeéts of moif- 
ture, would be attended with an expence equal :o, if not 
greater than, the value of the fence. Where palings, how- 
ever, are ufed, efpecially the moft expenfive and fubftantial 
kind of them, and fuch as are meant both for duration and 
ornament, it is defirable to prepare the ftandards, or up- 
right parts that are placed in the earth, in fuch a manner 
as call table them to relift the moifture for many years. 
In the fouth of England, the poft is always more bulky at 
the lower end than the upper, and is fixed in the ground by 
digging a hole, placing it therein, ovene the foil in 
gradually, aud ramming it round the poft till it be firmly 
fixed. It has been a practice, time immemorial, to durn or 
char that part of the ftandards or palings intended to be 
fet or driven into the earth: the reafon afligned for this 
practice was, that the fire hardened the parts thus fubje¢ted 
to it, and by rendering them impervious to moifture, made 
them more durable than they would have been without fuch 
operation: but it probably depends upon their being thus 
rendered leis capable of decompofition. The beft defence 
at prefent known againft the effects of the weather is, the 
above writer afferts, the bark of the tree. This covering 
it has from nature, and it is pofleffed of every 1equifite that 
is neceffary, being impregnated with oil, refin, and other 
matters, which fecure it completely, not only again{t moif- 
ture, but other injuries aniting from the operation of air, 
light, heat, &c. ; of this we have ftrong proofs by oblery- 
ing what happens where the bark of any tree is deftroyed, 
by cutting off a branch, or otherwife. If the furface laid 
bare by the wound is confiderable, the body of the tree op- 
pofite to it begins immediately to decay, and continues to 
avatte, unlefs fome covering is made ufe o to fupply the place 
of the bark for that purpofe ; nething has yet been found 

“Vor. XIV. 


fo effectual as a coat either of boiled oil, er of oil-paint, 
which, by completely excluding both air and moifture, not 
only prelerves the tree from rotting, but alfo prevents it 
from bleeding and watting itfelf by an effufion of juices from 
the wound. When trees are cut down and fawn. into 
planks, whether for palings or any other purpofe, where 
they are afterwards to be expofed to the weather, the fame 
thiug happens that we have mentioned as taking place with. 
the growing tree when deprived of its bark, but in a much 
greater degree, as the, whole furface is then without a co- 
vering. ‘l’o preyent this decay the fame remedy fhould be 
applied, viz. paluting the whole of the wood, er otherwife 
filling the pores with oil in fuch 4 manner, as to prevert the 
entrance of moiiture. There are now coarfe oil-paints fold 
of all colours fo cheap, as to enable perfons ereétirg paling=, 
or other works of wood, to paint them at a {mall expence. 
Another very good remedy is to be had at a moderate price, 
(lord Dundonald’s coal-varnihh,) into which, if the poists 
of the ftandards that are to be drove or fet into the earth 
are dipped while the varnifh is boiling hot, it will preferve 
them from the bad effe&ts of moifture for a very long time ; 
previouily to the dipping, they fhou'd be properly fharpened, 
and upon no account whatever charred or burnt, as every 
attempt of that kind will, upon inquiry, be found to in- 
jure the texture of the wood, and haften its decay. This 
application, which has been found highly valuable for mary 
perpofes, and for whieh the noble difeoverer is entitled to 
the gratitude of his country, has ouly one fault ; namely, 
that it does not penetrate deep into the wood, and after be- 
ing laid ona few months, is very apt to fcale and throw off 
with freft, or the aétion of the fun: it has the farther dif- 
advantage of hurting the appearance of the wood, and giv- 
ing it anold, black, decayed look. Common tar, or melted 
pitch, may alfo be fuccefsfully employed for the purpofe of 
defending the extremities of the upright parts of palings 
from moilture : linfeed and train oils may alfo be ufed with 
fuccefs ; the great objeét being to fill the pores completely 
with fome un€tuous or greafy matter, fo as to prevent the 
admiffion of moifture. ‘The poits fhould be completely dry 
before they are dipped in any of thefe preparations ; for if 
they are either made of green wood, or have imbibed much 
moifture, if after being dipped they are expofed to the fun, 
or a fevere froft, the moifture will become fo much expanded 
thereby, as to burft through, and bring off the coat of 
paint and varnifh, &c. ; whereas, when they are made of 
well-feafoned wood, and are at the fame time perfectly dry, 
and the pitch, oil, varnifh, &c. boiling hot, it readily enters 
the pores, and by filling them completely, prevents the ac- 
cefs of moifture, and confequently the injurious effe&ts pro- 
duced by it. 

It is further remarked, that in a few inftances, a 
methed different from many of thefe has been tried, and 
found in fome degree to anfwer. Inftead of fharpening the 
points of the ftandards, they are left of the fame thick- 
nefs at both ends; and the extremities, inftead of being 
drove into the earth in the ordinary way, are let into large 
ftones funk into the earth, with round or fquare holes cut 
in them, of fuch a fize as to admit the round or fquare 
ends of the potts. In this way the upright poits- of 
palings cactus laft longer than when they are drove into 
the earth without any preparation; bnt the difference 
of durability in the twe cafes bears no kind of proportion 
to the difference of expence ; and asthe ftones are funk ints 
the earth, and of courfe within the reach of the moiikure, 
the decay of the paling, though fomewhat protected thereby, 
is in the end equally certain. Upon the whole, when the 
expence and durability of thefe different methads are com- 


paced 


FENCE. 


pared, it will be found by much the beft way to drive the 
ftandards into the earth, after having previoufly prepared 
‘them by dipping the extremities into any of the articles we 
have mentioned, and of which any of the coarfe oils are 
fuppofed by far the beft. In addition to which he has to 
add, that this dipping and preparation fhould be fo applied 
as to rife feveral inches above the furface of the earth after 
the ftandard is drove into the ground; for if no more is 
dipped than what is driven in, the wood will imbibe the 
moifture at the furface, and very foon rot and decay at that 
place. Thus much is neceflary to be faid of the preparation 
of that part of the wood which is drove or fet in the earth. 
To render the whole paling as durable as poflible, it fhould 
receive a covering of lord Dundonald’s varnith, or one of 
the coarfer kinds of oil-paint, or oil. Where ufe only is 
wanted, and the appearance of the paling is not an object, 
a coat of varnifh or oil will anfwer very well, but when a 
paling is made of drefled wood, fubftantially executed, and 
in fight of the road, or of a gentleman’s houfe, it becomes 
neceffary to unite ufe with ornament. In fuch cafes a coat 
ef white or green oil-paint. will defend the wood equally 
well, and look much better ; where it is intended that the 
paling fhould appear vifible at any great diftance, and con- 
vey an idea of inclofure, the white paint fheuld be ufed ; 
but when it is meant to conceal the fence, and give an un- 
broken view of extenfive lawns or pleafure grounds, the 
green paling is preferable; next to the ha-ha, or funk 
fence, it is the beft contrivance for that purpofe, being of 
the fame colour with the grafs, it is not vilible to the eye at 
any great diftance. After having thus mentioned what ap- 
pears moft effential refpecting palings in general, we may 
proceed to notice the different kinds that are made ufe of 
for the purpofe of inclofing land in different circumftances 
and fituations. 

Simple nailed paling.—This is a fort of paling, or rail- 
ing feuce, that conlitts of upright polts drove or fet into 
the earth at certain diftances, and crofled in three, four, or 
more places, with pieces of wood in a horizontal direCtion. 
This defcription of railing, or paling, is for the moft part 

ade of coarfe fawn wood, without any drefling whatever ; 
in Scotland it is, Mr. Sommerville fays, termed a flab-paling, 
and is the one commonly employed for the proteétion of 
hedges, and for ftrengthening ditches, &c. For temporary 
purpoies he thinks it. anfwers extremely well; but that, 
where durability is required, and no other fence is ufed, it 
will be found avery infufficient fort of fence. A method 
es conftrudiing it is fhewn at jig. 8. in the plate. 

This railing is often made with only two horizontal pieces, 
and anfwers well where no great height of fence is required, 
as in defending young thorn hedges, and many other fimilar 
purpofes. It has likewife, in fome cafes, only one longi- 
tudinal piece, fawn in a triangular form, nailed firmly down 
upon the tops of the upright potts. 

Jointed horizontal paling.—This fence confifts of mafly 
f{quare piles, droye or fet into the earth at regular diitances, 
through which mortifes, or openings, are cut, for the ex- 
tremities of the horizontal pieces which traverfe them. 
When properly executed, this fence, it may be obferved, 
has a neat and durable appearance. It is, however, much 
Jefs fo than it appears to be, as the points of the piles drove 
into the earth foon rot, and the mortifes, or openings, cut 
in the body of the piles for the reception ef the horizontal 
pieces, weaken them very confiderably ; fo much fo, that, in 
many inftances, the railings, or palings, decay faft at thofe 
places where the joinings, or mortifes, are made, It may be 
further remarked, that where valuable palings of this kind 
are made, there is an eafy method of faftening the hori 


zontal to the upsight parts of the paling, without cutting 
or weakening any part of the upright poits. This confifts 
in fixing the ¢rofs, or horizontal bars, to the upright pofts 
with iren ttaples. [hefe, while they anfwer every purpofe 
that can be expected, from binding and conneCting the dif- 
ferent parts of the fence; have, it is conceived, not the 
{malleft tendency to diminifh the ftrength, or accelerate the 
decay of any part of the fence. This fort of paling is re- 
prefented at fig. g. in the plate. 4 

Upright lath-paling—This is made by driving or fetting 
anumber of ftrong piles into the earth at regular diftances, 
and crofling thefe at top and bottem, and fometimes in the 
middle, with horizontal pieces of equal {trength; upon thefe 
lait are nailed, at from fix to twelve inches diftance, a num-= 
ber of flat, or {quare pieces of fawn wood, of the fhape and 
fize of the laths that are ufed for the roofs of tiled houfes. 
This fort of paling, when properly executed, looks very 
well; and, notwith{tanding its apparent flightnefs, if well 
fupported by props, or refts, at regular intervals, laftsa long 
while ; and, where there are plantations of young firs in the 
neighbourhood, laths may be made at a trifling expence. 
Yor the protection of young hedges, &c. it will, the writer 
juit mentioned thinks, be found fuperior to almoft every 
other, as the clofenefs of the upright pieces prevents the 
fheep or cattle from putting their heads through between 
them, and cropping the young hedge; an advantage which 
horizontal palings do not poffefs. For gardens it will like- 
wife, it is conceived, be found both ufeful and ornamental, 
and infinitely better adapted to the training of fruit-trees 
and currants than the efpalier-railings commonly ufed, It 
is feen in the plate at fig. 10. 

Horizontal young wood-paling.—Y oung firs, or the thin- 
nings, or weedings, of any other forts of young trees, may 
be beneficially employed in this way. They may be had 
recourfe to with great advantage upon eftates where there 
are extenfive woods, or where they are furrounded by belts ot 
thriving plants; the thinnings of fuch woods, or belts, being 
highly valuable for making fuch palings, efpecially when 
the plantation confilts chiefly of firs; the palings of young 
firs are ef two kinds, either horizontal or upright. The 
horizontal refembles the jointed, dreffed paling, defcribed 
at fig. 9; but the upright is fimilar to the lath-paling, and 
is feen at fig.11. In the reprefentations that are here 
given, the young fir boughs, of which figs. 11. and 12. in 
the plate are formed, have their lateral branches cut off at 
the diftance of about-three inches from the trunks. This 
method. has feveral advantages, as that of rendering them 
ftronger than they can poffibly be when the lateral branches 
are cut clofe by the trank; the labour required to prune 
them is alfo lefs, and they make a better fence than fach as 
are clofe trimmed, as the fharp projecting points prevent 
the fheep or cattle from leaning or rubbing upon them fo 
much as in other cafes, For rough purpofes they anfwer 
perfectly well. 

The upright paling of young firs, reprefented at fig. 12. 
however, in place of being mace in the manner above de- 
{cribed, is fometimes formed by driving the upright parts 
into the eaith, and covering them at the top witha piece of 
flat fawn wood, through which holes have been previoufly 
bored with a large auger, to admit the fharpened points of 
the upright piles: this forms a very neat alia and, when 
well fecured with fpurs, or refts, at the back, lafts a con- 
fiderable length of time withovt the neceflity of being’ | 
much repaired. : . 

Horizontal chain-fence—This is a {pecies of fence which 
is made by fixing a number of {trong fquare pofts, or piles, 
into the earth at regular diftances, in the direétion in which 


5 ; 


Te WG E. 


the fence is to ttn; each of thefe piles has three ftrong 
ftaples, or iron hooks, drove into it on each fide; one near 
the top, one within eighteen inches of the bottom, and 
one in the middle; to thefe ftaples, or hooks, chains are 
fattened and ftretched horizontally, in the fame manner as 
the pieces of wood are in a commén horizontal wooden 
fence. When it is meant that the fence fhould be laid 
open for any temporary purpofe, hooks are drove into the 
ofits in place of ftaples, and the chains hung upon them; 
ee where this is not wanted, the ftaples will be found the 
moft fecure method. In fome cafes the upright parts of 
this fence, in place of wooden-piles, fuch as have been de- 
fcribed, confilts of neat pillars of mafon-work, with hooks 
or ftaples batted into them for faftening the chains to; 
thefe, when properly executed, look extremely well, and 
Taft much longer than the wvoden pofts. In a few inftances 
the purpofe of pofts is anfwered very completely by large 
rowing trees, into which hooks or ftaples are drove, for 
faltening the chains, as in gentlemen’s avenues, public walks, 
&c. For the confinement of horfes or cattle, a chain-fence 
will anfwer very well; and if the pillars are of itone, will 
be very durable, but will be found totally unfit for in- 
clofures, where fheep, hogs, &c. are meant to be paitured ; 
it is befides fo very expenfive, that it can never come into 
eneral ufe. In avenues, however, and public walks, and 
a ftretching acrofs rivers, and pieces of water where there 
are no flood-gates, and where no other fenge can be made 
to complete the inclofure, they will be found preferable to 
every other contrivance that can be had recourfe to. There 
is a fence of this fort reprefented at fg. 1. Plate XXI. 
There are a great many varieties of fences of this defcription, 
fome being made very light, while others have great {trength 
and weight. The chain is ufually procured from the iron- 
monger, being fold at different prices by the pound. 

Net-fertce.—This is a method of fencing chiefly ufed in 
fhrubberies and pleafure-grounds, and contiits, like the lait, 
of a number of fquare piles of wood drove or fet into the 
earth, at regular diltances, each of which has a couple of 
holes bored through it, one at top, and another at botto.n, 
large enough to admit a rope of about twice the fize of a 
man’s finger; thefe ropes, after being drawn through the 
holes, are ftretched the whole length of the fence, and 
well fecured, and upon them a {trong net is faltened, of a 
length and breadth fuited to the fence, either by fewing or 
tying it at regular diltanees with flrong cord or rope-yarn 
at top and bottom; it is farther fecured below by one or 
mere wooden hooks drove into the earth betweea each of 
the piles; this completes the fence; but to render it durable 
not only the piles, but alfo the ret and ropes, fhould be co- 
vered with a ceat or two of good oil-paint. When well 
finifhed this fence has a very pretty appearance, but is neither 
a durable nor ufeful one, as theep and cattle readily entangle 
themfelves in it, and tear and deftroy it with their horns ; 
indeed, in many inftances the fheep get themfelves fo much 
entangled, that in flruggling to difengage themlelves they 
are either much hurt, or entirely ftrangled. In point of 
utility, the net fence has nothing to reeommend it; but asit 
will in many inftances give a neat finifhed Jook to pleafure- 

rounds, it may be worthy of a place among fences of thele 
at A net-fence is fhewn at jig. 2. in the plate. 
The netting employed ix this way is of different fizes and 
weights, being foldin the rope {hops by the pound. 

Rope fence—Vhis is a fence of nearly the fame kind as 
the former, that is, it confilts of upright poits, drove into 
the earth at regular diftances, with holes bored through 
them for the ropes to pafs; in general they conliit of three, 
and in fome.cafes of four, courles of ropes, like the chin 


fence. This can only be ufed for confining cattle or horfes; 
for fheep they will be found quite incompetent : for itretch- 
ing acrofs rivers or pieces of water, as has been noticed 
when {peaking of the chain fence, the ropes will be ufeful.; 
or even for adding to the height of a itone, or turf-wall, 
efpecially the latter, into which if pofts are drove at certain 
diftances, and one courfe ef ropes put through them, fuch 
an addition will render a very infufficient fence fecure aud 
valuable. -One obfervation feems, Mr. Sommerville thinks, 
neceffary upon the fubjeét of this fence, namely, that the 
perforating of the polts for paffing the ropes through 
weakens them confiderably ; notice has already been taken 
of a fimilar mifchief in the jointed horizontal paling, or pofts 
and rails framed, and a remedy pointed oat, wiz. that of 
fixing the crofs bars or horizontal pieces to the upright 
parts by ftaples. In the rope fence this may be reforted to 
with equal advantage, as ftaples or ring-bolts drove into the 
wood anfwer every purpofe, without impairing, in the 
fmalleit degree, the {trength of the poits that are ufed. 
The appearance is not however fo neat in this way, as where 
holes are made in the pofts for the ropes. A fence of this 
defeription is fhewn at fig. 3. in the plate. 

Flake, hurdle, or moveable fence. —This is a fort of fence 
which is feen at fig. 4. in the plate, and 11. and 12. 
in Plate XXII. It has hitherto been principally em- 
ployed in cafes where fheep or cattle are fed with turnips 
in the field, to divide a certain portion off with their foed 
at a time, and in this way they are extremely ufeful, as the 
fheep or cattle, by having a given quantity of food allotted 
them at once, eat it clean up without any lofs, which they 
would not do if allowed to range at large over the whole 
field. There are, however, many other purpofes to which 
flakes may be applied with equal advantage. They forms 
ready method of divifion in all cafes where fmall portions of 
grafs land are to be fed down clofe with fheep, in order te 
render the herbage more fine ; and likewife m arable lands 
under the folding fy{tem, where the improvement of them 
by the manure is chiefly the obje&. See Hurpte. 

Offer, willow, or wattled fence.—This fort of fence is made 
by driving a number of piles of any of the different kinds 
of willow or poplar, about half the thicknefs of a man’s 
wrilt, into the earth, in the direGion of the fence, and at 
the diftance of about eighteen inches from each other. 
They are then twifted, or bound together at different 
places, with {mall twigs of the willows dr poplars, as repre- 
fented in the fketch. This kind of fence has fome advat- 
tages peculiar to itfelf; it not only forms a cheap and neat 
paling, but if it is done either abont the end of autumn, 
er early in the fpring, with willows or poplars that have 
been recently cut down, the upright parts or ftakes will 
take root, grow, and fend out a number of lateral branches ; 
and if pains are taken the following autumn to twift and 
interweave thefe branches properly, a permanent fence, fo 
clofe as to de almoft impenetrable, may be formed in two 
or three years. For the inclofing of marfhy lands, or for 
completing any inclofure, where a part of the line in which 
the tence ought to run is fo wet as to be unfit for the 
growth of thorns, or the building of a wall, the willow- 
paling will be found an exceilent contrivance, and the ufe 
of it will render many inclofures complete, that could not 
otherwife have been formed. This mode of fence is feen at 


Ts: 5. in the plate. 


Growing *tree-fence.—This is a kind of fence which is 
made by planting beech, larch, or other forts of trees in 
the direGtion of the fence, at about a yard diftant from each 
other, more or lefs, as may be thought neceflary ; thefe 
trees fhould be protected by a commos dead paling till the 

Liz are 


(lel a pt COE OR 


are ten or twelve feet high, when they ffould be cut down 
to fix feet, and warped or bound together with willows at 
top, and in the middle; the cutting off the tops will have 
the effe& of making them pufh out a great number of late- 
tal branches, which, if properly warped and interwoven 
with the upright part of the trees, in the manner cefcribed 
for the willow fence, will both have a beautiful effe&t, and 
will at the fame time form a fine fence, which, in place of 
decaying, will grow ftronger with time, and may with very 
little trouble be kept in perfe@ repair for a great length of 
time. In thefe cafes fometimes the fences are formed by 
railings being nailed to the growing trees as pofts, and then 
the living parts warped with them, A fence of this kind 
is hewn at jig. 6. in the plate. . 

* Horsontal and upright foingle fences —Thefe are chiefly 
made of firs, coarfely fawn into deals, of from half an 
inch to an inch thick, and of different breadths, according 
to the diameter of the tree, pretty ftrong fquare poits or 
piles are drove or fet into the earth, and the deals nailed 
horizontally upon them, in fych manner that the under edge 
of the uppermoft deal fhall proje&t or lap over the upper 
edge of the one immediately below it; the fence, when 
finifhed in this manner, will have rearly the fame appearance 
as the bottom of aboat orcutter. ‘Vhis defcription will be 
well underflood by thofe who have been in North America, 
where not only the roofs, but the walls of many of their 
houfes, are made with fhingles. When completed, this 
fence is nearly ag. formidable as a ftone wall, though, as may 
naturally be fuppofed, it is much lefs durable. An upright 
fence is fometimes made with fhingles, which, when pro- 
perly executed, looks extremely well, and is indeed Inghly 
ornamental ; this fence is made by fixing perpendicular potts 
in theearth, nailing three pieces of wood horizontally, and 
covering thefe with fhingles placed perpendicularly ; in this 
eafe the fhingles are not above three inches broad, and the 
extremities of each are pointed at the top. Several fences 
of this kind are to be feen upon the road from Edinburgh 
to Glafgow, efpecially upon the property of fir W. Cun- 
ningham of Livingftone, Walter Campbell, efq. of Shaw- 
field, and fome others. Thefe upright fhingle fences are 
painted white, and have a very handfome appearance. It is 
feldom that inclofures of any confiderable extent have been 
made with thefe fhingle fences: for folds they anfwer ex- 
tremely well, and can be fhifted with as much eafe as flakes 
from one field to another ; they are alfo ufeful for temporary 
purpofes in gardens, &c. and where turnips are eaten with 
fheep upon the field, thefe fhingle fences will be found pre- 
ferable to the common open flakes, from the fhelter they 
afford to the fheep. Thefe fences may be made in many 
fituations with advantage, and are fhewn at figs. 7. and 8. in 
the plate. 


Warped paling fence—This fence confifts of flender . 


pieces of wood drove into the earth, bent down in different 
direGtions, interwoven with each other, and their tops 
faftened together with a flender fort of eddering ; this fence 
refembles the chevaux-de-frife, with this only difference, 
that in place of leaving the points ftanding up, as is the 
eafe with that part of fortification, they are bent down and 
tied together. When made of dead wood this fence is 
equally perifhable with others of the fame defcription ; but 
when made of growing plants it will be found very latting. 
It is feen at_fig. 9. in the plate. 

Thorn hedges are fometimes made in the chequered me- 
thod, and have a curjous, though not melegant appearance, 
while they are perfectly fecure againft mott forts of live 
ftock when perfeétly grown up. They are, hdwever, liable 
to the objections of being more troublefome and expenfive 


in making, andat the fame time apt to be much injured by 
the conftant rubbing of the different parts of the plants 
againft each other. They in this way much fooner fall 
into decay than by the other methods of forming and mae 
naging them, 

Light open paling fence interwoven with thorns, or branches 
of trees. —'This fence differs from the common nailed fence 
already defcribed, only in beiug warped either with thorns 
or the brauches of trees. When properly done it forms at 
once a very complete fence; but, like all fences made with 
dead wood, it will be found very perifhable, and require 
many repairs. It has, however, an advantage, viz. that 
when properly executed, it is proof againft the entrance of 
animals of any kind. It is fhewn at fig. 10 in the plate. 

Wall fences —Thefe are conftru&ed of different forts of 
materials, but ufually of earth, earth and ftone, ftone alone, 
or brick, and are of various kinds ; efpecially“in the ftone walt 
forts, as open, dry, fingle, double, &c. according to the nas 
ture and {ize of the ftones, and the intended ule of the 
fence. In England they are all commonly known by the 
name of qwall/s, but in Scotland, the firft forts more fre- 
quently by the title of dikes. They are for the moft part 
good fences, though fome of them, as thofe of the earthy 
kinds, are not by any means durable, therefore fhould not 
be formed where other better forts can be had recourfe to. 
The {tene wall fences are the moft ufual fort in mountainous 
{tony fituations, where fhelter‘is not particularly requifite, 
and are commonly the moit adapted to fuch expofed regions. 
They are likewife often met with in lower expofures, where 
the diftri€ts abound with fuch materials, as on the borders 
of rifing grounds ; but in fuch places their appearance is by 
no meaus pleafing. 

By running dry, or fingle fone walls up in as iat a manner 
asthe nature of the ttones will admit, the advantages of 
their being lefs apt to be thrown down by winds, andat the 
fame time to their being fealed by fheep, are gained in 
fome fituations. In thefe cafes they fhould only, however, 
be coped with loofe ftones. 

Dry fene walls.—In the conftru&tion of dry fone walle 
it is in general eflential that the ftones be either taken from 
a quarry, or confift of the largeft land-ttones broken in fuck 
a manner as that they may havea good flat furfaee, in order 
that they may bind well ; thatthey be built by mafons; aad 
well pinned ; that they have as dry and deep a foundation 
as poflible, in order to guard againtt frofts, &e.; that they 
be made wide at the bottom, and tapering upwards to about 
the breadth of ten inches, when the coping is to be applied ; 
that the eoping confift of materials that cannot be readily 
overturned or removed ; as upon the manner in which it is 
finifhed much of the future value and durability of the wall 
will be found to depend. 

It is obferved that dry ftone walls are fometimes ere&ed 
by common labourers, with the round itones gathered from 
the fields, and coped with fod; in other cafes they are 
made with quarried ftones, upon which fome pains have 
been beftowed to put them into proper fhape; a third kind; 
known by the name of Galloway dike, and fo denominated 
from the circum(tance of its being originally ufed in that 
county, The firft of thefe, viz. the wall er dike made 
with round or land {tones by labourers, and covered with a 
coping of fod, is, it is faid, a very indifferent fence. In 
moftinitances itis not only very ill conitruéted as to fhape, 
being of one uniform thicknefs from top to bottom, but the 
ftones, from their round figure, do not prefent a fufficient 
furface to each other, to bind and give ftability to the buildé 
ing. ‘This fence has long been known, and is {till very coms 


mop,in the remote parts of the country, upon eftates where. 


2 


” 


=, 


FEN CE. 


the: firft rude: effay is made in the way of improvement, and 
where mafoas cannot readily be had. In fuch fituations it 
has atwo-fold benefit ; the furface is cleared of many {tones 
that would otherwife have prefented a confiderable obltacle 
to its cultivation, and the field is at the fame time inclofed ; 
ut though thefe objets are accomplifhed for a time, their 
benefit isnot permanent, asthe wall is perpetually tumbling 
down ; even the cattle rubbing againit it make confiderable 
gaps in many places; in that way great troubie and ex- 
de are annually required to keep it in repair. A dry 

one wall, coped with brick, is fhewn at fig. 11; and at 
fg. 12 the fame fort of wall covered with a coping of 
turt. 

It is afferted, that when the ffenes with which dry walls 
are built are quarried, and done by fiilful mafons, broad 
at bottom, tapering gradually upwards, and finished at the 
‘top with fubftantial coping, the fence has a very neat ap- 
pearance, and has been known to laft thirty and even forty 
years without repairs. A good foundation is highly eflen- 
tial in the conftruction of this fence ; from nine to twelve 
inches is the fmalleft depth that it fhould be below the com- 
mon furface, efpecially if the foil is open and porous, and the 
Jargeft and heavieft {tones fhould always be laid undermoft. 
Incafes where the materials do not require to be brought 
from any great diftance, a hundred yards in length, by fix 
feet in height of fuch a wall, may be built for 18/. or 20/. 
‘There is one other material point in the building of thefe 
forts of walls, whichis, that they be well kept together by 
the judicious placing of the longeit {tones. 

It is cuftomary in fome parts of England to plant ivy 
both upon their dry-ftone walls, and upon fuch as are con- 
ftruéted of flone and clay ; this has a good,effeét, not only 
in point of appearance, but, after a while, it binds and 
‘ftrengthens them very confiderably, There are feveral kinds 
of ivy, viz. the large and the {mall-leaved, the dark green and 
the variegated, all of which look well; thofe kinds, how- 
ever, fhould have a preference that grow fatteft, and 
have the greateft tendency to afcend. Particular care 
fhould be taken, we are however told, not to plant ivy ia the 
immediate neighbourhood of young trees or hedges, as, next 
to mofs, nothing can be more de{tructive to trees or hedge- 
plants than this. 

It is noticed that where dry-ftone walls are built, that 
which we have jult defcribed deferves a preference on account 
of its neatnefs and durability. It is not only much cheaper 
than one made with ftone and lime, but is equally ufetul, 
Yooks as well, and admits of being pra@tifed in many fitua- 
tions, where lime is either exceedingly {carce, or not attain- 
able but at an enormous price. In many cafes it is common, 
after raifine this wall to the wifhed-for height, to level the 
top of it withloofe ftones, andleave it in that fituation without 
any coping or other fecurity. The confequence is what 
might naturally be expected, the firft perfon who attempts 
to climb over it, or the fir horfe or bullock that puts its 
head over the top, or attempts to rub itfelfagaintt it, infal- 
libly throws down a part of the ftones, and in that way the 
fence is gradually deftroyed ; whereas, when a fubltantial 
coping of ftone and lime ts given, the wall is fo completely 
bound together and confolidated at top, as to bid defiance 
to any common injury. The copings of turf and mud, io 
common in many places, are by no meauis entitled to appro- 
bation ; for though they may for a fhort time fecure the top 
of the building they foon decay, and cannot be procured 
but. by paring and cutting off the adjoining furtace ; for thefe 
reafons, turf or mud copings are improper, even upon dry 
ftone walls ; upon thofe made with jtone and lime, or ftoue 


and clay, as we fhall afterwards have occafion to notice,- 
they are wholly to be rejected 2s ufelefs. 

Such perfons as are incliuedto raife fences of the fone 
wall def{cription, fhould carefully examiné thofe that have 
been built-in their immediate vicinities; and afterwards de- 
termine upon the modes of conftruétion and dimenfions which 
may feem the moft luitable and proper, under the different 
circumttances, confulting thereafter with proper workmen 
in re{peét to their building, having previoufly their eftimates, 
as is the cafe in other forts of ereétions of this nature. 

Stone and lime walls.—With regard to ftone and lime 
walls, in order to render them durable, they fhould be 
conftructed in the manner above defcribed for dry-ftone 
walls; that is, have a good foundation, deep enough to 
prevent them from being hurt by froit, with a broad bafe, 
tapering gradually upwards. This fence, when propzrly 
executed, is, next to hedges, the moit durable of any; it 
is, however, very expenfive ; and its fuperiority over the 
dry-ftone wall is fo trifling in point of durability, as to ren- 
der the latter the moft eligible, it being greatly cheaper, and 
anfwering every purpofe of a fence equally well. For the 
building of this wall, {tones taken from the quarry are to 
be preferred to the common land-ftones ; for though a 
mafon may be able to remedy, in fome meafure, the inequali- 
ty of furface in land-ftones, by mixing plenty of lime with 
them, yet experience proves, that walls made with fuch 
itones, notwith{tanding every care on the partof the builder, 
are much lef{s perfect, and laft a much fhorter time than where 
quarried {tones are employed. This, like every other {tone 
fence, fhould be fecured at the top with a fubftantial coping 
of ftone and lime; the beft and molt durable is, it is faids. 
that which is made with ftones of the flag kind, laid toge- 
ther in the form here reprefented .“\; the {pace between 
them being filled witha mixture of {mall. ftones and mortar. 
This coping, from its wedge-like fhape, and the folid impe- 
netrable furface which it prefents to the weather, feems 
the beft calculated of any for the prefervation of the build~ 
ing. When a ftone and lime wall is left without a coping, 
which is too often the cafe, the moifture finds its way readi- 
ly into the heart of it; it is, befides, liable to all thofe ac~ 
cidents already mentioned in {peaking of dry-ftone walls, 
when they are left without a coping. When itone and lime 
walls are built, the feafon of the year at which the work is 
done is none of the leaft important confiderations ; for if 
they are erected either at a late period of the autumn, during 
the winter, or very early in the f{pring, the froft aGting 
upon the moilture contained in the lime will feparate and 
difunite its parts, and by that means deftroy the cohefion of 
the building ; the binding power of the lime, in fuch cafes, 
is entirely loft, and when fummer arrives it refembles dry 
fand mixed with the ftones. Late inthe {pring, during the 
fummer, orearly in the autumn, feems to be the moft pro- 
per time for building {tone and lime walls; at any, or all of. 
thefe periods, there is every profpe& of the lume drying pros 
perly, and not the {mallett rifk of its binding quality being 
hurt by the effe&s of froit, or other caufes. of that. nae 
ture. - 

Galloway dike, or wall.—The Galloway dike, as has been 
already noticed, owes its name to the circumftance of its 
being firft ufed as a fence in that,part of the country, It 
is now, however, very common in moft parts of Scotland, 
and in fome of the Englith counties. It is principally em- 
ployed for inclofing high grounds that are depaftured with 
fheep, tor the confining. of which it feems well calculated. 
From two feet to two and a half at the bottom, it is built 
in a regular, compact manner, with dry tones, in rte 
refpe 


et 


FEN <'£. 


rofpect the fame asa dry-flone wall, with a broad bafe, ta- 
pering gradually upwards; the building is then levelled 
with a courfe of flat flores, refembling a coping in fuch a 
manner as that thefe flags, or flat ftones, will project two or 
three inches over the wall on each fide. Above thefe flat 
itones is laid a courfe of rugged round ones, placed upon 
each other in a way fecure enough to give ftabitity to the 
building, but at the fame time fo open as to leave a con- 
fideralle vacuity between cach; by which means a free paf- 
fage is aforded to the light and wind, which blows through 
them witha violent whiltling noife. ‘Vhis rough open part 
of the building is generally raifed three feet above the re- 
gular part of it, gradually tapering upwards, till it termi- 
nates in atop of about nine inches broad, every courfe of 
the rough {ttones being {maller than that immediately be- 
neath it. ‘lhe tottering appearance is fo well calculated to 
prevent theep, cattle, or other animals from approaching it, 
that it is feldom indeed that any attempt is made to leap 
over it. This cireumftaace, together with the eafe with 
which the ftones are procured, in moit fituations where the 
Galloway dike is uied, render it a valuable fence. The 
expence of erecting it will be very different in different 
tuations, according to the eafe or difficulty of procuring 
itones, the price of labour in the country, and other cir- 
cumitanees. In maay cefes where the fields to be inclofed 
are infeited with large itones, the removal of which ought 
always to be a previous ftep in every plan of improvement, 
the inclofure may be made for a trifle, merely for the ex- 
pence of mafon-work, In no inttance ean it be dear, and 
in moit fituations, where the confinement of the {tock, or 
the partition of a crop, are the fole objects, this will be 
tound te anfwer the purpofe equally well, if not better, than 
more expenfive fences. It has, however, one defect, it is 
obferved, in common with all other ftone fences, viz. that 
jt neither fhelters nor ornaments the country; indeed, in 
point of fhelter, it is the moft defeAive of any 4 for com- 
pact {tone walls, of a proper height, are capable of afford- 
ing Gontiderable fhelter to the grazing ftock in flormy, in- 
clement weather, an advantage which cannot poffibly be 
expected from the Galloway dike, on account of its open- 
nefs. On that account it appears much more eligible for 
the lower parts of the country, where the land is valuable, 
where little fhelter is required, and where the confinement 
of the ftock, or the protection of the crop, are the fole ob- 
jeGts to be confidered in the bufinefs. 

The advantages of {tone fences of every defcription are, 
it may be remarked, very confiderable ; they not only form 
complete inclofures at once, and by that means allow the 
proprietor to enter into immediate poffeffion of every ad- 
vantage that can arife from the incloling of his fields, but 
by the little room they occupy, a coniiderable proportion 
ef land is faved that would have been occupied by fome 
other fences; and even that proportion of foil near the fides 
of ftone walls, which is at prefent, for the mott part, walte, 
admits of being profitably employed, either in raifing grain, 
potatoes, or other vegetables; and the walls, as we have 
already obferved, may be ufefully employed im rearing of 
fruit-trees, or the different kinds of currants, goofeberries, 
&c. To thefe benefits we have, however, to oppofe fome 
defe&s. The beft and moft fubftantial fences of this de- 
Scription are perifhable in a greater or lefs degree, according 
to the materials of which they are made, and the judgment 
fhewn in their conftru@ion, and, after a certain time, re- 
quire confiderable attention and expence to keep them in 
repair; the fhelter they afford to the ftock, crop, or pal- 
ture, is alfo fmall, and in place of improving the feenery 


‘they are injurious toit. This defcription of fence is fhewn 


at Plate XXII. fig. 1. 

Stone and clay walls.—In the conftru€tion of walls of 
ftone and clay, the clay is ufed like lime, and is meant to 
anfwer the fame purpofe. It requires flender obfervation 
to convince intelligent perfons, that a wall made with fuch 
materials, in the ufual way, cannot but be an ordinary one ; 
for if the clay made ufe of in building the fence has been 
very moift, the fummer’s heat will dry it fo much, as to leave 
confiderable chafms in the budding ; thefe chafms muft ne- 
ceflarily deprive many of the ftones of that fupport which 
they require, and in that way endanger the building. This; 
however, is not the only inconvenience with which this kind 
of wall is attended; the effect of the fummer’s fun upon 
the clay parches it fo completely, that when the wet weather 
commences about the end of autumn, it abforbs the moif- 
ture like afponge, and if it is overtaken by froft while in 
that f{tate, the fabric fwells, burfts, and tumbles down. 
Even with the very beft coping that can be given it, a ftone 
and clay wall mutt, it is remarked, always be confidered as 
a very exceptionable fence, as, however well it may be de- 
fended at top, the moilture will penetrate at the fides ; if 
it is left without a cope, however, or is only coped with 
mud or fod, the evil will be greater, as the moifture will, in 
that cafe, find a veady paffage downwards, and in that way 
aecelerate the deftruétion of the wall or fence. 

And walis of {tone and clay dafhed with lime differ in no 
refpe& from that juft now deferibed, except in the harling or 
dafhing that ts given them. Where that operation is well 
performed, and at a proper feafon of the year, the coating 
of lime, by preventing the entrance of moifture, will add 
greatly to the durability, as well as beauty of the wall; fo 
much fo indeed, that fome fences made in this way, when 
the clay was properly tempered, and did not contain too 
much moiiture, and where a harling or dafhing of lime was 
afterwards given, have been known to laft nearly as long as 
walls made entirely from {tone and lime. The durability of 
this, as well as the foregoing fence, however, depends upon 
its being properly coped or covered at the top with fome 
proper material. 

Dry frone walls lipped with lime.—Thiele differ from the 
ordinary dry-{tone walls in having about two or three 
inches of them on each fide lipped with lime, which gives 
them the appearance of being built entirely with flone and 
lime. Where the external appearance of a fence is an ob- 
je@, fomething is gained Ly this practice ; in point of real 
duration, however, they feem to poffefs very little advan- 
tage over the common dry-ftone walls, which, when properly 
executed, laft equally long with them. 

Dry fone walls lipped and harled.—Thefe are much the 
fame, nothing more being added than a harling or dafhing 
of lime after the other work is finifhed: this addition is to 
be confidered merely as an improyement upon their appear- 
ance, and not as contributing to increafe their utility, or 
render them more durable as fences. 

Dry fone walls pinned azd harled—Thele are much the 
fame ; the mafon only carefully pins or fills up all the inter- 
{tices of the building with fmall ones, after they have been 
built in the ordinary way, amd afterwards dafhes or harleg 
them over with lime. The pinning, by filling up every 
vacant {pace, and affordisg complete fupport to the ftones 
in every part of the furface, adds coafiderably to the dura- 
bility of the building, and the harling afterwards gives the 
whole a finifhed, fubftantial appearance, which renders 
them at once agreeable to the eye, aud lafling as fences. 

Dry flone walls, with light paliags upon the top.—Thefe 

are 


FEN Cf. 


are fometimes made, and for particular purpofes anfwer well, 
and have a handfome appearance when well executed, but 
they are expenfive, This fort of fence is fhewn at fig. 2. 
in the plate. 

Brick walls.—Vhefe forts of fences aye feldom had re- 
@ourfe to for ordinary inclofures, except in fituations where 
{tones are extremely fearce ; as is the cafe in many of the 
Englith counties, for pleafure grounds, or for garden walls. 
Where brick walls confift of bricks only, they are built 
either with the brick on edge, in bed, or acrofs. When 
the wall is built with bricks on edge, they are Jaid up with 
the edge or narrowett part of each applied to the other; 
the thickneds of the brick in fuch a cafe conftitutes the 
thicknefs of the wall. When brick in bed is ufed, the 
bricks are laid flat, and the thicknefs of the wall is pro- 
portioned to the greateft breadth of the brick. When they 
are laid acrofs, the thicknefs of the wall is then equal 
oa length of the brick thaf is employed for the pur- 

ofe. 
: It may be obferved, that the moft valuable ufe to which 
bricks are applied, is either for facing walls built with coarfe 
ftones, for gardens, or for heightening old itone walls; for 
the firft purpofe they are an excellent article ; and any wall 
fronted with brick is, for the purpofe of rearing fruit trees, 
of equal value with one of the mot expenfive hewn ftone. 
Where it is intended to heighten a ftone wall that is too 
fiender to bear aheightening of ftone, bricks either in bed, 
or en edge, will anfwer the purpofe very effectually, without 
rendering the wall top-heavy. It is to be noticed, however, 
that in every cafe, either where a wall is made entirely of 
brick, or heightened with it, there will be a neceffity for 
flrengthening it at the back with pillars at certain diftances 
from each other, as reprefented at figs. 3. and q. in the 
plate. Thefe will add to the ftability of the building, and, 
if properly executed, will render it equally durable with a 
ftone wall. For hot walls they are very valuable, as they 
not only, by their numerous feams, allow the trees to be,re- 
gularly and neatly trained, but are at the fame time ex- 
tremely convenient for fhaping the flues that condu@ the 
heat. Where the price of labour is low, and clay of a pro- 
per quality, together with fuel, can be ealily obtained, 
bricks may be ufed with advantage for almoft any purpofe 
where {tone is at prefent employed: we believe, however, 
that their ufe wili be chiefly confined to the facing of gar- 
den walls, to the walls of hot-houfes, to hot-walls, or the 
heightening of old flone walls; in all of which they will 
be very valuable, and will, at a {mall expence, anfwer the 
fame purpofe as ftone that has been prepared by hew- 
ing. From the increefed duties upon them they are now 
become, however, by no means a cheap material, A 
wall conitruéted with bricks is thewn at fy. 5. in the 

late. 
7 The copings of walls of this defcription are formed in va- 
rious ways. In fome inftances they are made with common 
brick fet up in fuch a manner as to form an angle upon the 
top; in others, with a fort of tiles refembling the letter A, 
flat below and angular above, with a border projecting a 
little over the wall on each fide. In many parts of the 
kingdom this fort of coping is found to anfwer the pur- 
pofe very effeftually ; in fome cafes it is, however, made 
quite flat, but which is difapproved of, on account of its 
not affording fo ready a defcent to the moijture, which is 
apt to hang upon it for that reafon. 

~ Brame wall—tt is a kind of wall which is conflruced itr 
the following method : a frame of deal boards, of a width 
and height fuited to that of the intended fence; is formed 
aud placed upon the line in which it is deligned to be thade, 


a) 


the foundation having been previoufly dug in a proper man» 
ner, ‘This frame is then filled with ftones of all forts, ga- 
thered moftly from the neighbouring lands; and, when 
filled in this way to the top, a quantity of liquid mortar is 
poured in amongit them, fufficient to fill up every interftice, 
the whole being fuffered to continue in that. ftate until it is 
fuppofed that the mortar has acquired a proper degree of 
firmnefs to give {tability to the building, which, in the dry 
funimer feafon, will not be longer than a dayortwo. The 
frame is then removed and placed a little farther on the fame 
line, in fuch a way, as that ene end of it may join immedi- 
ately with that part of the work from which it has been re- 
moved. In this way the line of fence is gradually com- 
pleted, which, when the lime has been well tempered, and 
the proper pains taken to incorporate it with the ftones, 
prefents a fmooth uniform furface, and has the ap pearance 
of being a firm fubftantial fence. 

Turf walls.—Fences of thefe kinds are common in moft 
of the hills and upland fituations of the kingdom, being 
found convenient for temporary purpofes. They are fre- 
quently ufed for inclofing fields in particular diftriéts, being 
had recourfe to in an extenfive manner: while, in others, 
they are employed for the forming of pens, folds, and other 
places for confining different forts of live ftock during the 
night feafon. In commen they are made fimply of turf, 
which is pared off from the adjoining furface, and ufed with- 
out any mixture of earth ; but in other cafes the wall cone 
fifts of a facing of turf on each fide, while the {pace between 
is filled up with loofe earth. 

For inclofing, when durability is required, this is a fort 
of fence that can never, however, be had recourfe to with 
propriety, as, from the very moment it is finifhed, its decay 
commences, and no pains or attention will be able to keep 
it in repair, after it has ftood two or three years : in very 
expofed fituations, however, it may be ufeful as a proteGtion 
for young hedges during the firit three or four years of 
their growth ; but, as a wall of this kind can in no inftance 
be made without a great deftruGtion of the adjoining furface, 
which, upon good land, is a ferious lofs, the proteétion of 
young hedges will be anfwered egually well by low ftone 
dikes, which, while they perfc& the inclofure, will, at the 
fame time, fhelter the young plants, and clear the field of the 
{tones it may be incumbered with. This fort of turf fence 
is fhewn at fig. 6. in the plate. 

Stone and turf walls.—Thefe are alfo very common forts 
of fenees in many fituations, where better and more durable 
ones could be made at equal, perhaps lefs, expence. In many 
inftances, however, they are had recourfe to from necellity, 
where lime is either very dear, or not attainable at anv price. 
The {tones ufed in the conttru€tion of fences of this kind 
are in general the ordinary land-ftones; with thefe, and 
the turf taken from the adjoining furface, the walls are made, 
ufing alternate layers of each. For temporary purpofes thia 
fort of fence may be adopted in almott every fituation, zs 
it is reared at {mall expence, and the materials are every 
where to be met with almoft without trouble; but in. alk 
cafes where permanent fences are wanted this will be found 
very deficient and inferior even to the common turf-wall ; 
for, by the intervention of ftones between every layer of 
turf, the fod is dried, the plants die, the turf, as might nas 
turally be expected, foon decays,and the wall crumbles downg 
whereas, when it is built entirely of turf, with a floping 
bank of earth behind, the herbage continues growing, aad 
the whole turf, of which the wall is made, foon confolidates 
into an uniform green fod, which, with proper care, will lait 
a confiderable length of time. A fence of the ftone and 
turt kind is thewn at fy. 7, ie the plate. 


Mud-walley 


FEN 


Mud-walls, with a mixture of fraw.—Thefe kinds of 
walls are very frequent in many parts of England, not only 
for furroendiieheee fmall inclofures and ftack-yards, but 
alfo for conftruéting the walls of many~-of their farm- 
houfes, cottages, and offices. In North Britain they are 
ufed alfo for fimilar purpofes, and for fub-dividing houfes 
into different apartments, for which purpofe they anfwer 
equatly well as lath and plafter, and are nearly as durable. 
They are a fort of cab-dad fences. 

It may be remarked that, when either the outfide walls, 
er the infide divifions of a houfe, are made of thefe 
materials, the enftom is to take a fmall quantity of itraw, 
snd incorporate it with a fufficient proportion of clay; the 
4ftraw in this cafe anfwers the fame purpofe as hair in plafter- 
lime. When a fufficient number of thefe are made, the 
work is begun, by laying a ftratum at the bottom of the 
intended wall; when this is done, aud the different pieces 
firmly kneaded or wrought together with the hand, a flat 
deal board is applied on each fide, which being properly 
preffed and rubbed againft the buildings in a horizontal 
direétion, not only ferves to confolidate the work, but gives 
it a degree of {moothnefs and uniformity : fueceflive ftrata 
are added till the wall is raifed to the intended height, taking 
care to taper it gradually upwards. Walls made in this 
way, if properly conftiucted, will laft for many years, and if 
dafhed or harled with lime, at a proper feafon of the year, will 
have an appearance no way inferior to fuch as are made with 
ftone and lime, along with this addition to their appearance: 
the harling or dafhing with lime if properly done, will, by 
preventing the accefs of moifture, render them much more 
durable. When walls of mud and ftraw are to be made, pieces 
of wood, properly joined and fecured, fhould be fet up im the 
direction in which the fence is to ran. hefe fhould be in 
the form of a double paling, and calculated to anf{wer the 
fame purpofe as the ttandard employed in making brick divi- 
fionsin a dwelling-houfe ; the upright parts fhould be placed 
in {uch a manner as to be immediately oppofite to each other, 
and ata diftance equal to the thicknefs of the intended 
wall, Thefe ftandards will not only render the fence firm 
and more durable, but, at the fame time, ferve as a direétion 
to the workmen in keeping it of a regular thicknefs and 
fhape. In England, where {tones are {carce, and in many 
of the counties not to be had, walls of this defcription are 
the fine qua non for many purpofes, and when, properly con- 
ftruéted, lait a confiderable time ; but in every inftance where 
ftoues are procurable at a reafonable price a fence made with 
them is greatly to be preferred, as it is in general built 
with lefs trouble and expence, and is at the fame time more 
firm and durable. At beft it is, however, of a very 
perifhable nature, and the great expence required to keep 
up fuch fences has long fince taught both proprictors and 
occupiers that they are by much the moft expenfive of any. 
Fig. 8. difplays a fence of this nature. 

Th the conftru€ting of all forts of ftone walls, it is of 
effential confequence that they be carried up in a regular 
manner, which is beft performed by having recourfe to a 
proper plumbing frame. One which has been found to 
anfwer this purpofe perfeCly is reprefented at fig. 9. in the 

late. 

F Inthe raifing of both fingle and double ftone walls, it isa 
matter of great importance to give them a proper tapering 
form upwards, or what the workmen call «* batter,” which 
is gradually narrowing them as they rife in height. This is 
safually done in the proportion of about one inch to every 
foot in height on eaeh fide, which is diftinétly fhewn 
in the feGtion of a dry ftone wall given at fig. 10. inthe 


plate, 


FEN 


Tt is a matter of very great importance to the proprietors 
and occupiers of land, that the fences of farms, whatever 
their nature may be, fhould be in a good condition, and 
well kept in repair, as without attention in thefe different 
re{pects ferious injuries mut be conftantly fultained by them, 
The moft convenient and eafy method of effecting thefe 
ends is, probably, that of annually going over a certaiu extent 
of them, in proportion to the nature and fize of the farm, 
as, by fuch a practice, there will never be more to be done ia 
any one year than can be ealily accomplithed. See In= 
cLrosinc of Land, and Canav. 

Fencs-Month, (menfis prohilitionis, ov menfig vetitus,) is 
a month wherein the female deer fawn; for which reafon it 
it unlawful to hunt in the foreit during that time. 

It begins fifteen days before Midfummer, and ends fifteen 
days after, being in all thirty days. 

There are alfo certain fence or defence months, or fea- 
fons for fifh, as well as wild beafts, as appears by ftat. 
Weitm. a. cap. 13. in thefe words: 

se All waters, where falmons are taken, fhall be in defence 
for taking of falmon, from the nativity of our Lady, unto 
St. Martin’s day, And likewife, young falmons {hall not 
be taken or deflroyed by uets, &c. from the midft of April, 
to the nativity ef St. John Baptif,’’ &c. 

FEN-CHOUL, in Geography, a town of China, of the 
third rank, in Tche-kiang; 25 miles N.N.W. of Yeu- 
tcheou. . 

FENCING, the art of defence, or of ufing the fword,; 
to Soon an enemy, and preferve ons’s felf from his at- 
tacks. 

Fencing is one of the exercifes learnt in the academies, 
&e. 

The art of fencing is acquired by praCtiling with foils, 
called in Latin rudes; whence fencing is alfo denominated 
gladiatura rudiaria, 

Pyravd affures us, that the art of fencing is fo highly 
efteemed in the Ealt Indies, that none but princes and no- 
blemen are allowed to teach it. Thefe mafters wear a badge 
or cognizance on their right arms, called in their lan- 
guage efaru, which is put on with great ceremony, like 
the badges of our orders of knighthood, by the kings 
themfelves. 

Montaigne informs us, that when he was a youth, the 
nobility all fhunned the reputation of being good fencers, as 
fomething too fubtle and defigning, and apt to corrupt vir- 
tuous manners, 

Fencing is divided into two parts, /imple and compound. 
Simple is that performed dire&ly and nimbly, on the fame 
linc; and is either offéafive, or defenfive. The principal 
object of the firft is whatever may be attempted, in pufh- 
ing, or making pailes, from this or that point, to the moft 
uncovered part of the enemy. The fecond confifts in par- 
rying, and repelling the thrufts aimed by the enemy. 

The compound, on the offenfive fide, includes all the pof- 
fible arts and inventions to deceive the enemy, and make 
him leave that part we have a defign on, bare and unguarded, 
upon finding we cannot come at it by force, nor by the 
agility of the fimple play. ba 

The principal means hereof are feints, appeals, or appels, 
which confift in.afudden beat of your blade on the contrary 
fide to that on which you join your adverfary, anda quick 
difengagement to that fide again, clafhings, and entanglings, 
of the {words, half-thrufts, &c. and in the defenfive, to 
puth in parrying. Borsi!! 

The proper attitude in fencing is to hold the head upright, 
though the body hath an inclination forward on a lenge, 
and all the weightzrefts on the left haunch when on guard. 

The 


‘ 


FEW 


The feet, hand, body, arm, and fword, muft be to the line. 
For an explication of other terms in this art, fee the articles 
Bear, Caveatrinc, FLranconapt, Grizape, Lock, 
Lurcuy Turust, &c, 

FEND, in the Sea Languaage, imports the fame as de- 
jend. ence the phrafe fending the boar, &e. that is, faving 
it from being dafhed againit the rocks, ‘hore, or fhip’s fide. 
Hence alfo 

Fenpers, any pieces of old cable-ropes, or billets of 
wood, &c. hung over the fhip’s fide, to fend or keep other 
fhips from rubbing againit her; or to prevent her from 
ftriking or rubbing againit a wharf or quay. 

» Fenper- Polis. See Bours. 

| FENDUE EN Pat, in Heraldry, a French phrafe, ap- 
plied to a erofs, to denote it cloven down from top to bot- 
tom, and the parts fet at fome diftance from one another. 

FENEGUE-HOTUN, in Geography, a town of Chinefe 
DPartary; 360 miles E.N.E. of Peking. 

FENELON, Francis pe 'Sauienac pe tA Motre, 
in Biography, the celebrated archibifsop of Cambray, and 
pre-emmently diftinguifhed amo-gy his contemporaries, was 
defcended from an ancient family, and born at the calle of 
Fenelon, in Quercy, in the year 1651. ‘The charge of his 
education, which, till his r2th year, was domettic, and pro- 
fecuted for fome time in the univerfity of Calrors, was after- 
avards undertaken by his uncle, the marquis of Fenelon, a 
man no lefs diftinguifhed by his piety than by his valour. 
At an early age our Fenelon made a rapid progrels in litera- 
ture, and being defigned for the ecclefialtical profeffion, he 
became a popular preacher in his 1gth year. His uncle, 
dreading the pernicious influence of popular applaufe on an 
youthful mind, endued with fineular fenfibility, placed him 
under the tuition of M. ‘lronfon, the excellent {uperior of 
the congregation of St. Sulpice, who guarded him by his 
admirable inttruGtions and difcipline from the danger to 
which he would otherwife have been expofed. Between 
the pupil and the preceptor, in this {tate of feclufion from 
the world, an attachmert was formed which terminated 
only with their exiftence; and it appears from letters that 
are extant how highly he refpeéted the guide and guardian 
of his earlier years, and with what grateful fenfibility he 
acknowledges his uncle’s wifdom and kindnefs in placing 
him ima fituation fo favourable to his improvement both 
in knowledge and piety. Atthe age of 24, Fenelon entered 
into holy orders, and began to exercife the moft laborious 
offices of his miniftry in the parifh of St. Sulpice. During 
his refidence in this {chool of genuine and elevated piety, 
for fuch it was at the period to which we refer, his ardent 
mind formed and cherithed a defign, which {ome may pro- 
bably conceive to be romantic and extravagant ; for it was 
nothing lefs than that of joining the miffion to Canada, with 
a view to the inftru€tion of the barbarous natives in the 
truths of the gofpel. This project, however, being de- 
feated by the authority of his uncle, the bifhop of Sarlat, 
he foon afterwards folicited to be fent on a fimilar errand to 
the Levant; but this defign was never executed. An ac- 
cupation fomewhat analogous was found for him by M. de 
Hiarlai, archbifhop of Paris, who, apprized of his difpo- 
{itionand charaéter, named him fuperior of the New-Catho- 
lics, and of the fifters of Magdalen of Traifnel, while he 
was yet only 27 years of age; an employment which was 

* ufually entrufted to ecclefiaftics of mature experience, and 
who had grown old in the moft delicate funétions of the 
miniftry. The object of this inilitution, in which the filters 
were bound by no vows, was to confirm the new converts, 
and to:{upply inftruGtion to thofe who were defirons of 
becoming profelytes. ‘The recent converfion of M. de 

Vor. XIV. 


FEN 


Turenne, and the well-known difpofition of Louis KIV. 
had given frefh celebrity to this eftablifhment; and, there- 
fore, de Harlai was induced to look out fora diftinguifhed 
perfon as its fuperior, and to fix on the abbé de Fenelon. 
His prefent fituation, aud the duties conneéted with it, co- 
incided with his original- views, and he engaged in the dif- 
charge of them with peculiar fatisfaétion. Without en- 
countering equal dangers of a perfonal kind, the tafk which 
he had to perform was not leis dangercus ; for it is,”’ as 
he himfelf fays, often more difficult to tri: mph over error 
than idolatry, and to eradicate opinions which have been 
adopted as being more pure and correét, than to difpel fu- 
perititious extravagancies, which neither feduce the mind 
ner gratify felf-love.’ About this time, in confequence of 
the recommendation of his uncle, the marquis, Fenelon 
formed thefe connections, to which were owing his future 
high elevation, and the fingular perfeeutions and reverfes 
which it was his deftiny to undergo. He was introduced, 
among others, to the duke de Beauviliiers and Boffuet ; 
the latter of whom direéted his ftudies, and manifefted every 
token of efteem for him; though be afterwards proved his 
moft inveterate enemy. It was alfo about this period that 
the bifhop of Sarlat refigned, in favour of his promifing 
nephew, the canonry of Carance, worth from three to four 
thoufand livres a year; the only preferment that was enjoy- 
ed by Fenelon till he reached the age of 44 years. Ten 
years of his life were occupied in fuperintending the com- 
munity of female converts; and in this delicate fituation he 
conducted himfelf not only irreproachably, bat with the 
higheft degree of probity and honour. At this time he was 
in the clofeft intimacy with Boffuet ; and was recommended 
by him to Louis XIV. asa proper perfon to be employed 
in converting the fe@aries of Poitou and Saintonge. This 
miffion formed a part of thofe odious mexfures by which 
this monarch was led to believe that he fhould annihilate pro- 
teltantifm in his dominions; and we cannot but regret that 
fuch a chara&er as that of Fenelon fhould be implica- 
ted in this difhonourable bufinefs. His condu@, however, 
in the execution of it, furnifhes caufe for admiration. Be- 
fore he embarked in this profilyting {cheme of his fove- 
reign, he petitioned, that the troops and al} the trappings 
of war might be removed from the diltriéts within his miffion. 
The requeft was granted, and he, tozether with his compa- 
nions, who were felected from families of rank, proceeded 
to the feene of their labours. Great fuccefs feemed to 
attend them; the affociates of Fenelon flattered themfelves 
with encouraging profpeéts; but the more difcerning Abbé 
was not to be deluded by falfe appearances; nor would the 
ingenuoufnefs of his mind allow him to countenance impof- 
ture. He candidly flates, that diltruft, and confiderations 
purely human, occafioncd moft of the converfions ; and that 
it was to no purpole he had caufed all the apparatus of war 
to be removed from the view of the terrified multitude, fince 
the relations of violences committed in other provinces had 
filled them with alarm. © Were it propofed to them,”? he 
fays ina letter to Botnet, “¢ to abjure Chriftianity and fol- 
low the Koran, you have only to thew them the Dragoons,” 
Fenelon, feemingly fufpe@ting that at leaft the immediate 
effets of his zeal and exertions were the reverfe of benefi- 
cial, became weary of his emplovment; aad he was in a lit- 
tle while cecalled. Upon his return to Paris, he preached 
frequently, and cultivated an ucquaintance with perfons of 
known religious chara@ter; and by the graces of his elocu- 
tion, and the gentlenefs of his difpofition and manners, ac- 
quired increating reputation. This indeed was a period of 
the greateft iatereft in the life of Fenelon, The duke of 
Burgundy, eldett fon of the Dauphin, had attained an age 

Mm which 


FENELON. 


which required the fuperintendance of apo Nero Louis 
XIV. appointed to this office the duke de Beauyilliers, a no- 
bleman eminently diflinguifhed for his virtue and piety, aod 
highly refpected by the king, who entrufted him with the 
nomination of all the perfons who were required to concur 
in the young prince’s education. The duke, on the day 
preceding that of his own appointment, propofed to the 
king, and obtained his confent, that the Abbé de Fenclon 
fhould be preceptor. At this time, viz. September 1689, 
when the perfons appointed to their refpeétive offices in the 
education of the young prince commenced the fulfilment of 
them, Fenelon was no more than 38 years of age. Never, 
it is faid, was an inftance of union like that which reigned 
among the initrutors of the duke of Burgundy. They 
had but one heart and foul, and the foul was that of Fenelon. 

Fenelon was fully confcious of the importance of the 
charge that was committed to him; this was the education 
ofthe future head of amonarchy, which had reached the 
higheft {plendour :—ihe abfolute matter of twenty millions 
of men, whofe happinefs or mifery would depend on the 
perfonal chara&ter of the fovereign. Nor was he unapprifed 
that the nature of the youth, whom he was appointed to 
mftraGt, was extremely unpropitious. Hiftory reprefents 
the duke of Burgundy as dilfplaying in infancy all the 
fymptoms of a perverfe nature ;— invincible obitinacy, a re- 
volting pride, irafcible propenfities, and the moft violent 
paffions, are defcribed as its odious features ; but they 
were joined with a great capacity for acquiring all kinds of 
Teeaedee: «© He was born terrible,’? fays St. Simon, 
“his behaviour made all who beheld him tremble.” By 
various means, happily combined, by a continued feries of 
appropriate and pertinent obfervations, by patience’, gentle- 
ne{s, and unintermitting attention, the preceptor at length 
fucceeded in gradually breaking the vidlent character of his 
pupil, and ia calming his impetuous paffions. Beauvilliers 
and Fenelon directed all their folicitude and exertions to 
realize this defign; they fucceeded, and were remunerated 
forit; for hiftory fhews, that of all the princes, he who 
was the leaft flattered by his inftructors, and to whom the 
mof harfh and cutting truths were told in his infancy and 
youth, retained the moft tender regard for the virtuous per- 
fons who prefided over his education. Of the talents, fide- 
lity, and afliduity of Fenelon, asa preceptor, we may form 
fome judgment by the aftonifhing proficiency of the royal 
{cholar. At the age of ten, -we are told, the prince wrote 
Latin with elegance, and tranflated the moft difficult au- 
thors with an exactnefs and a felicity which furprifed the 
beft judges; he was perfectly matter of Virgil, Horace, 
and the metamorphofes of Ovid, and was fenfible to the beau- 
ties of Cicero’s orations. Ateleven, he read Livy throngh- 
out, and began a tranflation of Tacitus, which he after- 
wards finifhed. The Abbé Fleury, attefting thefe facts, 
fays, that his mind was of the firit order, and that he was 
not contented with fuperficial knowledge, but fought to 
penetrate to the bottom of every thing; his curiofity was 
immenfe. Great pains were alfo taken with regard to his 
religious education ; and one of the biographers of Fenelon 
clofes the relation of various circumftances that refpec the 
attainments of the young prince with afking, ‘* What mutt 
we think of inftruétors who were able to flore the mind of 
a youth of 14 with all that is effential in religion, whether 
we regard its doGrines of its hiftory ; with all that mott 
enchants in mythology, and which {upplies the principal 
fubje@s of literature and of the ‘fine arts ; and with all the 
leading facts of ancient and modern hiftory ? He had been 
taught with precifion the elements of feveral other {ciences. 
It was not eafy, faid the eftimable and. correét. Abbé de 


Fleury, to find in the whole kingdom, not merely a gentlce 
man, but any man, better informed than the prince, At 
18, his letters were cited for the eafe and good tafte which 
they difplayed. This teftimony was borne to them by Ma- 
dame de Maintenon.”? The accounts of the talents and at~ 
tainments of the prince, we are told, furprifed even Bofluet, 
who hada great diltrult of fuch premature geniufes, and a 
fecret jealoufy of the rifing fame of the preceptor; and he 
took an opportunity of fatisfying himfelf by an interview 
and examination. 

The fervices of Fenelon in the education of his pupil 
were rewarded, in 1695, withthe {plendid preferment of the 
archbifhopric of Cambray, which included a dukedom. But 
this he accepted on condition that he fhould be allowed to 
devote nine months in the year to his fee, and three to the 
princes ; andat the fame time he refigned a valuable abbacy. 
At the moment of his elevation to one of the higheft digni- 
ties of the church, a ftorm was gathering which could not 
lefs than alarm his tranquil mind. Thereputation of Fene. 
lon, and the afcendency which his attra¢tive and command- 
ing qualities feemed certain of cbtaining, alarmed the jealous 
mind of Bofluet. The unfuccefsful preceptor of the father 
could not hear with indifference the applaufe which all 
France beltowed on the preceptor of the fon ; nor liften 
without envy to the accents of gratitude which echoed from 
every corner of the realm tothe man to whom the people 
owed the profpect of a wife and beneficent reign. Although 
Fenelon never refufed fubmiffion to Boffuet in matters of re- 
ligious doGtrine, this would not fuffice. The latter found, 
that if he did not pull down Fenelon, he muft fee himfelf 
eclipfed ; and hence he became his unrelenting perfecutor. 
The difgrace of Fenelon is the real obje&, but the interetts 
of religion are the fhallow pretence ; no tie, human or di- 
vine, reftrained the prelate of Meaux ; but confcience, ho- 
nour, decency, all were fet afide, that the ruin of his rival 
might be accomplifhed. In order to effeét this plan, Louis 
XIV. mut a& the part of an abje& tool, and Madame de 
Maintenoa be guilty of bafe treachery ; venerable prelates 
mutt contradiét their folemn acts, and degrade and difho- 
nour themfelves; the Abbé Boffuet, the prelate’s own ne- 
phew, and another ecclefiaitic, muft circulate the groffeit 
falfehoods and the fouleft calumnies ; the court mutt facrifice, 
and throw on the wide world, molt meritorious chara@ers, in 
order to terrify Rome, and influence it in its judgment ; the 
empty pompous monarch muit bully the pope ; and the fee of 
Rome itfelf mult be vilified, and pronounce a deeifion againit 
its judgment, to infure a nefarious triumph to the bithop of 
Meaux over the archbifhop of Cambray. A fentence of a 
tribunal, which his arts and practices had degraded at the 
expence of the coltly facrifices, already enumerated, iffued 
again{t his adverfary ; but the tribunal of the public avenged 
the injuftice ; and the genius of Fenelon fecured a victory 
to his innocence, in which diftant empires, and fucceeding 
generations have felt participation and joy. 

The origin of thefe differences between the two prelates 
mutt be traced to the conneétion formed by Fenelon, at a 
preceding period, with Madame de Guyon, and to his hav- 
ing afterwards adopted and defended her peculiar fenti+ 
ments. (See Guyon.) When they were firlt announced, 
Fenelon had conceived prejudices againit them, but on his 
return from his miflion into Poitou, he had the curiofity, on 
pafling near Montargis, to pay a vilit to M. Guyon, and to 
inquire into her courfe of life. ‘The report he received was 
very favourable, and the ftatements that were made to him 
of her piety and charity removed his prejudices, and induced 
him to imbibe her myttical tenets. Indeed, Fenelon feems 
to have had an early tafte for myftical devotion, and to have 


particularly 


i ee 


FENELON. 


particularly ftudied the writings of thofe who cherifhed it. 
On further acquaintance with M. Guyon, he was con- 
firmed in this predilection. But when the “ quietifm”’ of 
this devotee excited attention, and became a fubjeét of cor- 
verfation and ingniry, Fenelon advifed her, as 1t has been 
fuppofed, to fubmit her doctrine and condué to the judg- 
ment of Boffuet, who is faid to have treated her with great 
kindnefs, and to have gained her confidence to fuch a de- 
gree, that fhe put into his hands her printed works, and 
alfo a manufeript life, contaiine many extravagances; 
though fhe had never placed the fame kind of confidence 
in Fenelon. Boiluct, however, being diffatistied, fhe de- 
manded to be judged by commiffaries ; and the bifhop of 
Chalons, and M. Tronfon, dire€tor of St. Sulpice, were 
added to the bifhop of Meaux, in order to examine her cafe; 
and with them was afterwards affociated Fenelon, oa his 
elevation to the fee of Cambray. Thefe commiffioners met 
at Ifly, the country-houle belonging to St. Sulpice, and 
difcufled the tenets of M. de Guyon; and as Bofluet 
was an entire ftranger to the myttical writers, he delired 
Fenelon to fupply him with a fele¢tion of them, and in or- 
derto aid hisjudgment, the archbifhop of Cambray furniflied 
him with comments and remarks. ‘hele comments and 
remarks firft excited the orthodox prelate’s fufpicion of 
the other’s partiality to their principles and maxims. In- 
deed, Fenelon avowed and defended his do¢trine of the dif- 
interefted love of God, without any reference to eternal hap- 
pinefs as a reward ; while Boffuet contended that a refer- 
ence to the reward was a f{pecific motive to it, but hefitated 
to pronounce that Fenelon’s notion was erroneous. After 
the conference at Ifly, Boffuet had employed himfelf on a 
work which was intended to demolifh “ Quietifm,’’ and 
which he intitled “ the State of Prayer.’?’, When M. Guyon 
was arrefted, Fenelon refolved not to become a party to the 
publication of this work, though Bofluet had previoufly 
defired it, nor to give it his teftimonial. He alio induced 
Madame de Maintenon, the bifhop of Chartres, and the 
cardinal de Noailles, to approve his refufal, on condition that 
he fhould publifh a tra& on the points in difpute, in which 
he fhould itate his own opinion. This agreement produced 
the famous book which was the caufe of all his troubles, 
viz. The Explication of the Maxims of the Saints,’ 1697. 
With Boffuet for an enemy, and M. de Maintenon and 
the king averfe to him, it was difficult for an honeft man 
to write a treatife which fhould ftand the teft of ortho- 
doxy ; but having fulfilled an imprudent engagement, Fe- 
nelon fubmitted his compofition to the cardinal of Noailles, 
the bifhop of Chartres, M. Tronfon, and other theologians 
of high authority, admitting all their corrections: and 
all thefe perfons not only approved it, but fome of them 
highly commended it. Thus fortified, the book was ufhered 
to the public, and it muft be owned that it met with univer- 
fal difapprobation. Boffuet was his moift malignant adver- 
fary, and ftirred the king, not partial to Fenelon before 
this event, and the whole court againft him. The prelates 
of Paris and Chartres, and the other divines who had given 
their fanGtion to the ** Explication,”’ joined in the cry againt{t 
the book. The archbifhop, thus overpowered by his 
perfidious friends and open enemies, was banifhed to his 
diocefe. About this time his palace at Cambray, with 
all its furniture and books, was confumed by fire. He 
fuftzined the lofs with unexampled firmnefs and tran- 
quillity: for when news was brought him of the cataf- 
trophe, he obfenved, “ That it was better all thefe fhould 
be burned, than the cottage of one poor family.’ Boifuet 
perfitted in his enmity, and determined to force Fenelon 
abfolutely to retract the errors of the work which had 


caufed fuch an alarm and outcry. Fenelon, on the 27th of 
April, 1697, referred his publication to the judgment of the 
pope ; and declining the conferences which Bofluet pro- 
poied, he adhered to his purpofe of appealing to Rome. 
In the mean while his enemtes purfued him with implacable 
violence ; and he received a mandate from the king, dated 
Augutt 1, 1697, commanding him to retire to his diocefe, 
and there to remain. Every meafure was zdopted, which 
the malignity of Boffuet could fuggelt, for enforcing a 
fentence of condemnation at the court of Rome; till & 
length the reluctance of that court wes overcome, arid pop* 
Innocent XII. was prevailed upon, in 1699, to iffue a 
brief of cenfure againtt Fenclon’s work, and 23 propofitions 
extrated from it. ‘The archbifhop himfelt teftified the 
moft profound fubmiffion to the fentence of the holy 
fee, read his own condemnation from the pulpit, and 
compofed a “* mandement”? againft his book. He even 
caufed to be reprefented, for the expofition of the facrament 
a fun borne by two angels, one of whom trampled under 
foot fome heretical books, among which appeared the title 
of his own. This was almcft, as aman of wit called hi: 
conduét on the occafion, “ the coquetry of humility ;” it 
had, however, all the appearance of fincerity, and his whole 
after-eonduét was conformable te it. When the news 
arrived of the condemnation of his work at Rome, he was 
preparing to mount the pulpit; and to deliver a difeourfe 
fuitable to the folemnity of the day, which was the feftival 
of the Annunciation ; but after a few moments of recollec- 
tion, he changed his purpofe, and made his difcourfe turn 
folely on the fubmiffion which is due to fuperiors. His 
numerous audience had been previoufly apprized of the fa& ; 
and the admirable prefence of mind, the felf-command, aud 
the religions calm, which he dilfplayed, fuffufed every 
countenance with tears of fympathy, refpe&, and admiration 
So bighly pleafed was the court of Rome with the obedieace 
of the archbifhop of Cambray, that the whole college of car- 
dinals petitioned the pope to fend a complimentary letter ie 
hisownname to the pious and yenerable prelate ; but the Abb¢ 
de Meaux no fooner heard of this defign, than he caufed the 
papal epiftle to be frittered dowa to a few cold expreflions of 
regard. So amiable, indeed, was the whole deportment of 
Fenelon, that a celebrated writer faid of him, “* I know not 
whether Fenelon was a heretic in affecting that God ought 
to be loved for himfelf, but I know that Fenelon deferved 
to be fo loved.’? In his diocefe he united the characters 
of a nobleman and of a Chriftian paftor. In the latter capa- 
city nothing could furpafs his fimplicity of manners, his cha- 
rity, his minute attention to all his duties, his fervent piety 
united to indulgence and moderation. He vifited the cot- 
tages of the peaiants in the molt condefcending manner, and 
adminittered confolation and relief in their diftreffes. When 
they were driven from their habitations by the alarms of 
war, he received them into his houfe, and even ferved them 
at his table. To one of his clergy, who aflumed merit 
to himfelf for having abalifhed the Sunday dances of the pea- 
fantry in his parifh, he faid, «* M. le Curé, let us not dance, 
but let us permit thefe poor people to amufe themfelves ; 
why fhould we hinder them from forgetting for a mo- 
ment how wretched they are??? His hofpitality “was 
boundlefs, and blended with the moft genuine politenefs. 
During the war his houfe and table were epen to all offi- 
cers, many of whom, when fick and wounded, he lodged 
and provided with every kind of neceflary relief. Befides 
his conftant hefpitalities to the military, he performed a 
moft munificent aé& of patriotifm after the difaitrous winter 
of 1709, by opening his granaries, and diftributieg gratui- 
toufly to the foldiers corn to the value of 100,909 livres. 
Mm 2 We 


FENELON. 


We may reckon it among the moft pleafing anecdotes 
of modern war, that the duke of Marlborough, and the 
other generals of the allies, when in poffeflion of that part 
of Flanders, exprefsly exempted the archiepifcopal lands 
of Cambray- from all pillage or exattion, regarding 
them as devoted to the purpofes of common beneticence. 
They frequently paid their refpeéts to the worthy pre- 
late, and always received from him the ftrongeft im- 
preflions of efteem and admiration. Among the illuftrious 
vifitors who reforted to Cambray to render homage to its 
venerable archbifhop, was ‘“ The young Pretender;’? and 
from the converfations of Fenelon with this prince, it ap- 
pears that the prelate was a warm admirer of the Britifh con- 
{titution. When headvifes him, if he fhould ever regain 
the throne of his anceftors, never to conttrain his fubjects 
to change their religion, he fays, ‘¢ No human power can 
force the impenetrable intrenchments of the freedom of the 
mind. Violence can never perfuade men, it only makes 
hypocrites. Whew kings interfere in matters of religion, 
intlead of proteéting her, they reduce her to flavery. Give 
to all, then, civil liberty ; not as regarding every thing as 
indifferent, but as enduring with patience what God per- 
mits.”” Referring to the political conttitution of the flate, 
he afks, “ Is not the fovereign fufficiently powerful? If 
we fay that the king can do nothing without the parliament, 
is not a monarch happy whois at hherty to do all the good 
which he chufes, and has only his hands tied when he would 
do wrong? Every wife prince ought to with to be no more 
than the executor of the laws, and to have a fupreme coun- 
cil to moderate his authority ;’? with much more to the 
fame purpofe. 

The French courtiers were afraid of being known to vifit 
a perfon lying under the difpleafure of their maiter. This was 
actually the cafe; and an incident had happened which 
placed an infurmountable bar to the reftoration of Fenelon 
te court favour. Befides his delinquency in point of ortho- 
doxy, Fenelon had been guilty of writing ‘* Telemachus,” 
a work which was denounced to the jealous monarch, Louis 
XIV. asa moft daring fatire on his-reign. Indeed he had 
never heartily approved of his appointment to be the pre- 
eeptor of the princes, regarding him rather asa ‘ bel efprit,”” 
than a man of the world; and the maxims of Telemachus 
confirmed him in this opinion. Telemachus faw the light 
through the infidelity of a fervant, who, judging highly of 
its value, took a copy for himfelf, whillt he was tranfcrib- 
ing it by the archbifhop’s order. This MS. he fold to a 
bookfeller ; and thus was given to the public a performance 
that fecured a degree of fame to its author which he did not 
anticipate, and involved him in fufferings which he did not 
merit. However, he ttopped the impreflion of the work 
which was going on from a copy thus furreptitioufly 
obtained; and, after the death of the duke of Burgundy, 
he burned every mann{cript of the preceptor which he found 
among his papers. Befides the offence which Telemachns 
gave to the king, he had alfo offended beyond forgivenefs 
Mad. de Maintenon, by his honeit advice to the king, when 
confulted, not to marry her; advice which his majefty had 
the meannefs to betray. The enmity of Louis, arifing from 
thefe and fome other circumftances, may be inferred from 
the pains which the duke of Burgundy was obliged to take, 
in order to renew his communications with his preceptor. 
After four years’ filence from the period of the archbifhop’s 
difgrace at court, a eorref{pondence began which terminated 
only with the death of the prince ; no lefs honourable to 
himfelf than to his preceptor. 

After the death of the firft Dauphin, and the great change 
which confequently took place in the fituation of the duke 


of Burgundy, Fenelon conceived it his duty to addrefs new 
counfels to his pupil. He is no longer Mentor, whofe gentle 
and paternal voice teaches the young ‘Telemachus how to 
reign in the {mall ifle of Ithaca, but the pontiff armed with 
the power and the majefty of religion, who reveals, in the 
name of heaven, to the heir of a great empire the fearful 
duties impofed on him. While flattering courtiers and. 
trembling minifters {poke only of his power, and the fplen- 
dour of his fupreme rank, Fenelon, in his fublime but: 
auttere leffons, traces great dangers and great duties.  ‘¢ It 
is time,”” fays he, ina letter written to his pupil on this 
occafion, * to render yourfelf beloved, refpected, and 
efteemed; to become the counfel of his majefiy, the father 
of the people, the confolation of the afli@ted, the fupport 
of the poor, the ftay of the nation, the defender of the 
church, and the enemy of innovation. Let flatterers be kept 
at a diflance, and no confidence, be placed: in them; let 


merit be diltinguifhed, fought, anticipated, and employed ;. 


lilten to every thing, but believe nothing without proof; 


and learn to excel all, fince you are placed above all. 
Be the father of your people, and not their mafter, All’ 


mult not be for one, but one ought to be for all, to enfure 
their happinefs.”’? ‘The reputation of the pupil reflected the: 
higheft credit at this period on his preceptor; it fpread 
from Verfailles to the extremity of France ; and Fenelon 
began to enjoy the fruits of his exertions and cares. Tene- 
lon, at this feemingly aufpicious period, had the fatisfaGtion 
of confidering that his counfels had never any other obje@ 
than the prince’s glory, and the good of the people whom 
he was to govern. In this great change of affairs, and 
which fo materially affeéted the fituation of Fenelon, he 
never diverted his thoughts to himfelf. However, the am- 
bitious now courted the excellent prelate ; and the {pring of 
1711 produced ciear proofs of the change which had taken 
place. Cambray became the road to every part of Flaz.ders. 
Yet with all this attention on the part of courtiers, he con- 
duted himfelf with fo much modelty and fo much prudence, 
that he did not awaken the royal jealoufy ; prone enough to 
be excited, and to take offence. As foon as the duke of 
Burgundy appeared in arms, and took a pa:t in public 
affairs, the good archbifhop became by turns a general, a 
diplomatift,.and a minifter; aod difcerning perfons caanot fail 
to be highly itruck with this amazing verfatility, and with 
the excellent counfels which he imparted in each character. 


According to the plan of government, which he prepared for” 


the confideration of his pupil, and the leading arrangements 
of which he drew up in the form of tables, enliftment into 
the army was to be voluntary, and the fervice was to be for 
five years. —All offices were to be difcharged by principals, 
and none were to be allowed to ferve by deputy.— No rever- 
fions of places were to be granted.— ach province was to 
have its ftates on the model of thofe of Languedoc; and 
the impofition of taxes was to be intrufted to thefe affemblies. 
The gabelle, and other opprefiive taxes, were to be abolithed, 
and fuch as were more equal.to be fubftituted in the reom 
of them. he £/lates-General were to be revived, and to be 
aflembled every three years. They were to have only the 
power of making reprefentations, and the king was to decide, 
The courts of the feudal lands were to be abolifhed, and the 
fuitors were to have recourfe to the baillages. Commerce 
was to be free, &c. &c. Three months had fearcely elapfed 
after thefe plans had been fketched, when the premature 
death of the duke of Burgundy extinguifhed the fanguine 
hopes which had been fo univerfally indulged. When Fe- 
nelon heard the affli€ting intelligence, the only words which 
he uttered were, “all my ties are broken. Nothing now 
binds me to the earth.”? Ina letter written foon after this. 

ftroke, 


FENELON. 


firoke,-he fays, among other things, God has taken away 
all our hope for the church and the ftate. He had formed 
this young prince, he had adorned him, he had prepared 
him for doing great good, he thewed him to the world, and 
immediately he has. withdrawn him from it; I am {truck 
with horror 3; and I find myfelf finking without any bodily 
complaint. In weeping over the dead prince, my heart is 
tora to pieces, but I am alarmed for the living.’ 


The fucceeding removais of his friends and admirers, the 


dukes of Chevreufe and Beauvilliers, were additional blows 
tovhis feelings and expetations. Neverthelefs, the declining 
ftate of the king’s health, and the favourable fentiments 
entertained of him by the duke of Orleans, encouraged his 
hopes ; all which were terminated by a fever, fucceeding 
the accident of being overturned in his carriage, which 
proved>fatal to him in January 1715. One of his laft aéts 
was that of writing a letter to the king, concerning the 
fpiritual affairs of is diocefe, which alone feemed to be his 
remaining concern. He expired in perfeét tranquillity, 
deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the Low-Countries, 
and efpecially by the lock committedto his charge. Sowell 
had he balanced his worldly affairs, that he died without 
money, and without a debt. The following portrait of 
Fenelon is given by the duke de St. Simon in his Memoirs ; 
« He was a tall, lean, well-made man, with a large nofe, 
eyes whence fire and fenfe flowed in a torrent; a phyliog- 
nomy refembling none which I have elfewhere feen, and 
which could not be forgotten after it had once been beheld. 
It combined oppolites ; it had both gravity and amenity, 
ferioufnefs and gaiety, and equally fpoke the theologian, 
the bifhop, and the nobleman. His prevailing expreifion, 
as well as that of his whole perfon, was fenfe, fagacity, 
grace, decorum, arid efpecially elevation. It required an 
effort to ceafe to look at him. His manners were corre- 
{ponding ; they were marked with that eafe which makes 
others ealy, with that tafle and air of good company which 
is only acquired by frequenting the great world. He, 
moreover, pofleffed a natural, fweet, and flowery eloquence ; 
an infinuating, but noble and diftinguifhing politenefs; a 
ready, clear, and agreeable elocution ; a power of makin 
himfelf usderftood upon the moft perplexed and abftra& 
fubje&ts. With all this he never chofe to appear wifer or 
wittier than thofe to whom he fpoke, but defcended to 
every one’s level, with a manner fo free and enchanting, 
that it was f{careely poffible to quit him. It was this rare 
talent which kept his friends fo clofely attached to him, 
notwithftanding his fall; and which, during their difper- 
fion, affembled them to talk of him, to regret him, to long 
for his return, and to unite themfelves to him more and 
more.”’ The principal works of Fenelon are as follow ; 
viz. Sur le Miniftere des Pafteurs,’’ and a treatife “* De 
V’Edueation des Filles,’ both printed in 1688, ‘ Maximes 
des Saints fur le Vie interieure’’? 1697, already noticed as 
the oftenfible occafion of his difpute with Boffuet ; «© D.a- 
logues of the Dead,”? two vols. 12mo. “ Dialogues on 
Eloquence in general, and on that of the Pulpit in parti- 
cular, with a letter on Rhetoric and Poetry,’”? 12mo.; the 
latter being addreffed to the French academy, of which he 
became a member in 1693; ‘ Philofophical Works, or 
Demonftration of the Exittence of God by natural proofs,”’ 
r2mo.3 “ Letters on different Religious and Metaphytical 
Subjects,” 12mo-; ‘* Spiritual Works,” four vols. 12mo. ; 
« Sermons,”? 12mo.; feveral pieces in favour of the bull 
Unigenitus and the Formulary. ‘* The moft touching 
charm,”’ fays M. d’Alembert, * of his works, is the fenfa- 
tion of peace and repofe with which he infpires his reader ; 
he is a friend who joins himfelf to you, who fheds his foul 
’ 8 


into yours, who tempers, and at leaft for a time, fufpends 
your troubles andafflictions,”? In his theelogy he feems to 
give greater fcope to feeling than to reafon, which fuf- 
ficiently appears from his conneétion with Madame de 
Guyon, and his predileGtion in favour of *€ Quietifm ;”” but 
if he inclined to mytticifm, and thus feemed to deviate from 
the eitablifhed fyflem of bis church, he does not appear to 
have made the leaft approach to proteftantifm. On the 
contrary, no one has more forcibly inculcated the danger of 
putting the feriptures into the hands of the people, (a fun- 
damental tenet of popery,) than Fenelon has done in his 
“© Letter to the Archbifhop of Arras.’”?  Submiffion to the 
decifions of the holy fee is likewife exemplified in his whole 
conduG as well as in his writings. 

Indeed, Fenelon feems to have been one of thofe, who, 
either from early prepoffeffions, or from falfe reafonings 
upon human nature, or from an obfervation of the powerful 
in’preffions made by authority on the credulity, and a pom- 
pons ritual on the fenfes of the multitude, imagive, that 
Chriftianity, in its native form, is too pure and elevated for 
vulgar fouls; and, therefore, countenance and maintain the 
abfurdities of popery, from a notion of their utility. 

Fenelon alfo wrote againft the Janfenilts ; partly to pleafe 
the court-jefuits, with views of conciliation, but princi- 
pally, becaufe their doétrine, which he termed ‘ pitilefs’”” 
and ‘overwhelming, was direGtly oppofite to his own 
religious fentiments. ‘ God,” faid he, “ is to them only 
the “ terrible’? being; to me he is the ‘* gooc”’ being: I 
cannot refolve to make him a tyrant who firft fetters us, and 
then commands us to walk, and punifhes us if we do not.” 
He was, however, though inimical to their opinions, indul- 
gent to their perfons, and never permitted them to be pro- 
fecuted; and when it was reprefented to him that the Jan- 
fenifts were his avowed enemies; “that,” faid he, ‘is an 
additional reafon for tolerating and pardoning them.”’ 

Of all Fenelon’s writings his *¢ Telemachus’’ was the 
mott intereiting and popular. It has been publifhed in a 
great variety of forms, and tranflated into moft modern 
languages. It is properly an epic poem in profe, and: ine 
tended to be the inftitute of a prince, to which purpofe it 
is admirably adapted: for never were purer, more ufeful, 
and more elevated maxims of public and private conduct 
offered to the heir of a monarchy. Louis XIV: could not 
have more feverely fatirized himfelf than by proferibing fuch 
a pidture of wife and humane government, and of the evils 
proceeding from unjuit ambition and oftentatious profulion. 
What were the author’s views in compofing this work ap- 
pear in a memorial which he drew up after the death of Bof- 
{uct, his principal enemy, in order to diffuade his friends 
from attempting to reftore him to court: God is my wit- 
nefs that I wrote the condemned book folely for the pur- 
pofe of rejeéting the errors and illufions of Quietifm ; and 
as to Telemachus, it is a fabulous narrative in the. form of 
an heroic poem, like thofe of Homer and Virgil, in which 
I have introduced the principal actions that become a prince 
who is deftined to govern. I compofed this work at 
an epoch in which I was honoured with marks of the. 
king’s confidence and favour; and I muit not only have 
been the molt ungrateful of men, but the moft gracelefs, 
had I ever defigued to introduce into it fatirical and offenfive 
portraits. I abhor the very thought of fuch an intention, 
It is true that I interwove in thofe adventures all the truths 
which are neceflary for government, and all the faults which 
may be committed by the fovereign power ; but I tated 
none of them fo as to form portraits and characters ; and 
the more the work is read, the more it will appear that it 
was my plan to do juitice to my fubje&, without painting 

any 


FEN 


any individual in particular. Thenarration was compofed 
in hafte, in {mall partsat a time, and on different occalions ; 
“it affords much room for correétion ; and the printed copy 
is moreover not conformable to the original. Yet 1 have pre- 
ferred the letting it remain imperfect and a cs to 
printing itexa@tly as I wrote it. Ithought only of amufing 
the duke of Burgundy, and of inftructing him while I 
amufed him, without ever obtruding the work before the 
public ; andall the world is aware that its appearance was 
occafioned by the infidelity of one of my domettics. All 
‘the king’s beft fervants know what my principles of honour 
and religion are, with refpeét to the fovereign, the ftate, 
and the country, and what a lively and grateful recolleGion 
I retain of his majefty’s favours.’” ‘Telemachus, as a work 
of invention, fays Dr. Aikin, has great merit, and is read 
with pleafure for the beauties cf its ityle, and the elegance 
of its fictions, by thofe who are little interefted in its poli- 
tical leffons. Moreri. Mem. du Duc de St. Simon, 
Eloges Academ. par d’Alembert. Hiltoire de Fenelon, &c. 
par M. L. F. de Bauffet, late bifhop of Alais, &c. 3 vols. 
S8vo. Paris, 1808. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hilt. vol. 5. Gen. 
Biog. Monthly Review, vols. 57, 58, 59. 

FENERA, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Venice, near 
the coaft of Iftria. N. lat. 44° 54. E. long. 14° 8'. 

FENESTRA, in Anatomy, a name given to two {mall 
holes which appear in the cavity of the tympanum, and 
which are diftinguifhed from each other by the epithets 
rotunda and ovalis. See Ear. 

FE/NE’TRANGE, in Geography, a town of France, 
inthe department of the Meurthe, and chief place of a can- 
ton inthe diftri@t of Sarrebourg, feated on the Sarte, for- 
merly the capital of a lordfhip of the fame name, which 
being vefted in the duchy of Lorraine, was ceded with it 
to France; 33 miles E.N.E. of Nancy. The place con- 
tains 1355, and the canton-9923 inhabitants, on a territory 
of 2174 kiliometres, and in 21 communes. 

FENGELD, in our Ancient Writers, is ufed for a tax 
or impofition raifed for repelling of enemies. 

It comes from the Saxon feind, an enemy, and geld, 
money. 

FENG-HOA, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of 
Corea; 25 miles W.S.W. of Ping-hai. 

FENIT, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the weftern 
coatt of Ireland, in the bay of Tralee, county of Kerry. 

FENKI, atown of the kingdom of Corea; 36 miles 
N.N.W. of Long-konang, 

FENNEL, in Botany. See AnetTuumM. » 

Fenner, in Gardening, the common name of a well 
known plant of the tall growing culinary kind. See Ane- 
THUM. 

There are three forts of this plant, Common Fennel, 
Sweet-Fennel, and Finochio. 

Common fennel has a {trong flefhy root that penetrates 
toa great depth in the foil, and which continues for feveral 
years. It is capable of being raifed in moft foils and fitua- 
tions. 

Sweet fennel does not rife fo high inthe flem as the 
common fort, and the leaves are more long and flender, and 
do not terminate in fo many points. The feeds have greater 
Jength, and are more light in their colour. They are ufually 
brought from Germany and Italy. 

Finochio has been long in cultivation in Italy as a fallad 
herb, but is rather ftrong to the palate. It is faid to have 
been brought ‘from the Azonian iflands. See ANETHUM 
and Finocuio, 

Fennevy in the Materia Mediza. See Avetuum fe- 
aiculum. 


FEN 


FEnnev-fower, of, Devil ina Bufh. See NiGEvia. 
Fennev-flower of Crete. See GariDELLa. 
Fennec-giant. See Fervwua. — 

Fennez, Hog’s. See Peucepanum. 

Fennet, Scorching. See Tuapsta. 

Fenner, Sea. See Crirumum. 

FENNY River, in Geography, a branch of the Ganges, 
which difcharges itfelf into the bay of Bengal. N. lat. 
22° 49'. E. long. gr° 33!. 

Another branch of the Ganges, which runs into the fame 
bay, is called ‘ Little Fenny river.” N. lat. 22° 517 
E. long. 91° 29'. 

Fenny-Stratford, a {mall decayed market-town in the 
hundred of Newport, and county of Buckingham, England, 
is fituated on the road to Liverpool, (the ancient Watling 
ftreet,) and is partly in the parith of Bletchley, and partly 
in that of Simpfon. The town confilts of one principal 
(treet on arifing ground, witha {tone bridge over the river 
Lofield. The chapel, which is in Bletchley parifh, having 
been dilapidated ever fince the reiga of queen Elizabeth, 
was rebuilt in 1724 by fubferiptions, procured by the 
exertionsof Browne Willis. Fenny-Stratford is 46 miles 
from London, and contained, according to the late return to 
parliament, 81 houfes, and 469 inhabitants. It had from 
time immemorial a market on Mondays, which was confirmed 
by charter in 1609; being difcontinued during the civil 
war, it was revived after the reftoration. Un 1665 this 
town was much depopulated by the plague, of which 139 
perfons died ; the inns were fhut up, and the road was fora 
time turned into another dire¢tion ; this calamity alfo proved 
fatal to the market, which has never flourifhed, and has for 
many years fallen into difufe, Four fairs are annually held ; 
a grant for one was procured in the year 1269, two others 
were eftablifhed by the charter of 1609. An aé& of parlia- 
ment was pafled in 1790 forinclofing the hamlet of Fenny- 
Stratford. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. i. gto. 

FENTE’, a town of Egypt; 15 miles N. of Abu- 
Girgé. 

FENTON, Epwarn, in Biography, who flourifhed in 
the reign of Elizabeth, was defcended from an ancient fa- 
mily in Nottinghamfhire, where he had fome property, 
which he fold, as did alfo his brother Geoffrey, being, it is 
faid, more inclined to truit to their abilities, than the flender 
patrimony defcended to them from their anceftors ; and 
they were, fays an accurate obferver of mankind, among 
the very few of thofe who take fuch daring refolutions in 
their youth, without living to repent of them in their old 
age. The inclination of Edward led him to the choice of 
a military and active life, and he ferved fome time with repu- 
tation in-Treland, but upon fir Martin Frobifher’s report of 
the probability of difcovering a north-weit paffage intu the 
South feas, he refolved to embark with him in his fecond 
voyage, and was accordingly appointed captain of the 
Gabriel, a bark of twenty-five tons, in which he accom- 
panied fir Martin in the fummer of the year 1577, to the 
itraits that now bear his name, but in their return he 
was feparated from him ina {torm, and arrived fafely at 
Briftol. In a third expedition, which proved unfuccefsful, 
he commanded the Judith, one of fifteen fail, and had the 
title of rear-admiral; the mifcarriage of this voyage had 
not convinced Fenton of the impracticability ef the pro- 
ject; he folicited another trial, and it was, after much ap- 
plication, granted him, though the particular obje& of this 
voyage is not eafily difcovered; his inftruétions from the 
privy-council, which are ftill preferved, fay, that he fhould 
endeavour the difcovery of a north-weit paflage, and yet he 
is told to go by the Cape of Good Hope tothe Eaft Indies, 

6 


thence 


—— ll 


FENTON, 


thence to the South feas, and to attempt his return by the 
fuppofed north-welt paffage, and not by any means to think 
of paffing the ftraits of Magellan, except in cafe of abfo- 
Jute neceffity. The truth appears to be, he had intereft 
enough to be allowed to try his fortune in the South feas. 
He failed in the {pring 1582, with four veffels, and was 
making to Africa, thence he intended to fail to Brazil, in 
his courfe to the flraits of Magellan, but having learnt that 
there was already a ftrong Spaniih fleet there, he put into 
a Portuguefe fettlement, where he met with three of the 
Spanifh fquadron, gave them battle, and after a fevere en- 
gagement, funk their vice-admiral, and returned home. 
Here he was well received, and appointed to the command 
of a fhip fent out againft the famous Armada. In fome ac- 
counts of this a€tion he is faid to have commanded the 
«¢ Antelope,” in others the “¢ Mary Rofe,”? but his talents 
and bravery in the ation are univerfally acknowledged, and 
it is certain he hada very diftinguifhed fhare in thofe a€tions, 
the fame of which can never be forgotten while England 
remains, as we truft fhe ever will, a free and independent 
ftate. Little more is recorded of him than that he fpest 
the remainder of his days at or near Deptford, where he 
died in 1603. A monument was erected to his memory in 
the parith church of Deptford, at the expence of Richard 
earl of Cork, who had married his niece. According to 
Fuller he died within a few days of his miftrefs queen Eli- 
zabeth, and he remarks; ‘* Obferve how God fet upa gene- 
ration of military men both by fea and land, which began 
and expired with the reign of queen Elizabeth, like a fuit 
of clothes made for her, and worn out with her; for provi- 
dence defigning a peaceable prince to fucceed her, in whofe 
time martial men would be rendered ufelefs, fo ordered the 
matter, that they all, almoft, attended their mittrefs, before 
or after, within fome fhort diftance, unto her grave.”’ Biog, 
Brit. 

Fenton, Sir Georrrey, brother to the above, being 
inclined to books rather than the buftle of a military life, 
became a learned. and elegant writer, and an aétive, able 
ftatefman, privy counlellor, and fecretary of ftate in the 
kingdom of Ireland. We find hima privy counfellor in the 
year 1581, under the patronage of Arthur lord Grey, then 
lord-deputy in that kingdom. He not a little {trengthened 
his intereit at court by his marriage with Alice, daughter of 
Dr. Robert Welton, the lord chancellor of Lreland; and it 
fhould {eem that he required only an opportunity to difplay 
his talents to make his own way. When once he was fixed 
in his office of fecretary, he rendered himfelf fo ufeful to 
the governor, that none of the changes to which that go- 
vernment was fubjeét caufed any alteration in his ficuation ; 
and he never failed to ufe his power and influence for the 
interelt of his country. He took every opportunity of per- 
fuading the queen that the Ivifh were to be governed only 
by the rules of frit juftice, and that the fafety and glory 
of her government in that ifland depended on her fubjects 
enjoying equal laws and protection of their property. The 
queen frequently fent for her fecretary, Fenton, to confult 
with him on her Irifh affairs, which were fometimes in a 
moit difficult and alarming fituation; this fhews the high 
opinion fhe entertained of his underitanding, though it 
dion happened that when he was returned to his duty, the 
advifers as Elizabeth perfuaded her to adopt meafures the 
reverfe of what Fenton had recommended. He was the 
means of extinguifhing more than one rebellion, and of 
totally reducing the bates to fubmit to Englifh govern- 
ment. In 1608 fir Geoffrey married his only daughter to 
Mr. Boyle, afterwards earl Cork, which proved to all parties 
a fource of great fatisfaction, At this period, viz, - ac- 


ceffion of James I. to the throne, the zeal and high fervices 
of fir Geoffrey Fenton procured him the entire confidence 
of fir Arthur Chichefter, the new lord deputy. He con-- 
tinued to hold his office in full poffeffion of his credit and 
authority till O&ober 1608, when he died at his houfe in 
Dublin, and was interred with every mark of refpeét in the 
cathedral church of St. Patrick, leaving behind him the: 
chara¢ter of a polite writer, an accomplifhed courtier, an able 
{tatefman, and true friend to his country. He was per- 
feétly acquainted. with the French, Spanith, and Italian lan- 
guages, and his tranflations from them are fuppofed to have 
firft brought him into the notice of perfons of rank and 
confideration at court: the tranflations mentioned ia the 
Biographia Britannica are, 1. An Epiftle to the Paitors of 
the Flemifh Church in Antwerp, written by Anthony dé 
Carro, 1578; 2. An Account of a Difpute at Parts betweea 
two Doétors of the Sorbonne, and two Miniiters of God’s 
word, 15713 3. Golden Epiflles, from the Latin, Freach, 
and Italian, 1577; and, 4. The Hiitory of the Wars of 
Italy, by F. Guicciardini, in twenty books, 1599. Biog. 
Brit. 

Frnron, Erisua, was born at Newcaftle, in Stafford- 
fhire, about the clofe of the 17th century. His father was 
a gentleman of confiderable property ; but Elitha being the 
youngelt of twelve children, was deitined to a profeffion, 
and was accordingly entered at Jefus college, Cambridge: 
His feruples refpecting the terms of conformity precluded 
him from all expe€tations of academical honours and eccle- 
fiattical preferment. He left the univerfity with no other 
profpeéts than thofe which his literary talents could afford. 
At firft he engaged in the humble employment of ufher’to 
a ichool in Surrey, and was afterwards matter of the founda- 
tion {chool at Seven-Oaks, a {chool which at this time is 
in conliderable repute, though probably diverted from the 
intentions of the founder. In 1710 he engaged as fecretary 
to Charles, earl of Orrery, at. Bruflels, and tutor to his fon. 
He had already given f{pecimens of his talents in poetry, and 
when his engagement with lord Orrery had ceafed, he ob- 
tained, through the recommendation of Pope, a fituation 
with fecretary Craggs, who, aware of the deficiencies 
of his own education, wifhed for a companion, a man of 
tafte and learning, from whom he might acquire occafional 
inftruétion. He next undertook, for Pope, the tranflation 
of the firft, fourth, nineteenth, and twentieth books of the 
Odyfiey, for which he received the fum of 300/ His 
tragedy of Mariamne rendered him more known; it was 
performed in 1723, with very great applauie, and produced 
"him 1oc0/. with which he was enabled to difcharge a debt 
incurred during his attendance at court; “ an inftructive 
comparifon,” fays his biographer, “ between the patronage 
of the public, and that of aking or minilter?’ Thus freed 
from an embarrafiment, that probably buag heavy va his 
mind, we hear but little more of him asa writer. His ex- 
ertions in this re{pe&t appear to have been more the produ& 
of necefiity, than the fpontaneous effulions of a mind de- 
lighted with the employment. He now undertook the do- 
mettic education of the fon of lady Trumball, widow of fir 
William ‘Trumball ; afterwards he went with him to Cam- 
bridge, and theo refided with the lady herfelf as auditor.of 
her accounts. Thus eafy in his fituation, he had recourieto 
the prefs only for amulement. To an edition of Milten’s 
poenis he prefixed a life, written with candour and elegance. 
He then publifhed a {plendid edition of Waller, with notes; 
this was in the year 1.729, and in the following year he died» 
at Eafthampitead, in Berkfhire. His early death was 
brought on by wantof exertion and indulgence. His pupil, 
lord Orrery, fays of him, * Poor Fenton died of a great 

chair 


FEO 


chair and two bottles of port a-day ;’? but he adds in-at- 
teftation of his charaGter, “‘ He was one of the worthieft 
and modefteft men that ever belonged to the-court of 
Apollo. Tears arife when I think of him, thoughe has 
been dead above twenty years.’? Fenton’s poetry is’ little 
read now, but his **Ode to lord Gower’? was pronounced 
by Pope to be exceeded by none in the Engliff’ language, 
except Dryden’s on St. Cecilia’s day. His tragedy of 
Mariamne, founded on the {tory of Herod, as related by 
Jofephus, maintains a refpeétable rank among dramatic com- 
pofitions, though it is never ated. Johnfou’s Lives of the 
Poets. 
FENUGREEK, in Botany. See'TriGonerra. 
FenuGreek, in the Materia Medica. ‘Vhe feeds, which 
are brought to us from the northera parts of France and 
Germany, have a ftrong difagreeable fmell, and an unétuous 
farimaceous tafte, accompanied with a flight bitternefs. 
An ounce renders a pint of water thick and flimy. ‘To 
-rectified fpirit they give out the whole of their diftin- 
guifhing {mell and taite, and afterwards to water a frong 
flavourlefs mucilage. hefe feeds are never given inter- 
nally; their principal ufe being in catapla{ms and fo- 
mentations, for foftening, maturating, and difenfling tu- 
mours; and in emollient g’ytters. ‘They were alfo an in- 
gredient in the  oleum e mucilaginibus”’ of the fhops; but 
this has no longer a place in the pharmacoperia. ! Lewis. 
Woodville. 
*FEN:Y, in Geography, a town of China, of the third 
-rank, in: Miang-fi; 20 miles I. of Yuen-tcheou. 

FEO, ‘Francisco, in Biography, a Neapolitan com- 
pofer, and one of the bett matters of his time. He may ‘be 
numbered among the illuftrious compofers who had immor- 
talized the Neapolitan fchool, and eitablifhed its fupremacy 

over all other nations. Its fire, fancy, energy, and eeprel: 
fionyand. the accuracy of its ityle, are the charaéteriftics 
of his-compofition. No one conduéted an orcheitra in a’ fu- 

erior manner to Feo, who flourifhed about the year 1740. 

FEODAL, Feopatts, or Fexdalis, of or belonging to 
_a feud, or fee. Sce Fer, Feup, and Fevpav. 

FEODALITY, the fealty paidto the lord by his feudal 
‘tenant. See Feaury. 

FEODARY, Feupary,' or Feudatory, an officer -an- 
ciently .made-and authorized by the mafter of the courts of 
vwards, °32 Hen. VIII. cap. 26. 

‘His office was to be prefent with the eftheator, at the 
finding any office of lands; and to give evidence for the 
king, concerning the terre, and the value-thereof : to fur- 
vey the land. of the ward after the office found, and rate 

vit. : He-alfo affigned the king’s widows their dowers, and 
received: the ents of ward’s lands. This office is taken 
away by’itat. 12 Car. II. cap. 24. 

‘FEODATARY, or Fevparary. Sce FEupATARY. 

-FEQDER, a meafure for liquids, ufed throughout Ger- 
many. See Measure. 

--FEODITAS, in Old IVriters, is fometimes ufed for 
faclitas, or fealty, which fee. 
-.FEODUM, or Feupum, the fame with fef, or fee. 

‘-FEOFFMENT, derived from the verb feofare, or in- 

‘feudare, to enfeoff, to give one a feud, in Common Law, 1s 
: the moft ancient method of conveyance, and fignifies a gift 
er grant of honours, caitles, manors, meffuages, lands, or 
.the like corporeal or immoveable things, to another in fee- 
fimple ; that is, to him and his heirs for ever, by the delivery 
- of feifin, and the poffeffion of the:thing given. See Fre, 
and Lavery. 

. When this is done by writing, -it is called the deed of 
feoffment. 


folitary. 


wie R 


In every feoffment the giver is called the foofer, or feaffa- 
tor, and he that receives, the, feajie. 

The proper difference in our law between a feoffer, and a 
donor, is, that the feoffer.gives in fee-fimple; and the donor 
in fee-tail. Litt]. 1. c. 4. 

This conveyance is now but very little ufed, except 
where no confideration paffes, as in. cafe df truftees of lands 
for a corporation, &c. It is {till, however, a formal, valid, 
and effectual mode of conveyance ; but of late years it has 
been alinott entirely fuperfeded™by the conveyance by /ea/e 
and releafe, which fee. 

‘FEORME. See’Farm. 

‘FEOU-CHAN, in Geography, a town of China, of the 
third rank, in Chan-fi; 20 miles I.S.E. of Pin-yang. 

TER de Fourchette, croix a fer de fourchette, in. Heraldry, 
is a crofs, having a forked iron at each end, like that for- 
merly ufed by foldiers to reft their mufkets on; by which 
it is diftinguifhed from the crofs fourche ; the ends whereof 
turn forked ; whereas in this the fork is.fixed.on the fquare 
ends, 

Fer de Moulin, q. de iron of the mill, isa bearing in he- 
raldry ; fuppofed to reprefent the iron ink,~or ink of a mill, 
which fuftains the moving mill-ftone. 

FERABOSCO, Axrronso, the Younger, in Biography, 
is faid to have been born-at Greenwich of Italian parents. 
He feems to have acquired confiderable weight inthis coun- 
try, more from his name and the reputation of -his father 
thar. real merit. However convinced he may have been 
himfelf of his fuperior abilities, we have our doub's concern- 
ing the genius, at lealt, of this author, though he had 
the poets and dilettanti all on his fide; as his compefi- 
tions that have come under our in{pection feem whol- 
ly unworthy of a great profeffor. The ‘¢ Ayres,” which 
he publifhed in London, 1609, with an accompaniment for 
the lute, contain as little merit of any kind as we have-cver 
feen in productions to which the name of a matter of efta- 
blifed reputation is .prefixed: thefe hee dedicated, with 
no great humility, to.prince Henry, the -elde& -fon of 
James I. 

Three herald minftrels, ycleped Ben Jonfon, T. Cam- 
pion, and N. Tomkins, proclaimed the high worth and qua- 
lities of thefe Ayres in three encomiattic copies of verfes, pre- 
fixed to. the work; but thefe friendly ‘bards, who praife 
not witha very {paring hand, feem to have lefs exalted ideas 
of the-author’s merit and importance than himfelf ; « For,?? 
fays he to the prince, “ I could now, with that folemn in- 
duftry of many inepillles, enforce all that hath been faid in 
praife of the faculty of mufique, and make that commend 
the worke; but I defire more, the worke fhould commend 
the faculty: and therefore fuffer thefe few Ayres to owe 
their grace rather to your highneffe judgement, than any other 
teltimonies. Iam not made of much {peech; only I know 
them worthy of my name; and therein, I took paines to 
make them worthy of yours. ‘ 

‘Your highneffe moft humble fervant, 
4 Ailfonfo Ferabofeo.” 

Four of thefe Ayres are iniferted ia Burney’s General Hif- 
tory of Malic, vol. iii. ‘The lute accompaniment to which 
is mere thorough bafe, which the chords implied by the 
ne placed over the bafe by the editor who!ly compre- 
hend. 

FER /E, in Zoology, the third order in the Mammatta 
clafs of animals, or thefe which fuckle their young b 
means of lactiferous teats: the order is diftinguifhed by 
having fix fharpifh fore-teeth in the upper jaw, and tufks 

The genera comprehended in this order are Phoca, 
Canis, 


a 


me R 
“Canis, Felis, Viverra, Muffela, Urfus, Didelphis, Talpa, 
Sorex, and Lrinaceus, which fee refpectively. 

Fera Nature, in our Law, fignify birds or beafts that 
are wild, inoppofitionto fuch as are tame; fuch are hares, 
foxes, wild geefe, orthe like, wherein’no man may claim a 
property, unlefs under particular circumftances, as where 
they are confined, or made tame, &c. 2Cro.293. See 
Game, and Prorrrry. 

FERAH, or Farrer, in Geography, atown of Peviia, 
in Segettan ; go miles N.N.E. of Zareng. N. lat. 33°-0!. 
E. long. 62° 22'.—Ajifo, a river of Perfia, ‘which runs into 
lake Zere, at Neubendumy in Segeitan. 

FERABAM,a town of Pertia, in the province of Irak; 

2 miles E.N.E. of Nehavend. 
» FERALIA, in Antiquity, a feat held by the Romans, 
on the 21{t of February, in honour of the dead, or of the 
-Dii Maes. Vide Mem. Acad. Infcript. tom. i. p. 43. 

Varro derives the word from inferi, or from. /ero ; on account 
of arepait carried to the fepuichres of thole to whom the laft 
offices were rendered on that day. Teltus derives it from 
Jerio, on account of the-vidtims facrificed. Voffius obferves 
that the Romans called death fera, crue/, and that the word 
feralia might arife thence. 

Macrobius, Saturn. lib. i. cap. 13. refers the origin of 
the ceremony to Numa Pompilius. Ovid, in his Fatti, goes 
back as far as A®neas for its inflitution. He adds, that on 

‘the fame day a facrifice was performed to the goddefs Mu- 
ta, or Dumb ; and that the perfons who officiated were an 
old woman, and anumber of young girls who attended her. 
This feait fometimes continued for feveral days; and at 
its termination friends and relations kept a fealt of peacesand 
love, for fettling differences and quarrels among ove another, 
if any fuch exilted. 

FERAN, in Geography, an ifland in the North Pacific 
ocean, near the S. W. coaft of Quadra aud Vancouver’s 
ifland, about 16 miles in circumference. E, long. 234° 
234", 

PERANZA, atown of Naples, in the Bafilicata; 4 
miles N.W. of Acerenza. 

FERASTAK, or Ferestrack, a town of Egypt; 14 
miles $.S.1. of Iaoué. ? 

FERBANNA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of 
Bambouk, 40 miles N.W. of Bambouk. N, lat. 13° 45’. 
E. long. 9° 58. 

Fersanna Tenda, a town of Africa, in the country of 
Dentila, on the W. bank of the river Faleme, 65 miles S.W. 
of Bambouk. N. lat. 12° 46’. W. long. 12° 6’. 

TFERBAR, or fereser, atown of Great Bucharia, on 
‘the Gihon, oppofite to Amu. 

FERCULA, or Forcuva, a town of Africa, and 
‘principal place of a diftriGt, in the gountry of Tafilet ; 50 
miles W. of Sugulmaffa. N. lat. 31° 40’. W. long. 4° 36’. 

PFERD-Wir, or Ferv-/Vite, in our Aacient Cufloms, a 
formulary, by which the king pardoned manflaughter com- 
mitted in the army. 

The word is formed of the Saxon ferd, amy, and qite, 
unifoment. 

_ FERDFARE, fromthe Saxon ferd, army, and fare, 
journey, i our Old Writers, is wled for being dilcharged 
from going to war. , 

FERDINAND L., in Biography, emperor of Germany, 
fecond fon of Philip, avchduke of Auttria, by Joanna of 

‘Cattile, was born in Spain in 1503, and being educated in 
his native country became a greater favourite with the Spa- 
niards than his elder brother Charles V. He was encouraged 
to expect the regency of Arragon from his grand-father Fer- 
dinand the king, who was perfuaded to alter his laft will ia 

Vou, XIV. 


FER 


favour of another. The young prince fhewed fymptoms of 
difcontent at the change; and, beinz brought to Madrid, he 
was kept under the vigilant eye of cardinal Ximenes. Some 
time afterwards, he was fent to Germany to vifit his erand- 
father Maximilian. Here. he married Anne, daughter of 
Ladiflaus, king of Huagaryand Bohemia, aud Chariesimme- 
diately fettled on him both Auflrias, and allthe de 
appertaining to that houfe in Germany. When his brothe? 
in-law, Lewis, was flain at the battle of Mohatz, in 1526, 
Ferdinand laid claim to, and obtained, the crowns of Hun- 
gary and Bohemia. Through the influence of his brother, 
then emperor, he was eleéted king of the Romaus in 1531, 
notwithitanding the oppolition of the Proteftant ele&ors of 
Saxony and Brandenburg. Hungary, w the mean time, was 
invaded by the Turks, with count of Scepus at their head, 
who eventually gained poficfiion of a great part of the 
country. Ferdinand thought it advileable to treat, and to 
allow the count all he had acquired, with the title of king of 
Hungary, during his life, but at his demife it was to re- 
vert to himfelf. At his death, however, a zreat part of 
the nation recognized his fon by the name of king Stephen. 
Ferdinand now attempted to enforce by arms the perform- 
ance of the treaty, but Solyman, the Turkifh emperor, joined 
the Hungarians, defeated the forces of Ferdinand, and 
feized a great part of Hungary for himfelf. After this, 
Ferdinand fubmitted to pay him a tribute for the portion he 
ftillheld. His attempts to extend his prerogatives in Bo- 
hemia, and render its crown hereditary, together witi: the 
progrefs of the reformation in that country, having occ2- 
fioned an arnied confederacy againft the royal authority ; 
Ferdinand, at the head of a body of imperial troops, dif- 
perfed it, aud difarming the people, reduced them to greater 
fubjection than-before? He treated the city of Prague with 
great rigour, and abolifhed its ancient privileges. In 155 
he invaded Tranfylvania, and obtained poffeffion of it by the 
refignation of queen Liabella, mother of Stephen ; this pro- 
vince was, however, foon wreited out of his hands by So- 
lyman, whio recovered it for Ifabeila in 1553. Charles, as 
we have feen, obtained for Ferdinand the title of king of 
the Romans, but now, en account of his boundlefs ambition, 
he was defirous of tranfmitting the imperial crewn to his 
own fon Philip. Afterwards, indeed, he committed the 
management of his German affairs almoft entirely to Ferdi- 
nand, who opened the diet of the empire at Augfburg ia 
1555. In this, toleration was granted and confirmed to 
Proteftants, and the peace of religion was fora time efta- 
blithed. - Charles again attempted to perfuade his ambi- 
tiows brother to renounce the fucceffion in favour of Philip, 
but his intreaties were of no avail; he therefore, in 1556, 
executed a deed’ of refignation of the empire, and at the 
diet of Frankfort, in February 1558, Ferdinand was unae 
nimoufly declared emperor. ‘The pope, Paul IV., refafed 
to acknowledge the refignation of Charles, and fucceffion of 
Ferdiaand, becaufe the confent of the holy fee had not been 
previoufly obtained. His fucceflor Pius 1V. did, however, 
recognize the newemperor. In his charaéter of emperor, 
Ferdinand attempted’to reconcile the Proteftants to the Ca- 
tholic church; his endeavours were unavailing, but he was 
fuccefsful in fecaring the fucceffion to his fon Maximilian. 
Itishighly to his credit that he preferved the public peace of 
the empire, made a truce with the Turks of eight years, 
and terminated a difpute between the kings of Denmark 
and Sweden. He died at Vienna in 1564, leaving behind 
him four fons and eleven daughters. Ferdinand was un- 
doubtedly ambitious, but he was juitly famed for his re- 
markable equity, prudence, munificence, and unwearied 
application to bufinefs. aha. piqued himfelf on a rigid 

a ob- 


FERDINAND. 


obfervence of his word and gave a flriking inftance of his 
puniuality in that refpeé, by beftowing a favour on an ofii- 
cer, who, after the promife, had proved himfelf unworthy 
of it. “ I owe,” faid the monarch, “ a greater refpect to 
my word, than to the merits of him to whom I pledged it.” 
Robertfon Ch. V.—Univerf. Hitt, 

Ferptnanp II. emperor, grand-fon of the preceding, 
fon of Charles, archduke of Stiria, by Mary of Bavaria, 
was born in 1578, and elected king of Bohemia in 1617, 
and king of Hungary im the following year; but the religi- 
ous.difputes in Bohemia having caufed a revolt, Ferdinand 


Ps 


concluded, which has ferved fince as the political bafis of 
the Germanic conftitution. By this treaty the king of 
Sweden acquired a large part of Pomerania, with the dig- 
nity of prince of the empire: the king of France became 
landgrave of Alface, and the Lutheran and Calviniftic re- 
ligions were placed upon an equal footing of authority with 
the Roman Catholic. A variety of other conditions were 
eed on relative to the flates and princes of Germany» 
which were received into the fundamental law of the em- 
ire. The pope oppofed that part of the treaty which al- 
fowed the religious claims of the heretics, but his remon- 


was deprived of the kingdom foon aiter the death of his ftranecs were difregarded. ‘The emperor procured the elec- 


coufin, Matthias, by whofe influence he had been originall 
chofen. He was, however, atthe fame time, appointed 
the fucceffion of the empire, and in the charaéter of emperor 
he found it neceffary to form a Catholic league, in order to 
oppofe that of the Protettants who fupported the elector 
Palatine. ‘hat unfortunate prince was completely defeated 
at the battle of Prague in 1620, in confequence of which 
Bohemia was obliged to fubmit to its former matter. The 
leaders were put to death, and the exercife of the Proteftant 
religion was entirely fuppreffed. Ferdinand carried his re- 
fentment againit the elector fo far as to put him to the ban 
of the empire, and to invade the Palatinate, which, by means 
of his general, count Tilly, he entirely conquered, and then 
transferred the electoral dignity to Maximilian, duke of Ba- 
varia. He was now become fo formidable to the Proteftant 
party, that a league was formed again{t him in the north of 
Germany, headed by Chriftiern IV. king of Denmark. Fer- 
dinand, however, triumphed over all his enemies, and then 
turned his attention to the affairs of Italy, where the death 
of Vincent, duke of Mantua and Montferrat, had left a dif- 

uted fucceffion. The Autlrian troops invaded and took 

{antua, while their allies, the Spaniards, took Cazal, which 
was defended by the French. In the confidence which thefe 
fucceffes infpired, the emperor took the moitt hoflile meafures 
again{t the Proteitants ; thefe in their turn applied to Guf- 
tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who was not only brave, 
but the profefled enemy of the houfe of Auttria. A league 
was formed, to which the king of France aceeded, and 
almoft before the emperor was apprifed of his danger, 
a war broke out, which reduced the houfe of Auftria to the 
greate!t extremities, buthe was enabled to maké peace in 1635 
with the eleGtor of Saxony and moft of the Proteftants. In 
the following year, at the dict held at Ratifbon, the emperor 
preeured his fon Ferdinand to be clected king of the Ro- 
mans, and in lebruary 1637 he died in'the fifty-ninth year 
of his age, after an anxious and unquiet reign of eighteen 
years. By the performance of feveral vows which he made 
againfl the Proteflants, he acquired the appellation of the 
Apoftolic Emperor. He is much applauded by Roman 
Catholic writers, but his conduct as emperor has little claim 
to praife. Mod. Univer. Hilt. 

Fervinanp IIT. emperor, fon of the preceding, was 
born in 1608, and fueceeded to the empire on the death of 
his father: he happily tranquillized the interior of Ger- 
many, but had the mortification to perceive that the flames 
of war continued to rage with unabated fury on the 
frontiers, and that the calamities of the people were pro- 
longed by the abilities of the generals employed. Thefe 
diftineuifhed themfelves by their gallant conduct, and the 
hoitile fovereigns, depending on unfailing refources in their 
commanders, were but little alarmed by occafional defeats. 
Hoftilities were confequently carried on with vigour, and 
the ill-fated inhabitants of Germany ftill groaned beneath 
the yoke of oppreflion. Various attempts were made to 
negociate, and at length, in 1648, the peace of Muntter was 

2 


tion of his eldefl fon to the dignity of king of the Romans, 
in 1652, but that prince’s death not long after left the fue- 
ceflion undetermined. Ferdinand himfelf died at Vienna, in 
1657, at the age of 49. He was reckoned a mild, hu- 
mane, and generous prince, attached to religion, a friend 
to literature, and liberal to thofe who ferved him. Mod. 
Univer. Hift. ; 

Ferpinanp I. king of Caitile and Leon, the firft in 
whom thofe crowns were united,” was fon of Sanchez III. 
king of Navarre, and of Nugna, heirefs of Caftile. He 
was crowned king of Caftile, in right of his mother, while 
his father was living. He married Sancha, daughter of 
Alphonfo V. king of Leon, whofe brother Bermudo, when 
come to the throne, engaged in war with Ferdinand, and 
invaded Caftile. Bermudo was flain in a battle in 1037, and 
Ferdinand was acknowledged king of Leon in right of his 
wife. He was now the moft powerful monarch in Spain, 
but he conducted himfelf with fo much moderation towards 
his various fubjects, that he obtained their unanimous attach- 
ment. He made war on the neighbouring Moors, and 
puthed his conquefts into Portugal, as far as Coimbra, of 
which he became mafter in 1045; making at the fame time 
the kings of Toledo and Saragofla his tributaries. Garcias, 
his brother, was king cf Navarre, and being at this time 
extremely ill, Ferdinand paid him a vifit, but finding that 
a plan was laid to feize his perfon, he retired in difguft. 
The next year Garcias vifited him on a like occafion, and 
was actually detained prifoner: he found means, however, to 
evade the vigilance of his keepers, and a war enfued between 
the brothers, in which Ferdinand aéted on the defenfive. 
Garcias was Killed, and Ferdinand is faid to have ufed the 
moft extreme moderation after the victory, and to have ab- 
ftained from injuring his nephew, the young king of Na- 
varre. But the queen, defirous of enriching a new church at 
Leon with the bodies of two virgin martyrs, interred at 
Seville, caufed Ferdinand, without provocation, to make an 
incurfion into the Moorifh territory, the inhabitants of which 
he compelled to do him homage, and to comply with his re- 
ligious requifition. In the mean time his fon Don Sanchez, 
a¢ting as an ally to the king of Saragofla, defeated Ramira, 
king of Arragon, in a great battle. Rodrigo, better 
known by the name of Cid, commanded under Sanchez on 
this occafion. After this, in an aflembly of the ftates, he 
declared his intention of dividing his kingdoms among his 
three fons. The confequence of this imprudent policy was 
a revolt of the Moorifh dependent kings of Toledo and Sa- 
ragofia, who refufed tribute, and attempted to fhake off 
the yoke. Ferdinand marched againit them with a power- 
ful army, but a fudden indifpofition obliged him to return 
to Leon, where he died in the autumn of 1065, leaving a 
high character for civil and military talents, and for an une 
blemifhed private life. Mod. Univer. Hift. 

Ferpinanp 11]. king of Caflile and Leon, fon of Al- 
phonfo IX. king of Leon, and Berengara, infanta of Caf- 
tile, was born in 1200. Qn the death of the king of cal 

ul ey 


FERDINAND. 


tile in 12149, the right to the crown was recopnized by the 
ftates to belong to Berengava, his filter, who refigned it to 
her infant fon Ferdinand, whom fhe caufed to be inau- 
gurated in the cathedral, amidft the acclamations of the 
people, but his father, the king of Leon, marched fuddenly 
an army into Caitile, with a view of feizing the regency ; 
he was, however, obliged to retreat. In 1219, the young 
king Ferdinand was married to Beatrice of Suabia, daughter 
of the emperor Philip, after which he was eugaged for fe- 
yeral years in war with the Moorifh princes, his neighbours, 
from whom he took a number of fortreffes. In 1230, the 
kine of Leon died, and by his laft will divided his domi- 
nious between his daughters, which had nearly produced a 
civil war; for while a part of the flates adbered to the ia- 
fanta’s caufe, the reft, who were the majority, declared in 
favour of Ferdinand. At leagth the ladies, in confideration 
of an ample pention, refigned their rights to their brother 
Ferdinand, who thus accomplifhed the re-union of the 
kingdoms of Caftile and Leon, which have never fince been 
feparated. Ferdinand concluded a treaty with the king of 
Portugal, and continued to purfue his plan of reducing the 
Moors. After a feries of enterprizes, moft of which were 
crowned with firccefs, as well by lend as by fea, he took 
Seville in 1248, and in the following year gained pofleffion 
ef all the remaining Moorifh towns and fortrefles as far as 
the fea. He next projected the invafion of Africa, buta 
dropfy put an end to his defign, and, in 1252, terminated 
his life. He had fhewn great regard, during his life, to 
what was then oalled religion, and he didd with all the de- 
monttrations of profound piety and humility, which are in- 
culeated by the Catholic religion, and was, by his fubjeéts, 
immediately regarded as a faint, though he was not ca- 
nonized at Rome, and admitted to their calondar till 1671, 
during the reign of Clement X. He left a large family, 
and was fucceeded by Alphonfo X. furnamed “ the Wile.” 
See AtpuHonso, or Atonzo X. vol.i. Mod. Univer. 
Hit. 
Ferpinanp IV. fon of Sancho, fucceeded his father in 
the year 1295, and was folemnly inaugurated in the ca- 
thedral church of Toledo. His mother affumed the re- 
gency during the minority, and governed with moderation 
and prudence, though fhe was much harafled by contending 
claims, particularly by thoie of Henry, uncle to the de- 
ceafed king, who made loud 'demands for the regency. 
At length Ferdinand took the government into his own 
hands, aad was married to the infanta of Portugal. Henry 
died without iffue, after having rendered himfelf obnoxious 
to the greater part of the nation. His eftates were all 
feized by the crown, and fo little refpeét was paid to his 
memory, that even the rights of fepulture were neglected 
till the queen interfered, and expreffed her intention of fol- 
lowing his remains to the tomb. ‘ Let his funeral,” faid 
fhe, * be fuitable to his rank, for we ought to remember 
his birth and forget his faults.’? War was carried on be- 
tween Caftile and Arragon for fome time, and when peace 
was concluded, Ferdinand refolvedto renew the war againtt 
the Moors, and urged the expediency of that meafure with 
-fuccefs, fo that the ftates of Valladolid confented to defray 
the whole expence of the campaign. A nimerous army 
was aflembled by the infant Don Pedro, on the frontiers of 
Andalufia, and the city of Alcaideta was quickly invetted. 
Upon the arrival of the king at this place, he received in- 
formation that two perfons, of the name of Carvajal, were 
ja cuftody, and itood charged with the murder of Don 
Juan Alonfo de Benavides. He immediately ordered the 
prifoners to be thrown from the fummit of a rock, without 
even the form of a trial, though they affured him, in the 


moft pathetic manner, of their innocence, and even offered 
to give the mott irrefrazable proofs of it. When the fa- 
vage fentence was about to be executed, the fufferers, con- 
{ciou3, perhaps, of their ianocence, fummoned Ferdinand 
to aufwer forthis injuftice, within thirty days, at the 
nal of God. This appeal had fuch an effect on the king, 
that he fickened and dicd on the lalt day of that period, 
which happened in the year 1312. Mod. Univer. Aift. 
Firepinanp V. furnamed “The Catholic,” fon of 
John II. king of Arrazon, was born in 1452, and married, 
in 1469, Lfabella of Cattile, filter of Henry IV., at whofe 
deceafe, in 1474, he was declared king, and Ifabella queen, 
of Caltile and Leon. The new fovereigns were proclaimed 
amid{t loud acclamations ; and the fidelity of their ful; 
enabled them to defeat all the defigus of their enemies, and 
to obtain quiet pofleflion of the crown, though not till the 
event of a civil War had decided in their favour. Ferdi- 
nand’s father dying in 1479, he fucceeded to the erown of 
Avragon, and thenceforth the kingdoms of Arragon, and 
thofe of Caftile and Leon, which comprehend all Spain, 
except Granada, held by the Moors, became infep hy 
connected and united. Ferdinand and Lfabella governed 
with great prudence, but rather like independent fovereigns 
than as man and wife; they were not unfrequently jealous 
of each other in their adminiftration, though.they generally 
aéted upon the fame principles, and forwarded the fame pur- 
pofes. While they took great pains in giving vigour to 
their government, and tranquillity to their people, an in- 
temperate zeal led them to introduce that infernal engine of 
torture, the court of inquifition, into their dominions. It 
was faid, indeed, that it was only intended to take cogni« 
zance of the frequent apoftacies among Jewifh and Maho- 
metan pretended converts, and therefore regarded as a mea- 
{ure equally conformable to the interefts of policy and reli< 
gion. This, however, was but a ftate trick, for it was foon dif- 
covered that it was a court authorized by the pope to decide 
upon the liberty, fortune, and life of anyindividual who fhould 
be accufed of holding heretical opinions, or of exprefiing any 
contempt for the ceremonies of the church, without being al- 
lowed to offer a defence, or even to be confronted with his ac- 
cufer. Two thoufand perfons are faid to have fuffered death 
under the favage Torquemada, the firft inquifitor general} 
and a multitude of Jews and Mahometans quitted the couv- 
try with precipitation to elude a fimilar fate. To this hor- 
tible engine of torture may be imputed all the degradation 
to which Spain has fubmitted fince that period. The fove- 
reigns who introduced the inquifition little contemplated 
the miferies they were bringing on their country, or they 
would have fhuddered at the idea; they were in their natures 
moderate and himane, and at all times caufed civil juitice 
to be adminiftered with equal fcales without regard to rank 
or condition. In 1481 they attacked the Moors, and after 
a war of ten years reduced their kingdom of Granada, and 
thus the whole of Spain was faic to be completely Chriftian 
without perhaps a fingle individual underftanding what was 
implied by the epithet. Ifabella next, for Ferdinand was 
now become a very fecondary fovereign, in the fervour of 
religious zeal, attacked and expelled the Jews from her 
dominions. Fortunately for thefe miferable outcalts of 
fociety, they have always been ready to follow a Chritian 
maxim, when perfecuted in one city, or ftate, to flee to 
another. When Iabella had {wept from her dominions 
all heretics, fhe had leifure for a project more honourable 
to her memory; fhe took achiet concern in fitting out 
Columbus for the grand expedition, which belfowed a 
new world on Spain, fo little meriting the high honour. 
(See America, Cotumsus, &c.) Another a of this 
Nnz reiga 


FERDINAND. 


reign muft not be overlooked; the conquered Moors were at 
firfttolerated in their religion, but it was now determinedthat, 
by force, or perfuafion, or pious fraud, they mult be con- 
verted; a fhort time, in which much blood was thed, proved the 
abfurdity and impracticability of the plan, and Ferdinand cem- 
promifed the matter by allowing thefe yuhappy people to re- 
tire to Barbary, a meafure which tended to preferve the 
peace of the country, but which was injurious in a high 
degree to its induftry and population. ‘The decline of agri- 
culture and manufactures in Spain is dated from this period. 
In 1502 the archduke Philip, with his wife Joanna, at the 
defire of Ifabella, vifited. Spain, and were acknowledged by 
the flates of Caflile as fucceffors to the crowns of Cattile 
and Arragon. Upon intelligence of arupture between the 
emperor and the court of France, the archduke refolved 
upon returning into his own dominions, notwithitanding 
the remonftrances of the king, and the entreaties of his wife. 
He left Madrid.on the 19th of December, and gave a freth 
caufe of offence to his father-in-law, by concluding a treaty 
with the king of France. In march Donna Joanna was 
delivered of a fon, who was baptized by the name of Fer- 
dinand, but the confequences of her delivery deranged her 
mind, a circumftance that funk fo heavily in the mind of 
Ifabella, as fhortly to bring her to the grave. ‘This event 
took place in 15043 and though by her will fhe appeinted 
Ferdinand to the regency of Cajftile during the minority of 
their grandfon Charles, afterwards the emperor, yet Philip 
took meafures to oblige him to refign in his favour, -He 
enjoyed his power but a fhort time, dying in Sept. 1506; 
and his wife being utterly unable to perform the duties of 
government, the regency was therefore again an object of 
eonteft, and the competitors were the emperor Maximilian 
and Ferdinand. About the clofe of 1511 Ferdinand fent 
the duke of Alva, witha {mall army, to demand a paflage 
through the king of Navarre’s terr itories into France, and, 
on the rejection of his requett, made himnielt matter of Pam- 
peluna, and the greateit part of the kingdom; this was 
fuppofed to add great Juitre to the Spanith crown, and to 
augment the fame of Ferdinand’s admirable policy: He 
now fell into a languithing habit of body, and a deep melan- 
choly feemed to fettle on his mind, which admitted of no 
diverfion, and baffled the flall of the moft able phyficians, 
but which neverthelefs fubfided in a meafure when bufinefs 
required his attention. He was {till as anxious as ever after 
power; unwilling even at the approach of death to admit 
athought of relinquifhing any portion of his authority ; he 
removed from place to place, in order to fly from his diforder, 
orto forget it, but in vain ; 


“ yo more than from himfelf can fly 
By change of place.” 

He died January 23, 1516, being in the fixty-fourth year 
of his age. He left his daughter Joanna heirefs of all his 
dorninions, and afterwards tncy were to defeend to the 
grandfon Charles. Ferdinand had acquired a nigh reputa- 
tion for policy and the atts of government, but he was 
regardlefs of any engagement provided it interfered with a 
new defign ; he even made his perfidy a fubject of boatt and 
merriment. | Still, where religion was out of the gueflion, 
he difplayed towards his own {bjeéts much moderation and 
equity. He was beloved by the lower orders, whom he 

roteéted from the oppreffion of the nobles, and took 
means to break the power of the feudal nobility. Modern 
Univer. FTift. ; : : 

FERDINAND VI. fon of Philip V. by his firft wife Mary 
of Savoy, was born in 1713, but did not fucceed his father 
till the year 1746, at which time Spain, in union with 


France, was engaged in war with England, the empire and 
their allies On this occafion he difplayed the humanity of 
his temper by various aéts of clemency and beneficence, 
and at the fame time continued to fupport that fyftem of 
policy which was the bafis of the family compact of the 
houfe of Bourbon. He readily joined m the peace of Aix- 
la-Chapelle in 1748, by which one of his brothers was feated 
on the throne of the two Sicilies, and the other acquired 
the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guattella. He gladly 
employed the return of tranquillity in promoting the in- 
ternal profperity of his country; he corrected abufes in the 
management of the revenue, abolifhed the burthenfome tri- 
bunal of the nunciature, reformed the regular clergy, re- 
eftablifhed the marine, and encouraged commerce, manu- 
faG@tures, and agriculture. Occupied in thefe ufeful and 
beneficent defigns, he refufed to join the French court, in 
1754, ina new war with England, and difgraced his minifter, 
who endeavoured to change his meafures. In private and 
domeftic life his virtues fhone with peculiar luftre, and his 
conjugal attachment was fo fincere, that he found it impof- 
fible to difpel the deep melancholy which refulted from the 
lofs of his beloved confort. He died in Auguft 1759, 
when he was fucceeded by his brother Charles III. Mod. 
Univer. Hift. 

Ferpinanp, king of Portugal, was born in 1340, and 
fucceeded his father in 1367. He was extremely handfome, 
very courteous, cheerful, and liberal; but his levity and 
ficklenefs produced the moft difaftrous confequences to his 
government and people. He had retufed, during his fa- 
ther’s life time, a proffered marriage with the daughter of 
Peter the Cruel, king of Caitile ; and at his dccelien fent 
to compliment Henry count of Traftamere, who had ex- 
pelled Peter from the throne; yet on the death of Peter 
he affumed to himfelf the title of king of Cattile, and en- 
tered into a war with Henry. Ferdinand, though he had: 
made a league with the king of Arragon, and had a€tually 
married by proxy his daughter Leonora, was induced by the 
mediation of the pope to make peace with Henry, with the 
condition of marrying his daughter Leonora; but a third 
Leonora coming in his way, he was led to break his former 
engagements and marry her. Thisalliance caufed a revolt at 
Lifvon, and proved the fource of much mifehicf and difaffee- 
toin during his reign. He entered into an alliance with John 
of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, who had a claim on the crown 
of Caftile in right of his wife, and engaged in a new war 
with Henry. In this conteit Portugal was over-run, and 
part of the city of Lifbon was taken and burnt, together 
with the flect, and Ferdinand was reduced to make peace 
again. Mifunderftandings between the Englifh and Portu- 
guefe, and the natural ficklenefs of Ferdinand, eaufed a 
fudden treaty to be concluded between the two crowns of 
Pertugal and Caftile, with a flipulation that the Englifi 
troops, who had come out to the aid of Ferdinand, fhould 
be inttantly fent home. Soon after Ferdinand gave hisonky- 
dauyhter Beatrix in marriage to the king of Caftile, on con-. 
dition that her children, or her hufband, in eafe the died: 
without iffue, fhould fucceed to the crown of Portugal.” 
"The nation would not, however, confent-to this agreement 5. 
they felt their own intereft concerned, and {purned the pro-. 
pofal with indignation. Ferdinand was now in weak health, | 
and had other caufes of chagrin, befides public difappoint=._ 
ment; he fickened, and bore a long and painful difeaie with. 
much refignation, and died in the fixteenth year of his reign. 
Mod.. Univer. Hitt. wg 

Frrpinanp J. king of Naples, natural fon of Als 
phonfo V. king of Arragon, was rendered legitimate by. 
the decree of pope Eugenins TV. and afcended the so = 
5 a 


FER 


ef Naples on the death of his father, in 1458, and was 
crowned in the following year. The country was foon in- 
volved in a civil war, by the interference of fome difcon- 
tented barons, who demanded John of Anjou as their king. 
John readily feconded their views, entered the kingdom, 
and gave Ferdinand a fignal defeat, which caufed him to be 
deferted by the greater part of his fubjects. He, how- 
ever, recovered himfelf, and defeated his adverfary at Troia, 
and, by his fubfequent conduct, reftored tranquillity to the 
kingdom. He employed the years of peace in thole inter- 
nal improvements which render a country great and re- 
fpeétable, in the encouragement of learning, arts, and manu- 
faGtures, and in obtaining for the laws that degree of re- 
{pe€&t which commands obedience. He affifted pope 
Sixtus VI. in his defigns againit Florence, where he had 
rojected the ruin of the family of the Medici. Lorenzo, 
Tees with a magnanimity worthy of him, repaired in 
perfon to Naples, and threw himfelf into the power and 
under the protection of Ferdinand. This liberal and can- 
did conduét prevailed on the king to conclude an alliance 
with the Florentines,- without confulting the pope. In 
1480 the Turks fcivede Otranto, but it was recovered by 
his fon Alonzo. To this fon, who was totally unfit for 
government, Ferdinand committed the care of the empire, 
which excited fo much difcontent, that pope Innocent VIII. 
found means to encourage a revolt which threatened the 
fafety of the throne. Ferdinand, in his turn, excited adit 
turbances againft the pope in the ecclefiaftical flate, which 
brought about peace. Pardon to the barons was one of 
its conditions ; but this part of the treaty was fhamefully 
violated, and many were put to death for their hare in the 
rebellion. Soon after, Charles VIII. king of France, pre- 
pared to invade Naples, and Ferdinand, confcious that he 
had no claim upon the affections and loyalty of his fubjects, 
was much alarmed. He took meafures of defence, but in 
the midit of his cares he was feized with a ft of apoplexy, 
of which he died in 1444, at the age of feventy-one, leaving 
his crown to his fon Alphonfo. ‘The ftain of tyranny ad- 
heres to his name, but it is allowed that he poffeffed, in fe- 
veral points, the true wifdom of a fovercign. He was 
author of many ufeful laws, was the reftorer of the uni- 
verfity of Naples, te which he introduced feveral eminent 
{cholars, and was the author of a volume of orations and 
epiltles. Mod, Univ. Hit. f B2 
Ferpinanp DE Corpowva, flourifhed m the fifteenth 
century, and has been celebrated in iubfequent ages for his 
at learniny and almoft usiverfal genius. He uaderftood 
all the oriental Janguages, as well as Greek and Latin. He 
wasan adept in canon and civil law; -in mathematics, medi- 
cine, and theology. fie is.faid to have committed tu memory 
the works of the mot fansous {choolmen and juriits, and 
thofe of Ariftotle, Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna. 
To thefe mental acquirements he added a perfect. knowledge 
of martial exercifes, he played upon all mutical intyuments, 
and is faid to have excelfed in finging: and dancing. He 
was at Paris in 144.5, commanding the applaufe and admi- 
ration of that metropolis; and.an accotut of his wonder- 
fal powers he was regarded as a forcerer, or even as the 
antichrift. It is not known either when or where he died. 
Some works on theolocy and !aw have been attributed to 
him. Moreri. f 
FsrpinanpD De Jesus, a Spanifh_ monk, was born in 
Anidalufia, and embraced the monattic flate at Granada in 
the year 1588. He was a great proficient in the different 
branches.of facred and profane literature, and was fo clo- 
guent, that he obtained the name of “ Chryfoltom,” or 
“ Golden Mouth.”? He became a celebrated teacher of 


FER 


theology and morals in the different towns of Spain, and 
left behind him numerous writings, which are highly efteemed 
in that country, where his memory is ftill regarded as well 
for his piety as for his extenfive learning. Moreri. 

FER DINANDL, ErtPuantus, a phyfician of Meffag- 
na, in the territory of Otranto, where he was born O&ober 
2,1569. He cultivated the ftudy of the Latin and Greek 
poets at an early age, and wrote elegant verfes in both 
thefe languages. In 1533 he went to Naples with the in- 
tention of going-through the courfes of philofophy and me~ 
dicine, and remained there, with the exception of fix 
mouths in the year 1591, when all ftrangers were compelled 
by the viceroy to leave the territory, until the year 1594, 
when he received the degree of doétor in medicine and phi- 
lofophy. He then repaired to his native place, where he 
fettled himfelf in the pratice of his profeffion, and remained 
to the end of his lite, notwithitanding feveral honourable 
offers of diftin@ion from feveral feats of learning. The 
duke ef Parma, in particular, preffed him to take the pro- 
fefforfhip of medicine in the univerfity of his city ; and the 
fame invitation was given from the univerfity of Padua. 
He died in 1638, in the fixty-ninth year of his age. 

This phyfician compofed a confiderable number of trea- 
tifes, but only the four following are known, as having 
been printed. 1. © Theoremata Medica et Philofophica,”” 
Venice, 1611. 2. ‘* De vita proroganda, feu juventute con- 
fervanda et fenectute retardanda,”? Naples, 1612. 3. “‘Cen- 
tum Hiltoriz, feu Obfervationes et Cafus Medici,” Venice, 
16213 a treatife which relates to moft of the difeafes of 
the body, and is diftinguifhed by confiderable erudition. 
Tt has been feveral times reprinted in Germany and Holland. 
4. “Aureus de Pefte Libellus,” Naples, 1631. Man- 
getus. Bibl. Eloy. 

FERDUSI, a celebrated Perfian poet, flourifhed about 
the year 1020. - He was originally only a fimple peafant, but, 
having difcovered a natural genius for poetry, he became a 
cifciple of Affedi, and foon fo far furpaffed his mafter as to 
obtain the admiration of the Eaft. His principal work was 
entitled «The Hiftory of the Kings,” containing a narra-. 
tive, in verfe, of the acts of the ancient fovereigns of Perfia. 
Tt is-faid to have contained fixty thoufand diftichs, for eacks 
of which he obtained, of the reigning king, the reward of a 
piece of gold. It isnow fo much valued, that copies ufually 
{ell for more than one hundred crowns. Moreri. 

FE/RE, La, ia Geography, a town of France, in the 
department of the Aifne, and chiéf place of a canton in the 
diftrit of Laon; fituated in a marfhy foil, near the: river 
Sarre, which joins the Oife. The adjacent country may be 
inundated. It was very ftrongly fortified by cardinal 
Mazarine, but afterwards difmantled 3; 16 miles NLE. of 
Paris. ‘The place contains 2,604, and the canton 145334 
inhabitants; on a territory of 195 kitiometres,in 26commuties. 
N. lat. 49° 40'. E. long. 3° 26° 

Fe'R -Champenai/2, a town of France, in the department 
of the Marne, and chief place of a canton in the diftti@ of 
Epernay; 12 miles E.N.E.of Sezannes. The place con= 
tains 1,880, and the canton 7,042inhabitants, ona territory 
of 410 kiliometres, in 21,communes. 

Pr'ne-en-lardencis, atown of France, in the départmert 
of the Aifne, and chief place of a canton in the ditri of 
Chateau;Thierry ; 10 miles N.N.E.. of this place. The 
town contains 1,884, and the canton 9,883 inhabitants,.on # 
territory of 275 kiliometres, in 24 communes. 

FEREBE, Geoxres, in Biography, a dilettantt mufis. 
cian, who diftinguifhed himfelf in our country at a barbarous 
period for every fpecies of fecular mufic. This gentleman, 
was matter of arts of Magdalea college, Oxford, 15955 - 

nifter: 


FER 


nifter of Bifhop’s-Cumings, Wilts. ; he was a native of Glou- 
cefterfhire, and well flcilled in mufic. Antony Wood, in the 
« Faiti Oxon.” vol.i. col. 150, has givena curious account 
of him, which we fhall infert in his own words. “ This 
perfon did inflru& divers young men of his parifh in that 
daculty (mufic) till they could cither play or fing their parts. 
in the year 1613 queen Aune, the royal confort of king 
James I., made her aboce for fome weeks within the city of 
Bathe, purpofely for the ufe of the waters there. In which 
time he compofed a fong in four parts, and inftruéted his fcho- 
lars to fing it very perfectly, as alfo to play a leffon or two 
(which he had compofed) on their wind inftraments. On 
the.r1th June, the fame year, the queen, in her return from 
Bathe, did intend to pafs over the Downs at Wend{dyke 
within the parifh of Bifhop’s-Cumings, of which Ferebe 
having timely notice, he dreffed himfelf in the habit of an 
old bard, and caufed his {cholars to be cloathed in thep- 
herd’s weeds. The queen, having received notice of thefe 
people, fhe, with her retinue, made a ftand at Wendfdyke, 
whereupon thefe muficians drawing up to her, played a 
moit adntirable leffon on their wind initruments, which being 
done, they fung ‘their leffon of four parts with double 
voices, the beginning of which was this: 


««Shine, O thou facred fhepherd’s ftar 
On filly thepherd fwaynes, &c.’”’ 


which being well performed alfo, the bard concluded with an 
epilogue, to the great liking and content of the queen and 
her company. Afterwards, he was {worn chaplain to his 
majefty, and was ever after much valued for his ingenuity.” 
FERELE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Hel- 
fingland; 45 miles W.N.W. of Hudwickfwall. 
FERENTARII, or Ferenparit, am the Romans, 


were auxihary troops, lightly armed; their weapons being 


‘a {fword, bow and arrows, and a fliag; which were 
much lefs cumberfome than a buckler, battle-axe, pike, 
&e. 

The name feems to have been derived a ferendo auxil's ; 
thefe being auxiliary forces; though Varro thinks they 
might be fo called, becaufe the fling and ftones feruntur, non 
denentur. 

We have alfo mention of another fort of ferentarii, whofe 
bufinefs was to carry arms after the armies, and to be ready 
to fupply the foldiers therewith in battle. 

Lydius ufes the name ferentarii for the cataphradi equites, 
i. e. cavaliers armed cap-a-pée. 

FERENTINO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in 
the Capitanata; 11 miles S.S.W. of St. Serviero.—Alfo, 
a town of the Popedom, the fee of a bifhop, immediately 
under the pope, containing 6 churches and 3 convents; 
3 miles N. of Alatri. 

_ FERENZA, a town of Naples, in the Bafilicata; 4 
miles N.W. of Acerenza. 

FERES, a town of European Turkey, in the province 
of Theflaly ; 12 miles W. of Zeiton. 

FERET, a town of European Turkey, in Romania; 36 
miles N.N.W. of Gallipoli. 

FERETORY, in Hagiography, the fhrine or moveable 
cheft in which the body or the bones of fome perfon of emi- 
nent fanétity was depofited in ancient churches. Such fere- 
tories were generally ornamented with filver, gold, and pre- 
cious {tones. 

FERETRUM, among the Romans, the bier ufed in 
carrying out the bodies of the dead; which duty was per- 
formed by the neareft male relations of the deceafed: thus 
fons carried out their parents, brothers their filters, &c. 
Sce Buriav. 


FER 


FERG, Francis Paur, in Biography, a landlcape 
painter, born at Vienna in 1689, where he fludied under difs 
ferent matters. In1718 he left Vienna, and went to Dref- 
den and Bamberg in company with Alexander Thicle, in 
whofe landfcapes he inferted the figures and animals. He 
afterwards vifited England, where, not meeting with the’en- 
couragement he had found elfewhere, he became involved in 
his cireumftances, and, according to report, was found dead 
at the door of his lodgings, exhaufled by cold, want, and 
milery. 

The ftyle of Ferg was in imitacion of Wotvermans, 
but has neither the richnefs nor truth of the latter; his 
finifhing is remarkably neat, and his fecues pleafiue, bur his 
colour is generally fait, and often mealy ; ftill, his pictures 
will always pleafe thofe who are gratified with prettinels, 
and have tafte to admire neatnefs and delicacy in execution. 
His pictures are ufually {mall. He etched well in aqua- 
fortis, and his prints are eagerly fought for by the curious. 
He died in 1740 aged 51. 

FERGA, Sr. in Geography, atown of Arabia, in tle 
province of Hedjas; 75 miles S.S.E, of Medina, 

FERGANA, a province of Great Bucharia, fituated on 
the river Seir or Sihon. It is mountainous, and abounds ia 
tines of gold, filver, copper, iron, and coal. Anudegan is 
the capital. N. Jat. about 40° to 42°. IE. long, 657 to 
70°. - 

TERGUS, a river of the county of Clare, Ireland, 
which forms a large eftuary full of iflands at its junctiea 
with the Shannon. This river dips under ground in fome 
part of its courfe. Ennis, the county town, is on this river, 
aod has a fmall port at Clare, which is fituated a few miles 
lower on it. This river is navigable from the Shannon 
river up to Clare, near Ennis, 

FERGUSON, James, in Bisgraphy, a practical philo- 
fopher and aftronomer of diltinguifhed reputation, was bora 
ia a humble {tation at Keith, a {mall village in Scotland, in 
the year 1710. Ata very early age he gave evidence of 
extraordinary genius; for he learned to read by merely 
liftening tothe inttru€tions which his fether communicated 
toan elder brother, and by him he was alfo taught to write. 
He was afterwards fent for about three months to the gram- 
mar {chool at Keith. His tafte for mechanics appeared 
when he was only about 7 or 8 years of age, and by means 
of a turning lathe and a knife, he conitru€ted machines that 
ferved to illuftrate the properties and ufes of the lever and of 
the wheel and axle. Of thefe machines, and the mede of 
their applicatioa, he made rough drawiags with a pen, and. 
wrote a brief defcription of them. At this time his know- 
ledge was fo imperfe@, that he conceived himfelf to have 
made fome original diicovery. Unable to fubfift without 
fome employment, he was placed with a neighbouring 
farmer, and occupied forfome years ig the care of his fieep. 
In this fituation he commenced the ftudy of aftronomy, de- 
voting a great part of the night to the contemplation of the 
ftars, while he amufed himfelf in the day-time with 
making models of {pinning wheels, mills, and other machines 
which he had an opportunity of obferving. By another 
farmer, in whofe fervice he was engaged, he was much en. 
couraged in his aftronomical ftudies, and enabled, by the af- 
fiftance that was afforded him in his neceflary labour, to. re- 
ferve a part ef the day for making fair copies of the obferva- 
tions which he roughly fketched out in the night. In 
making thefe obferyations he lay down on his back, with a 
blanket about him, and by means of a thread ftrung with 
{mall beads, and ftretched at arm’s length between his eye 
and the flars, he marked their pofitions and diftances. oar 

kind 


FER 


_ kind mafter recommended him to fome neighbouring gentle- 


men, one of whom took him into his houfe, where he was 
inftruéted by his butler in decimal arithmetic, algebra, and 
the elements of geometry. Deprived of the affiftance of his 
preceptor, he returned to his father’s houfe; and availing 
himfelf of the information derived from “* Gordon’s Geo- 
graphical Grammar,’”’ he conftruéted a globe of wood, 
covered it with paper, and delineated upon it a map of the 
world; healfo added the meridian ring and horizon, which 
he graduated; and by means of this inflrument, which was the 
firft he had ever feen, he could folve the problems in that trea- 
tife. His father’s contraéted circumftances obliged him again 
to feek employment; but the fervice into which he entered 
was fo laborious as to affe&t his health, and injure his contti- 
tution, For his amufement in this enfeebled {tate he made 
a wooden clock, and alfo a watch, after having once feen 
the infide of fucha piece of mechanifm. His ingenuity ob- 
tained for him new friends, and employment fuited to his 
tafte, which was that of cleaning clocks, and of drawing 
patterns for ladies’ needle work ; and he was thus enabled 
not only to fupply his own wants, but to aflift his father. 
Having improved in the art of drawing, he was induced to 
draw portraits from the life, with Indian ink, on vellum. 
This art, which he pratifed with facility, afforded him a 
comfortable fubfiftence for feveral’ years, and allowed him 
leifure for purfuing his favourite ttudies. From Scotland 
he removes to London in 1743 ; and being recommended 
to feveral fcientific perfons, he was treated with kinduefs and 
friendfhip ; and encouraged to publith fome curious aftro- 
nomical tables and calculations, and to commence a courfe 
of le€tures in experimental philofophy, which he repeated 
in various parts of the country. In the year 1754 he pub- 
lithed “ A Brief Defcription of the Solar Sy{tem, to which 
is fubjoined an Aftronomical Account of the year of our 
Saviour’s crucifixion,’ 8vo.; and alfo « An Idea of the 
Material Uniyerfe, deduced from a furvey of the Solar 
Syltem,” 8vo. In 1756 he publifhed, in one volume, 4to. 
a larger work, entitled “ Aftronomy explained upon fir 
Tfaac Newton’s principles, and made eafy to thofe who 


have not ftudied Mathematics.”’ 


About this time he was alfo introduced to his prefent 
majefty, then prince of Wales, and had the honour of de- 
livering leGures to him, fer which he received feveral pre- 
fents; and after his acceffion to the throne Mr. Fergufon 
obtained a penfion of so0/. a-year. in 1760 he publithed 
his “* Le@ures on Subjects in Mechanics, Hydroltatics, 
Pneumatics, and Optics, with the ufe of the Globes, the art 
of Dialling, and the calculation of the mean times of New 
and Full Moons and Eclipfes,’? 8vo.; this work, and alfo 
his “ Aftronomy,”? have pafled through feveral editions 
both in 4to. and 8vo.; and of the former, a new edition, 
with feveral valuable additions, has been lately publifhed by 
Dr. Brewlter of Edinburgh. His ‘ Plain Method of deter+ 
mining the Parallax of Venus by her Tranfit over the Sun, 
and thence, by Analogy, the Parallax and Diltance of the 
Sun, and of all the reit of the Planets,’’ firft publithed in 
1761, was annexed to the 4th edition of his * Aftronomy,”’ 
1770; 8vo. In 1763 Mr. Fergufon was elected a fellow of 
the Royal Society, and excufed the payment of the ufual 
fees and contributions. During the fame year he publithed, 
in 8yo. £ Altronomical Tables aad Precepts for calculating 
the true times of New and Full Moovs, and fhewing the 
method of projecting Eclipfes, from the creation of the 
World to A.D. 7800; to which is prefixed a Short Theory 
of the Solar and Lunar Motions.”? In 1767 he publithed 
«6 Tables and Tradts relative to feveral Arts and Sciences,’’ 
8vo. ; anda ‘ Supplement to the Lectures on Mechanics, 


FER 


Hydroftatics, &c. ;? which is annexed to the fecond edition 
ofthat work. His ** Young Gentleman and Lady’s Aftro- 
nomy, familiarly explained in ten Dialogues,” was publifhedin 
1768, and re-printed in the following year, under the title of 
« An Eafy Introdu&tion to A ftronomy, for Young Gentlemen 
and Ladies.’’ His ‘* Introduction to Elecricity,”’ 8vo. ap- 
peared in 1770; and in 1773 6 Seleét Mechanical Exer- 
cifes, fhewing how to coaltruct different Ciocks, Orreries, 
and Sun-dials, on plain and eafy Principles, &c.”? 8vo. with 
an account of his life prefixed, written by himfelf. In 1775 
he publifhed ** Two Letters to the Rev. John Kennedy, 
containing an Account ef many Miitakes in the A ftrono- 
mical part of his Scripture Chronology, and his abufive 
treatment of Aftronomical Authors,” 8vo. which were 
followed by a “ Third Letter’ on the fame fubje&. In 
that year appeared his laft work, entitled “ The Art of 
Drawing in Perfpeétive, made eafy to thofe who have no 
previous knowledge of the Mathematics,” Svo. Mr. Fer- 
gufon alfo communicated feveral papers to the Royal So- 
ciety, which were printed in the Philofophical Tranfa@tions, 
He died, after long labouring under the in&rmities of a 
feeble conftitution, m the year 1776. From the above de- 
tail it mult appear that he was a man of extraordinary 
genius, particularly in mechanical inventions and con- 
trivances. He was diftinguithed alfo by an unaffeGed and 
perfpicuous mode of communicating his ideas both in his 
lectures and his printed works. His knowledge of pure 
mathematics, however, was very limited and fuperficial ; and 
our readers may be furprifed when they are informed, upoa 
the authority of Dr. Hutton, that he could never demon- 
{trate one propofition in Euclid’s elements. His judgment 
was clear, his application indefatigable ; his difpofition was 
humble, meek, and benevolent, and his manners were dif- 
tinguifhed by a fimplicity and courteoufnefs, which engaged 
the efteem of all who knew him. The compiler of this 
article can teftify, from perfonal knowledge, that he poffefled’ 
thefe feveral qualities in an eminent degree. His whole 
life, as it has been juftly faid, exemplified refignation and 
Chriftian piety ; and “ philofophy feemed to produce in him 
only diffidence and urbanity, a love for mankind, and for 
his maker.’? Account of his Life, &c. above referred to. 
Nichols’s Anecdotes of Mr. Bowyer. Hutton’s. Math. 
Dict. Gen. Biog. 

FERHAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pros 
vince of Khorafan; 40 miles S.E. of Neflapour. 

FERIA, a town of Spain, in the province of Eftremae 
dura, fituated on a mountain near the Guadiana; eight 
miles N. of Badajos. 

FERIA, among. the Romans, were holy-days, or day$ 
wherein they abftained from work. The word feriz is 
ufually derived @ ferendis vidimis, on account of the vitims 
killed on thefe days. Martinius fays, that ferie were fo 
called velut itgcs repos, dies facri, holy days. Others ob- 
ferve, that all days in general, though they were not feaft- 

ays, were anciently called /e/e, or, as Voffius reads it, fefra ; 
whence, according to that author, was formed the word 
Serie. ‘ 
The ferix, or dies ferati, were obferved and diftinguifhed 
chiefly by reit; whereas the feaits, or dies fefi, befide a 
ceffation from labour, were celebrated with ‘facrifices and 
games; fo that there were feriz, which were not feaft-days ; 
though authors frequently confound the ferie and fe/f. 
Others confound the ferie with the dies: nefafi, or none 
court-days. 

The Latin feria amounts to the fabbath of the Hebrews, 
The Romans had divers kinds of ferie, public and pric 
vate, {tated and ogcafional ; their names, at leait:thofe x 

the. 


FER 


‘the principal, are efivales, or fummer feria; anniverfarie, 
yearly ferie ; compitalitte brie, of the itreets and crofs- 
Ways; conceptive, votive feria, which the magiftrates pro- 
miled every year; denicales, for the expiation of a family 
polluted by the death of any one; imperative, or indidivz, 
thofe occalionally decreed by the magiftrate; “ating, the 
Latin feria, inflituted by Targuin the Proud, for all the 
Latin people, ameunting annually, fays Dioa. Hal. to forty- 
feven nations, being celebrated on mount Alba, in memory 
of the peace concluded by Tarquin with the people of 
Latium. Thele ferize Latine were either ordinary or ex- 
traordinary. They-continued at firft only for a day; but 
after the expulfion of Tarquin’a fecond day was added, and 
a third after the reconciliation between the plebeians and 
patricians; and in “procefs of time they were prolonged to 
four days. Atthefe feaftsa bull was facrificed, and each 
town contributed a certain quantity of meat, wince, an? fruits. 


Mefis feria were thofe of harvelt; there were alfo paga- 


nales feria, OY pag nalia pracidanee, which were what we 
pro , call the vigils, or eves of the feafts ; srivatz, or 
proprie, thofe peculiar to the feveral families ; as the familie 


“Claudia, Emilie, Juliz, &c.3 publica, thofe obferved by all 
in general, or for the public weal; /erntentine, thofe held in 
feed-time ; _/ative, thofe kept conttantly-on the fame day 
of the year; Saturnales, whereof we fhall fpeak in their 
place 5 jiultorum ferie, or quirinalia, the feria ot fools, held 
on the feventeenth of February ; wdor firia, thole of 
victory, inthe month of Augult; vindemiales, thofe of the 
vintage, from the twentieth of Auguf to the fifteenth of 
Oober; Vulcani ferie, thofe of Vulcan, which fell on the 
twenty-fecond of May. See Feast. ae 

Feri was alfo ufed among the Romans for fair-days ; 
ecaufe it was their cuftom to hold their fairs on the dies 
feriati, or holidays. Struv. Synt. Antig. Rom. cap. ix. 

oaAb25 2, XC. 
$ Penta i till retained.in the Romifh breviary, though in 
a Tenfe fomewhat different from the feri of the ancients ; 
being applied to the feveral days of the week, beginning 
with Sunday ; provided none of thofe days bea feaft or 
fatt-day. Thus, Monday is the ‘fecond feria; T'uefday the 
third, &c. 

The word feria, in this fenfe, is doubtlefs borrowed from 
the ancient feria, a day of reft. Accordingly, Sunday is 
the firt feria; for anciently all the days of Ealter-week 

ere accounted feltival days, by a decree of Conttantine ; 
ee thofe feven days were called ferix ; Sunday being 
the firft, Monday the tecond, &c. And this week being 
then accounted the firft of the ecclefialtical year, they 
afterwards accuftomed themfelves to call the days of 
the other weeks after the fame manner, jir/?, fecond, third, 
&c. feria. Though others will have it, that the days 
of the week were not called ferie from the people’s reit- 
ing, that is, on account of being obliged to abftain from 
fervile works; but to advertife the faithful, that they 
ought to abitain from fin. See Durand, De Off. Div. lib. 


vill. cap. I. 


Thefe are the ordinary ferie ; but befides thefe, they have 


extraordinary, Or greater ferie ; viz, the three laft days of 
Paffion-week ; the two days following Eafter day, and 
Whitfunday ; and the fecond ferie of Rogation. 

FERIAL Days, dies Fertaves, or Fert, among the 
Ancients, fignify holidays, or days vacant for labour, and 
pleading. ‘ 

But in the -tat. 27 Hen. VI. cap. 5. and in Fovtefcue, 
De Laudibus LL. Angliz, ferial days are taken for work- 
ing days. S. Sylvefter ordained—‘ Sabbati & dominici 
aici nomine retento, reliquos hebdomadz dies feriarum no- 


JF ER 
mine diftinétog, ut jam ante in ecclefia voraci caperant aps 
pellari.”’ ‘So that ferial days axe properly all the days of 
the week, except Sunday. 

FERIJEE, in the drefs of the Egyptians, is a fart of 
fkirt worn over another garment, and made either of black 
woollen, or of other coloured cloth furred; this by the 
more genteel people is left open before. It fomewhat re- 
fembles a night-gown. 3 

FERING, iw Geography, a town in the duchy of Sti- 
ria; 14 miles N. of Rackelfourg. ’ 

FERINO, Sr. a town of Italy, in the department of 
the Adda and Oglio 5 5 miles W. of Breno. 

FERIO, in Latin treatifes on mufic, implies, I beat, I 
ftrike, in marking the meafure ; it is at the down part, or 
beginning of a bar, when the hand or foot comes down, as 
the fignal for the commencement of a meafure, though in 
the middle of a note. See SyncopaTron. 

FERISON, in Logic, a mood of the third figure of 
fylogifms. In this mood the firft propofition is an uni- 
verfal negative, denoted by the vowel ¢; the fecond a parti- 
cular affirmative ; and the third a particular negative, fig- 
nilied by é and o. 

FERLING, in ovr O/d Statutes, is ufed for the fourth 
part of apenny. Affif. panis & cerevif. 51 Hen. III, 

FERLINGATA ‘Terra, in our Old Writers, accord- 
ing to Blornt, is the fame as ferlingus terre, which lord 
Coke on Lyttelton fays, was a quarentine, or thirty-two 
acres of land. But according to the authorities quoted by 
Du Cange, Gloff. Lat. voc. Quarentena, it contained but 
forty perches. 

FERM, Firma, in Law. See Farm. 

FERMACO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Gre- 
cian Archipelago, about 10 miles from the coaft of Nato~ 
lia, (Nplat39° a7 dong. aglaet 

FERMANAGH, a townhip of America, in the 
county of Pennfylvania, having 1505 inhabitants. A 

FrrmManaGu, a county of Ireland, ia the province of 
Ultter, formerly fubje& to the old Irith family of Maguire, 
and called Maguire's territory. It was forfeited at the 
time of Tyrone’s intended rebellion in the reign of James 
I. and was one of thofe counties diftributed to undertakers, 
on the plantation of Uliter, for a particular account of 
which important meafure, the reader is referred to the ge- 
neral article IRELAND. Fermanagh is bounded on the 
north by the pa of Donegal; by Tyrone and Mo- 
naghan on the eaft; by Cavan on the fouth and fouth-weft ; 
and by Leitrim on the weit. The boundaries are not 
marked by nature, excepting the lakes, which partly fe-. 
parate it from Leitrim, and fome hills on the borders of 
Tyrone and Cavan. It extends 34 Irifh (43 Englifh) miles 
in length, and 26 Irifh (33 Englith) miles in breadth. Its 
area is 283,400 acres, or 448 {quare miles, (455,298 Eng- 
lifh acres, or 719 {quare miles ;) a very confiderable portion 
however of this area is occupied by lough Erne, which ex- 
tends from north to fouth of various breadth, and com- 
pletely fevers the county into nearly equal parts. The num- 
ber of houfes, according to the latt official return publifhed, 
was 11,983, which, at 6 toa houfe, would give a popula- 
tion of 71,900. “The number of parifhes is only 18, fifteen 
of which, containing 23 churches, are in the diocefe of 
Clogher, and three-parifhes, with as many churches, are 
under the fee of Kilmore. This county isin general hilly, 
but it is only on the confines of Tyrone, and in the weft- 
ern divifion adjoining Leitrim that it can be called moun- 
tamous. ‘There is indeed no part of it which is not capable 
of cultivation ; but at prefent many of thefe rifing grounds 
are rough and boggy, and merely afford a coarfe pafturage 

to 


FER 

te herds of young cattle, from rearing which the farmers 
derive a principal fource of profit. Indications of coal 
have been difcovered in many parts of the weltern diftricé 
bf this county, and in one place in particular, within a mile 
of lough Erne, there is {uppofed to be a very valuable col- 
liery, but the time has not yet arrived for turning to ac- 
count thefe mineral treafures. Amongft the other fub- 
ftances already difcovered in it, manganefe and fuller’s earth 
are mentioned. ‘Thefe, however, are not fo valuable as the 
limeftone, and different kinds of marles which are found in 
it, and are ufed as manure. On lord Ennifkillen’s eftate, 
weit of lough Erne, are quarries of a grey, or brown and 
white marble, beautifully veined, and of a very fine grain. 
The farms are in many parts fmall, to accommodate the 
linen-weavers, and the fame fpirit of induitry is found here, 
as in the adjoining counties. Mr. Young, nearly 30 years 
ago, found them improving in their circumftances, and 
living more comfortably than in moft other parts of the 
ifland ;, and the neighbourhood of Ennifkillen, on the eait- 
ern fide, is in particular a well-inhabited, and well-cultivated 
county. J.ough Erne, which is fuppofed to occupy 
45,000 acres, and the river Erne, by which its fuperfluous 
waters are conveyed to the fea, have been already defcribed 
in former articles of this work. (See Erne.) There are 
two other lakes comparatively {mall, but by no means of 
inconfiderable length ; one called Melvin, and the other 
Maenean. Lough Macnean lies between the counties of 
Fermanagh, Cavan, and Leitrim, and communicates with 
lough Erne ; lough Melvin is in the northera part, and a 
{mall ftream flows from it to the fea. The enly town de- 
ferving notice is Ennifkillen, already mentioned. (See En- 
NISKILLEN.) Fermanagh returns three members to par- 
liament, two for the county, and one for the town of En- 
nifkillen. Young’s Teur. Beaufort’s Memoir, &c. : 

FERMAT, Peter Der, in migeraahyn wae born in the 

r 1590, and became, by his talents an acquirements, 
aay ot the parliament YF Touloufe, in France. He 
was one of the ableft lawyers of the age in which he flou- 
vied oe a good poet, and well ganged in claflical and 
modern learning, intimately converfant in antiquities, and a 

rofound mathematician. His works were collected and 

publifhed at Touloufe, in 1679, in 2 vols. folio, under the 
title of ‘ Opera varia Mathematica.’’ ‘Thefe contain 
Diophantus’s Treatife on Algebra; a method for the qua- 
drature of all forts of parabolas; a treatife on the maxi- 
ma and‘ minima 5 witht many fmaller pieces, and his corre- 
{pendence with the moft celebrated geometricians of his 
time. Fermat was as much diftinguifhed by his integrity 
and impartiality in the character of a magiftrate, as by his 
great learning and knowledge. Moreri. 

Fermat, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, 
in Caramania; 12 miles S. W. of Akfhehr. : 

FERME a Ferme, in ee Manege, fignifies to exercife 
in the fame place without ftirring or parting. 
a PeRMENE. of ee to boil, in Phyfies, any body, 
whieh being applied to another, produces a fermentation 
therein ; or, any thing capable of exciting an inteltine mo- 
tion in the parts of another ; and of {welling or dilating the 
ca the acid in leaven is a ferment which makes bread 
rife or fwell. And the moilture in hay is a ferment which 
heats, and makes it {moke. Thus alfo, rennet is a ferment 
which curdles and breaks milk ; and barm, or yeatt, is the 
ferment that fets wort a working, &c. | 

Thofe things are called ferments in an illufive fenfe, which, 
when added to the liquor, only corre& fome fault therein, 
and by removing fome obftacle to the fermentation, forward 


Vor. XIV, 


FER 


it by fecondary means; as alfo fuch as being added ia time 
of fermentation, make the liquor yield a large proportion 
of {pirit, and give it a finer flavour; all thefe additions 
have the name of ferments among our diftillers, but impro- 
perly. The primary ufe of ferments is, to fave time, and 
make difpatch of bufinefs, while they only occafionally and 
accidentally give a flavour, or add to the quantity of the 
{fpirit ; and accordingly all fermentable liquors may, with- 
out the leaft addition, only by 4 due application of heat, 
be brought to ferment more perfeétly, though it will be 
more flowly than with the addition of any ferment. The 
general ferments ufed on thefe occafions are the flowers and 
feces of fermentable liquors generated, thrown up, er de- 
pofited, during the time of the fermentation in that liquor, 
or after the end of it. There are two of thefe ferments, 
procurable in large quantities, and at a fmall price ; tl 
are beer-yeaft, and wine-lees. A prudent and artificial 
management of thefe, mizht render the bufinefs of the 
brewery for diftillation, as in the bufinefs of the malt 
diftiller, &c. much more eafy and advantageous. It has 
always been found a great difliculty to procure thefe ferments 
in proper quantities, and preferve them always ready for 
ufe ; and’this has been a great difcouragement to the bufi- 
nefs, and hence fome have been obliged to contrive artificial 
ferments, or to form mixtures or compounds of particular 
fermentable ingredients ; but this has been attempted with- 
out any great fuccefs, all thefe mixtures falling fhort even 
of the common bakers’ Ieayen in their ufe. 

When the proper fort of ferment is pitched upon, tlie 
operator ig next to confider its quantity, quality, aad man- 
ner of application. The quantity mult be proportioned to 
that of the liquor, to its tenacity, and the degree of flavour 
it is intended to give, and to che difpatch required in the 
Operation. From thefe confiderations he will be able te 
form a rule to himfelf; but till fuch a rule is formed, or, 
in order to the forming of it, proper trial will thew how 
much fuffices for the purpofe. The Way is to begin with a 
little, and to add more occafionally, the weight of the whole 
being noted beforehand ; fo that on weighing the remainder, 
after the proper quantity is taken away, it will be found 
how much exaétly has been ufed out of it for the bufinefs. 

Among the feveral ingredients of which fermentable li- 
quors are made for the fervice of the diftillery, treacle 
requires more ferment than almoft any other. This is not 
wonderful on a juft confideration of the nature of the fub- 
je@, fince the manner in which that concrete juice is made, 
mut render it greatly unfit for fermentation afterwards, 
though the original product of a vegetable juice very much 
difpefed to it in its own nature. The ftrength of the fire 
ufed in the fugar making, and its long continuance and 
almoit immediate conta@, and the lime and other alkalies 
ufed-in refining the fugar, that is, in making the treacle, 
do fo condenfe, indurate, and fcorch the body of this juice, 
and abfor's its acid, that it is {carcely to be expected that it 
fhould ferment at all, even with the addition of jalap, or 
other powerful faline and acid or acrid ftimulators, which 
tend to break the’ vifcous and aduft connections of the 
particles, 

The greateft circumf{pection and care are neceflary ip re- 
gard to the quality of the ferment, if a pure and well- 
flavoured {pirit be required. It muit be chofen perfeaiy 
{weet and frefh, for all ferments are liable to grow muity 
and corrupt; and if in this ftate they are mixed with the 
fermentable liquor, they will communicate their naufeous 
and filthy flavour to the fpirit, which will fearcely ever be 
got off by any fubfequont refining. If the ferment be four, 
it mult by no means be ufed with any liquor, for it wik 

° COmRninicate 


FER 


eémmunicate its flavour to the whole, and even prevent its 
rifing to a head, and give it an acetous, inftead of a vinous 
tendency. When the proper quantity of a fuitable and 
well-conditioned ferment is got ready, it muft be put to the 
fermentable liquor in a ftate barely tepid, or fcarcely luke- 
warm. The beft manner of putting them together, fo as 
to make the fermentation ftrong and quick, is this. When 
the ferment is folid, it muft be broke co pieces, and gently 
thinned with fome of the warm liquor ; but a complete or 
uniform folution of it is not to be expeéted or detired, as 
this would weaken its efficacy for the future bufinefs. ‘The 
whole intended quantity being thus loolely mixed in fome 
of the lukewarm liquor, and kept near the fire, or elfe- 
where in a tepid flate, free from too rude commerce of the 
external air, more of the infenfibly warm liquor ought at 
proper intervals to be brought in, till thus by degrees the 
whole quantity is fet at work together. 

When the whole is thus fet at work, and fecured in a 
proper degree of warmth, and kept from a too free inter- 
courfe with the external air, it becomes as it were the fole 
bufinefs of nature to finifh the operation, and render the 
liquor fit for the ftill. In this ealy manner the whole end 
ot fermentation would.be anfwered. But during the whole 
courfe of the operation, there are feveral other things that 
may be added with fome particular view, as either to imereale 
the quantity of {pirit, or give it fome agreeable flavour. 
Thefe additions may fometimes require fome alteration in 
the general method laid down above, though upon the 
whole it is right. Shaw’s Eflay on Difulling. 
ADDITIONS. 

Fermenrs inthe Earth. tis very probable, that the 
natural ferments in the earth may be of mere confequence 
than is generally fuppofed, and tend ta elucidate many 
things, which at prefent appear very myfterieus. The 
different fruitfulnefs of different fpots of the fame fort 
of land may be owing to this, as allo the different tempera- 
ture of air at the fame time in places very little diftant from 
one another. The efuvia fent up by fome of thefe, not 
only diffolye fnow that falls on them, but even melt it in 
the air as it approaches, and caufe it to fall in rain, not in 
fnow. And often in two places within a mile or two of 
each other, there fhall be a difparity of heat and cold no 
way elfe to be accounted for, fince there is often no dif- 
ference of fhade or fhelter. 


In Scotland there are large traéts of land, where the fer- 
ment-is fo ftrong, that the earth lets a perfon up to the 
ankles as he walks; and generally, at about a foot depth 
under this, there is found a ftratum of pebbles, fo clofe 
rammed together, that they feem an artificial caufeway. 
This land, though of no greater depth than a foot, is 
found very rich for garden plants, and even for fruit-trees. 
Phil. Tranf. N° rio. u 

FERMENTARII, or Fermenracet, a denomination 
which thofe of the Latin church have given to the Greeks, 
on account of their confecrating and ufing leavened ‘or fer- 
mented bread in the eucharift. 

As the Greeks call the Latins azymites, the Latins, in 
return, call them fermentarit. 

FERMENTATION. Theimportant procefs by which 
faccharine folutions are converted into intoxicating liquors, 
is one of the moft complicated in chemiftry, and the precife 
caufe of this change is as yet very imperfeGly known. In 
the prefent article we fhall notice the conditions requifite to 
fermentation, the appearances that occur during the procefs, 
and the effential product of it, referving for the articles 
Spirits, Difilled, and Wine, fome further particulars. 


See 


FER 

The only two fubftances indifpenfably requifite to the 
formation of a fermentable liquor are water and fugar. 

No vegetable juice will ferment that is not fenfibly fweet, 
and from which a portion of fugar may not be extracted by 
chemical means. The itrength of vinous liquors (other. 
circumftances being the fame) is in dire@ proportion to 
the quantity of fugar contained in them before fermenta- 
tion. The addition of fugar to the weakly fermentable 
juices will enable them to produce a ftrong full-bodied liquor, 
and the very effence of this procefs is the difappearance of 
the fugar, and the confequent produdtion of alcohol. 

With regard to the water, it does not appear how far 
this is an active ingredient in vinous fermentation, though 
it is Fully afcertained that a particular degree of dilution is 
neceflary to this procefs: this confiftence exifts naturally 
in the juice of grapes, in the faccharine fap of many trees, 
and of other fpontaneoufly fermentable liquors; and if thefe 
very liquors be deprived by gentle evaporation of a confider- 
able portion of their water, the refidue will not ferrsent till 
the requifite confiltence is reftored by the addition of a frefh 
portion of water. On the other hand, if a faccharine mu- 
cilage is too dilute, the fermentation is very languid and 
imperfect. 

But pure fugar and water alone will not ferment, and 
therefore fome other fubftance is alfo requifite. To this point 
the attention of chemifts has been often directed, but hitherto 
with but little fuccefs; indeed, the general refult of the 
experiments that have been made is, that feveral fubftances, 
very different in their other properties, will anfwer almo& 
equally well as a ferment. Muft, or the recent juice of 
the grape, contains, befide fugar and water, a quantity of 
vegetable acid, chiefly the tartareous, and one or more fub- 
{tances obfcurely defcribed under the names of mucilage 
and extract. Each of thefe is requifite to the fermentation 
of muft; for if any one is abftracted the procefs will not 
take place. A warm temperature is alfo requifite to fer- 
mentation. This varies according to the natural fermenta- 
bility of the materials, and their bulk. Thus, grape-juice 
will readily begin to ferment at the temperature of about 60°, 
and the procefs is ftrong and vehement at 73° or 80°. The 
expreffed juice of the fugar-cane is fo exceflively prone to 
fermentation, that in the climate of the Weft Indies the 
proces would begin in ten minutes, or a quarter of an hour ; 
and hence, as fermentation is the deftruétion of the fugar, 
it is neceflary, in making fugar, to counteract this tendency 
in the expreffed juice as feed as poflible, which is effected 
merely by bringing it to a fealding heat. A low temperature 
as that of freezing water, is equally efficacious in preventin 
or arrefting the progrefs of fermentation, fo that all do- 
metlic procefles of this kind are performed within doors, or 
near a fire, and in the iarge way chilling muft be particu- 
larly avoided; but as the aét of fermentation produces a 
confiderable heat, the liquor within the veffel being feveral 
degrees warmer than the furrounding air, large mafles are of 
courfe lefs affe€ted by the external cold, and will ferment at - 
a lower temperature. ' 

The firlt figns of fermentation are, a gentle inteftine mo= 
tion, the rifing of {mall bubbles to the top of the liquory, 
and a whitifh turbid appearance. This is foon followed by 
the collection of a froth, or head, confifting of a multitude 
of air-bubbles entangled: in the liquor, which,, as the procefs 
advances, rife flowly to a confiderable height, forming a 
white denfe permanent froth. A very large portion of the 
gas alfo efcapes, which has a ftrong, penetrating, agreeable, 
vinous odour. ‘T'he temperature of the liquor at the fame 
time increafes to feveral degrees above that of the external 
air, and continues fo during the whole of the procefs. 


Sooner 


FERMENTATION. 


Sooner or later thefe appearances gradually fubfide; the 
head of the foam fettles into a denfe froth, and on turning it. 
fide, the liquor beneath appears much clearer and nearly 
at reft, having depofited a copious fediment, and from being 
vifcid and faccharine is now become vinous, intoxicating, 
thinner, and of lefs fpecific gravity. 

The procefs of fermentation, however, does not termi- 
nate fuddenly, but goes off very gradually, the liquor con- 
tinuing to work or throw up foam, to clarify, to attenuate, 
and more completely to lofe its fugar, which at la{t can no 
Jonger be difcerned by the tafte, or dete¢ted by chemical 
analyfis, The vinous liquor, when complete, if of fufficient 
ftrength and well fermented, will now keep fora great length 
of time in yeflels fecured from the air, and undergoes com- 
paratively little farther alteration, except in becoming more 
perfeétly limpid by the depofition of an additional quantity 
of fediment. 

The gas of fermenting liquors has been longs known to 

confilt for the moft part ef carbonic acid; it will, therefore, 
extinguifh a candle, deftroy animal life, convert cauftic al- 
kalies into alkaline carbonats, and the like. But, befide 
the carbonic acid, it has been proved by Scheele to hold 
1a folution a fenfible quantity of alcohol, and Prouft has 
dete€ted in it a portion of azot. Mr. Collier (Manchett. 
Tranf.} has further fhewn that in this gas are contained all 
the requilites for vinous fermentation. Jie pafled the whale 
of the gas froma ninety galloa fermenting tun into a cafk 
of water, and divided the liquor thus impregnated into 
three parts, of which one being immediately diitilled, af- 
forded a {mall quantity of alcohol; to the feeond was 
added fome yealt, by which a new fermentation was excited, 
and the fubfequent product of diftilled fpirit was nearly 
doubled, and the third being fuffered to ferment a longer 
fime, produced fome vinegar. 
_ The attenuation of liquors, or the diminution of their fpe- 
cific gravity by fermentation, is very itriking. Thisis fhewn 
by the hydrometer, which {wims much deeper in fermented 
liquor than in the fame materials before fermentation. 
Much of this attenuation is, doubtlefs, owing to the de- 
ftruGion of the fugar, which, diffolyed in water, adds to its 
denfity, and to the confequent prodution of alcohol, which, 
on the contrary, by mixture with water, diminifhes the 
denfity of the compound, ‘The extraé, or mucilage, alfo 
appears to be in in degree deftroyed by fermentation, 
for the gelatinous confiftence of thick liquors is much lefien- 
ed by this procefs: the deftruétion of this principle, how- 
ever, is by no means fo complete as of the fugar, many of the 
full-bodied ales, for example, retaining much of their origi- 
nal clamminefs and gelatinous denfity even after having un- 
dergone a very perfect fermentation. 

It has been doubted whether the alcohol of vinous liquors 
exilts in them ready formed, or in fome intermediate itate, 
requiring the boiling heat of diftillation for its complete de- 
velopement. It is not eafy to fix upon an unexceptionalle 
mode of deciding this queition. It has been argued by 
Fabbroni, in favour of alcohol being a produét, and not 
an eduét from wine, that wine cannot be again formed by ad- 
ding the diftilled alcohol to the refidue left behind in the 
retort : he alfo affirms, that if a {mall portion of alcohol is 
added to wine, it may be feparated again almott entirely by 
carbonat’of potafh, but that this falt will not feparate any 
alcohol from wine in its natural ftate. This lat fact, how- 
ever, only fhews that the union of the alcoholic with the 
other parts of the wine, is too ftrong to be broken by fim- 

le affinity, without the afliltance of heat; and, as to the 
ormer it is highly probable that the boiling heat operates 


Weitere on the otlicr conttituents of wine, the effect of 
ei, : 


which cannot be done away by the mere return of the fpirit 
that has been driven off, ‘This opinion, therefore, though 
by no means improbable, requires further confirmation. 


The produétion of alcohol feems to be one of the Iaft 
effects, or the completion of the procefs of fermentation ; 
for if the liquor is diflilled while yet in a fate of high fer. 
mentation, it will not yield a drop of alcohol. 

The atmofpheric air feems to have no fhare whatever in 
vinous fermentation, for it will take place full as well in- 
clofed as in open veffels, provided {pace is allowed for the 
great expanfion of the materials, and the copious produCtion 
of gas. Indeed Mr. Collier found, by direét experiment, 
that more fpirit is procured by clofe than by open fermenta- 
tion. In three feparate experiments, in cach of which an 
equal quantity of wort and yeaft were fermented, under cir- 
cumitances precifely fimilar, with the fingle exception, that 
in one the veffel was open, and in the othier clofed, (the gas 
having no exit but through a tube dipping in water,) he 
found, on diftilling each fermented liquor, and drawing off 
the fame bulk of fpirit from each, that that from the clofe 
veffel was conttantly of lefs {pecific gravity, and, therefore, 
richer in alcohol than the other. Where the fpirit from 
the open vetlel was 74 degrees below proof, that frem the 
clofe veffel was 56 degrees ; where the former was §3, the 
latter was 65 ; and where it was 103, the other was 93. 


_The theory of vinous fermentation is ftill involyed in great 
difficulty, oa account of the very compound nature of the 
fubttances employed, and their great tendency to decompo- 
fition in various ways and proportions. 

The refults of Lavoifier’s experiments fhould not pafs un- 
noticed, though it is obvious that much too great fimplicity 
is attempted in the explanation of a procefs which every cir- 
cumftance fhews to be very complicated. ‘The fimple point 
to which the experiments of this able Inquirer tend, 1s (fettine 

~ @e = = r a a 

alide all other agents) to explain how lugar becomes con- 
verted into carbonic acid and alcohol, which, after all, is the 
characteriftic phenomenon of vinous fermentation. 
_ The entire products of fugar, yeaft, and water, fermented 
in clofe veffels, are ftated to be carbonic acid, alcohol, and 
water, together with a {mall portion of acetous acid, and 
from thefe fa&ts the following theory is deduced. Sugar 
> Dior} » - | > a = 
is compofed of eight parts hydrogen, 64 oxygen, and 
28 carbon, and the procefs of fermentation effets a change 
merely in the arrangement of the conftituent parts of the 
fugar, converting one portion into carbonic acid, and the 
other into alcohol; and hence (as carkenic acid contains 
only carbon, with a large proportion of oxygen) the portion 
which is left muft contain all the hydrogen, part of the car- 
bon, anda very fmall proportion of oxygen: or, in other 
words, by this new arrangement of the ingredients of the 
fugar, one portion, namely, the carbonic acid, is totally de- 
prived of hydrogen, and- overloaded with oxygen, whil 
the other portion, namely, the aleehol, abounds in hydro- 
gen, and is deficient in oxygen; the carbon being divided 
> § 
between the new products in nearly au equal proportion 
with regard to their refpe@ive quantities. 

_No theory more plaufible than the above has, perhaps, 
hitherto been offered to the general phenomenon of vinous 
fermentation, though it is very defe&ive in many eflential 
parts, and even does not correipond with the alleced com- 
pofition of alcohol, given by the fame chemift in another part 

c . as aad . . 
of his enquiries. 

The great queftion remaining for future enquirers to de. 
termine is, what the fubitance or circumitance is, which 
dilpofes fugar to ferment; for it has been proyed that fogar 
will not of itfelf begin this {pontaacous change into carbonic 

O02 


acid 


FERMENTATION. 


acid and alcohol; though, when once begun, the procels 
will probably go on without further affiftance. 

It has béen already mentioned, that both extractive mat- 
ter and an acid are prefent in every known inftance of vi- 
nous fermentation; and, for any thing that appears to the 
contrary, both of them are neceilary, though the requifite 

uantity of each is very {mall compared to the fugar: there- 
bone the ftrength or body of the fermented liquor is in di- 
rect proportion to the quantity of fugar alone, and there is 
good reafon to fuppofe that the extractive matter and the 
acid are enly acceflary ingredients, though full eflential, as 
being thofe without which the vinous decompofition of fugar 
cannot be effected. 

It has been fuppofed that it is the vegeto-animal extra&, 
as it has been ealled, which exifts in the fermentable juices 
of vegetables, that caufes the firit change in the fugar. The 
precife nature of this vegeto-animal matter is not very well 
known; it may be fuppofed to be fimilar to the gluten of 
wheat, but intimately combined with the faccharine muci- 
lage, and hence extremely fufceptible of fpontaneous 
change. The chief, if not the only, proof of its exiftence 
in many of thefe combinations, is the produétion of a quan- 
tity of ammonia during its decompofition by heat, which 
alkali is almoft always formed by the action of fire, and 
indicates in the fubltance which yields it the prefence of 
azot. 

Some of the commoneft fermenting ingredients, as the 
{weet infufion of malt, technically called wort, it is well 
known, will hardly enter into fermentation without the ad- 
dition of yeafl ; and hence chemitts have fought in this fub- 
ftance for the principle which gives the firit impulfe to the 
fermentation of fugar. 

The analyfis of yeaft prefents a vaft variety of ingredi- 
ents, the chief of which are the carbonic, acetic, ana malic 
acids, mucilage, fugar, and gluten. Of thefe the latter is 
in the largeft proportion, which would feem to give much 
weight to the opinion of the great fhare which the azotic 
ingredient has in inducing fermentation. 

Yet Mr. Henry found by a feries of very interefting ex- 
periments, that malt infufion might be made to enter into 
compleat fermentation by impregnating it with carbonic 
acid prepared from chalk and fulphuric acid, and the liquor 
thus fermented gave a yeaft which made perfect bread, 
gave alcohol by diftillation, and vinegar by further keeping. 
The wort itfelf undoubtedly contained all the ingredients 
ef yeaft, fince this fubftance was produced during the fer- 
mentation, but the experiment is decifive to prove that no 
addition of azotic extrac is required to begin fermentation 
in materials naturally fermentable, though, when once begun, 
the yeaft, as fait as it was produced, mutt have affifted in the 
fermentation then going on. ‘The evidence for the neceflity 
of an acid ro begin fermentation is therefore more decifive, 
but it is ftill doubtful whether any particular one is re- 
quired, or whether there are uot feveral which will anfwer 
the purpofe. In Mr. Henry’s experiments the acid em- 
ployed was the carbonic, and, from the arrangement of the 
apparatus, probably a fmall portion of fulphurie was alfo 
carried in along with it. But in grape juice there is no 
proof of the exiftence of carbonic acid ready formed, 
though the tartaric, malic, and other vegetable acids con- 
tain within themfelves the ingredients of carbonic acid, and 
are chiefly and ultimately refolvable into this acid. Yeatft 
will even induce fermentation after it is prefled and dried 
into folid cakes, (2 praftice not uncommon, as it will keep 
fora great length of time in this form,) but after this 
operation it can hardly contain any carbonic acid ready 
formed, though with abundant tendency to produce it by 


the firft mutual aétion of its conftitaent parts. Many in- 
terefling enquiries therefore remain to be carried on before 
we can have a full and fatisfaGtory theory of the important 
procefs of vinous fermentation. 

FERMENTATION, eetous. 
VINEGAR. 

Fermentation, Putrid. See PuTREFACTION. 

TexmMEenTATION, Bituminous, in Geology, denotes a parti- 
cular change, which, according to the opinion of Mr, James 
Parkinfon, (Organic Remains, vol. i, p. 184.) “is pecu- 
liar to vegetable matter placed in fuch fituations, as not onl 
exclude the external air, and fecure the prefence of init 
ture, but prevent the efcape of the more volatile principles, 
and which terminates in the formation of thofe fubftances 
called bitumens.””? ‘This author, after giving a concife, but 
luminous account of the /accharine, the vinous, the acefic, 
and the putrid fermentation, to which moft vegetable fub- 
fiances are progreffively liable, by the modified admiffion of 
atmofpheric air, thus proceeds: ‘ But if, inftead of being 
thus expofed to the influence of the air, a mafs of dead ve- 
getable matter be accumulated in fuch fituations as allow 
of the admiffion of water, but in which the compaétnefs 
of the fuperincumbent itratum of earth, not only excludes 
the external air, but the-difengaged gafeous matters 
are prevented from elcaping, the bituminous fermentation 
takes place, and bituminous matters are formed in various 
degrees of maturity and purenefs, according to the ftage 
at which the procefs may have arrived, or the extraneous 
matters which may have been admitted.”? Our author, 
however, admits, that a complete hiftory of all the pheno- 
mena which occur during the whole of the operation can- 
not poflibly be expeéted to be made out, but the proofs of 
its exiftence muft be obtained by inference, and from analogy 
on comparing it with the other fpecies of fermentation ; 
and he thus continues; “ the fubftance, then, which I con- 
ceive to be entirely dependent on, and a€tually the produc 
of, this procefs, is bitumen; a fubftance which manifefts, 
upon examination, all thofe propertics which might, 4 
prieri, be expected to be found in a body conitituted un- 
der the particular circumftances which I have prefumed to 
have direGed its formation. 

‘“« Tn the firft ftage of the vinous fermentation, we per- 
ceive that a confiderable portion of the more volatile parts 
of the mixture is diffipated, and that it is only by the eare- 
ful prefervation of the remainder that the accomplifhment 
of this procefs is effeted. In the acetous fermentation 
this efcape of the volatile parts is continued through the 
whole of the procefs, and occafions the great difvence 
which exiits between the two produéis. In the firft of 
thefe [pecies of fermentation, carbon, that principle which 
always feems to affeét that mode of combultion, obfervable 
in ignited charcoal, where flame is not prefent, is, we have 
remarked, diffipated in very large quantities, by which its 
dofe in the mixture muit be confiderably diminifhed ; whilft, 
fhould hydrogen even be fuppofed to efcape in a fimilar 
proportion, {till, from the decompofition of the water, fuf- 
ficient of this principle (which I will call the principle of in- 
flammability ) will be yielded, to give the fpirituons and 
very inflammable produ@ which we find to be the refult of 
this procefs. In the latter of thefe fpecies of fermentations, 
in which the diffipation of the volatile matters is carried to 
the utmoft extent which the degree of temperature will ad- 
mit, the mixture feems to be deprived of almoft the whole 
of its hydrogen ; except, perhaps, juft fo much as is left in 
combination with the colouring principle, and the water, 
whilft the oxygen is attraéted, nearly in the fame’ propor- 
tion, by the carbon from the atmofphere, and from the very 

confiderable 


See Acetous Acid, and 


FER 


confiderable dofe of this acidifying principle; and, from 
fome peculiar modification of their union, the product, vi- 
negar, re{ults, poffeffing a high degree of acidity, but not 
the leaft degree of inflammability. 

« We will now examine the changes which may be ex- 
pected to refult from the decompofition of vegetable mat- 
ters placed in fubterranean fituations, and confidering thefe, 
‘with the properties which are poffefled by the fuppofed 
produé of the bituminous fermentation, we fhall be enabled, 
efpecially by recolleéting what has been juft faid of the 
other {pecies of fermentation, to determine whether it 
is right to admit of the exiftence of fuch a fpecies of fer- 
mentation or not, 

*‘ Secured on every fide by the furrounding earth, 
the mafs of vegetable matter is preferved, at it were, ina 
well-clofed veffel ; hardly any efcape being permitted to any 
of its more volatile particles, nor any admiffion of extrane- 
ous matters allowed, except of fuch as are introduced with 
the water which may inlinuate itfelf by foaking through the 
interftices of the earthy particles, compofing the feveral {trata 
which inclofe it. a 

“ Tt is decreed, that a flrong difpofition to feparate, and 
to unite in another order, fhall fecure the neceflary decom- 
pofition of dead organized matter, which, according to the 
economy of nature, is but to poffefs a fhort and tranfient 
cohefion. Agreeable to this law, this mafs of vegetable 
matter, now deprived of the energy of vegetable life, muft 
undergo fome change ; but from the clofenefs of its pre- 
fervation, it cannot admit that efcape of the gafeous mat- 
ters on which the commencement of the vinous, acetous, or 
putrid fermentations depend: another procefs is therefore 
inftituted. The hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen are difen- 
gaged from their former attachments, but being prevented 
from flying off in a gafeous ftate, are obliged again to 
unite, and to enter into new combinations. 

“Under thefe particular circumftances a fubftance may 
be expected to be formed, containing aconfiderable portion 
of thefe principles fo abundant in vegetable matter. In this 
refpeét, there undoubtedly may be difcovered a remarkable 
agreement between the fuppofed produé& of this fermenta- 
tion, and the hypothefis ly which 1ts formation is attempted 
to be explained ; fince, in all bituminous fubftances the abun- 
dant exiitence of thefe three principles has been fufficiently 
proved by analyfis. 

“ In this, as in every other {pecies of fermentation, a confi- 
derable difference may exift, as to the degree of perfection 
to which the procefs may proceed, and of courfe, as to the 
degree of perfeGtion which the produ& may poflefs. 

“Thus I expeé to fhew, that, according to length of 
time, exclufion from the air, and the exiftence of other favou- 
rable circumftances, will thefe bitummous fubftances be 
found in their feveral approaches to that ftate, to which 
the law of nature feems to have particularly deftined them. 

«© Peat, that combuftible and inflammable fubftance, 
generaily found in confiderable maffes at a little depth be- 
neath the furface of the earth, pofleffing chemical properties 
effentially different from every other fub{tance which has 
not derived its exiltence from the fame origin, appears to be 
the firft produé& of this kind of fermentation, and to have 
been formed in fituations not favourable to the rapid com- 
pletion of this procefs. The celerity with which this pro- 
cefs is accomplifhed muft depend on the clofenefs with 
which the gafeous principles are fecured ; but it fhould be 
confidered, that fuch peat-bogs as are, comparatively, but 
of modern formation, are covered by a coat of vegetable 
mould, in an humid ftate, of no confiderable degree of 
thicknefs, and therefore the efcape of the more volatile 


FER 


principles, and the admiffion of atmofpheric air, are only 
partially prevented ; the procefs mut therefore be carried on 
with much lefs effeét, than in thofe cafes which will be here- 
after mentioned, where yaft maffes of vegetable matters have 
been fuddenly buried under a confiderable thicknefs of earthy 
depofition. 

*¢ The abundance of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, in 
peat, is demonfrated by its analyfis. By the early ana- 
lyfis of Schoockius we learn, that it yields an oil much re- 
fembling the oil of amber, with an acid liquor. Monf. 
Fourcroy relates, that, on expofing peat to the aétion of 
heat in a diftillatory apparatus, a yellow or reddith feetid 
water is obtained, an oil of a moft dffagreeable odour, with 
carbonate of ammonia, and carbonated hydrogen gas, alfo 
{melling moft difagreeably ; a coal being left, which is fre- 
quently pyrophoric, and which yields, after incineration, 
muriate and fulphate of foda and of pot-afh, mixed with 
the phofphate and fulphate of lime, and with the oxyds oi 
iron and of manganefe. 

“¢ The prevalence of hydrogen in this fubftance is fully 
difplayed by the foregoing analyfis, fince not only enough 
exifts for the formation of this peculiar oi], but a confider- 
able quantity of this principle is alfo difengaged in a gafeous 
form ; the agreement, therefore, between this fubftance, and 
what might, a priori, have been fuppofed, would be the pro- 
du& of a vegetable matter placed under thefe particular 
circumitances, appears to be evident. The original mode 
of exiftence which belonged to this fubftance is fuf- 
ficiently marked by the great quantities of vegetable fub- 
ftances which are found in it, which have not fuffered fuch 
an alteration, as to hinder the immediately tracing them to 
their true origin. That this fubftance has been fubjeCted to 
the influence of the two circumftances, which feem effential 
to this peculiar fermentation, the prefence of moifture and 
f{ubterranean fituation, muft appear fo plain from the itate in 
which the peat mofles are found, that, on this point, not a 
word need be added. Peat, therefore, I preflume, we may 
regard as a vegetable fecondary foffil; having been formed 
from vegetable matter, changed in its nature and properties 
by a certain fermentation, which had been carried on in the 
mineral regions.” 

The further profecution of this theory by our authors 
in order to account for the formation of amber, and jet, &c. 
are too long for ovr purpofe, but are well worthy the 
perufal of thofe who wiih to become acquainted fully witk 
this fubject. 

FERMENTED Ligvors are efteemed great antidotes 
to putrefaétion; aecordingly the abftinence from them is ai- 
figned as oue ‘caufe why the Turks are more fubje& than 
other people to the plague, and other contagious diflem- 
pers. It is likewife obferved, that beer, wine, and {piritu- 
ous liquors, coming more into general ufe, has been one 
great means of fupprefling putrid difeales. See Pringle’s 
Obferv. on the Difeafes of the Army, p. 286, 294. and 
Macbride’s Ei. eff. 3. See Antiseptic, Cuowper, and 
Spruce deer, and-Worrt. 

FERMO, Jtal/. as canto fermo, or plain-chant, in Ec- 
clefiaftical Singing, is ufed in oppofition to canto figurato, or 
figurative fong. Roufleau was of opinion that the Roman, 
or Gregorian chant, is a precious relic, though much dif- 
figured, of the ancient Greek mufic, which, after having 
paffed through the hands of the barbarians, has not loft all 
its firft beauties. Enough remains itill to make it far pre- 
ferable for the ufe to which it is deftined, to that effeminate 
and theatrical, or flat and mawkith mufic, which has been 
fubfituted to it in fome churches, without gravity, without 

taite, 


FER 


tafte, propriety, or refpect for the place which they dare 
thus profane. 

Canto fermo is written only on four lines in the Roman 
miffals, and only two clefs are ufed, the bafe clef of F, and 
the clef of C, which are moveable, and only one flat upon B, 
and two kinds of notes, the long and {quare note, to which 
a tail is f{ometimes added, and the breve in the lozenge form, 
but all black. hefe are called Gregorian notes, fuppofed 
to have been invented or adopted by St. Gregory, tie fir 
pope of that name- St. Ambrofe, archbifhop of Milan, is 
{aid to have invented the Ambrofian chant, or at lealt to 
have brought it from Antioch, and to have eftablifhed it in 
his church at Milan, a confiderable time before the ponti- 
fical reign of Gregory, who perfecied it, and gave it the 
form which it ftill preferves at Rome, and in other churches 
where the Roman chant is-ftill practifed. See Prain 
Chant, Awsrosian Chant, and GreGcorian Notes. 

Fermo, in Geography, acity of Italy, in the marquifate 
of Ancona, fituated near the coaft of the Adriatic; the 
fee of an archbifhop, erected in the year 1589, by pope 
Sixtus V. It contains to churches and 16 convents; 26 


miles §.S.E. of Ancona. N. lat. 43° 6! E. long. 13° 


/ 
ERMOR, Wirtiam, in Biography, count Von, a 
celebrated Ruffian general, was born at Plefkow, on the 
28th of September, 1704. He was educated for the military 
profeffion, and entered the army as a common bembardier 
in the year 1720, and was fo rapidly promoted, that, in the 
year 1729, he became adjutant-general to count Von Maun- 
nich. At Dantzie he formed an acquaintance with Frederic 
William, king of Pruffia, who conferred upon him the 
order of la Generofiteé. He greatly diftinguifhed himfelf 
in the Turkith war of 1736, and was promoted to the rank 
of general, and commandant of Zolberg. In 1746, he was 
appointed infpeétor of building ; and the imperial palace, 
a matter-piece of art, was built under his direGtion. In 
1755, he was made commander-in-chief, and fhortly after, 
for his condu&t in Pruffia, he was raifed to the dignity of a 
count of the empire by Francis I. In the following year 
he fought the celebrated battle of Zorndorf, with Frederic 
Il. kirg of Pruffia. Being fatisfied with the reputation he 
had gained, he requefted leave to retire, and though this 
was granted him, he was called_again into aétive fervice, 
and was finally made governor-general of Smolenfko, and 
member of the fupreme fenate, After this he rebuilt fome 
towns; when he again retired, refigning all his employ- 
ments, and died in 1771, on his eftate of Nicutau, where he 
had erested an elegant church. Gen. Biog. 

FERMOSELLE, in Geography, a town of Spain, in 
the province of Leon ;. 30 miles W.S. W. of Zamora. 

FERMOY, a very handfome and flourifhing market and 
pok-town of the county of Cork, Ireland, which affords a 
itriking-inftance of what may be effected by the exertions of 
an individual. Lefs than twenty years ago Fermoy was a 
miferable village, with along narrow bridge over the fine 
viver Blackwater, and one of the laft places at which a 
traveller would think of topping for refrefhments of any 
kiad, At prefent it is aregularly built town, with a large 
barrack for two regiments of infantry, and another for 
cavalry adjoining to it ‘on the oppofite fide of the river. 
The bridge has been widened; a church of elegant con- 
{tru@tion, and well fituated, a large {chool-houfe, a market- 
houfe, and a feffions-houfe, whichvalfo ferves occationally for 
an aflenibly room, and theatre, have been built, and there are 
two good iins, with fome of the beft pofl-carriages to be met 
within Ireland. There arealfo an extenfive porter brewery, 
a Adur-mill, a woollen manufactory, a bank, and feveral 


FER 


refpectable fhops. This change thas been efieGted by the 
exertions of John Anderfon, efq. who purchafed the greater 
part of the old village, and has made Fermoy an objet of 
admiration and aftonifhment to thofe who remember what it 
was, and who know what Irifh towns in general are. o 
the fame individual the fouth of Ireland is indebted for 
mail coaches and the improvement ef the roads, Fermoy 
is on the road from Dublin to Cork, being 107 Infh miles 
from the former, and 17 from the latter of thefe cities. 

FERN, in Agriculture, the name of a moft troublefome 
weed, which it 1s very difficult to deitroy where it has a deep 
foil to rootin. The beft method of killing it in grafs lands 
is, probably, by cutting it often while it is in its green and 
mot fucculent jtate, asin the {pring ar the beginning of 
fummer. The fern thus cut, when tull of fap, and left to 
rot upon the ground, tends greatly to improve the foil, by 
tendering it more mellow, or if it be burnt when fo cut, if 
will yield a much greater quantity of faline matter than any 
other fort of vegetable. 

This is, however, a wafteful pra@tice, and by no means fo 
good as that of colle€ting it and {lacking it up, for the pur- 
pofe of littering the fold-yards during the time that cattle 
are kept in them, as by fuch a method, a large ftock of 
valuable manure may be accumulated, the fera retaining the 
moiiture and liquid animalized matters better than ftraw, 
by which means it becomes in a {tate it for manure much 
fooner than is commonly fuppofed. Befides, it forms aa 
excellent warm litter for the live-ftock in fuch fituations. 

In tillage lands the beft method of eradicating this plant 
is by repeated deep ploughing, fo as to effectually break the 
deep matted roots of it, which, often in the more mellow 
loamy foils, {trike to the depth of feveral feet. When they 
are once well broken, they readily decay in the ground, and 
add to its fertility. 

Vern is commonly met with in breaking up wafte lands 
where the foil is of the friable, hazel, loamy quality. 

The athes of this plant become an excellent manure for 
all the lighter forts of foil when employed as a top-dreffing. 
See Manure. 

Fern Web, in Rural Economy, isa term applied toa kind 
of {mall infe& of the chaffer fort, which is highly injurious 
to the early bloffom of the apple-tree. 

Ferns: See Firices. , 

Fern, Common Male and Female, in Botany. See Porv- 
PODIUM. 

The common female fern is a very mifchievous and trou- 
blefome weed to the farmers, being very difficult to deftroy, 
where it has any depth of ground to rootin. Its roots will 
often penetrate to eight feet deep, and fpreading a great 
way, they will rife again to the furface, and fend up new 
plants at a confiderable diftance. In grafs land, the beit way 
of deftroying therg-is mowing the grafs three times a year, 
in fpring, in May, and in Anguft. Dung and afhesare very 
good manure for lands which abound with them ; but the 
bett of all things for deitroying themis urine. Fern cut up 
when the fap is in it, and laid to rot upon the ground, is a 
very good manure for land, and will mellow it fo as to pre- 
vent its binding. T'rees planted where fern grows, are ob- 
ferved to thrive very much, even though it be upon a hot 
gravel; the reafon of this is, that the tern fhades the roots, 
and Keape them moilt and cool. Mortimer’s Hufbandry, 
p- 316. ay 
_ Scotch theep put into land where there is much fern grow- 
ing among the grafs generally deftroy it in a little time, 
pottly by their dung and urine, and partly by treading it 
down. 

The root of the male fern is greatly recommended by me- 

: ! 


FER 


Uical writers, as a cure for rickets in children, Some alfo 
give it in powder, again{t worms ; and it has the fame virtues 
againft the ftone and gravel, with the reft of the genus of 
capillary plants, afcribed to it. It was frequently prefcribed 
by the ancients in diet drinks, for removing ob{truétions, and 
in chronic cafes of all kinds, but is much difufed at prefent. 
Lemery, Dié. des Drog. j 

All the {pecies of fern, and other vegetables, which carry 
their feed on the back of their leaves, as moonwort, and the 
like plants, poffefs the fame general virtues of drying and 
ftrengthening the vifcera, efpectally the fpleen. 

Fern, Lowering. See Osmunpva. 

Fern, Common or Frue Males. See Asprentum. 

‘Tern, Mules, See Hemionitis. 

Fern, Sweet. See Scanpix. 

Ferrn-a/hes. The poor people in many parts of the north 
of England ufe afhes of fern inflead of foap for wahhing 
their cloaths ; they cut the plant green, and then burn it to 
afhes, and make them up into balls with water; they dry 
thefe in the fun, and keep them ready for ufe. 

The afhes of the common female fern produce a-very fin- 
gular phenomenon in the common way of treating them 
andtheir falt. If a large quantity of thele afhes be procured, 
and the falt tothe quantity of feveral pounds extracted from 
them in the common way, it will fucceed better than in 
{maller quantities. The greater part of this falt being 
dried, if the remainder, which is more moift, be expofed to 
the air to receive fome of the vapours of it, this will foon 
become fluid, or an oil, as it is more improperly called, per 
deliguium. The reft of the lixivium, which will be very 
heavy, and of a deep blood-red, or claret-colour, being fet 
by in Bee SS un{topped for five or fix months, there 
will be found at the bottom of the liquor a very large quav- 
tity of falt precipitated to the thicknefs of about two 
inches on the bottom of the veffel. The lower part of this 
will have all the foulnefs, and appear difccloured; but the 
upper part will be extremely pure and white. From the 
furface of this part there will grow up a number of plants, 
in appearance ftanding ereét, and at {mall diftances from one 
another. Thefe are only the laft cryftallizations of the 
fubfiding or feparating falt, but they have a regularity that 
is very farprifing ; they vary confiderably in fize and weight, 
but are all of the fame fhape, exaGly refembling fo many 
plants of the common unbranched fern, fending outa great 
number of regular leaves on each fide the ftem. Thefe 
ramifications of the falt will remain many weeks in this per- 
fection, if the veffel be not flirred: but they are fo tender, 
that the leaft motion deftroys them, and they after this never 
form themfelves again, Phil. Tranf. N° 105. 

Fern-oi/, in Pottery, a name given by our merchants who 
have been in China to a fort of varnifh, which the Chinefe 
ufe in their porcelain manufactories. It is alfo called lime- 
oil, and is a thing fo eafily made, that it would be worth 
attempting what might be done with it, in our imitations of 
the porcelain. ‘They make it in this manner: they take a 
large quantity of fern well dried, and f{preading a covering 
of it over a piece of ground fufficient for the quantity of 
oil they intend to make, they lay upon this a coat of large 
lime-ftones, newly calcined into lime ; on thefe they fprinkle 
with the hand a {mall quantity of water jult to fldke them. 
They cover this bed of lime with another of fern; and fo 
on, till they have raifed it to eight or ten feet high; they 
then fet fire to the fern, this burns away in a little time, and 
leaves a mixture of the lime and its own afhes. This mix- 
ture is laid in the fame manner between beds of more fern, 
and burnt again, This operation is repeated faye or fix 
times. Obferv. fur les Coutom. de l’Afic. 


FER 


When the laft calcination is finifhed, the mixture of lime 
and afhes is carefully gathered up, aud thrown into large 
veffels of water, and with every hundred weight of it they 
put in one pound weight of kekio; they flir the whole to- 
gether; and when the coarfer part has fubfided to the bot- 
tom, they take off the finer, which {wims at the top in 
form of a fine cream, and putting it into another veffel of 
water, they let it fubfide to the bottom by long ftanding : 
they then pour off the water, and fave the refiduumin form 
of a thick oil. 

This they mix with the oil of {tone, prepared by powdering 
and wafhing in the fame manner a particular fort of ftones, 
and with this they cover all the veffels that they intend to 
varnifh. The fern afhes have a veiy great fharein the ad- 
vantage that this oil has over our common varnifhes ; and 
the Chinefe tell us, that they once inftead of fern ufed the 
wood of a tree, called fe-tki, and they fuppofe that the 
fuperiority of the old porcelain over the prefent, is owing to 
the ufe of this tree inftead of the fern: but it is now too 
fearce among them. The new manufaéture which was efta- 
blifhed at Briftol excels every thing, that has been done of 
the like kind, in the beauty of the varnifhing ; and it is faidy 
they have founded their advantage on an imitation of this 
and the Chinefe oil of flone. Thefe two oils, as they are 
called, are always mixed together; and they mutt be care- 
fully preferved of the fame degree of thicknefs, or elfe all 
the varnifhing will not be even. 

Ferns, Petrified, in Natural Hiffory, are a kind of fofiil 
plants found in the {trata accompanying coal, and bearing 
fome refemblance to ferns. Mr. William Martin, in his- 
“© Petrificata Derbienfia,”’ defcribes and figures three Kinds of 
thefe, as found in the Derby fhire coal ftrata, and in iron-ftone. 
nodules; thefe he denominates phytolithi, filicites ftriates, 
filicites auriformis, and ofmundz regales, the latter in com- 
phance with the praétice of former writers, but feems him- 
{elf to doubt the identity of any of the three with recent 
plants of any kind. In Parkinfon’s Organic Remains, let-- 
ter 45, &c. of vol.i., a recital of much which has been 
written on this fubje€ will be found, accompanied alfo with 
doubts of fuch pretended identity: alfo, in W. Martin’s 
* Outlines of the Knowledge of Extrancous Fofiils,” pages 
63, 64. 84, &c. 

Fern, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the county, 
of Angus or Forfar ; 6 miles W. of Brechin. 

FERNAMBUC. See Brazit J¥ood. 

FERNAMBUCO, in Geography, alfo called Olinda, a 
captaincy or province of Brazil, lying along the coat of the 
Atlantic, and abounding in fugar, cotton, Brazil wood, 
cattle, and hides. 

FErnamsBuco, or Olinda, as it.was called by the Dutch, 
the chief town of the fore-mentioned province, the fee of a 
bifhop, fnffragan of St. Salvador; and having a {mall incon- 
venient harbour on the coa{t of the Atlantic. By the Por= 
tuguefe this town is called Pernambuco. S. lat. ‘8° 13%. 
W. long. 36° 16). 

FERNANDEZ, Anrtuony, in Biography, was bom at 
Coimbra in 1558, admitted in early life a member of the 
order of Jefus, and’ having completed® his ftudies fo the 
fatisfa&tion of his fuperiors, had the degree of do&or of 
divinity conferred upon lim by the uaiverfity of Evora, 
where he delivered letares on the fcriptures of the Old and 
New Teftament with confiderablé reputation. His talents 
rendered him an object fit to be fent out on a miffién to the 
Portuguefe fettlements; he went to Goa, where he ob- 
tained much refpe& as fuperior of his order in that: city. 
On his return to Europe he devoted his time to the dpties 
of the pulpit, and. to write commentaries on the bible. His 

principal 


WER 


princigal publications are “¢ Commentaries on the Vifions of 
the Old T'eftament,” in folio: and ‘A Commentary on 
Ifatah.?? Moreri. 

FrernAnDEZ, ALPHONSO, was born at Palencia, in Leon, 
in the year 15/2; and appointed preacher-general to the 
Dominican order of monks in 16:8. As an author he 
wrote “ An Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of hisown Time ;” “A 
Treatife on the Benefits conferred by his Order on the 
kingdom of Spain by the inftitution of the Inquilition :” 
«© Annals of the Town and Church of Palencia ;” thefe 
with a “Hiftory of the Devotion of the Rofary,’’ were pub- 
lifhed in the Spanifh language. He publifhed other works 
in the Latin tongue, and was employed in compiling eccle- 
fiaftical annals of Spain, which with other works have been 
publifhed fince his death. Moreri. 

TFERNANDEZ, Juan, in Geography, an ifland in the fouth- 
ern Pacific ocean, firft feen in 1563, and fo called from its 
difcoverer, is of an irregular fhape, about five miles long, 
and between one and two broad. It is diftant from Chili 
about 110 leagues. his ifland has been frequently de+ 
{cribed by the navigators of the Pacific, and particularly in 
the account of Anfon’s voyage: it was a place of refort 
for refrefhments, efpecially antifcorbutic vegetables, with 
which it abounds; and the freebooters of former times made 
it a place of refort for the rendezvous of their forces, or 
the divifion of their fpoil. At a convenient diftance from 
the coaft of Peru, unfettled and unfortified, abounding in 
almoft every requifite for re-fitting, re-victualling, wooding, 
and watering, it became not only a defirable ttation, but 
was long an unfufpected or defpifed retreat. The Spani- 
ards, however, at length dire&ted their attention to it, and 
in 1766, or 1767, madea {ettlement upon it. In the latter 
year captain Carteret on his voyage round the world, upon 
opening Cumberland bay, was furprifed to find the ifland 
in pofleffion of the Spaniards, who had built a fort, on 
which the Spanifh colours were flying, and fome cannon 
mounted. Many cattle were feen on the hills, and about 
20 houfes in different parts of the ifland. Carteret had no 
communication with the fhore, but failed immediately for 
Matafaero. In the year 1792, it was vifited by lieutenant 
John Mofs of the royal navy, who then commanded a fhip 
ia the fouthern whale and feal fithery. He approached it 
onthe weit fide, and came abreaft of the north point ; but, 
unapprized of its having been fettled by the Spaniards, he 
propofed to catch fifh, and to examine if it afforded fafe 
anchorage. But hauling his boat round the N. W. point, 
he found the place fortified, and faw a {mall village in the 
valley. His requeit, prefented to the governor for leave to 
anchor and to fifh, was vot formally granted; however, keep- 
ing his boat outof the way of the guns, he caught as many fifh 
as ferved the whole fhip’s company. From him we learn, 
that in making the ifland from the weitward, it appears 
elevated at the N. end, and flopes away towards the fouth, 
with a remarkable iflet, or large rock, detached about half 
a mile off the S. point. Ata diftance the whole ifland ap- 

ears like an entire rock ; but on nearer accefs the inter- 
ieGing vallies difcover themfelves, and difplay a fine fcene of 
verdure, being covered with wood. The weft fide affords 
no anchorage, nor any landing place, the cliffs rifing almoft 
perpendicularly from the fea. When abreaft of the N. W. 
point, the firlt valley or landing-place opens, where thcre is 
anchorage in 14 fathom water, but in an expofed fituation. 
Here the Spaniards have a guard-houfe and one gun. 
About half a mile to the E. N. E. is the great bay, (Cum- 
berland bay of the Buccaneers, ) which is land-locked from 
E.to N. W. by W.; but there is no anchorage in lefs than 
@ fathoms, till within half a cable’s length of the fhore. 


YER 


‘Lhe town or village is very pleafantly fituated in a. fine val- 
Icy, between two high hills. A battery of five guns is 
placed jut round the W. point of the harbour, and com- 
mands the road ; though it is poflible to land clear of the 
reach of ahy gun. his battery is built of loofe ftones, 
piled up breaft-high, and forming embrafures, without 
mortar, or any kind of cement. On the left of the valley, 
on a little eminence, another battery was then conftruting 
of mafonry, with two faces, having 14 embrafures in each, 
one face pointing to the anchorage, and the other flankin 
the village ; five guns were mounted on that fide which faces 
the road, and one inthe other. According to the report 
of the commandant, the whole force on the ifland in Ja- 
nuary, 1792, confilted of fix foldiers, and 40 of the fet- 
tlers armed and trained. Captain Mofs, though not al- 
lowed to refrefh his crew, faw great numbers of goats on 
the fides of every hill, and regretted that he could not 
relieve his crew, who were difordered with the feurvy, and 
which would have been fpeedily correéted by the frefh 
venifon, fifh, and vegetables to be found there. Towards 
the clofe of the year he touched again on the ifland, and 
was politely accommodated by the governor with a plenti- 
ful fupply of theep, vegetables, milk, and craw-fifh, and 
two bullocks. In the town there are about 4o honfes, and 
feveral in different parts of the ifland. Every houfe has a 
garden, with arbours of grape-vines, forming a delightful 
fhade. Figs, cherries, plums, and almonds appeared all 
green, and abundance of potatoes, cabbages, onions, 
thyme, and_other vegetables and herbs ; but none of them 
in perfe€tion, as a fort of grub is faid in a great meafure to 
deitroy the kitchen gardens. From other accounts it ap- 
pears, that the fouthern part of the ifland is precipitous 
and barren ; but there are fome hills of a red-earth, ap- 
prosching to vermilion, The foil of the northern part is 
oofe and fhallow, fo that very large trees foon perifh for 
want of root, and are eafily overturned. The drefs of the 
women in this ifland is very fingular; they wear a petticoat 
which reaches only a little below the knee, and which is 
{pread out by a hoop at the bottom to a great diftance 
round them, leaving the legs entirely expofed; they wear 
their hair long, plaited into 40 or 50 fmall braids, which 
hang ftraight down the back. This drefs is alfo that of 
the ladies of Peru and Chili. In every houfe captain Mofs 
was prefented by the women with mate, the infufion of the 
herb of Paraguay, which they fuck ‘up through a pipe or 
tube, that ferves more than one perfon, and is handed about 
from one to another. ‘The women are in general handfome, 
and every houfe {warmed with children. As Juan Mernan- 
dez and Malafuero may be miftaken one for the other, by 
ftrangers, both lying in the fame latitude, we may obferve, 
that the N. end of Juan Fernandez is higheit, while Mafa- 
fuero is lowelt to the north. | Befides, a {mall ifland lies off 
the S. end of Juan Fernandez. Thefe two iflands lie So 
miles from each other. Juan Fernandez, according to the 
obfervations of captain Mofs, lies in S. lat. 33° 40!. 
W. long. 80° 30%. 

FERNANDO pe Voronua, an ifland of the At- 
antic, diltant between 60 and 80 leaguesfrom the coaft of 
Brazil. Its furface is mountainous and unequal, but 
moftly covered with wood and herbage. The high part of 
one mountain, nearly in the middle of the ifland, is diiti- 
guifhable from the ret; itis called “* Campanario,” or the 
Belfry, from its refemblance to a church tower, and it very 
much leans, or overhangs, to the eait. The ifland no 
where exceeds two leagues in extent. 

According to Don Ullea, to whofe defeription of it cap- 
tain Cook refers in the fecond velume of his feeond voyage, 


gets t | (p. 278.)5 
Gy al 
between = 


a 


| 
: 
j 
, 
‘ 


FER 


({p- 278.), this ifland has two harbours, capable of receiv. 
ing fhips of the greateft burden; one on the N. fide, and 
the otheronthe N. W. The former is, in every refpect, the 
principal, both for fhelter and capacity, and the goodnefs 
of its bottom, but both are expofed to the N. and W. 
winds, though thefe winds, particularly the north, are pe- 
riodical, and of no long continuance. He farther fays, that 
ou anchor in the north harbour, (called by Cook a road, ) 
in 13 fathoms water, one-third of a league from fhore, on a 
bottom of fine fand; the fea and hill above-mentioned bear- 
ing S. W. 3° foutherly. This road feems to be well fhel- 
tered from the S.and E. winds. The water in this ifland is 
brackifh, and very fcarce; and fometimes no rain falls for 
two or three years. In confequence of this deficiency of 
moifture, more than from the nature of the foil, which pro- 
duces every {pecies of grain, and fruits common in hot cli- 
mates, the plants wither and die, and the mott fertile parts 
of the ifland, unlefs when they are foftened by the humidity 
of the clouds, become as arid and barren as rocks. ‘The 
Portuguefe, however, fay, that in the interior parts of the 
ifland there isno want of water, that is clear and wholefome. 
Inthe inland part of the ifland there isa Portuguefe town, 
in which the parifh prie{t and governor refide ; and it has fe- 
veral forts conftruéted of ftone, which are fpacious and 
well provided with artillery, and garrifoned by foldiers, who 
are partly regulars, fent fron Fernambeau, relieved every tix 
months, and partly tranfports fent from that mart of Bra- 
zil, which fupplies them with provifions and other necefla- 
ries, The harbour or roads abound with various kinds of 
fifh, and from December to April the fhores of the whole 
ifland are covered with the eggs of turtles. S. lat. 3° 53’. 
W. long. 32° 34/. 

Fernanpo-Po, or Fernanp Pas, an ifland of Africa, 
in the Atlantic, near the coait of Benin, about 20 leagues 
in circumference ; the land lies high, and the foil is fertile 
in manioc, fugar-canes, rice, fruit, and tobacco: the in- 
habitants are rude and uncivilized. This ifland feems defti- 
tute of any gvod harbour, and very much abandoned to the 

oats and feals: but the Spaniards retain the nominal pof- 
ee N. lat. 3° 20’. E. long. 10° 45'. 

Fernanpo, St. a town of Sonth America, in the pro- 
vince of Tucuman; 150 miles W. af St. Jago d’Efteros. 
S. lat. 28°. W. long. 68° 16'.—Alfo, a town of South 
America, in the province of Cumana.—Alfo, a town of 
Spain, in Galicia, near the W. coaft; 37 miles W. of 
Orenfe. 

FERNAO, or Fernanpo Vicoso, a river of Africa, 
which runs into the Indian fea. S. lat. 14° 10!. 

TFERNEBO, a town of Sweden, in the province of 
Gattricia ; 25 miles S. of Gaffe. 

FERNEL, Joun, in Biography, a phyfician of the fix- 
teenth century, and a member of the faculty of Paris, 
greatly diltinguifhed by his learning and talents. Accord- 
ing to the beit authority, for there is fome contradiction 
among his biographers, Fernel was boen at Clermont, in the 
year 1497. He received. the greater part of his education 

\yat a grammar-{chool of that place, under the eye of his pa- 
rents; for it was not until the nineteenth year of his aye 
that his ardent thirlt after knowledge led him to procure 
the permiffion of his father to profecute his ftudies in Paris. 
He diftinguifhed himfelf fo greatly among his fellow-itudents 
in philofophy, that, after having taken the degreee of matter 
of arts, he was requelted to undertake the profeflorfhip of 
DialeGtics in his college (St. Barbe’s.) This led him to 
a ferious and profound courfe of ftudy, in order to the pra- 
fecution of which he renounced all feciety and recreation ; 


Vou. XTV. 


FER 
and his labours were only arrefted by a quartan-ague, with 
which he was feized, and which compelled him io fly to his 
native province for the reftoration of his health. On his 
retuy to Paris,,when he had determined to choofe medicine 
for his profeflion, the narrownefs of his father’s finances com~ 
pelled him to take fome meafures for fubliftence daring his 
itudy of that {cience; and he taught philofophy in the chair 
of the college of St. Barbe, and was admitted to the degree 
of bachelor in medicine (the duties of the profeflorfhip not 
impeding bis ftudies) in 1528. In the year 1530, at the 
age of 33, he arrived at the do¢iorate, and fettled in Paris. 
His pathion for the mathematics, even after he married in 
1732; had nearly proved ruinous to his family; when he 
lilteied to the advice of his father-in-law, aud refumed the 
ftudy and practice of medicine, becoming at the fame time 
a teacher of that fcience in the College de Cornouailles in 
1536. He foon obtained a moft extenfive fame, and a la- 
borious practice, in which he was unufually fuccefsful, info- 


much that he had fearcely time for his ordiwary repafts, and 
often took his meals without fitting. He was diitinguified 


among his brethren by his boidnefs in prefuming to queftion 
the dogmas of Galen, in which the molt inplicit and bigot- 
ted confidence was univerfally placed. In 1542 he was 
put upon the eitabliihment of the Dauphin, Henry, and 
was made perfonal phyfician to that prince foon after he 
came to the throne. He had hoped hy this change of life 
to obtain leifure for the profecution of his favourite ftudies ; 
but the wars which Henry II. carried on with the Englith 
and Spaniards compelled him to march at the head of his 
army, and Fernel foliowed him. But evenamid the agitations 
of a military and reitlefs life, at the age of fixty, Fernelfeldom 
pafiedaday without writing. It was in one of thefe marches 
that he commenced his treatife on Fevers, which was indeed 
almoft completed, when the king retook Calais from the 
Englifh on the rft of January, 1558. On his return from 
this expedition, Fernel followed the court to Fontaisebleau, 
taking with him his wife, who, being hitherto accuftomed 
to a quiet and ftationary life, and chagrined at this fepara- 
tion trom her family and conneétions, fell into a fever, in 
the courfe of a few days, which terminated fatally, on the 
zoth day of the difeafe. The fhock which this blow gave 
to Fernel was fo great, that in twelve days afterwards, he 
was himfelf feized with a fimilar fever, which carried him 
off on the 26:h of April, 1558, in the fixty-fecond year of 
his age, to the univerial regret of the metropolis. 

The titles of the works of Fernelius, as he is called in 
his Latin treatife, are, 1. « Monalofpherium partibus conftans 
quatuor, &c.’’ Paris, 1526. 2. * De Proportionibus, libri 
duo,” ibid. 1528. . 3. ** Cofmo-theoria Libros duos com- 
plexa,” ibid. 1528. 4. “ De naturali parte Medicinz; 
libri feptem,”? ibid. 1532. 5. ‘* De vacuandi ratione, 
liber,”? ibid. 1545. 6. ‘© De abditis rerum caufis, bbri 
cuo,” ibid. 1548. This work underwent nearly thirty 
fublequent editions. 7. “ Medicina, ad Henrictim IT. &c.”? 
1554. This collection has been itili more frequently res 
printed, with fome changes of the title. 8, * Therapeutices 
univerfalis, feu medendi rationis libri feptem,”? Lugduni, 
1659. 6, ‘* Confiliorum Medicinalium liber,” Paris; 
1582. Many times reprinted. 10. ‘ Febrium curandarum 
methodus generalis,”” Francfort, 1577. A pofthumous 
work. 11. © De Luis veneree curatione periectiflima li- 
ber,”? Antwerp, 1579. Edited by Giffelin, a phyfician of 
Bruges. Some other parts of his works have been tranflated, 
or edited feparately fince his death, Eloy remarks, that as 
many things taken from the Arabian writers are found in 
the works of Fernel, and as the elegant Latinity in which he 

Pp ; has 


FER 


has repeated them is generally admired, the following bon 
mot hasbeen applied to him; ‘* Faces Arabum melle Lati- 
nitatts condidit.’’ 

FERNELIA, in Botany, fo named by Commerfon, pro- 
bably in honour of fome ove of his countrymen or acquaint- 
ances, but it does not appear from whom. Juffl. r99. La- 
marck t. 67. f.1. Clafs and order, Ve/randria Monogynia. 
Nat. Ord. Rudbiacee. 

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of four equal teeth. 
Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped; tube the léngth of the 
ealyx; limb {preading, in four equal broad fegments. Stam. 
Filaments four, very fhort, inferted into the top of the tube; 
anthers ereét, oblong, furrowed, half as long as the limb, at 
Jength reeurved. Pi/#. Germen inferior, globular; ilyle 
thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma obtafe. 
Peric. Berry crowned with the calyx, of two cells, the 
partitions not reaching quite acrofs, but their central part 
1s (according to Juffien) fupplied by a receptacle bearing 
the feeds. Seeds numerous. 

Eff. Ch. | Corolla of one petal, funnel-fhaped, fuperior. 
Anthers nearly feflile, in the mouth of the corolla. Berry 
of two cells, with many feeds. 

Obf. ‘This genus differs from Catefsia in its fhort fila- 
ments and the place of their infertion. How far itis diftingt 
from Randia, (now made a Gardenia,) except in number, 
which is of fma!l or no importanee, may admit of much 
doubt. Juffieu allows their fruit to be fimilarly conftruéted. 
We merely notice it here for future confideration. 

Two {pecies are deferibed. 

1. F. duxifolia, Lamarck, Encycl. v. 2.432. Illuit. 287. 
« Segments of the corolla obtufe. Berry globofe.”” A 
much-branched fhrub or tree, found in the ifland of Mau- 
ritius, where it is called Bois de Buis, or Faux Buis, Falfle 
Box, from the refemblance of its leaves to common Box. 
It has no thorns. The flowers are whitifh, axillary, two or 
three together, on fhort, fimple, filky italks, with a bell- 
fhaped, toothed braétea, like a fecond calyx to each. Co- 
rolla fearcely half an inch long. Berry the fize of a black 
currant. Lamarck reckons two varieties; but thefe appear 
to us merely the fame plant, gathered at two different fea- 
fons of the year, that in fruit having larger leaves. 

2. F.obovata. Lamarck, Iluit. 287. t.67.f.1.  Seg- 
ments of the corolla acute. Berry oval.’? Native of the 
fame country, according to Lamarck, from whom alone we 
have any knowledge of this -fpecies. What he has aflo- 
ciated with it in his plate, is an altered copy of Petefia Ly- 
giflum from Brown’s Jamaica, t. 3.3 but has fet this right 
in his letter-prefs. 

FERNERA, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the 
principality of Culmbach; 12 miles W.S.W. of Culmbach. 
. FERNESS, a cape, and alfo a bay on the W. coatt of 
Eda, one of the Orkney iflands. N. lat. 59° 2’) W. long. 
243!. 

FERNEY, a {mall, regular, well built town, pleafantly 
fituated near the lake of Geneva, with a handfome feat, 
celebrated for being the refidence of Voltaire, at the inter- 
fe&tion of two high-ways, the one leading from Switzerland 
to Lyons, and the other from the Franche-Comte to Geneva, 

FERNITE, a town of the duchy of Stiria; eight miles 
S.E. of Gratz. 

FERNS, a fmall poft town in the county of Wexford, 
Ireland, which is a bifhop’s fee, united to Leighlin. For 
an account of the united bifhopricks, fee Lricuiin. The 
bifhop’s relidence is at a handfome and convenient palace 
lately ere€ted in Ferns. This town is 54 miles fouth from 
Dublin.. Beaufort’s Memoir. 


FE'R 


FEROE, or Farorr, //ands, are fituated in the North 
fea, between Ne lat. 61° 15’ aad 62° 21'; and with rerard 
to longitude, the town of Thorfhern lies 19° 15! 15” W. 
from Copenhagen, and 9° 47’ 45” E. from Teneriffe, They 
are eighty-four miles diitant trom the coaft of Norway on 
the ealtern fide, and forty-five miles from the Shetland ifles 
towards the fouth-weft.. It is not improbable, that the 
free-booters, who at one time infelted mott of the northern 
feas, firit difcovered the way to thefe iflands, where they 
introduced fheep, in order to fupply them with provifions 
in their frequent cruizes. In the time of Harald Harfager, 
king of Norway, that is, in the ninth century, thefe 
iflands were inhabited by fome pian bP es 
who for a long time fupported themfelves by piracy and 
occafional incurfions inte their original country, Norway, 
Thefe people, it is reafonably fuppofed. were firlt fubjeéted 
to the Norwegian dominion by king Hagen Adelftein, but 
they foon threw off the yoke, and tnaintamed their freedom, 
till they were again reduced to obedience by king Magnus 
the Good; after which ‘period thefe iflands belonged to 
Norway, till they became a part of Denmark by the union 
of the two crowns. Chriftianity was introduced into thefe 
iflands foon after its eitablifhment in Denmark, A. D. 
10023; and they were thought worthy of a particular 
bifhop, who was appointed to refide in the ifland of 
Stromoe. The Norwegians are fuppofed to have given 
them the name of Feroe, from the number of fheep which 
they found in them; /aar, in Danifh, fignifying fheep, and 
oe an ifland; others, however, conceive, that the name is 
derived from fer, feathers, an article with which they have 
always abounded ; or from fier, or fiem, far diftant-. Thefe 
iflands are in number twenty-two, feventeen of which are 
inhabited. They occupy in a direétion from N. to S. fif- 
teen miles; extend in breadth from E. to W. ten miles 5. 
and contain altogether nearly 23% {quare miles. hey 
confift of a group of fteep rocks or hills, rifing from the 
fea, chiefly of a conical form, and placed for the moft part 
clofe to each other, fome of which proceed with an even 
declivity to the fhere; but the greater part of thefe decli- 
vities has two, or three, or more floping terraces, formed’ 
by projecting rocks, and covered with a thin ftratum of 
earth, which produces grafs. Clofe to the fea, however, 
the land in general confilts of perpendicular rocks, from 
two to three hundred fathoms in height. The highelt of 
thefe hills is Shzllins, in the fouthern part of Nordftromoe, 
being two thoufand two hundred and forty Englifh feet 
high. The hills lie fo clofe to each other, that they are 
feparated merely by a brook or rivulet ; and between them 
there are no vallies of any extent. In the higher ground, 
however, between their fanittiates are a few dales, covered 
with wretched grafs. The rocks in general confift of 
trav, much intermixed with feld-fpar, glimmer and fmalf 
grains of zeolites. No certain traces of any crater or 
figns of volcanic eruptions are found here; nor does there 
feem to be any pumice-ftone or lava, unlefs bafaltes, of 
which there are feveral columns, belongs to that kind of 
produ€tion. The Feroe iflands contain a great many 
itreams and rivulets, which are generally fordable and fur- 
nifh trout. Tout is alfo caught in fome frefh water lakes 
between the hills. After rain thefe hills prefent a number 
of water-falls, the moft remarkable of which is Fofaa, be- 
tween Qualvig and Halderfvig, in Nordftromoe. Thefe 
lands abound alfo in fprings, which are of two kinds, 
cold and warm; of the latter, the moft remarkable is 
Vermakielde in Ojtarve. The Feroe iflands which are in- 
habited are feventeen, and form feven parifhes: their names are 


I ~  Fugloe, 


en 


FER 


Fugloe, Swinoe, Videroe, Bordoe, Konoe, Kalfoe, Oftar- 
‘ve, Stromoe, Kolder, Hattoe, Nulfoe, Vaagoe, Myggeness 
Sandoe, Skuve, the greater Dimon, and Suderoe. Bordoe 
is feparated by anarrow channel from Videroe, and is little 
more than 23 miles long, and at its greateft. breadth 1 
mile. It has fever villages. For the other iflands, fee their 
refpetive articles. In thefe iflands there is no want of 
good harbours and anchoring places ; but chere is fome diffi- 
culty in obtaining pilots. ‘The currents round and between 
the iflands are rapid and ftrong, efpecially three days before 
and three days after new and full moons. There are feve- 
ral whirlpools at fome diftance from the fhores. The furf 
which prevails round thefe iflands is very remarkable, and 
in winter and the early part of {pring it exhibits a wonder- 
ful and awful {peétacle. As the Feroe iflands lie in the la- 
titude of 62°north, the fun, during the three furmmer months, 
is {carcely four hours beneath the horizon, fo at that time 
there ts no night; at leaft there is light fufficient for 
enabling a perfon to read and write. But in winter the 
days are fo much fhorter, and would be exceedingly dark, if 
the deficiency of light were not in fome meafure fupplied by 
the morning and evening twilight. The heat, notwith- 
fianding the high latitude, is more temperate in fummer, 
and the cold lefs fevere in winter than in the more fouthern 
provinces of. Denmark ; the fea round the coatt never freezes ; 
and the caufe of this mildnefs of the winter is the vicinity of 
the fea. The weather in Feroe is never uniform, and the 
barometer is exceedingly variable. Thefe iflands have lain 
under the imputation of being foggy and unhealthy ; but 
though the firft charge may be true, the fecond is not 
fo well founded. The winds and hurricanes in the Feroe 
iflands are fo violent among the hills and rocks, as to in- 
{pire the traveller with terror. Thunder is not fo common 
as in Denmark; but the northern lights are often feen, 
particularly in the winter. Thefe iflands are at prefent al- 
molt entirely dettitute of wood, but this does not appear to 
have been formerly the cafe. Attempts have been made at 
different times to introduce wood, by planting bufhes and 
trees of various kinds, but they have been for the moft part 
attended with little fuccefs. The black cattle here are f{mall, 
and little or no trade is carried onin this article. The cows 
are much negleéted and ill fed; and of courle yield litue 
milk. The Feroe heifers are fmall, with thick drooping 
heads; they are generally of a fox colour, and fome few are 
almoft black. Little attention is paid to them. Sheep, 
of which one peafant will fometimes poflefs two or three 
hundred, are the principal riches of thefe iflanders; their 
ficfh affords them food: their wool clething = and of the re- 
mainder, after their own wants are fupplied, they manufac- 
ture articles of commerce. The fheep remain out fummer 
and winter, without ever heing houfed ; and on this account 
many of them are loft. Dometic cats are common, fome of 
which become wild ; and dogs are very ufeful to the peafants, 
as they affift them in the care of their fheep. It would extend 
this detail too much to enumerate the variety of their fow! 
and filth. Geefe were formerly more abundant than they are 
now; but thefe iflands have various kinds of ducks, the 
moft remarkable of which, on account of its valuable pro- 
duétion isthe eider duck. See Erper-down. 

One great fource of fubfiltence to thefe iflanders is the fea 
fowl which abound on the coaft, and which are caught either 
by dragging them out of their holes, or by another method, 
for which a bird- pole, witha peculiarapparatus, is employed. 
The operation is fingularly adventurous, and attended with 
danger, among the high and fleep rocks, which the bird- 
takers climb, or from which they are fulpended by ropes. 


The catching of feals is alfo of great importanee to the inha- 


FER 


bitants of thefe iflands. The fithery at Feroe, however, is 
much declined ; at one time fifh was an important article of 
food and of commerce ; but thefe have now almoft entirely 
deferted the coaft. The kinds of fith caught in falt water 
are the torfk, halibut, and cod. The whale fishery is peri- 
odical, and does not now take place fo often as formerly ; 
but where it is carried on it produces great advantage to 
thefe iflands. Small whales come to Feroe in fhoals of 
from one hundred to one thoufand ; and when it is confider- 
ed that each fifth in general yields one cafk of train oil, 
which fells for nine rix-dollars, the value of one fithing will 
amount to from nine hundred to one thoufand rix dollars, 
befides the benefit which the natives derive from the fith 
itfelf, which, if not employed for making oil, affords 
agreeable and wholefome food. See WHALE-FISHERY. 

In Feroe there are no frogs, toads, lizards, {nakes, or 
ferpents, and no amphibious animal of any kind. 

‘The natives of Feroe are, in general, handfome and well- 
made. In the colour of their hair there is confiderable 
variety. Their complexion exhibits a healthful mixture of 
red and white, acquiring a brownifh caft in hot fummers, 
whilft they are employed in procuring turf. Their features 
are never disfigured by the fmall-pox, for this difeafe has not 
yet become endemial in thefe iflands. The natives of the 
Southern iflands, though their whole extent be only 15 miles, 
are of lefs ftature, have round faces, {peak precipitately, 
and appear to be much livelier in their actions ; whereas the 
natives of the Northern iflands are in general taller, have 
more lengthened countenances, {peak flower, and are much 
graver in their whole deportment. The women are, for 
the moit part, exceedingly pretty and well-proportioned ; 
many of the people are inclined to be phlegmatic ; but 
they poffefs great fenfibility. They are of a religious 
difpofition; and when, ona Sunday, they cannot have the 
benefit of a clergyman’s fervices, they meet in church, fing 
pfalms, hear the fervice read by one among themfelves, and 
alfo a fermon. They are peaceable among themfelves ; affa- 
ble and friendly in their difpofition; and alfo, according to 
their means, hofpitable, kind and benevolént.. They are alfo 
honeft in all their dealings with one another, and humane 
and compaffionate towards ftranzers. "The language of 
Feroe coniifts, in great part, of old Danifh, or rather 
Norwegian words; which, by a corrupted pronunciatron, 
has aflumed a foreign appearance. However moft of the 
inhabitants of thefe iflands underftand the Danith language, 
in which the Chriftian religion is taught. This aecoun 
of the Feroe iflands we have extraéted, in an abridged ftate, 
from the Athenzum ; in which periodical publication ar 
anonymous writer has made copigus extracts from 
munications of a Danifh clergyman « 
veral years, and who had the bet « 
ng himfelf with their fituation, + 
as with their produ€tions, and t 


the inhabitants. 


rho. refide 
vituraty 


FEROENSIS Marea, in Natural Hi fory, 2 name 
given by fome authors, to a marley earth, found principal- 
ly in the Affures and cavities of ftone, aud called he ge- 


nerality of later naturalifts, agaricus mineralis, and lac lune ; 
and by the ancients, terra, or creta [eleneufiaca. See Lac. 
lune. . 
FEROKABAD, in G 1g aphy, a town of Hindoolan, 
on the coalt of Malabar; to miles S. of Calicut. 
bEROL, a fea-port and good harbour of Peru, on the 
coalt of the Pacific, ocean, in the archbifhopric of Lima, 
70 miles §.S.E. of Truxillo. S. lat. 9’. W. lox 226 
FEROLITA, in Boteny, Aud]. Guian. Suppl. 7. t. 372- 
Juli 2, /ub Paring A tree of Geiana, of whicli the 
» 


4 p2 ower 


ER 


flowers are tnknown to botanifts. The fruit is a compref- 
‘fed, roundifh, rugged, bordered drupa, not very flefhy, with 
acompreffed nut of two cells, with one feed in each, but it 
often happens that only one cell perfects its feed. The 
trunk is 40 or 50 feet high, bearing numerous branches at 
the top, the ultimate ones very flender. Leaves two inches 
long, alternate, on {hort ftalks, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, 
entire. Fruit in terminal bunches. The bark of the tree is 
fmooth and afh-coloured, milky when wounded. The heart 
‘ef the wood is a kind of fattin wood, hard and heavy, red 
variegated with yellow, taking a fine polifh. It is fometimes 
‘called bois de Ferole, from a name of a former governor of 
Cayenne, who firft introduced it as an article of commerce. 

Juffieu fufpeéts this tree may be generically allied to the 
Parinari of Aublet, t. 204—206. Petrocarya of Schreber. 
They agree in the drupa of two cells, and are not diflimilar 
in habit. 

FEROLLI, in Geography, cape or point, a cape on the 
W. coaft of Newfoundland, N.of St. John’s bay. N. lat. 
$1° 2! W. lon. 74° 52. 

FERONIA, in Mytholosy, derived from fer0, to bring 
relief, or from the town Teronia, near mount Soracte, was, 
according to Servius, the patronefs of the enfranchifed 
flaves, to whom were prefented many offerings ; this goddefs 
being in high veneration through all Italy. Servius fuppo- 
fe; her to be the fame with the virgin Juno, and this fup- 
pofition is countenanced by an ancient infcription quoted 
by Fabretti, and éxpreffed in thefe terms, “ Junoni Peron.” 
The Romans appropriated to this goddefs the care of the 
woods and orchards. She had a temple at the foot of mount 
Sora&te, where an annual facrifice was offered to her; and 
it has been faid that thofe who were fully infpired by this 
goddefs walked bare-footed upon coals without being burat, 
or fuffering any harm. Horace in one of his fatires (1. i. 
fat 5.) mentions the homage that was paid to this divinity, 
in wafhing the face and hands, aceording to cuftom, in the 
facred fountain which flowed near her temple. 

Frronia, in Botany, after a goddefs to w hom the 
ancients dedicated forelts. Correa Tr. of L. Soc. v. 5. 
224. Clafs and Order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. 
Aurantia Jail. 

Cen.’ Ch Gal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fmall, flat, 
in five deep fegments, deciduous. Cor. Petals five, oblong, 
acute, {preading, much longer than the calyx. Stam. Fila- 
ments ten, inferted into the ‘receptacle, awl-fhaped, erect, 
fhorter than the petals, broad and compreffed, as well as 
very hairy, at the bafe: anthers ere, ovate. Pz/?. Germen 
fuperior, nearly ovate ; ftyle fhort, conical; ftigma bluntith, 
notched. Peric. Berry of five cells, globular, with a tough 
roughifh coat. Seeds very numerous, in fimple rows, 
attached to the central receptacle. 

Eff, Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five. 
Berry fuperior, of five cells. Seeds numerous. Stigma 
notched. 

The only known {pecies is 

F. clephantum. Roxb. Coromand. v, 2. 21. t. 141. 
Elephant apple. A native of moft woods and mountainous 
parts of India, flowering, according to Dr. Roxbureh, 
during both the hot and cold feafons, and ripening fruit in 
hot and rainy weather. It forms a large tree, with a deeply 
cracked bark, from which, when wounded, iffues a beautiful 
tran{parent gum, excellent for water-colours. The wood 
is white, hard and durable, but fplits in the fun. Pulpy 
part of the fruit univerfally eaten by the inhabitants of the 
eoaft of Coromandel. The dranches ave thorny. Leaves pin- 
nate, of about {even obovate, entire, fmooth, oppotite leaflets. 


Floqwers in terminal and axillary clufters, white tinged with 


FER 


purple. Fruit the fize of an orange; greenith. ‘Some 
flowers have an abortive piftil. 


FEROSEPOUR, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan, 


‘in Moultan, on the Setledge; 48 miles S. of Lahore, 


N. lat. 31° 5! E. long. 73° 50’. 

FERRACINO, Bae ue ne, in Biography, was 
born at Baffano in Vicentin, in 1692, of parents fo hum- 
ble, that in early life he was engaged in fawing wood as the 
means of a livelihood. Having a natural genius for mecha~ 
nics, he foon invented a faw that was worked by the wind, 
and which he rendered fo perfeét, as to perform his work 
with expedition and accuracy, without much manual ex- 
ertion. Succefs in one invention foon led him to make ex- 
periments in other branches of bufinefs, in which he like- 
wife fucceeded ; he made clocks in iron; and invented fome 
ufeful hydraulic machines ; of thefe, one was formed on the 
principle of Archimedes’s fcrew, which raifes water to a 
confiderable height. His chief work was the noble bridge 
over the river Brenta, at Bafflano, which is greatly admired 
for boldnefs of conception, and folidity of conftruétion 
Ferracino died foon after he had completed this undertakin i 
His life was publifhed in 1764, by M. F. Memo, in ane 


who has entered pretty largely into his labours and inventions 


Nouv. Dic. Hitt. 

FERRAND, Lewis, was born at Toulon in 1645. 
where he received the elements of -a learned education but 
he finifhed his ftudies at Lyons. He was originally intended 
for the law, but he gave early proofs of attachment to 
biblical literature and theology, by publifhing, when he was 
but nineteen years of age, “ A paraphrafe on the feven peni- 
tentiary Pfalms.” Tuthe following year he went to Mentz 
with 1 view of employing all his powers in a new tranflation 
of the bible from the Hebrew. His zeal being now checked 
by the want of encouragement, he returned to France 
applied himfelf to the law, took his degrees at Orleans, and 
was admitted an advocate of the parliament of Paris. In 1 ley 
he hi Rides ay tS ofa planof annalsof the kings 
of France and the Ottoman empefors : in 16 bli 
«“ Reflections on the Chriitian "Religie. aie oe 
nations of the Prophecies of Jacob and Daniel relatin 4 
the advent of the Meffiah,”’ in two vols. abounding in sca 
curious chronological and hiftorical matter. For this work 
on account of itshigh merit, he obtained a penfion of Boe 
livres. M. Ferrand died in 1699, having publifhed man 
other works befides thofe which have been referred “J 
aloft entirely on theology. The laft labour in which he 
was engaged was entitled ** A collection of Differtations 
&c. on the Bible, in the Latin language,” only one aaiirae 
of which was publified during his life. He left behind him 
a great mafs of MSS. on various topies ; of thefe, one was 
committed to the prefs, entitled « Of the knowledgeof God.” 
He was efteemed by his contemporaries a very able, and 
very learned man; and he was unguettionably molt indefati a- 
ble in whatever he undertook. Moreri. sa 
_ FERRANDUS, furnamed Fulgentius, who flourifhed 
in the (xth century, was an African by birth, anda difciple 
of St. Fulgentius. When that prelate was banifhed ‘s 
the Arians to Sardinia, Ferrandus accompanied him ; uh 
on his return he was chofen deacon of the church of Car- 
thage, when he entered with much zeal isto the neltion 
which was the fubje&t of warm difcuffion.at that dane whe: 
ther it could be faid that one of the perfons of the Tiinie ' 
fuifered on the crofs.”? Ferrandus died about the year if 
lewing behind him many works that were hist Haceehs 
cf by his contemporaries. ‘Che moft confiderable was aN 
ColleGion of Eeclefiaftical Canons,”” for reftoring difciplire 
in the churches of Africa. This isone of the moft anne 


colle&tions 


is: 


and wealth. 


FER 


collections of canons among the Latins. It confifts of between 


- two-and three hundred abridged from the councils of Africa, 
-Ancyra, Laodicea, Nice, Antioch, &c. 


A life of Fulgen- 
tius has alfo been afcribed to Ferrandus, but by fome au- 
thors it has been afcribed to another of the prelate’s pupils. 
Moreri, 

FERRAR, Rosert, was an eminent divine, born at Ha- 
lifax, in the county of York, at which place he received the 


“rudiments of his education; for its completion he was fent 


to Cambridge, and afterwards was admitted ad eundem into 
the univerfity of Oxford. Having early embraced the doc- 


‘trines of the Reformers, and in their defence difplayed a con- 
‘fiderable portion both of learning and zeal; he was patro- 


nized by archbifhop Cranmer, who appointed him one of 
his chaplains, and fubfequently procured for him the 
bifhopric of St. Dayid’s. During the regency of 
Edward VI. he fell into difgrace at court, on fufpicion of 


‘his entertaining heretical opinions, and was put in con- 
‘finement on charges falfely preferred again{t him, as was 


fubfequently proved; for in the reign of Mary he fo far 
diflinguifhed himfelf in the Proteftant canfe, as to excite the 
vengeance of the infatiate perfecutor of truth, bifhop Gar- 
diner ; by whom Ferrar was fummoned to recant his errors, 


and, perfifting in his refufal to comply, was condemned 


as an heretic, and burnt at the ftake in the town of 
Caermarthen, South Wales; where an inferibed monument 
fill records the fanguinary tranfa&tion, and défignates the 


{pot on which the pious prelate fuffered martyrdom in the 


year1555- Fox’s Arts and Monuments. 

FERRARA, in Geography, a city of Italy, and capital of 
the exarchate of the Lower Po, fituated on a branch of the Po, 
on the frontiers of the Venetian ftates. Fortified by Smarag- 


“dus, exarch of Ravenna in 585, it was ereéted into a 


bifhopric by pope Vitalian in the year 657, and in 735 it 
was made an archbifhopric. It was afterwards enlarged, 
and became celebrated under the princes of the houfe of 
Elte; but having loft its dukes it declined in magnificence 
It is about four miles in circumference, and 
defended by a citadel, {trong walls, and baitions. The 
ftreets are handfome, and it has many magnificent palaces 
and churches They reckon, befides the cathedral, which 


“Is ancient, 100 churches, 38 convents, and about 14,000 in- 


habitants. The air in its environs is unwholefome on ac- 
count of the marfhes that encompals it: Ariofto lies buried 
in the Benediétine convent, and in the hofpital of St. Ann 
Taflo was cofifined as anidiot. Its univerlity was founded 
in 1390 by Albert, marquis of Ferrara; 42 miles S.E. of 
Mantua. N. lat. 44° 51’. E. long. 11° 35’. 
FERRARESE, late a province of Italy, in the ftate of 
the church, is bounded on the N. by the Polefino, on the E. 
by the eulf of Venice, on the S. by the Romagna and 
Bolognele, and on the W. by the Mantuan and Modenefe. 
The whole country is fertile, but low and marfhy, being 
often overflowed by the waters of the Po. After pafling 
from the houfe of Efte, to which it was granted by the em- 
peror Frederic IT. to the {late ofthe church, it now con- 
flitutes the department of the Lower Po, being ceded by the 
pope in 1797. It has few towns, being badly cultivated, 
and thinly inhabited. The chief places are Ferrara and 
Comachio. ; 
FERRARI, Joun Martuew, in Biography, known by 
the furname of De Gradilus, or De Grado, from the villa in 
‘whichhe was born, in the Milanefe, was one of the molt expert 
hyficians of histime. He practifed medicine at Milan, whence 
he was invited to Pavia, to occupy the medical chair in that 
univerfity, an appointment which he fulfilled with great 


applaufe. He was alfo phyfician to Maria Bianchi Vif- 


FER 
conti, duchefs of Milan, He died in 1480. He hae left 


three large works, which have been frequently reprinted, 
The firt is «A Commentary on Rhafes ;’? the fecond is 
entitled ‘* Expofitiones fuper vizefimam fecundam Fen 3tiz. 
Canonis Avicennz ;?’and the third alfo “A ColleGtion of the 
Opinions of Avicenna, and Rabbi Moytes. ’ 

Ferrari, OTTAVIANO, was born at Milanin 1518, and 
having purfued a regular courfe of ftudies, he was made pro- 
feffor of moral philofophy and politics in the Canobian 
college, a-polt which he occupied eighteen years. He was 
afterwards profeffor at Padua, or Pavia, but returned to 
Milan, where he died in'1586. He was intimate with the 
moft eminent fchclars of his time; and publifhed an intro- 
duétion to the Ariftotelian philofophy, entitled ** De difci- 
plina Encyclica;”? and another work, ‘De fermonibus 
Exotericis,”” which treats on the exoteric books of Ariftotle. 
But his moft valuable work is “ De Origine Romanorum,”’ 
devoted to the detection of the forgeries of Annius of 
Viterbo. He tranflated Athenzus into Latin, and wrote 
notes upon Arittotle. Moreri. 

Ferrari, Lewis, inventor of the fir method of refolving 
biquadratic equations, was born at Bologna about the year 
1520. He ftndied mathematics under the celebrated Car- 
dan, who, having had a problem given him for folution, 
gave it his pupil as an exercife of his ingenuity. This led 
to the difcovery of a new method of analyfis, which is pre- 
cifely that of biquadratics. Cardan publifhed this method, 
and affigned the invention to its real author, and, but for 
this liberal conduét of the mafter, the pupil, for want of. 
publifhing any thing himfelf, would have been unknown to 
polterity. At the age of eighteen he was appointed a tutor 
in arithmetic, and was equal to the tafk of difputing with 
the moit diftinguifhed mathematicians of his own age. He 
was afterwards appointed profeffor of mathematics at Bo- 
logna, where he died in 1565. Ferrari was an excellent 
claffical feholar, a good geographer, and well verfed in the 
principles of architecture. He was, however, addiéted to 
altrology. Hutton’s Math. Di&. Moren. 

Ferrari, Francis Bernarpin, was born at Milan m 
1577- He was educated in his native city, attra€ted the no- 
tice, and acquired the patronage of archbifhop Borromeo, who, 
having projected a grand library at Milan, appointed Ferrari to 
travel through different parts of Europe to purchafe the 
belt books and MSS. that could be obtained. With this 
view he vifited S; aii aad Italy, and procured a vaft numberof 
valuable works, which laid the foundation of the Anibrofiaa 
library. To this inftitution he was appointed the librarian, 
and created do&tor. In 1638 he was nominated director-of 
the college of Nobles, then recently ere€ted at Padua, but 
the ftate of his health obliged him to refign that fituation in 
lefs than two years. He returned to Milan, where he died 
in 1699, having attained to the ninety-fecond year of his 
age. He left behind him numerous works in ecclefiaftical 
and profane antiquities in an unfinifhed ftate. His chief 
publications'are, ‘* De Antiquo: Ecclefiafticarum Epiftola- 
rum genere,”’ lib, ii. Milan, 1613, gto. ‘*-De Ritu Sacra- 
rum Eccl. Catholz Concionum,’? lib. iti. Milan, 1620. 4to. 
which was afterwards reprinted by Grevius; and “ De 
Ritu Veterum Acclamationibus et Plaufu,”? lib. vii. ; thisalfo 
is reprinted in the fixth volume of Grevius’s Rom. Antiq. 
Ferrari was author likewife of “A Treatife on the Funer is 
of Chriftians.”” 

Frrrari, Orravro, was born at Milan in 1607, and fo 
quickly did he eftablifh his literary reputation, that. at 
twenty years of age he was chofen profeffor of eloqueuce in 
the Ambrofian college. In 1684 he occupied the fame 
poit in the univerfity of Padua, where he was alfo appointed’ 

2 profeffor, 


FER 


pfofeflor of the Greek language, and by his-means that fe- 
minary was reftored to its ancient fplendour, On account 
of lis extraordinary fervices he received a ftipend of two 
thoufand florins; for a panegyric in praife of queen Chrif- 
tina he was rewarded with a golden collar, value one thou- 
fand ducats, and another, publifhed in honour of 
Lewis XIV., obtained him a penfion of 5co crowns for five 
years. He was appointed hiftoriographer to the city of 
Milan, and compofed eight books of its hiftory, but either 
the want of neceflary documents, or the fear of offending 
the houfe of Auttria, or his benefaétor the king of France, 
caufed him to leave his papers unfinifhed. He was well 
known as an antiquary, and publifhed feveral learned works 
on that fubjeét, thefe are “De re veftiaria,”’ to which he 
added © AnaleGta,”’ and differtations «De Lucernis Sepul- 
chralibus Veterum,’? “De Pantomimis et Minis,’’ ‘De 
Balneis et Gladiatoribus.”” He died in 1684. Moreri. 

Ferrari, Joun Baptist, a native of Sienna, deeply 
learned in the Oriental languages, publifhed, in 1622, a Syriac 
digtionary, with a view of furnifhing biblical fcholars with 
fuch Syriac words as occur inthe feriptures. It is well and 
highly fpoken of by Simon and Labbe. He was author of 
«Flora, feu de florum cultura ;” alfo of ‘ Hefperides, five 
de Malorum Aureorum cultura et ufu.’? He died in 1655. 
Moreri, Sce Freararia. 

Ferrari, Puirir, was an Italian monk, who flourifhed 
in the 17th century, and taught mathematics in the uni- 
verfity of Pavia. He recommended himfelf to the efteem of 
feveral popes, as Clement VIII., Paul V., and Urban VIIL., 
and was twice general, and twice vice general of his order. 
He was author of *Typographia in Martyrologium Ro- 
manorum,” “ Epitome Geograp. lib. iv.,”” but his princi- 
pal production was his ‘* Lexicon Geographicum,” which 
has been frequently reprinted. _ Moreri. 

Ferrari, Benepetro, of Reggio in the Modenefe 
fate, {pent the chief part of his life at Venice, where, 
though the inhabitants of that city cultivated and encou- 
raged the drama with more diligence and zeal than any 
other city in Europe, during the latter part of the 17th 
century, and the beginning of the laft, yet they were not 
very early in its eftablifhment ; as the firft regular opera or 
drama fet to mufic which was performed at Venice after the 
invention of recitative was ‘* Andromeda,’”’ written by Bene- 
detto Ferrari, and fet to mufic by Francefco Minelli of Ti- 
voli, in 1637. Fervari was himfelf a celebrated performer 
on the lute, an able poet, and a good mufician; who, col- 
leG&ting together’ a company of the bett fingers in Italy, 
brought this opera on the ftage in the theatre of S. Caffiano, 
at his own expence, ina very fumptuous manner. An ex- 
traordinary initance of f{pirit and enterprife in a private in- 
dividual of moderate fortune, to vie with princes in an exhi- 
bition of which they only could fupport the {plendour. 
(Le Glorie della Poef. et-della Muf.) Ferrari was not only 
qualified in an eminent degree for directing fuch enterprifes, 
but for fupplying the principal materials ; from. his excellent 

rformance on the lute, he was very early ityled Ferrari 
della Tiorba. He was a poet, acompofer, and a finger in 
his own dramas. For five {ucceeding years, he annnally pro- 
duced an opera, which being colle¢ted into volumes in 
165x, the printer informs the reader, that Benedetto had 
ftill twelve more mufical operas to give to the public. In 
1638, «La Maga Fulminata,” bythe fame poet and mulician, 
was exhibited at the expence and rifk of Ferrariand of five 
or tix of the performers, in a very fumptuous and magni- 
ficent manner, though the expence. did not amount to more 
than 2000 crowns. A fum which, at prefent, (fays the 
,author of The Glory. of Poetry.aud Muiic,’’ 1730) is hardly 


FER 


fufficient to-fatisfy the demands of an ordinary finger, But 
at this time the performers either fhared in the profits, or 
were content with a moderate falary ; public fingers being 
then but feldom wanted, and that only in the capital cities 
of Italy; whereas, at prefent, dramatic reprefentatioys 
abound in villages. Ferrari was author of both words and 
mulic of two operas, “ Armida,” in 1639, and ‘ Il Paitor 
Reggio”’ in 1640; it was, however, much eafier to fet thefe 
dramas then than fince, as thefe operas preceded the inven- 
tion of airs, the dialogue being only carried on in recitative, 
till about the year 1649, when, inthe opera of ‘ Giafone,”” 
written by Cicognini, and fet by Cavalli, it is faid that the 
grave recitative began firft to be interrupted by that ana- 
creontic kind of ftanza which has fince been called aria. 
Storia Criti. de Teatri del Dottor Napoli Sipnorelli. 

FERRARIA, in Botany, fo named by Bane in the 
Ephemerides of the Imperial Academy Nature Curioforum 
for 1761, in honour of John Baptift Ferrari, a Jefuit, who 
publifhed at Rome, in 1633, a quarto volume on the culture 
of flowers, the pompous plates of which are faid to have been 
drawn by Guido Reni and Pietro da Cortona. He pub- 
lifhed alfo at Rome, in 164%, a {till more {plendid work, 
in folio, on the culture of orange-trees. Linn. Gen. 465. 
Schreb. 451. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 580. Juff. 57. Gawl. 
in Ann, of Bot. v. 1. 241. Mart. Mill. Diét. vy. 2. Clafs 
and order, Monadelphia Triandria. Nat. Ord. Enjate, Linn. 
and Gawler. Jrides, Juff. 

Gen. Ch. Cal. Spatha ot feveral inflated leaves. Pe- 
rianth none. Cor. of fix petals, regular, cohering by their 
claws, reflexed, pointed, crifped, with involute points; the 
three alternate ones rather the fmalleft. Stam. Filaments 
three, united into a tube in their lower part, equal, {pread- 
ing above; anthers didymous, two-celled. Pi? Germen 
inferior, obovate, obtule, fomewhat triangular; ftyle thread- 
fhaped, the length of the tlamens; ftigmas three, dilated, 
petal like, cloven, deeply fringed, converging. Perc. Cap- 
fule oblong, triangular, of three cells and three yalves; 
partitions contrary tothe valves. Seeds numerous, roundifh, 
In two rows, ; 

Eff. Ch. Spatha inflated. Petals fix, regular, crifped 
and fringed. Stigmas three, petal-like, fringed. Caplule 
of three cells. Seeds roundifh, This genus is very pro- 
perly reduced by Mr. Gawler to the original fpecies, and 
another which he has defcribed, excluding F. Pavonia of 
Linneus, and ixioides of Willdenow. Fe 

1. F. undulata. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1353. Mill. Ic. t. 280. 
Jacq. Hort. Vind.t.63. Curt. Mag. t. 144. (Flosindicur, 
e violaceo fufcus, radice tuberofa; Ferrar. de Fl. Cultura 
168. t. 171.) _“ Border of the corolla thrice as long 
as the claws. Lobes of the anthers clofe.’? Native of the 
Cape of Good Hope, cultivated by Miller at Chelfea in 
1759- dit. Hort. Kew. v. 3.305. It flowers with us early 
in the fpring, being kept ia a greevhoufe, like other Cape 
bulbs. The eaves are equitant, fomewhat glaucous, inflated 
at the bafe, and the floral leaves and f{pathas refemble them, 
only being fhorter. he /’em is branched above, bearing 
numerous, very tranfient flowers, of a fingular curled appear- 
ance, variegated with purple and white, and bordered with 
brown. ; 

2. TP. autherofa. Gawl. in Curt. Mag. t. 951.  (F. virj- 
diflora; Andr. Repof.t. 285. FE. Ferrariola ; wad, Sp- 
Pl. v. 3. 581. Morwa Ferrariola; Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 141.) 
«© Claws of the corolla equal to the border. Lobes of the 
anthers divaricated.”? Native of the Cape of Good Hope, 
introduced by Mr. G. Hibbert in 1802. It much refembles 
the former, but differs effentially in the greater length of 
the claws of the peta/s, the fhape and greater fize of the 

anthers, 


FER 


anthers, and the fligmas being more toothed at their bafe, 
Gawler. ; 

FERRARS, Georce, in Biogrephy, was born at St. 
Albans about the year 1510. He ttudied at Oxford, and 
from thence he removed to Lincoln’s-inn, and became a 
diftinguifhed pleader in Weitminfter-hall. He was pa- 
tronized by lord Cromwell, and obtained the favour of 
Henry VILI. whom he attended in a military and civil ca- 
pacity. In 1535 aconfiderable grant was made to him out 
of the royal demefnes in Hertfordthire, but, notwithftanding 
his ample income, want of economy brought his affairs into 
fach a fituation, that, in 1542, while reprefentative for Ply- 
miouth, he was arrefted for debt, and thrown into the 
compter. He was, however, fet at liberty by virtue of pri- 
vilege of parliament, and the officers concerned in his ar- 
re{t were imprifoned for contempt of the powers and_pri- 
vileges of a reprefentative of the people. In the reign of 
Edward he accompanied the protector, Somerfet, to Scot- 
land, as commiffioner of the army. He was afterwards 
matter of the fports, at a feftivity held at Greenwich for 
twelve days, in orderto amufethe king. This appointment 
is fuppofed to have been occafioned by fome metrical ftories 
of his compotition, inferted in the ‘* Mirror of Magiftrates,”’ 
the firlt edition of which appeared in 1559. Ferrars is {aid 
to have been the author of ‘ The Hiitory of the Reign of 
Queen Mary,”’ in the Chronicles publifhed under the name 
of Richard Grafton. He publifhed a tranflation of Magna 
Charta, from the French, into the Latin and Englifh, and 
other laws enacted in the time of Henry III. and Edward I. 
Mr. Ferrars died in 1579. Biog. Brit. 

FERRATO Sasso, an hiftorical painter known under 
that name, but whofe real name was Giovanni Battifta Salvi. 
He derived the former appellation from being born at an 
ancient caitle fo called, on the borders of the territory of 
Urbino, in 1504. He went to Rome to ftudy the works 
ot Raffaelle, then, as finee, the admiration of the world. 
Francifco Penni affitted Salvi in his ftudies, who had obtained 
great flill in copying: but his original works do not exhibit 
much comprehention of mind. He died in 1590, at 86 
years of age. 

Ferraro, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the eaft coalt 
of Sardinia... N. lat. 39°31’. E. long.9° 34". 

_FERRATT, Care, or Cape Me/uff, a cape on the coaft 
of Algiers. N. lat. 36° 9’. 

FERRE, Cape, a cape on the S.E. coaft of Martinico. 
N. lat. 14° 30!. W. long. 60° go’. 

FERRE-ANAH, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of 
Tunis, was formerly, according to Dr. Shaw, the largett 
city of Bizacium, though its ancient grandeur is exhibited 
only ina few granite and other pillars, which the Arabs 
have fuffered to remain. It was well: watered by a ftream 
which ran under the walls, and by wells within the city, 
encompaffed by a corridor, and vaulted ovér with cupolas. 
The circumjacent country, however, is dry, barren, and in- 
hofpitable, a want of water. Several circumf{tances lead 
us to conclude that it was the ancient Thala, mentioned by 
Tacitus, or Telepte ; andthat Thala and Telepte were the 
fame; 130 miles S.W. of ‘Tunis. 

FERREIN on the Vocal Organ, in Mufic. See Voice. 

FERREIRA, in Geography, a town of Spaia, in Gra- 
nada ; iix miles S.E. of Guadix.—Alfo, a town of Portugal, 
in the province of Alentejo; 13 miles W. of Beja. 

Ferreira des dves, atown of Portugal, in the province 
of Beira; 15 miles N.E. of Vifeu. 

FERREOLA, in Botany, from ferrum, iron, alluding 
to the hardnefs of the wood. Roxb. Corom. y. 1. 35. 


¢ 


F5E R 
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 2, Clafs and order,-Diecia Héxandricy 
Nat..Ord. Guaiacane, Juff. 

Gen. Ch. Male Ca/. Perianth inferior, bell-fhaped, 
three-cleft, permanent. Cor. of one petal, tubular; cut half 
way down into three ereé& fegments, externally hairy. Stam. 
Filaments fix, inferted into the receptacle, awl-fhaped, equal, 
ereGt, the length of the corolla; anthers ereét, oblong, 
Rudiment of a germen roundifh, abortive. Female Cai. 
and Cor. like the male. Stam..none. Pi. Germen fu- 
perior, ovate; ftyle fhort, columnar; ftigma three-cleft. 
Peric. Berry round, of two cells. Seeds folitary, convex-on 
one fide, flat on the other. 

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx three-cleft. Corolla tubular, 
three-cleft. Female, Cal. and Cor as in the male. Berry 
fuperior, of two cells. Seeds folitary. 

Obf. Sometimes, according to Koenig, there are but 
five {tamens. 

1. F. duxifolia. Roxb. Corom. vy. 1.35. t. 45. (Ehretia 
ferrea; Willd. Phytogr. fafc. 1. t. 2. f. 2.) Native of Co- 
romandel, growing to the fize of a tree on the mountains, 
but in the Low Countries it is but a fhrub. The wood is 
dark, hard, aud durable, very ufeful where its {mall fize 
does not preclude its ufe. Branches numerous, rigid, and 
divaricated. Leaves not an inch long, on fhort ftalks, al- 
ternate, obovate, entire, obtufe, emarginate, fmooth. 
Flowers {mall, yellow, axillary, folitary, nearly feffile. 
Berry the fize of a large pea, red, eatable,. and very good, 
Roxburgh. 

FERRER’s Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N. coaft 
of Egmont ifland, or New Guernfey, with a town or village ; 
five miles E. of Carteret point. 

FERRERAS, Don, Joun pe, in Biography, a noble 
Spaniard, born in the province of Aftorga in 1652, was 
brought up with the monks, and became diftinguifhed for 
pulpit eloquence. He twice refufed the honour of a bi- 
fhopric, choofing rather the life of a literary man in the me- 
tropolis, than the emoluments attached to the moft ele- 
vated fituation in the church. He was eleéted a. member 
of the Spanifh academy in 1713, and foon after was made 
royal librarian. He took a confiderable part in the com- 
pilation of a ditionary, and contributed the articles under 
the letter G, and a difcourfe on the origia of the Caitilian 
tongue. He died at Madrid in 1735. He was author of 
many pieces in theology and general literature, but he is 
beft known for a “ General Hiltory of Spain,” in 16 vols. 
4to. It has-been tranflated into French by M. de Hermilly. 
Moreri. , 

FERRET Isvanp, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the 
E. cosft of Labrador. N, lat. 53° 40'. W. long. 55° 40’. 

Ferret, FPiverra, in Zoology, an animal of the mu/- 
tela or weazxel kind, called by fome alfo muj/fela /ylvefiris, 
furo, and furunculus. See Musrera Furo. * 

Ferret; Jndian, viverra Indica, a name by which fome 
have called the animal known in America by the. name of 
guirpele and quil. See Viverra Mungo. 

Ferrers, in Glafs-making, the irons. with which the 
workman tries the melted metal to fee if it be fit to work. 

It is alfo ufed for thofe irons which make the ting at the 
neck of bottles. 

FERRETES b’Espacne, in Natural Hifory, a name 
given by authors to certain flones of a regular figure, found 
on the fides of a rock in Spain which have been fince difeo- 
vered very plentifully on the bottom and fides of the Fon- 
taine de Salut, near Bagneres in France, and in other places 
in the country thereabout. 

Every one of thefe flones, fo leng as it remains ia the 

* 


= ink qecks 


FER 


rock, is always found between two bundles of clufters of 
tran{parent fibres, of which generally one is placed on tke 
one, and the other on the oppofite fide; thefe clufters of 
fibres are largeft in the largeft ftones; however, they are 
always found even about the fmalleft ia fome quantity. 
Philof. Tranf. N° 472. p. 30. 

FERRETTI, Emirro, in Biography, born at Catftel- 
Franco, in Tufcany, in 1489, ftudied at Pifa and Sienna, 
and became fecretary to cardinal Salviatiat Rome. He 
was admitted an advocate at the age of nineteen; after 
which he was made profeffor of law, and fecretary to Leo X. 
This office he filled with much reputation for feveral years, 
and then retired to his own country. On his return he ac- 
companied Montferrat, the commander of the Freach army, 
to Rome and Naples. On his return he was taken prifoner 
by the Spaniards, and cbliged to pay a high ranfom for 
his liberty. He next went to France, and taught the law 
at Valence with reat reputation. He was then employed 
in various diplomatic ftations, and as counfellor of the par- 
lament at Paris. At length, after various negociations, 
he finally became profeffur of the law at Avignon, where 
his ftipend was raifed to a thoufand crowns. He died in 
1552, ana when his fucceflor Craveta began his leGtures by 
ftri¢tures upon Ferreti, the fcholars fhewed their attachment 
to their old mafter by hifling and driving him from the 
place. Terreti was a man of general learning, and well ac- 
quainted with claffical literature. He gave an edition of 
the principal orations of Cicero, Bayle. Moreri. 

FERRETO, an hiftorian and poet of Vicenza, was 
born about 1296, and took a confiderable part in the re{tora- 
tion of polite literature in Italy. He wrote, in Latin, a 
hiftory of Italian affairs, from 1252 to the year 1318. This 
is one of the beft compofitions of the age, and was firlt 

rinted in Muratori’s Colleétion of Italian writers. Moreri. 

FERRETTE, in Geography, a town of France, in the 
department of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a can- 
ton in the diftri€t of Altkirch. The place contains 608, 
and the canton 11,470 inhabitants, ona territory of 225 ki- 
liometres, in 31 communes. 

FERRETTO, in the Glafs Trade, a {ubftance which 
ferves to colour glafs. This is made by a fimple calcination 
of copper, but it ferves for feveral colours. There are 
two ways of making this; the firftis as follows: take thin 
plates of copper, and lay them on a layer of powdered brim- 
itone, in the bottom of a crucible; over thefe lay more 
brimftone, and over that another layer of the plates, and fo 
on alternately till the pot is full, Cover the pot, lute it 
well, place it in a wind-furnace, and make a {trong fire about 
it for two hours. When it is taken out and cooled, the 
copper will be found fo calcined that it may be crumbled 
to pieces between the fingers like a friable earth ; it will be 
of a reddifh, and in fome parts a blackifh colour. This 
mutt be powdered and fifted fine for ufe. Neri’s Art of 
Glafs, p. 30. 

The other way is lefs eafy, but it makes a more valuable 
ferretto. It is this: make a number of {tratifications of plates 
of copper and powdered vitriol alternately in a crucible, 
which place on the floor of the glafs-furnace near the eye, 
and let it ftand there three days; then take it out, and 
make a new ftratification with more frefh vitriol, and cal- 
eine it again as before; repeat this operation fix times, and 
a moft valuable ferretto is produced. 

FERRI, Paut, in Biography, who flourifhed in the 
17th century, was born at Metz in the year 1591. He 
purfued his theological ftudies with fo much zeal that he 
was introduced to the minifterial office when he was but 


FER 


19 years old, and even then he had appeared as an author 
by a volume of poems written in the moments of relaxa- , 
tion. He poffefled very extraordiaary pulpit talents, and 
was the molt popular preacher among the reformed in his» 
province, He died of the ftone in 1669, in his 7gth year. 
The works publifhed during his life were chiefly thealogi- 
cal, but he left behind him colleétions fora hiftory of Metz, 
in three or four volumes folio, which are referred to by 
Calmet as abounding in curious refearches.. In the height . 
of his popularity he was charged with having received an 
annual penfion of five hundred crowns from cardinal Rich- 
lieu, as a bribe for his fervices in attempting to promote au 
union between the Catholic and Proteflant religions. This 
charge has been fully invefligated, and proved to be with- 
out the fmallelt foundation. Bayle. Moreri. 


Ferri, In Cavatier Barrazar, of Perugia, in the 
17th century, is inflanced by Rouffean, in his * Muf, 
Di&.”? as the moft extraordinary vocal performer that ever 
exifted. « This fingular and prodigious finger,’ fays he, 
“who had fuch talents as all the fovereigns in Europe 
courted and feized by turns, was loaded with gifts and ho- 
nonrs during his whole life, and his powers and glory all the 
mufes vied with each other in celebrating after his death. 
Every panegyric that was written upon this mufician, 
breathes rapture and enthufiafm; and his contemporaries 
all unite in affirming, that a talent fo perfect and io rare, 
was above al] competition, and had even filenced Envy her- 
felf. It is impoflible, fay they, to exprefs the brilliancy 
of his voice, or the graces of his ftyle. He had all the 
charaéteriftics of different ftyles in the highett perfeétion ; 
he was lively, dignified, grave, and tender, at his pleafure, 
and all hearts were melted by his pathos. Among the in- 
finite paffages of the extremeft difficulty which he per- 
formed with his voice I {hall only repeat one. He afcended 
and defcended in one breath two full o€taves in a running 
fhake, in chromatic degrees of half notes with fuch accu- 
racy, though without accompaniment, that, if fuddenly the 
bafe was {truck to any one of thefe intervals, whether flat 
or fharp, the exa&t intonation was inftantly felt in an 
altonifhing degree by the audience.” Bontempi Iftoria 
Mul. 

We ufed to wonder whence Rouffeau took this {plendid 
account, as we found nothing fo marvellous elfewhere ; in 
Quadrio’s ample lift of opera fingers, from the year 1634 
to 1744, amounting to 273, no fuch name as that of Ferri. 
occurs. We find him not in Padre Martini, Algarotti, 
Planelli, Napoli Signorelli, Arteaga, or Eximeno, and it 
feems as if Bontempi, in imitation of Apelles the painter, 
who compofled the face of his Venus of the belt features of ’ 


.all the beauties of Greece, had rather told us what was to 


be wifhedin a perfect finger than what really ever did exift 
in any one mortal; and we cannot help thinking that Bon- 
tempi has coloured his piece the higher from Ferri having 
beea his countryman. Que great finger may have pofleffed 
two or three of hisexcellencies at molt. But exaggeration 
is the conftant companion of panegyric and fatire. If a fin- 
ger of the name of Baltazar Ferri ever faw the light, and 
had tranfcendent powers, they are certainly magnified 4 la 
Herfchel : but his name not occurring in any other mufical 
work, or dramatis perfong of the innumerable operas that 
we have collated and examined, obliges us to donbt the aus 
thenticity of the account given us from Bontempi by the in-” 
genious and enthufiaftic citizen of Geneva. 


Monf. Laborde has abridged the tale from Rouffeau, and 
placed the name of Ferri in Quadrio’s lift, between Cavalli, 
and 


| 


FER 


and Paita, among fingers who flourifhed between 1690, and 
1700; but zon eff. inventus either there or ellewhere. / 
Ferri, Ciro, an hittorical painter, born at Rome in 
‘1634. He wasa favourite difcrple of Pietro da Cortona, 
whom he affifted in finifhing feveral of his works at Flo- 
rence, and at Rome; and whofe ftyle he fo nearly adopted 
that their pidtures raay fometimes be miftaken for each 
other. Generally, Ferri has lefs grace of defign, lefs eafe 
in his a€tions and draperies, and lefs compafs of mind; but 
he has more folidity and carefulnefs of finifh than his maf- 
‘ter. His St. Ambrofio in the church of that faint at 
Rome offers the faireft comparifon between them and Ro- 
manelli, a fellow fcholar with Ciro Ferri. His principal 
works in frefco are inthe Palace Pitti, at Florence, and at 
St. Maria Maggiori of Bergamo. 
FERRIER, Jeremian, a Proteftant minifter, and pro- 
feflor of divinity at Nifmes in Languedoc, in the beginning of 
_ the 17th century, maintained in public debate that pope Cle- 
ment VIII. was properly anditruly Antichriit. For this li- 
berty of {peech he wasarretled and thrown into prifon at Tou- 
loufe ; from the effeéts of which he efcaped, in confequence 
of an arrét from Henry LV. forbidding perfons to moleft 
him on account of that bufinefs. Notwithftanding Fer- 
rier’s zeal in the inftance referred to, he was one of the 
firft who, in the political aflemblies of the protettants, op- 
pofed their proceedings in fupport of their civil and religi- 
ous privileges and immunities. He began now to be fuf- 
pected of having been induced by a bribe to defert his 
caufe, and was forbidden to appear in their affemblies again. 
His condu& in other refpects was equally rep:chentible, 
and he was prohibited from exercifing bis mimitry within 
the province of Languedoc. He now turned his attention 
to the law, but the populace, who are ever indignant at 
the treachery of public characters, attacked him publicly 
in the ftreets, with flones, and other miflile weapons, fo 
that his life was in imminent danger. Not contented with 
the injury infli@ted on his perfon, they proceeded to ran fack 
his houfe, burning and dettroying his goods and books, 
and treating with much brutality his wife and children, 
whom the prudence of the maziltrates preferved from great- 
er mifchief. Hence he became an avowed convert to the 
Catholic faith, fettled at Paris, and took fome pains to ad- 
vance his fortune. His zeal was now equally great in de- 
fence of his new opinibus, at, lealt of what were confidered 
his new opinions, and he publifhed a treatife, entitled ee De 
PAntichrift, et de fes Marques, contre les ennemis de Veglife 
Catholique,’ 4to. He was likewile fuppofed to be the 
author of ‘* Catholique d’etat, ou difcours des Alliances 
du roi tres Chretien coutre les calomnies des ennemis de fon 
etat.? M. Ferrier was employed by the king in many af- 
fairs of great national importance, and was, In 1626, ap- 
pointed privy counfellor, Te ftood alfo high in eftimation 
with cardinal Richlieu. He died in 1626, and on his death- 
bed dictated an epitaph, in which he declared his fteady at- 
tachment to the Catholic faith: he went much farther, 
and even extorted from his children a promife that they 
would live and die in the communion of Rome. Bayle. 
Moreri. 
FERRIERES, in Geography, a town of France, in 
the department of the Ourte, and chief place of ,a canton, 
in the dittri@t of Huy ; the place contains 689 and the can- 
ton 4,981 inhabitants, on a territory of 145 kiliometres, 
in 16 communes.— Allo, a town of Trance, in the depart- 
ment of Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the dittri 
of Montargis; the place contains 1610, and the canton 
9,025 inhabitants, on a territory of 270 kiliometres, in 7 
communes. 


Vou. XIV. 


FER 
FERRILITE, in Mineralogy, a name given by Mr- 


Kirwan to rocks found at, and in the neighbourhood ofs 
Rowley Regis, Staffordfhire, and knowa by the term 
Rowley rag. It has beea confidered by many as bafal:, 
by others as Floetz greenftone, and by fome called whin, 
an indefiuite term ufed in the north of England, and applied 
to various hard ftones. 

Its colour is greyith-black, inclining to greenifh-black, 
and, when expofed to the weather, brownifh. It occurs 
maffive in great beds, or ftrata, in the vicinity of Rowley, 
Dudley, Walfall, and the fouth-weft part of Staffordhhire ; 
and in fome inftances in columnar diftin@ concretions, parti- 
cularly at Powk Hill, near Walfall, where it is quarried 
for mendirg the roads. 

Internally it is glimmering, from minute cryftals of horn- 
blende and felfpar, particularly the fra@ured furface of the 
latter, which is foliated. 

The fraQure is generally fine-grained, uneven, but often 
flat, conchoidal, and fine {plintery. The fragments rather 
fharp edged. 

When difintegration has taken place to a confiderable 
extent, it occurs in large globular concretions, which ap- 
pear to be compofed of concentric laminz. 

It is generally opaque, but fometimes faintly tranflucent 
at the edges, gives a whitith gtey ftreak, hardith, {cratches 
glafs, brittle, and difficultly frangible, but lefs fo than 
bafalt of Werner ; {pecific gravity 2.7 to 2.9. 

It melts eafily, without addition, before the blow-pipe, 
into a black glafs. : 

It confiits of felfpar and hornblende in a confufedly 
ceryftallized ftate: it has been analyfed by Dr. Withering, 
with the following refult ; 

: Silica. : 5 


47-5 
Alumina : be 2555 
Oxyd of Iron - 20.0 

100.9 


It is probable, as fo great a portion of it confifts of 
felfpar, that it contains pot-afh, but which, at the fame 
time when this analyfis was made, was not fulpected to 
oecur in the mineral kingdom. 

It is alfo probable that the iron it contains is in a low 
degree of oxydatiob, as it exerts fo much influence on the 
magnetic needle, This effet has been long known, as 
Dr. Plott, in his ¢€ Hiltory of Staffordfhire,’ mentions, 
that it drew tie compais needie 6° out of its proper di- 
rection. 

The lower ftratum of the Derbythire toad-ftone, which 
very accurately refembles ferrilite in its external charaéter:, 
is alfo very magnetic. 

Mr. Keir has, in Shaw’s * Hiftory of Staffordfhire,’”? 
given an intereiting account of this ferrilite, and lately 
Mr. G. Watt (in Philof. Tranf. 1804,) has given a {ull 
more interefting detail of experiments made on this fub{tance, 
by melting, and cooling it with different degrees of ra- 
pidity. . 

When cooled fuddenly from the fluid flate, it alfumed 
the appearance of an opaque black glafs, but when the heat 
was fo flowly withdrawn that it was feveral days ia cooling, 
its appearance was as ftony, and texture as cryftalline, as 
the original rock. 

For obfervations on the phenomena, and conclufions 
illuftrative of the igneous fonhatiod of bafaltic, and other 
rocks ; fee Philof. Tran. 1854. 


FERRITER’s Istanp, in Geograply. See Bias 
&ETS. 
Qgq FERRO, 


FER 
FERRO, or Hiero, the moft weilerly of the Canary 


iflands, about 15 milesin breadth, and 45 in circumference. 
The afcent from the fea is difficult, as itis on all fides high 
and craggy: but on the fummit it is tolerably level and 
fruitful ; abounding with many Kinds of trees and fhrubs. 
It produces better grafs, herbs and flowers than any of the 
otheriflands ; fo that bees thrive and multiply here exceed- 
ingly, and yield excellenthoney. The greater part of the 
wine of Ferro, which is bad, 1s diftilled into brandy ; and 
there are only three fountains of water on the ifland. On 
account of the fearcity-of water, fheep, goats, and {wine do 
not drink in fummer ; but they are accultomed to dig up the 
roots of fern, and chew them in order to quench their thirft. 
The larger cattle are watered at thofe fountains, and at a 
place where water diftils from the leaves of a tree. "The 
Englifh and French geographers formerly reckoned their 
longitude from Ferro; but Englifhmen now count their 
longitude from Greenwich, and the Frenchmen reckon 
their’s from Paris. N. lat. 27° 45'. W. long. 17° 46’. 

FERROGAN, or Farracon, a mountain of Scotland, 
in Perthfhire ; 18 miles S. of Blair Athol. Its height is elti- 
mated at 2548 feet above the level of the fea. 

FERROL, a handfome fea-port town of Spain, and 
harbour for the royal navy, in the province of Galicia, the 
entrance of which is formed by Cape Prior. It is fituated 
N.N.E. of Corunna, and ten Spanifh leagues from Cabo 
Ortegal, and has been, fince the middle of the eighteenth 
century, one of the moit famous maritime places in Europe, 
and one of the beft in Spain. Before the year 1752, Ferrol 
was merely.a kind of hamlet, inhabited by the failors of 
coafting veflels, and fifhermen: but a town has fince been raifed 
with an increafing population. The harbour is very fafe, 
being on every lide proteéted from the winds; it is fur- 
rounded by redoubts, mounting five cannon on each front, and 
four on each fide: the whole is conne€ted by an intrench- 
ment and aparapet, which mafk the interior works. It has 
one parifh, containing about Sooo fettled inhabitants, and 
vceafionally many more, who are attached to the navy- and 
the harbour, and it has two hofpitals, one for the inhabit- 
ants, and the other for foldiers and failors. It has alfo a 
{chool for midfhipmen, magnificently built ; the handfomelt 
arfenal in the kingdom ; a machine for hammering copper to 
{heath veffels; and an extenfive rope-walk. The’ naval 
barracks are large and commodious, and capable of con- 
taining 6000 men. Here is alfo a good dock-yard. This 
place is at prefent the firft arfenal of the royal navy of Spain : 
it was erected by order of Ferdinand VI., the father of 
Charles III. Art and nature have confpired to render the 

_ pofition of the harbour impregnable. The bafon for the 
fleet is immenfe ; each fhip having a feparate warehoufe, 
where the tackle, rigging, and {pare ftores are marked, and 
placed in the greateft order. ‘The “ prefidiario” is com- 
pofed of 600 galley flaves, who are employed in the moft 
laborious eee of the harbour.. T'wo caftles, that of St. 
Philip, and that of the Palma, defend the approach of the 
coaft between Corunna and Ferrol, and the road pafles be- 
tween them. Ferrol being’ more a military than a civil 
place, has only an alcalde mayor, and fome alcaldes of dif- 
tri€ts, to attend to the police of the town; but it has a mi- 
litary commandant, a governor, an intendant, a complete 
and numerous flaff, who ferve for the fortifications, the har- 
bour, and the garrifon, which is.always very ftrong. As 
Ferrol is altogether intended for the royal navy, general 
commerce and all foreign merchaut-fhips are excluded, except 
fuch coafting veffels, &c. as {upply articles of neceffity. The 
environs of the townhave many fountains of excellent water, 
and the towa has abundance of river and fea fifh. It has 


FER 


only one manufactory, which furnithes fail-cloth. N. Tats. 
43° 28'. W. long. 8° 1! 

Ferro, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the 
coaft of Peru. S_ lat. 9? 11572 

FERRUGINOUS, denotes a thing to sartake of the- 
nature of iron, or to contain particles of that metal. r 

It-is particularly applied to certain mineral fprings, whofe 
water, in their paflage along the ftrata of the earth, meets 
with the ore of this metal, or with pyrite containing it, part 
of which they wath off, and carry with them, and thus be- 
come impregnated with the principles thereof. Such are 
what we call chalpbeate waters. 

The waters of Tunbridge, thofe of Forges, and of the 
iron {pring at Bourges, and many others, are ferrugi-. 
nous. : 

FERRUGO, the ruft of iron, or a kind of calx foun 
on the furface thereof, 3 

The ruft of iron is a reftringent ; applied by way of pef- 
fary, it reprefles the fluor uterinus; and drank, prevents 
conception ; it cures the eryfipelas, and exanthematous. 
eruptions. It is of good ufe in a paronychia, roughnefs of 
the eye-lids, and acondyloma. ° It alfo ftrengthens the gums, 
relieves under the gout, beisig rubbed on the part afi-éted, 
and makes the hair grow after an alopecia. Wine or wa- 
ter, in which red. hot iron has been quenched, being drank, 
is good for the celiac paffion, dyfentery, diforders of 
the fpleen, cholera morbus, and relaxations of the ito- 
mach. See Iron. 

FERRULE, ina Ship, a finall iron hoop, fixed on the 
extremities of the yards, booms, &c. 

FERRUM. See Inon. 

Ferrum Lguinum, in Botany, Horfe-fhoe Vetch. 
Hippocrepis. 

FERRY, a liberty by prefcription, or the king’s grant to 
have a boat for paflage upon. a river, for the carriage of 
horfes and men for a veafonable toll: it is ufually to crofs a. 
large river. Termes de Ley. 

A ferry is no more than a common highway ; and no ac- 
tion will lie for one’s being difturbed in his paflage, unlefs he- 
allege fome particular damage, &c. (3 Mod. Rep. 294.) 
The not keeping up of a ferry has been held to be indi&- 
able. Ifaferry be granted at this day, he that accepts fuch 
grant is bound to keep a boat forthe public good. Holt,. 
Ch. J. Shaw. 257. . . 

FERRYLAND Harsour, in Geography, abay on the 
eaft coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 47° 8!. W. long. 

Cay ue 23 

FERSIN, « town of Perfia, in the province of Irak; 22. 
miles S. of Sava. 4 

FERSINA,_a river of Tyrol, which rifes in a lake near 
St. Boldo, and runs into the Adige, 2 miles N. of Trent. 

FERTE'-ALLAITS, La, atown of France, in the de- 
partment of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton 
in the diftriét of Etampes. The place contains 780, and the 
canton 8,583 inhabitants, on a territory of 167} kiliome-. 
tres, in 18 communes. . : 

Ferrt-Bernard, La, atown of France, in the depart- 
ment of the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton in the 
diftri® of Mamers, furrounded with walls, and containing 
three fauxbourgs, 21 miles N. E. of Le Mans. N) lat. 
48° 11'. E. long. o’ 44’. The place contains 2314, and the 
canton 11,720 inhabitants, on a territory of 1812 kilfome- 
tres, in 14. communes. ‘This.is the birth-place of Robert 
Garnier, a poet. 

Ferrt-Chaudron, La, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of the Nievre ;- 10 miles N.W. of Moulins. 

Fervi-Fre/acl, La, a town of France, in the depart- 

*ment 


See- 


FER 


“ment of the Orne, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ 

of Argentan, 21 miles E.N.£. of Argentan. The place 
contains 376, and the canton 8,697 inhabitants, on a ter- 
ritory of 200 kiliometres, in 20 communes. 

. Fertt-Gaucher, La, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a can- 
ton in the diftriG& of Coulommiers; 9 miles E.S.E. of Cou- 
lommiers. N. lat. 48° 47. E. long. 3° 22'. The place 
contains 1,800, and the canton 10,241 inhabitants, ona ter- 
ritory of 2773 kiliometres, in 19 communes. 

Ferré-Macé, La, atownof France, in the department of 
the Orne, and chief place of a canton in the dittri& of Dom- 
front ; 12 miles E. of Domfront. The place contains 3849, 
and the canton 13,470 inhabitants, on a territory of 135 ki- 
licmetres, in 11 communes. 

_ Ferret-St. Aubin, La, atown of France, in the department 
‘of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton in the diftri&t of 
Orleans. The place contains 1,558, and the canton 5,330 
inhabitants, ona territory of 450 kiliometres, in 8 com- 
anunes. 

Ferti-/ous-Jouarte, La, atown of France, in the de- 
partment of the Seine and Marne, and chief place of a canton 
in the diftiét of Meaux ; 10 miles E. of Meaux. The place 
contains 3,703, and the canton 15,2cGinhabitants, on a ter- 
xitory of 210 kiliometres, in 1g communes. 

Ferté-/ur-Amance, La, atown of France, inthe depart- 
ment of the Upper Marne, and chief place of acanton in 
the diftri€t of Langres. The place contains 493, and the 
canton 5,972 inhabitants, on a territory of 120 kiliometres, 
in 13 communes. 

Fertrt-Vidame, La, a town of France, in the depart- 
ment of the Eure and Loire, and chief place ofa canton in 
the diftric&t of Dreux ; 13 miles W. of Chateauncuf. The 
place contains 1,271, and the canton 10,744 inhabitants, en 
a territory of 2724 kiliometres, in 29 communes. 
_FERTIE/RE, a town of France, in the department of 
the Po, onthe Dora; 8 miles N. of Sufa. 

FERTILE, in Agriculture, aterm fignifying fruitful or 
abundant. 

Pertixve Soil, is that fort of foil which, from the nature 
of its conftituent principles, is capable of producing full 
‘crops. See Soit. 

Fertire Flowers, in Botany, and Pegetable Phyfiology, 
are the flores faminei, female flowers, of Linneus. Being 
furnifhed with only one kind of fexual organs, the pittils, 
they cannot indeed of themfelves bring the rudiments of 
the fruit to perfection, but with the afliftance of the male 
‘ones, termed in contradiftinétion barren flowers, as having 
no rudiments of feed, they at length become prolific. (See 
Frecunparion of Plants.) Examples are feen in the Oak, 
Hazel, and Walnut, where the fertile flowers, diftinguifhed 
‘by very confpicuous {tigmas, are of a quite different form 
and fize from the barren ones, In feveral plants the fertile 
flowers are accompanied by rudiments of ftamens, moitly 
inefficient, though liable to become perfe&, according to 
circumftances, as in Rhodiola. 

Fertive Florets, in compound, and umbellate, flowers, 
are not only fuch as anfwer to the above defcription, as in 
- the radius of the Daify, After, &c., but the term is applied 
to all florets, (whether furnifhed with ftamens or not, as 
well as with a piftil,) that bring their feed to perfection ; 
which many, though formed with the rudiments of a ger- 
men and ityle, do not. In fome compound flowers fertili- 
ty refides more towards the circumference than the centre, 
as in the Marigold, Calendula, whole difk is altogether 
male. In the Sunflower and Knapweed it is otherwife, 


FrEoR 


yet rather by sbortion. than original conformation See 
Frowex.and Frorer. 

FERTILITY, Fruirruness, that quality which des 
nominates a thing fertile or prolific. 

FERULA, alittle wooden pallet or flice, reputed the 
{choolmatter’s fceptre wherewith he chaftifes the boys by 
ftriking them on the palm of the hand. 

The word is Latin, and has alfo been ufed to denote the 
prelate’s crozier and ftaff. It is fuppofed to be formed of 
the Latin, ferire, to ffrike ; or, perhaps, ferulain this fenfe 
may be derived from the name of a plant, called,in Latin, 
Jerula ; in Englith, fennel-giant ; the flem whereof was an: 
ciently ufed to correct children with. 

Under the eaftern empire the ferula was the empero~’s 
{ceptre, asis feen on divers medals; it confifts of a long item 
or fhank, anda flat fquare head. The ufe of the ferula is 
very ancient among the Greeks, who ufed to call their 
princes yxp9ixoopn, g.d. ferula-bearers. 

Tn the ancient eaftern church, ferula or narthex fignified a 
place feparated from the church; wherein the penitents or 
the catechumens of the fecond order, called au/cultantes, 
axeorunzeor, Were kept, as not being allowed to enter the 
church ; whence the name of the place, the perfons therein 
being under penance or difcipline: fub ferula erant ec- 
clefia. 

Feruta,in Botany, aname in Plisy, derived by fome 
from fero, to carry, becaufe its light hollow ftalks were carned 
in the hand, as walking-flicks ; by others from feria, to ftrike, 
becaufe they were ufed to chattife {chool-boys. Fennel-giant. 
Linn. Gen. 136. Schreb. 186. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1411. 
Juff. 222. ‘Tournef.t. 170. Gaertn. t. 85. Mart. Mill. 
Diét. v. 2. Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. 
Ord. Unmbellifere. 

Gen. Ch. General umbel of numerous rays, globofe ; 
partial imilar to it. General invelucrum deciduous 3 partial 
of numerous, fmall, linear leaves. Perianth fearcely dif- 
cernible, Cor. Univer/al unitorm 3 flowers all fertile; par- 
tial of five oblong, ftraightifh, nearly equal petals. Stam. 
Filaments five, the length of the corolla; anthers fimple. 
Pig. Germen inferior, turbinate; ftyles two, reflexed ; 
ftizmas obtule. Peric. Fruit oval, fomewhat comprefied, 
marked with three elevated lines on each fide, feparable 
into two parts. Seeds two, very large, elliptical, flat on 
each fide, marked with three diftiné ribs. 

Eff. Ch. Fruit oval, compreffed, with three ribs on 
each fide. Calyx obfolete, General involucrum deciduous. 
Flowers uniform, all fertile, 

Obf. The ftalk.of the principal umbel fometimes throws 
out lateral oppofite flower-ftalks, 

The loftiett of umbelliferous plants, whofe ftems, though 
annual, and confequently properly herbaceous, have, when 
dry, a woody hardnefs ; hence a quibbling ancient is report- 
ed to have called Feru/a wood and no wood. The {pecies 
in Willdenow are 12, but the fynonyms are not free from 
confufion. The /eaves of all are extremely compound, 
with narrow, nearly linear, leaflets or fegments, often 
fhining. The flowers are generally copious, yellow, dif- 
pofed in a corymbofe manner on a round, upright, tall, 
hollow item. The plants when wounded exude an acrid or 
feetid refin—They generally grow in the fouth and eait of 
Europe. —The chief {pecies are, 

F. communis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 355. Dod. Pempt. 321. f. 1. 
NapSxg of Diofcorides. ‘* Leaflets linear, very long and 
fimple.’? This was formerly fuppofed to yield the gum: 
called Sagapenum, but modern haturalifts kave thought 
otherwife. It is fcarcely cultivated but in curious botanic 

Yq 2 gardens, 


FER 


gardens, on account of its cumberfome fize and weed-like 
afpeét. It is common in fields about Rome, flowering 
about Midfummer. 

F. Ferulago. Linn. Sp. Pl. 356. Sm. Prod. Fl. Grec. 
v.31, 191. (F. nodiflora; Jacq. Auftr. append. t. 5. Willd, 
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1413). “¢ Leaflets linear-oblong, flat, three- 
cleft. Flowering branches moftly ternate. Bra¢teas reflex- 
ed, obtufe.””—Native of Auftria, and various more fouth- 
erm countries. This is a much more humble plant, with 
numerous {mall yellow fowers. Its flavonr is acrid and 
naufeous. 

F. Affafetids. Wing. Mat. Med. 40. (Affa feetida; 
Kempf. Am. Exot. 535. t, 536). ‘ Leaflets alternately 
finuated, obtufe.’’—Native of Perfia, from whence the 
drug is brought to us. (See Assa-rorTipa.) We know 
nothing of this plant but from Koempfer’s account and fi- 
gure, from whence the above character is taken. 

EF. perfica. Willd. 1413. (Afa foetida; Hope Tr. of 
R. Soc. for 1785. 36. t. 3, 4). “ Leaflets many-cleft, 
acute, decurrent. Primary umbel feflile.”,—The feeds of 
this plant were fent from the mountains of Ghilan in Perfia 
to the Peterfburgh Academy, and two roots were commu- 
micated to Dr. Hope at Edinburgh, from whence Chelfea 
and others gardens have obtained living fpecimeus. The 
leaves do not accord with Kempfer’s figure above quoted, 
and therefore this is fuppofed a diftinét fpecies from the 
Jaft, yielding, neverthelefs, genuine A fia-fcetida, with the 
flavour of which every part is ftrongly impregnated, and 
which exudes in the form of a milky fluid wherever the 
herb is wounded. The /eaves are rather glaucous. Flowers 
deep-yellow. It is perennial and hardy with us. 

The failors in the Levant make ufe of the firu/a to tranf- 
port fire from one iflandto another. This cuftom is of the 
earlieft antiquity, and may ferve to explain a paffage in 
Hefiod (Op. et Die. ].i.v. 52.) who, {peaking of the fire 
ftolen from heaven by Prometheus, fays, that he carried it in 
a ferula, ev xoiaw vxe4nxs, fince the foundation of this fable is 
undoubtedly owing to what Diodorus Siculus (1. 3.) tells us 
of Prometheus, that he, was the inventor of the ftcel, zo 
srvesiov, with which fire is ftruck fromthe flint. In all pro- 
bability, that prince made ufe ofthe pith of the ferula, in- 
ftead of tinder, and taught men to preferve fire in the italk 
of that plant. Its ftalks are ftrong enough to ferve for a 
fupport, but too flight to wound thofe who are beat with 
them. Hence we are told by Diodorus Siculus es Supra) 
that Bacchus, one of the greateft legiflators of antiquity, 
enjoined primitive mortals, when they drank wine, to ufe 
thefe ferula canes, becaufe they frequently broke one an- 
other’s heads with thofe they ufed to wear of another kind. 

Fervuva, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the herba- 
ceous, perennial, flowery kind. ‘The fpecies chiefly culti- 
vated being the common fennel giant (IF. communis) ; 
the glaucous fennel giant (F. glauca); the Tangier fen- 
nel giant (F. Tingitana); and the broad-leaved fennel 
giant (F. ferulago). 

They are all plants which rife to a great height in fuch 
foils as fuit them. 

Method of Culture.—ANl thefe plants are capable of being 
readily propagated by fowing the feeds either in the autum- 
nal or {pring feafon, in drills on beds of light earth, at one 
foot apart, and three inches diftant. As the plants advance 
in growth they muft be kept properly clean from weeds, 
and be well thinned out in order to afford full room for 
their {preading out. : 

They fhould continue in thefe beds for about two years, 
when they may be carefully taken up in the beginning of 


FES 


the autumn, and be planted out where they are to remain, 
They moftly fucceed in the beft manner in the rather moift 
mellow loamy foils. 

They are rather hardy, and well fuited for being planted 
for ornament, in the more extenfive borders and clumps of 
pleafure grounds, where they often contitine for feveral years 
without requiring any other attention than that of being’ 
kept clean from weeds. 

TFeruva, in the Materia Medica. See AsSA-FOETIDA. 

Frrura, a word ufed-by the ancients to exprefs the 
horns growing on the deer or ftag at the age of two years. 

FEeRuLa, among Surgeons, called alfo {plinters, are little 
chips of different matter; as of wood, bark, leather, 
paper, &c. applied to bones that have been disjointed when 
they are fet again. 

The bark of the herb fennel-giant, called by fome, in La- 


tin, ferula, was anciently mach ufed on this occafion ;’ 


whence the name ferula became common to all. 

FERUS, Joun, in Biography, who flourifhed in the 
16th century, was a native of Metz, where he took the 
habit of the Francifcans, and became warden of the order: 
He preached many years with great reputation, and died 
in the year 1554. His great work as an author was 
entitled «* Coinmmentaries”? on almoit all the books of the 
Old and New Teftament. Thefe are characterized by Dupin 
as large and eloquent difcourfes, in which the holy {€riptures 
are faithfully explained. He was a candid as well as learned 
expolitor, fo that his writings have been in high eftimation 
with Proteftants, as well as by the liberal of his own denomi- 
nation. By the bigots he was fiercely attacked and charged 
with Lutheranifm. Ferus.did not live to write his own 
defence, but he met with an able apologift even in Spain, 
viz. Michael Medina, a learned monk, who vindicated the 
explications which he had given by an appeal to the fcrip- 
tures, and the doétrines of the apoltles. The author had 
nearly fuffered for his boldnefs in defence of a friend, and 
the works of ferus were inferted in the “ Index Expurgato- 
rius.”” Like many good and excellent men of all perfuafions 
he denied the lawtulnefs of war, holding it to be repugnant 
to the diftinguifhing principle of Chriltianity, which is 
univerfal benevolence. Moreri. 

FERZAA, in Nataral Hiflory, a name given by the 
Perfians to that gem which we call the turquoile or Turkey~ 
{tone, a blue, opaque, and foft gem. See Turcois. 

FESCAMP, in Geography. See Fecamp. 

FESCENNINE, in dntiguity. Fefceunine verfes were 
a kind of fatirical verfes, full of wanton and obfcene ex- 
preffions, fung or rehearfed by the company, with many 
indecent geftures and dances, at the folemnization of a 


marriage among the Romans, and alfo at the feftival of © 


“© Harvelt-home.”? Hor. ep. i. lib. v. 145. 

The word is borrowed, according to Macrobius, from 
fafcinum, a charm; the people taking fuch fongs to be 
proper to drive away witches, or prevent their effeét ; but 
its more probable origin is from Fefcennium, a city of 
Gaara Shere fuch verfes were firft ufed. 

FESHN, in Geography, a town-of Egypt; 18 miles 
N. of Abu-Girgé. e pH 

FESOLI, or Fresou1, Congregation of. See Jerony- 
MITES. 

FESSE, in Heraldry, one of the nine honourable ordina- 
ries of the efcutcheon, which it divides horizontally in the 
middle, and feparates the chief from the point. It is fup- 
pofed to reprefent a broad girdle or belt of honour, fuch as 
thofe with which knights at arms were anciently girded. 

It poflefles the centre of the efcutcheon, and contains in 

breadth 


: FES 


breadth one third part thereof. Thus, he beareth azure, 
a fefle, or, by the name of Elliot. 

When the fefle takes up lefs than its proper breadth, it is 
called a bar. 

Fesse-point is the exaG centre of the efcutchcon. 

It is thus called, as being the point through which the 
feffe line is drawn from the two fides; and accordingly it 
divides the efcutcheon into two equal parts when the efcut- 
cheon is parted per fefle. 

Fessz-ways, or in Fefe, denotes things borne after 
the manner of a feffe; ic. in a line or range, acrofs the 
middle of the fhield, which the French call en feffe. 

Fesse, party per, implies parted acrofs the middle of 
the fhield, from fide to fide, through the fefie point. 

This the French exprefs by one word, coupé. 

FESSELDORF, in Geography, a town of Germany, 
in the bifhopric of Bamberg; four miles S. W. of Weif- 
mayn. 

FESSIER, in Anatomy, the name given by the French 


to the glutei mufcles, which are diftinguifhed as the grand, 


moyen, and petit. It is derived from feffe, the buttock. 

FESTA, Constantius, in Biography. Befides the 
works of fuch muiicians as may be claffed under the feveral 
{chools of Italy, there are extant many admirable productions 
of amuch higher period than Paleftrina, preferved in the col- 
leétions of the curious, by Italian compofers, the particular 
place of whofe birth or refidence has not been recorded. 
Among thefe, there is one who for his genius and abilities 
well deferves a niche in every hiftory of mufic. This is 
Conftantius Fefta, of whofe compofitions there are feveral 
in the Britifh mufeum. There is likewife a motet of this 
ancient mafler in the fame collection, printed in the fourth 
book of “ Motetti della Corona,”” which was printed fo early 
as 1519, ten years before Paleftrina was born. 

In the third book of Arkadelt’s madrigals, printed at 
Venice, 1541, there are alfo feven compofitions by Coftanzo 
Fefta, in which morerhythm, grace, and facility appear, than 
in any produétion of his cotemporaries, that we have feen. 
Indeed, he feems to have been the moft able contrapuntift of 
Italy during this early period; and if Paleitrina and Con- 
ftantius Porta be excepted, of any period, anterior to that 
of Cariffimi. His motets, for three voices, printed in 1543> 
are in the church ftyle of the times, a model of elegance, 
fimplicity, and pure harmony; the fubjects of imitation 
are as modern, and the parts fing as well, asif it was a pro- 
duétion of the prefent century. We could not refift the 
pleafure of feoring his whole firft book of three-part ma- 
drigals, from the fecond edition printed at Venice, 1559 ; 
for we were aftonifhed as well as delighted to find compeii- 
tions fo much more clear, regular, phrafed, aud unem- 
barrafled than we expected. : 

Fesra in Cappis, in Middle Age writers, grand holi- 
days, in which the whole choir of the cathedrals wore 


caps. 

PESTENBERG, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the 
nae of Oels; 10 miles N. of Oels. N. lat. 51° 21'. 

long. 17° 30'. 

FESTI Diss among the ancients, were feaft-days or 
holidays. , : 

Nites diftinguifhed the days of the year into fe/i, pro- 
fei, and intercifi. The firit were thofe dedicated to the 
eods ; the fecond were thole allowed to men for the manage- 
ment of their own affairs ; the third were fhared between 
the gods and men, 

The fe(ti dies, again, were divided, according to Macro- 
bius, Saturn. caps 16. into /acrifices ; epule, or banquets ; 


FES 
ludi, or games, and ferie ; and the profz/ii into fafli, comi- 


tiales, comprehendini, /lati, preliares 

FESTING, Micuary Cuaistian, in Biography, an 
eminent mufician, whofe inftrument was the violin, and 
who, during many years, was the leader and principal con- 
ductor of almoft every mufical eftablifhment in London. 

This performer, with a feeble hand, little genius for 
compofition, and not a deep contrapuntift, ‘by good fenfe, 
probity, prudent condué, and a gentleman-like behaviour, 
acquired a weight and influence in his profefficn, at which 
hardly any mufician of his clafs ever arrived. He led during 
raany years at the opera, at Ranelagh, at the concert at 
Hickford’s room, at the Swan and Caftle concerts in the 
city, and often at Handel’s oratorios. Nor was there a 
benefit concert for any Englifh profeffor at that time with- 
out a folo on the violin by Mr. M.C. Fefting ; and yet 
there is not a ripieno player on the violin at the opera now, 
whofe hard and abilities are not fuperior to thofe of Felling 
upon that inftrument. Learn hence, ye young profeffors, 
that fomething elfe is neceffary, befides mufical talents, to 
carry you reputably and comfortably through the world! 

Prstinc-Men. See FasTERMAN3. 

Festinc-Penny, in Rural L£conomy, a term provincially 
applied to the earneft given to fervants when hired at fairs, 
or other places. . 

FESTINO, in Lagic, one of the moods of the fecond 
figure of fyHogifms. ; 

In a-fyllogifm in feftino, the firft propofition is an uni- 
verfal negative; the fecond, a particular affirmative; and 
the third a particular negative. 

FESTIVAL. See Feast and Festum. 

FESTNERSGREATH, in Geography, a town’ of 
Germany, in the bifhopric of Bamberg ; 16 miles S. S. W. 
of Bamberg. 

FESTOON, in a General Senfe. See Garvanp. 

Festoon, in Archite@ure aud Sculpture, is a decoration 
in form of a garland or clufter of flowers. 

The word is French, feffon, which fignifies a garland, 
formed of the Latin, falum, fea/?. 

It confills of a itring or collar of flowers, fruits, and 
leaves, tied together, fomewhat biggett in the middle, and 
fufpended by the two extremes; from which, befide the 
main part which falls down in an arch, two leffer parts hang 
perpendicularly. 

This ornament is made in imitation of the feftoons or 
long clufters of flowers, hung by the ancients on the doors 
of their temples, &c. on feltival occafions. 

Fefloons are now chiefly ufed in friezes, tablets, and 
other vacant places, required to be filled up and adorned 
They are fometimes ufed over or under a niche. 

FESTUCA, in Botany, a Latin word expreflive of the 
fhoot of an herb or tree, adopted by Dillenius, in his Nov. 
Pl. Gen. go. t. 3, fora genus of grafles. ‘The Fefluca of 
Dillenius however, comprehended under the Bromus of 
Linneus, is diftin& from the genus here intended.—Fefcue- 
graiss—Linn. Gen. 36. Schreb. 50. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 
418. Juff. 32. Lamarck, Iluftr. Gen. t. 46. Sm. Fi. Brit 
113. Leers. t. 8. Clafs and order, Zriandria Digynia. 
Nat. Ord. Gramina. 

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume of two valves, ere&, containing 
many florets, in a flender, roundifh, two-ranked {pikelet ; 
its valves awl-fhaped, pointed, the lower one fmalleft 
Cor. of two valves; the lower one largeit, of the form of 
the calyx but larger, fomewhat cylindrical, pointed, awned. 
“*‘ Nectary either of two ovato-lanceolate, acute leaflets, 
gibbous at their bafe ; or of one rather concave, horiz 
notched leaf.”? Schreber. Stam. Filaments three, cap 


EES 


fhorter than the corolla; anthers oblong. i/?. Germen 
turbinate ; ftyles two, fhort, refiexed; ftigmas downy. 
Peric. none, except the corolla’ clofely enfolding, and 
united to, the feed, not burfting. Szed one, oblong, flender, 
very fharp at each end, marked with a longitudinal fur- 
row. 

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves. Spikelet oblong, fome- 
what cylindrical, two-ranked, with fharp-pointed glumes. 

A rather large genus, of flender, narrow-leaved, rigid 
graffes, of a glaucous or greyifh-green hue, whofe {pecies 
are often very difficult to define. Some diverfity of opinion 
has exifted among botanifts refpeCting the generic diftinétion 
between Fefuca and Bromus. (See Bromus.) The termi- 
nal awn of the former is generally conftant, to which 
Dr. Smith has added the fmoothnefs, or at leaft only fine 
pubefcence, of the edge of the inner valve of the corolla ; 
confidering the moft important mark of Bromus to confilt 
in the ftrong briftly fringe of the fame part. With this 
laft charaéter will always be found the proper habit, colour 
and proportion of the latter genus, whether the awn be 
accurately terminal or no. 

_Willdenow has 26 fpecies of Fe/uca, but many more are 
now known. Of thefe 26, 15 have the panicle pointing to 
one fide; the reft have an equally {fpreading panicle. 

The Flora Britannica defcribes 12 {pecies, to which two 
have fince been added in Lgl. Bot. viz. I’. cefia, t. 19175 
a glaucous kind found on barren open heaths in Surrey and 
Suffolk ; and /, triflora, t. 1918, found by Mr. Crowe at 
Saham, Norfolk, and fince by the Rev. Mr. Holme, F.L.S. 
at Hinton, Cambridgefhire, and by Mr. G. Don in Scot- 
Jand. This is Bromus trifforus of Linneus, very near 
F. gigantea, t. 1820, and like that, approaching too much 
to the habit of a Bromus, but both of them have the two 
moftt effential characters of Fe/fuca. 

F. ovina, Engl. Bot. t. 585, common in dry open 
ground, has been much celebrated by Stillingfleet as good 
for fheep ; but fame late obfervations have difcredited this 
opinion, it being doubtful whether thofe animals eat it, 
though it grows where they feed. From this F. vivipara, 
t. 1355, was firft feparated, as a f{pecies, in Fl. Brit. it 
having before been thought a variety, caufed by its moift 
alpine place of growth. But its glumes are very differently 
fhaped from thofe of ovina. There is more doubt whether 
amethyflina be veally diflin& from ovina,.and alfo whether 
rubra, t. 2056, and all its acknowledged varieties, be 
{pecifically different from duriufcula, t.470, and dumetorum 
of Lianzus and Willdenow. On all thefe fubjeéts experi- 
ments and repeated obfervations are wanting. Soil and 
fituation caufe great differences in the extent of the creep- 
ing roots, and the downinefs, as well as fize, of various 
parts. Some of our Britifh {pecies are trifling worthlefs 
annuals, as bromoides, Engl. Bot. t. 1411, myurus, t. 1412, 
and uniglumis, t.143>, the latter remarkable for having 
fcarcely more than one valve to the calyx, the other being, 
as it were, abortive. Others are valuable perennial meadow 
grafles, nag eee t. 1592, and c/atior, t. 1593. 

OF the foreign fpecies, F. pumila of Villars and Willde- 
nuw, much better named varia by Jacquin, has an elegantly 
party-coloured panicle, and is frequent in Switzerland, and 
other alpine coantries in the fouthern parts of Europe. 
F. fpadicea is famous in botanic flory as being the long- 
dubious Anthoxanthum paenainn of Linneus, or Nardus 
Jpuria narbonenfis of Bauhin, and the Poa Gerardi of 
Allioni. See Tranf. of Binn. Soc. v. 1. 111. t. 10, and y, 2. 
ror. ‘This is a tall handfome perennial grafs, with a denfe 
bronze-coloured panicle, and purple anthers. F. fu/éa, a 
native of the Levant, has long creeping roots, with very 


Fear 


woolly fibres, formed, like rubra, to bind loofe fandy fails. 
Its brownifh panicle approaches in beauty to Poa Lragroflis. 
I’. indicay copied by Willdenow from Retzius, 1s the very 
fame plant as fu/ca. : 

F. fpinefa, Linn. Suppl. 114, a native of the Cape of 
Good Hope and the Canary iflands, is a wonderfully rigid, 
{pinous, widely-creeping {pecies, no doubt formed to grow 
in the moft artd fand. This is referred by Willdenow’ to 
Poa, fee his N’ 41, perhaps vot amifs, but then J. fu/ea 
will go near to-be a Poa alfo, notwith{tanding its awns. 

F. fluitans of Linneus and Willdenow is removed by 
Scopoli and others to Poa. J’. decumbens is alfo made a 
Poa inv F). Brit. but it is more naturally perhaps, as Haller 
thought it, a Melica. ‘Thus even the above lift in Willde- 
now, imperfect as it is, becomes {till fhorter. 

We know of no genus of graffes, that requires to be more 
ftudied, either in a botanical or economical point of view, 
than Fefluca. ; 

FESTUM, ina General Senfe. See Feasr. 

Fesrum, in our Law Books, is frequently ufed fora 
general court or aflembly, becaufe fach were anciently 
always kept on the great feftivals of the year. 

Thus, in our chronicles, we read, that im fach a year the 
king kept his fe/éum at Winchelter, &c. that is, he kept 
a court there at that time: ** Rex apud Winton. maximum 
fefium & convivium celebravit, tempore Natalis Domini, 
convocatis ibidem principibus & baronibus totius regni.”’ 

FESTUS, Pompeius, in Biography, a well-known 
grammarian, but of what particular age has never been afcer- 
tained. He wrote an abridgment of Verrius Flaccus 
“De Verborum Significatione.”” Scaliger pronounced this 
as one of the moft ufeful works conne&ted with the Latia 
language. It has pafled through many editions ; the one 
by Dacier in ufum Delphini, 1681, is reckoned the beft. 
Moreri. 

To FETCH Way, in Sea Language, is to be fhaken or 
agitated from one fide to another. The terms are ufually ap- 
plied to a matt, bow{prit, &c. when it is not fufficiently 
wedged, being loofe in the partners ; or to any body which 
is moved by the rocking of the ship, for want of being well 
fecured. 

FETCHING the Pump, is the a&t of pouring water 
into the upper part of it, to expel the air which is con- 
tained between the lower box or pilton and the lower end 
of the pump that refls on the fhip’s foor; and accordingly 
to make the water poured into the chamber comnyunicate 
with that in the bottom of the pump-well, fo as to be thrown 
out above by ftrikine with the break er handle. 

FETE, Fr. a feaft, an entertainment of finging and 
dancing, intioduced in an aét of an opera, which always 
interrupts or fufpeiids the ation. (See barxer.) « Thefe 
obtrufive entertainments, fays Rouileau, are only amufing 
in proportion as the opéra itlelf is tirefome. In an intereft- 
ing drama, well conducted, it would be impoffible to bear 
them. We have fometimes thought the fame of the mafque 
in Shakefpeare’s Tempeft, though uot in the feaft of Romee 
nut Juliet, which is analogous and conneéted with the 

ot. 

FETHARD, or Fearuarn, in Geography, a market 
and poft town of the county of Tipperary, Ireland, which 
before the union was reprefented in parliament. It is at pre- 
fent rather ina ftate of decay. Fethard is 76 miles from 
Dublin, and nearly feven north from Clonmell. 

FETT, or Fert: Domenico, in Biography, an hifto- 
rical painter, born at Rome in 1589. He was a difciple of 
Ludovico Cigoli. From Rome he went to Mantua, with 
the cardinal Gonzaga, on whofe acceflion to the dukedom 

6 of 


PE T- 


of Mantua he was declared painter to that court. In the 
works of this painter, whe hardly merited fo high an exalta- 
tion, there isa peculiarity of feeling and expreffien, but 
marked with colouring of a brown or blaekened hue. He 
fppears to bave made his ftudies among the Lazaroni, as 
his charaéters are in general of a low caft, and even his bett 
have their draperies thrown in a common and yulgar man- 
ner. Notwithftanding this, his {mall pi€tures, being exe- 
cuted with great freedom and firmnefs of touch, are much 
admired, which is not a little affifted by their general har- 
mony in the tone of colouring. His works are fcarce, as 
he died when only thirty-five years old at Venice. 
FETICHE, in Modern Hiffory, a name given in Guinea 
to their divinities ; one of whom is fuppofed to prefide over 
every feparate canton or diftri@, one over every family, 
and one over each individual, which he worfhips en that 
day of the week when he happened to be born. On this 
day they are dreffed in white, and,.as an emblem of their 
purity, befmear their bodies and cloaths with a kind of 
white loam or clay. Thofe of the better fafhion, and efpe- 
cially the chiefs of the people, have, befides this birth-day, 
another weekly feftival dedicated to their fetiches, on which 
they killa cock or afheep; which facrifice is confumed by the 
prieits. The word fetiche, in a ftrict fenfe, fignifies whatever 
reprefents their divinities ; this may be a mountain, a tree, 
a large rock, a pecaliar fowl or fifh, with the head’of an ape, 
or any fuch thing, as their fancy fuggelts. "They not only 
believe thefe material fubftances, or fetiches, endowed with 
intelligence, and the power of doing them good or evil, 
but alfo that the prieft or fetichere, being of their council, 
is privy to all that thofe divinities know, and thence ac- 
uainted with the moft fecret thoughts and ations of men, 
The houfhold, or family fetiche, narrowly infpeéts the con- 
duét of every individual in the houfe, and rewards or 
punifhes according to the refpective deferts of each. Their 
~ rewards cenfift in the multiplication of their wives and flaves ; 
and their punifhments in the want of all thefe: but the 
moft terrible of all punifhments is death. At Cape Coait 
there is a public guardian fetiche, the highelt in power and 
dignity. This exalted fetiche is a rock, that projects into 
the fea from the bottom of the cliff on which the cattle is 
built. Lo this rock yearly facrifces are offered by the 
priefts with ridiculous geftures and ftrange invocations, af- 
furing the {peétators that he receives verbal anfwers from 
T'abra, what times and feafons will be propitious ; and for 
this intelligence every fifherman prefents him with an ac- 
knowledgment fuited to his ability. 
Fericnes alfo denotes among the negroes pieces of 
' fophifticated gold, in which is a mixture of one-half or one- 
third part of filver and copper. Thefe fetiches are cut by 
them into {mall bits, to the value of three farthings each, 
which ferve for the current coin of the country. The 
fetiches of artificial and bafe gold are ftrangely fhaped in 
moulds of a black ponderous earth. The negroes have 
alfo fetiches of unalloyed mountain gold, which they keep 
for ornaments, and feldom pafs into trade. \ 
/FETIE, in Geography, a town of the Arabian Irak, 
on the Euphrates ; 50 miles N.W. of Baiflora. 
-FETISLAW, or Krapowo, a town of Servia, on the 
- Danube ; eight miles E. of Orfova. ‘ 
»FETLAR, Firvar, or Theodore’s fle, one of the Shet- 
land iflands, lying two miles E. of Yell, and nine miles in 
- eireuit, confills for the moft part of a rich black loam and 
fome fand, which yields barley, oats, and pafture, It is fe- 
_ parated from Yell by Colgrave found, and has feveral creeks, 
but no fecure harbour. Fetlar and North Yell contain 


FEU 


22” houfes, and 1389 inhabitants. 
long. 1° 6'. 

FET-Locx, in the Manege, a tuft of hair growing be- 
hind the paftern-joint of horfes. 

Hence, the joint where it grows is called the fetlock-joint. 

FETOVA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, 
in Bulgaria; 25 miles S. of Rufzak. 

FETSA, in Modern Hiffory, is a name which the Turks 
give to the written judgments or decifions of the mufti. 
The word in the Turkifh language fignifies /entence, and 
in Arabic, reply, or judgments of a wife man. 

FETTEE, in Geography, one of the branches of the 
Indus. 

FETTERCAIRN, a town of Scotland, in the county of 
Kincardine ; near it is an ancient ruin called Fenellas caftle, 
in which Kenneth III. was murdered; 11 miles N.W. of 
Montrofe. 

FETU, Ferou, or 4futo, akingdom of Africa, bound- 
ed on the weit. by the river Benja, and kingdom of Com- 
mendo ; on the north by the country of Ati; on the ealt 
by Sabu; and by the ocean on the fouth, 

The crown is eleGtive ; and the capital, called alfo Fetz, 
ftands in the inland country. Bofman afligns to this kiug- 
dom :60 miles in length, and nearly as much in breadth : 
he defcribes it as commencing at mount St. Jago, or the 
river See!, and terminating at mount Manfoo, or Montfort. 
It was formerly very powerful; but has been much reduced 
by civil divifions, fo that it is now fubje& to the abfolute 
controul of the king of Commendo. Before thefe contefts 
it was filled with populous villages, and exhibited figns 
of wealth and plenty. Its principal riches confifted of grain, 
cattle, oil, and palm wine; and it was rendered beautiful 
and pleafant by the groves that fhaded all the roads, and 
fheltered paffengers from the rain and fun. It is extremely 
well fituated for European fettlements, on account of the 
neighbouring trading kingdoms and tbe cheapnefs of living. 
The Dutch had a fort at E/mina, which fee. 

FETUS. See Foetus. 

FETWAS, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in 
Bahar; 20 miles S.W. of Patna. 

FEU, Care, a cape on the E. coaft of Majorea. N. 
lat.39° 44’. E. long. 3° 28’. 

Feu de Joie, in the Mititary drt, meaning a falute oc- 
cafioned by fome joyful occurrence, is generally confined to 
three diflin& vollies fired by troops drawn up at open order, 
in which the foldiers elevate the muzzles of their firelocks 
to an angle of about thirty degrees, or more, thereby to pre- 
vent the difcharge from doing injury to thofe ia their front. 

But in large armies this ceremony is condued on a fuit- 
able fcale: the park of artillery firing royal falutes between 
the feveral vollies, for which, in lieu of a word of command, 
fignals are given by beat of drum, or eventually by the dii- 
charges of three cannon ; the firft indicating that the whole 
fhould ‘¢make ready,” the fecond that they fhould “pre- 
fent,”? and the third that they fhould “fire.” The re-load- 
ing is performed by attending to the fufil.man of each corps 
refpectively. 

In fome inflances, the feu de joie is performed by fubiti- 
tuting a ‘“ruoning fire’? from one to the other flank, in 
lieu of firing by volley. This makes the ceremony lait 
much longer, aud proves more {triking, efpecially when the 
field-pieces attached to the feveral battaliens difcbange as it 
comes to their turn, When the force is very confiderable, 
each of the three rounds of ‘ running fire’? may occupy 
from a quarter of an hour up to a full hour, The mutic 
peices performs fome loyal ftrain during the intervals of 

uch protra&ed fires, and the ceremony is always concluded 
br 


N. lat. 60? 58'. Ws 


FEU 


hy ageneral falute, in which the arms are prefented, and 
the colours drooped. 

In fortrefles, the whole of the cannon mounted on the 
works fire one round, at the fame intervals between the dif- 
charges as are ufual in ordinary falutes ; the colours are in- 
variably difplayed on fuch occafions. 

In the navy, a feu de joie confifts in the difcharge of all 
the guns in fucceflion, in the above manner; but if their 
number fhould not amount to twenty-one, that number of 
difcharges is completed by as many repetitions of the firing 
of each gun as may be neceflary. On very joyful occafions 
it is common to * drefs the fhip,”? by hanging out, upon va- 
rious parts of the rigging, all the colours, of whatever nation 
or pattern, foas to make a very motley, but arich and inte- 
refting appéarance. During the difcharzes of cannon, the 
crew man the rigging, and conclude the ceremony by giving 
three cheers. 

FEU-ARDENT, Francis, in Biography, a French 
monk of the Francifean order, noted for the fury of his 
zeal againft Proteftants, and the boldnefs of his feditious 
harangues in fupport of the meafures of the /eague during 
the reigns of Henry III. and IV., was born at Coutances, 
in Lower Normandy, in the year 1541. His name com- 
pletely correfponded with his nature and intemperate zeal ; 
he was a bitter enemy of the Proteftants, and unwearied in 
exciting again{t them the moft cruel perfecutions. Noewith- 
ftanding the madnefs of his temper he was unable to item 
the torrent of liberality then fetting in, and he lived to fee 
his party ruined, and the Proteltants enjoying their religious 
and civil rights and immunities, which were fecured to them 
by the famous edict of Nantes. He died at Bayeux in 
1610, and it is faid fo completely changed, that he was as 
anxious for Chriftian union and brotherly love as he had 
formerly been defirous of lighting up the flames of perfe- 
cution. He was author of Commentaries on feveral books 
of the Old and New, Teftament. He edited fome of the 
works of the fathers, particularly the five books of Irenzus 
again{t herefies. Bayle. Moreri. 

FEUCHTWANG, in Geography, a town of Germa- 
ny, in the principality of Anipach, fituated on the Sulz, 
formerly imperial; 12 miles S.W. of Anfpach. N. lat. 

Sete won reer iz. 

FEUD, Feropum, the fame with fief or fee. See 
Fre. 

Ettates in land were originally at will, and then they were 
called munera ; afterwards they were for life, and then they 
were called deneficia ; and for that reafon the livings of cler- 
gymen are fo called at this day ; and afterwards they were 
made hereditary, when they were called feoda, and in our 
law fee-/imple. 

When Hugh Capet ufurped the kingdom of France, 
about the year 947, to fupport himfelf in fuch ufurpation, 
he granted to the nobility and gentry, that whereas till then 
they generaily enjoyed their honours for life, or at will only, 
they fhould from thenceforth hold them to them and their 
heirs. However, under the reign of Ludovicus Pius, who 
fucceeded his father A. D. 814, grants of hereditary fiefs 
were frequentin France. Muraton obferves, that the word 
feudum, which came to be fubltituted in the place of Lenefi- 
cium, does not occur in any authentic charter previous to the 
eleventh century ; and Dr. Robertfon adds, (Hilt. Ch. V. 
vol. i. p. 269.) that a charter of king Robert of France, A.D. 
1008, is the earlie!t deed in which he has met with the word 
jfeudum. This was imitated by William, called the Conque- 
“yor, upon his acceflion to the crewn of England; for till 

his reign, feuds or fees were not hereditary, but only for 
life, or for fome determinate time. See Fre. 


BEE -U 


Feuds were called by yarious names, according to their 
refpeCtive natures; as feudum antiguum, which defcended 
toafon, &c. from his anceftors; apertum, refulting back 
again to the lord of the fee, where the blood of the lat 
perfon lat feifed in fee-fimple is utterly extin& and gone ; 
honorarium and individuum, a title of nobility, not of a di- 
vifible nature, and defcendible to the eldeft fon in exclufion 
of all the reft ; improprium, an improper or derivative feud ; 
maternum, defcending to the for from the mother; movum, 
one newly acquired by the fon, to which, in ancient times, 
only the defcendants from his body could fucceed, by the 
known maxim of the early feudal conftitutions; novum 
held wt antiquum, defcendible in the fame manner asa feudum 
novum: paternum, defcendible from father to fon ; and pro- 

prium, a proper feud, diftinguifhed from one improper, which 
are the two grand and general divifions. Blackit. Com. 
vol. ii. 

Feup is alfo ufed inour ancient cuftoms for a capital 
quarrel or enmity, not to be fatisfied but with the death of 
theenemy ; and thence ufually called deadly feud. 

Feud, called alfo feida, and faida, in the original Ger- 
man fignifies guerram 3 i.e. bellum, war. Lambert writes 
it feeth, and faith it fignifies capitales inimicitias, or implaca- 
ble hatred. 

In Scotland and the north of England, feud is particular- 
ly ufed for a combination of kindred to revenge the death 
of any of their blood, againft the killer and all his race, or 
any other great esemy. 

FEUDAL, or Feonat, of or belonging to a feud or 
fee. We fay a feudal matter, feudal suri erularreee feudal 
feifure, feudal fyltem, &c. A feudal lord, in default of 
fealty and homage from his vaflal, may feize the fruits of the 
fee. A Neapolitan lawyer, called Caravita, has a Latin 
treatife of the feudal law, intitled “* Prelectiones Feo- 
dales.”’ 

About the year 1170, a compilation of the feudal laws, as 
practifed in Lombardy, was publifhed at Milan, in two 
books, by two fenators and contuls of that city, Gerardus 
Niger, and Obertus de Odo. . In imitation of the *¢ Pan- 
de¢ts,”? they contain the opinions of lawyers, on queitions 
concerning the feudal cuftoms, with fome imperial conftitu- 
tions, relating to feuds. They were long afterwards divided 
into five books by Cujacius, their beft commentator, before 
whofe time they had obtained fo great an authority in many 
countries of Europe, that they were received in courts 
of juttice as parts of the civil law. The learned Craig aferibes 
this authority to imperial conititutions contained in them, 
or by which they were confirmed; but Du Moulia, Gian- 
none, and others fay, that, like the books of Juttinian, they 
acquired by degrees the force of laws, from ufage, from the 
approbation of the people, and from the tacit confent of 
princes, who permitted them to be publicly taught in uni- 
verfities, enriched with commentaries, and cited in tribunals 
for the decifion of caufes. It does not appear that any fuch 
regard was paid to them in England ; though in many points 
our laws were fimilar, as being derived from the fame princi- 
ples, and directed to the fame ends. Yet it is not impro- 
bable that even in the latter times of king Henry II., and, 
fill more in the next century, fome parts of the Englifh 
laws, concerning feudal eftates, may have been regulated 
according to their decifion, by the itatwtes then made, and, 
in the determination of doubtful cafes, by the opinions of the 
judges. 

When once the ufe of fees was thoroughly eftablifhed in 
France, they would needs extend it much farther ; and almott 
all the great officers of the crown thus became feudal ; 
even the courts of juttice were drawn ing in order 


4 vo 


———————— 


ee, V 


Lj 
to which, they were annexed to certain lands or reve- 
nues. ’ 

The defign of thefe infeodations was to render the offices 
hereditary, after the manner of fees, which were now 
become fo; and thus the offices of the grand chamber- 
lain, grand butler, &c. came to be held by hereditary 
right. . 

As the northern nations brought in the ufe of coats of 
arms, by preferving down in their families the armorial 
bearings of their anceftors, fhields, &c.as hereditary marks 
of honour, fo they alfo, according to fome, brought in the 
feudal law, by means of which, arms grew up to farther 
perfe€tion, as is evident by many armorial figures of an- 
cient families, reprefenting the acknowledgments and fer- 
vices they were obliged to perform to their own lords and 
fuperiors. 

Thus, rofes, cinquefoils, fpur-rowels, bow and arrows, 
hunting-horns, fhips, and the like figures, were expref- 
five of the fervices they were bound to do their lord ; and 
hence thefe figures have become common in arm: through- 
out all Europe. For iaftance, the old barons of Arran and 
Lorn were obliged to furnifh their lord with a fhip in time 
of war ; and thence it is that their arms carry fhips or lym- 
pheds to this time. ; 

Teupar Syflem. See Fee. 

FEUDATORY, or Feoparary, a vaffal or perfon 
who holds of a fuperior in fee ; i. e. on condition of yielding 
him fealty and homage, or other fervice. See Pearty, l'rx, 
HomaceE, and Vassau. 


The eleétors, princes, and free cities, of Germany, were 
all feudatories of the emperor. 

FEUDBOTE, a recompence for engaging ina feud or 
action, and for the damages confequent thereon 3 it having 
been the cuftom of ancient times for all the kindred to en- 
gage intheir kinfmen’s quarrels; according to that of T'a- 
citus De Morib. Germanor. « Sufcipere tam isimicitias 
feu patris, feu propinqui, quam amicitias, necefle elt.” 

FEUDIST, a lawyer, or door, learned or much con- 
verfant in feuds or fees. Du-Moulin is reckoneda great 
feudift. 

* FEUDO, in Geography. 

FRVE. See Avreuia. 
» FEVENIST, in Geography, ariver of Carinthia, which 
ruins into the Drave, 6 miles N.W. of Villach. 

PEVER, in Medicine, a term employed to defignate 
various conditions of the body, in which more efpe- 
cially the heat is augmented, the pulfe increafed in velocity, 


See St. GoTWARD. 


and the other funétions more or lefs deranged. 


The word, fever, has always been ufed with great lati- 
tude, as well by medical writers, as by mankind in general ; 
and fearcely two phyficians have agreed in the definition of 
it which they have given. ‘he increafe of the animal 
heat, however, which is commonly both fenfible to the 
touch of others, and diltrefling to the fick, has been the 
fubje& of univerfal obfervation ; whence the denomination 
of the difeafe, in almof all languazes, bears a reference to 
this fymptom. By the Greeks the word pyretos, wugezo:, 
from ve, fire, was the appellation applied to fever; and the 
name ufed Ly the Romans, febris, was deduced from ferdeo, 
or férveo, (fignifying to be sot,) by a tranfpofition of letters 
common in molt languages. From the latter our word is 
derived, probably through the medium of the French. 
That the idea of Acat is predominant in the ufe of the term 
fever is obvious from the popular expreflions which repre- 
fent a perfon much heated, in any way, as in a fever,” 


‘ Vow. XIV. 


a 


and which defignate the cold.and hot ftages, or the rigors 
and heats of intermittents, by the words ‘ ague and fever.’” 
Phyficians, however, include, in the term fever, the while 
of the phenomena. which belong to the difeafe, the cold as 
well as the hot and {weating ftages; that is, the beginning 
as well as the middle and end of the difeafe. 

Fever, in the moft extenfive fignification of the term, is 
the moft general of all the morbid itates to which the hu- 
man conttitution is liable ; for, it is common to both fexes, 
tu every period of life, and to all climates and countries. 
Sydenham affirms, that the various forms of fever conttitute 
two-thirds of the difeafes of mankind; and he has calcu- 
lated, that as large a proportion as eight of nine of s!1 who 
die are cutoff by febrile difeafes ; a proportion which i 
probably not over-rated, if we include in the c 
not only all the forms of intermittent, 
tinued fevers, and the fevers accomp 
the fkin, fuch as {mall-po neaf fearlet fever, &c. 
bat alfo the various local difeafe 1 injuries of the body, 
which are accompanied by fever, fuch as iaflammations of all 
the organs, whether induced by internal caufes or external 
violence. 

In reviewing the numerous forms of fever, however, it is 
evident that, for the practical purpofes of the phyfician, this 
gencral application of the term is too vague and indefinite ; 
{ince the circumftances under which fever occurs are mate- 
tially different in various refpe€ts. The moft obvious dif- 
tinétion, which has induced an univerfal divifion of fevers 


3 E 
remittent, and con- 


ied by eruptions on 


nominated primary, or idiopathic fevers ; the latter _/econdary, 


the idiopathic fevers: in the other clafs of febrile difeafes 


Under the head of idiopathic fevers, thofe febrile dif- 
eafes, which originate froma {pecilic contagion, fuch as 
{mall-pox, meafles, {carlet fever, &c. might with propriety 
be comprehended ; inafmuch as the eruption on the skin, 
which characterizes them, is not the caufe of the fever, but 
appears fubfequent to the occurrence of the fever itfelf 
Neverthelefs, as thefe eruptive fevers differ moft materially 
in their courfe, their phenomena, and their periods, and 
originate froma diftin@ {pecies of contagion, it is ufeful 
to feparate them from the fimple idiopathic fevers. 

This plan has been adopted univerfally by the nofologifts. 
Dr. Cullen has conftituted three orders of his firft clafs of 
difeafes, entitled pyrexia, or febrile difeafes, from the divi- 
fion which we have jut defcribed ; the firit order, compre- 
hending the fimple idiopathic fevers, is entitled ‘ febres,’” 
or fevers; the fecond, including the fymptomatic fevers, is 

r entitled 


entitled the order of “ phlegmafia,”’ or inflammations ; and 
the third, comprifing the eruptive fevers, is denominated the 
erder of “ exanthemata,”’ or efflorefcences. It may be 
added, that this fcientific phyfician has likewife conftituted 
two other orders of febrile difeafes; the fourth confilting of 
*‘ hemorrhagies,”’ from the lungs, uterus, &c,; and the 
fifth, entitled “ profluvia,” or fluxes, containing two dif- 
eafes, catarrh and dyfentery, which depend on a peculiar in- 
flammation of the mucous membranes of the bronchial tubes, 
and of the alimentary canal. See Cullen, Nofol. Method. 

Fever, properly fo called, or idiopathic fever, is the fub- 
ject of the prefent article. It occurs under the form of 
ephem¢ra, intermittent fevers, or agues ; remittent, and con- 
tinued fevers: the laft of which appear under a variety of 
types, in the inftances of the plague, gaol-fever, or typhus, 
low, nervous fever, &c. See the conclufion of this article. 

Notwithftanding the great prevalence of fever in all ages 
and climates, and the univerfal attention which it has excited 
among medical obfervers, from the time of Hippocrates 
downwards, the difeafe ftill remains the fubject of much dif- 
cuffion ; and its effential nature, or the proximate caufe of 
its fymptoms, is ftill a problem in medical fcience. This 
ob{curity will appear the lefs furprifing, however, when we 
confider the almoft endlefs varieties under which fever oc- 
curs: for not only are its modifications fo various, that of 
thofe fevers, which are nominally the fame, fcarcely any two 
inftances accurately refemble each other; but of all the 
fymptoms which conftitute thofe varieties, not one can be 
found which is invariably prefent in every cafe,—not one, 
therefore, which can be confidered as charaGeriftic of the 
difeafe. In the technical phrafeology, we are not ac- 
quainted with any fathognomonic fymptom of fever. Hence, 
although the concourfe of fymptoms, which mark the pre- 
fence of fever, is well known, and eafily recognized by a 
moderate degree of obfervation and experience, and cowe- 
quently capable of being accurately deferibed, yet it is not 
eafy to fiamea definition of fever, which fhould comprehend 
every variety that may occur. 

Boerhaave, the able and learned profeffor of phyfic at 
Leyden, at an early period of the eighteenth century, invef- 
tigated the fubject of fever more rationally than his prede- 
ceffors: he found that ‘Aree fymptoms were generally ob- 
fervable in all feyers ; aad therefore he deemed thefe the 
charaéteriltic fymptoms of fever, in which he has been 
followed by the nofologifts who have fucceeded him. In 
every fever, arifing from internal caufes,”’ he fays, (Aphorifm 
563,) ** there is always a /hivering, a quick pale and heat, 
varying in degree at different times of the fever.’ But of 
thefe three fymptoms, he confiders the fecond, or quick 
pulle, as the efiential or pathognomonic fymptom, and not 
the heat, as was the opinion of the ancients. He obferves 
again, in the 57th aphorifm, ‘* Thele fymptoms, indeed, 
are prefent in every fever, but the quick pul/e alone is prefent 
throughout its whole conrfe, from the beginning to the end, 
and by that only the phyfician judges of the exiftence of 
fever.” It cannot be queitioned, that thefe three fymptoms 
are found in the great majority of inftances of fever, and that 
the quickened pulfe is the moft univerfally obferved, and 
continues during the longeft period of the difeafe. But, on 
the one hand, thefe fymptoms are common to the fympto- 
matic fevers, as well as to the idiopathic ; and, on the other, 
they have each been obferved to be abfent in different in- 
flances, even the quicknefs of pulfe. By thefe three fymp- 
toms Dr. Cullen has characterized the whole clafs of febrile 
difeafes, the idiopathic, the eruptive, and the fymptomatic 
fevers ; in addition to which he has introduced the lefion of 
fome of the functions, efpecially of the mufcular ftrength, 


FEVER. 


which generally accompanies them. His deSnition of the 
clafs Pyrexie is as follows. ‘ Poft horrorem, pulfus free 
quens, calor major, plures fundtiones lef, viribus prefertim 

artuum imminutis.’? Thefe fymptoms, occurring generally’ 
in the order here mentioned, are deduced from a correct 
generalization of the common occurrences in febrile difeafes ; 
but if it can be fhewn that each of them has been occafionally 
abfent, it will bea fufficient proof that none of them can be 
deemed effential to the exiltence of fever. On the contrary, 
it will be equally eafy to prove that ali thefe fymptoms have 
been occafionally prefent, without the occurrence of fever. 

The chillinefs, fhivering, horror, rigor, or horripilatioy 
which is commonly one of the firft fymptoms of idiopathi¢: 
fever and often of fymptomatic fevers, as has been obferved: 
by the beft writers on the fubject, is occafionally abfent ; the 
fever begins at once in the hot ftage, or with fome other 
fymptom, as naufea,, or head-ache, to which the hot ftage 
fucceeds ; and no cold ftage, whether marked by the feelings. 
of the patient, or of a by-ftander, cr by the application ofa 
thermometer, occurs. For this fact we have the authority 
of Celfus: and among modern phyticians Gorter, Burferius, 
Fordyce, and others, have diftin@ly attefted its truth. On 
the other hand, cold, eftimated by the means juft mentioned, 
often takes place, where no fever can be admitted to be pree 
fent, as in hytterical complaints. See Celfus, De Me- 
dicina, lib. iii, cap. 3. where he fays, ‘ alie protinus a 
calore incipiunt, &c.? Gorter. Compend. Med. Traé&. 52, 
§ 3. Burferius, Inftit. Med. Praé&t. vol. i, p. 83. Fare 
dyce, Differt. on Simple Fever, p. 11. 

With refpe& to the quick pulfe, which is deemed by 
Boerhaave, and his commentator, Van Swieten, as the 
eflence of fever, and the only criterion by which the phyfi- 
cian judges of its exiftence, the evidence of its abfence, which 
the records of medicine afford, is very abundant. It might 
feem extraordinary indeed if quicknefs of pulfe were the 
eflential fymptom of fever, that the ancient fathers of phyfic 
fhould have become fo well acquainted with the difeafe, with 
out paying much attention to the {tate of the pulfe. Yet it is 
certain that Hippocrates has feldom mentioned the pulfe, 
and lays little itrefs upon it; and we are informed by Galen, 
that he (Hippocrates) was the firft writer who mentioned 
the pulfe. The pulfe, however, was noticed afterwards by 
Herophilus and Erafiftratus, and particularly mentioned by 
Areteus. In the time of Celfus it was an objeét of confi- 
derable attention with phyficians ; but he exprefsly remarks, 
that in trufing to the pulfe, as a teft of fever, we depend 
ona mott fallacious criterion (fallaciflima res) ; for not only 
external heat, the bath and exercife, but alfo fear, anger, 
and the other paffions and emotions of the mind, even the 
anxiety of the patient on the approach of the phyfician will 
excite and deprefs, and otherwife modify the pulfations. 
** Quas venas autem,” he concludes, ** confpectus medici 
movet, quam facile mille res turbant !??_ De Med. lib. iii. 
cap. 6, 

But not only is the pulfe quickened by heat, exercife, 
ard mental emotions, as ftated by Celfus, and by other caufes, 
when no fever can be faid to exift; but farther, continued 
fever has been obferved to go on even to a fatal termination, 
without any increafed frequency of the pulfe. The frequency 
of the pulfations in health varies according to the age, fex, 
climate, feafon, and to the particular conftitution of indivi- 
duals, It is only about a century fince the pulfations were 
counted, and within that period authors have not agreed as 
to the number whieh conttitutes a febrile pulfe. It is ad- 
mitted that in the adult age of men, the number of pul- 
fations of the heart and arteries is commonly about 73 in a 
minute. (See Purse.) But in particular conftitutions 

2 the 


FEVER, 


the pulfe of health is found regularly at a much higher or 
lower rate: fometimes beating So times or upwards, fome- 
times 50, 69, orlefsina minute. Dr. Fordyce counted the 
-pulfe ‘of an old man in the Charter houfe, whofe natural 
-number did not exceed 26 contractions ina minute, It is 
obvious then that the difputes about the number of pulfa- 
tions which conftitute the febrile ftate are frivolous : for the 
man whofe natural puife was 40 would be ina high fever 
-in other refpeéts when his pulfe reached 60; while the per- 
fon, whofe pulfe in health was at 89, might labour under 
flight febrile indifpofition when his pulle beat nearly 10¢ 
times ina minute. But let us advert to other faéts. Sy- 
denham long ago ftated, that in the firit days of a fever, 
which he calls febris hiemalis, the pulfe continued like that 
of a perion in health, “¢ fanorum pulfui non admodum 
-abfimilis.”” (Traétat. De Hyrope, pottcripto.) Werlhoff 
‘has noticed the fame fact in {mall-pox, and Greding in a 
contagious epidemic fever. (Ludwig. Advers. Med. vol. i. 
p- I. cap. 1. p. 22.) The pulfe has been obferved ta be 
flower than natural, in feveral inftances of malignant fever-, 
by many clinical obfervets, both ancient and modern. Several 
of thefe are particularly referred to by Burferius ( Loe. citat. 
p- 84. et feq.) It may be fufficient to mention Ruffell 
(Nat. Hitt. of Aleppo, p. 23>.), Sauvages (Nofol. Methed, 
tom. iL p. 397.), and De Haen (Rat. Medendi, p. 12. cap. 2. 
p- 52 et 117.) Nay, it fometimes happens, as in a cafe 
recorded by the lait mentioned writer, that the pulfe, which 
was flow during the continuance of the fever, becomes more 
frequent during the ftate of convalefcence and health. he 
pulfe, indeed. has been often obferved to undergo confider- 
able changes in the courfe of fever, when the reft of the 
fymptoms continued unaltered. Dr. Fordyce remarks, that 
he “ has feen, in many inftances, a fever take place, and go 
On as a continued fever, fo that in the middle of the fecond 
week the pulfe has been frequent, from Ico to 11¢, or even 
more ; the tongue covered with a brown fur, and dry ; the 
fin dry; there has been great depreffion of ftrength, 
coftivenefs, violent pain of the forehead, delirium, ftrong 
evening exacerbations with ftupidity of the eyes: in fuch 
-cafes the author has known the pulfations become as few as 
60, 50, or even 45 in a minute, all the other appearances of 
the difeafe remaining the fame, or the fever even increaling 
jn all refpe&s. This {mall number of pulfations, after con- 
‘tinuing for two or three days, has given place to a number 
of pulfations as great as before, fo that if a man had at- 
tended to the other circumilances of the difeafe, and not felt 
the pulfe, he would have had no reafon to fufpeé& that the 
pulfe had been fewer during that time. This the author has 
frequently fhewn to the pupils attending St. Thomas’s hof- 
pital, as it was fhewn to him by Dr. Cullen, fir John 
Pringle, &c. &c.”’ (Loe. cit. page 18.) It may be added, 
that Dr. Home remarks that patients have died of typhus 
under his obfervation in whom the pulfe was not quickened. 
(See his Clinical Experiments.) On the whole, then, it 


cannot be doubted, that Boerhaave maintamed an erroneous’ 


dodtrine, in ftating the quick pulfe to be pathognomonic of 
fever. See alfo the works of Pringle and Lind. 
The increafed Aear is ftill lefs entitled to be deemed an 
ential fymptom of fever, notwithitanding the labours of 
the Galenifts to prove it the proximate of the whole difeafe, 
It is ctirious to obferve the fophifms by which they at- 
tempted to reconcile the doctrine of their matter, with 
‘Rtubborn faéts, that are incompatible with it. Thus Sen- 
nertus affirms, that “ it is not the heat generated in the 
heart, and thence communicated to the rett of the body,”” 
(which is Galen’s hypothefis) that produces or coniti- 
“tutes Fever, but the morbid difpofition whieh the heat .oc- 


cafions, and which is inconfiftent with the proper perform. 
ance of the functions. Hence the heat occafioned by 
paflion, violent exercife, or the bath, is not to be deemed 


fever, unlefs it reaches that degree of inflammation which 


difturbs the funétions.”” (De Febribus, lib. i. cap. I.) 
But the excitement of heat, by the fame caufes which raifes 
the pulfe, according to the obfervation of Celfus, its oc- 
currence in hyfterical and other difeafes, zot febrile, and 
its frequent abfence duriug the whole courfe of fever, for 
which we may ftate the authority of Fordyce, and other 
obfervers, prove that heat is not the effential fymptom of 
fever. ‘ Altera res, cui credimus, calor, zque fallax.’ 
(Celfus, loc. citat.) 

The other fymptoms, alluded to by Dr. Cullen, in bis 
definition of febrile difeafes, namely, ‘¢ the difturbance of 
feveral of the funétions, efpecially .the deprefion of. the 
mufcular ftrength,” although they commonly occur both 
in idiopathic and fymptomatic fevers, are common toa great 
variety of difeafes, aud were not {tated as pathognomonic 
fymptoms. 

As there is no fymptom, then, which, being invariably 
prefent, characterizes the difeafe, called fever, we can only 
ebtain a knowledge of the exiftence and nature of the 
difeafe, from an attention to the concourfe and fucceffion of 
the fymptoms. This attention is extremely important in 
a practical view, not only from the great variety of fevers 
which require an appropriate variety of treatment, but alfo 
from the neceflity of modifying the treatment in different 
ftages of the fame cafe of fever. We fhall, therefore, de 
tail the fymptoms of fever in the order in which they 
ufually .occur, including the whole of thofe which. have 
been feen in various cafes, and leaving the modifications of 
the difeafe to be more particularly noticed under their re- 
{pective appellations. The paroxy{m of an intermittent 
fever is generally pointed out as the moft perfe& example 
of the febrile ftate, both in refpect to the diftin@nefs and 
the regularity of the fymptoms, which charaGterize it. 
This has already been defcribed under the article Acvue. 
When the paroxyfm is lefs fevere, and does not recur, it is 
denominated an Ephemera, (which fee.) There is perhaps 
more of fancy, however, than of found obfervation, in the 
affinity which has been defcribed between the intermittent 
and continued fevers; and efpecially in the affumption of 
the intermittent paroxylm, as the prototype of all febrile 
difeafes ; and in contidering continued fevers, as confitting 
but of a feries of thefe paroxyfms, the fucceeding one com- 
mencing before the termination of its predeceffor, fo that 
no period of intermifion intervenes. Such, however, has 
been the practice of our beft authors; Dr. Cullen, the 
fy tematic, has been followed by Dr. Fordyce, the practical, 
phyfician, in this account of the difeafe. 

Symptoms of Fever—The commencement of fever is ge- 
nerally marked by fome degree of languor, laffitude, and 
general uneafinefs; the patient feels himéelf ill, without 
being able to refer his uneafy feelings to any particular part 
of the body. . There is alfo a liftleffnefs, or a defire fre- 
quently to change tlie pofture, but at the fame time the fenfe 
of wearinefs difpofes the patient to refit this inclination; the 
motions when made are fluggih, and frequent yawning and 
itretching accompany the attempt. The miod is affected 
in a fimilar way; it cannot reft upon any objet; the at- 
tention is not under the command of the will, but wanders 
from one fubjest to another:; and as the ability of exerting 
the muicular powers, or of performing any of the body 
becomes actually diminithed; there is likewife au a@ual 
inability of exerciting the faculties of the mind ; the patient 
caynet think er realon, even upon his ordinary affairs, with 

Rra 


sus 


‘ FEVER. 


his ufnal eafe. Along with thefe fymptoms, but more fre- 
quently after them, he feels a fenfation of cold, commonly 
firft in his back, but afterwards over the whole body ; the 
fame kind of fenfation that he feels when furrounded by a 
colder medium than he is accuftomed to: he wifhes, there- 
fore, to go near a fire, or into the rays of the fun, or to 
put on warmer clothing. At the fame time the face and 
extremities are obferved to be pale, the features fhrink, 
the bulk of every external part is diminifhed, and the ficin 
over the whole body appears conftrifted, as if cold had been 
applied to it. This fenfation of cold varies much more in 
different inftances of incipient fever, than the languor and 
Jaffitude before-mentioned ; in fome cafes it is very flight, 
in others not at all felt or noticed ; whilft in many inftances, 
particularly in the intermittent fevers, it becomes fo great 
as to produce a tremor or fhaking in ail the limbs, with a 
chattering of the teeth, and frequent rigors of the trunk of 
the body. In this ftate, the atual heat of the furface, 
whether meafured by the fenfations of a by-ftander, or a 
thermometer, is confiderably diminifhed ; in the extremities 

““in particular it is many degrees below the ftandard of health. 
(See Burferius, loc. cit.-—Currie, Medical Reports on the 
effets of Water, cold and warm, in Fevers, &c. p. 168, 
2d edit.) Not only on the furface, as is generally imagined, 
put even over the whole fyitem, the heat is probably di- 
minifhed ; the air expired from the lings, feels cool to the 
back of the hand, heldnearthe mouth. Dr. Currie ftates, 
that he has found the heat under the tongue, and at the ax- 
ila, as low as 94, 93, and 92 degrees of Fahrenheit’s ther- 
mometer. (The healthy temperature of the human body, 
it may be obferved, is about 98° of the fame thermometer. ) 
Dr. Fordyce affirms, that 94° was the lowelt degree of 
heat that he had witneffed under the fame circumitances. 
(Firlt Differtation on Fever, page 40.) The fenfations of 
the patient, however, do not always correfpond with the 
actual degree of cold, as meafured by the thermometer, or 
by the fenfations of others; for it has been remarked, efpe- 
cially towards the termination of the cold {tage of the fever, 
that the patient feels himfelf cold, even on thofe parts of 
the body which are {hewn, by the applieation of a thermo- 
meter, to be of the natural heat, or even hotter than they 
ufually are in health. With this ftate of coldnefs, the fen- 
fibility of the body is contiderably diminifhed ; all the fen- 
fations, but efpecially thofe of touch and taite, are lefs ac- 
curate and diftin@ than in the healthy ftate. Dr. Fordyce 
remarks, that, ‘in the attack of feves, fuch a degree of 
infenfibility, with a feel of coldnefs, Ras in many cafes taken 
place, that even hot fubftances have been applied in fuch 
manner as to coagulate, nay. perform the chemical analyfis 
of the part, without any fenfation of heat having arifen in 
the mind of the patient.”? (Loc. cit. p. 49-) The dimi- 
nution of the faculty of fenfation is very various in differ- 
ent inftances of the attack of fever. 

Upon the firft approach of febrile languor the pulfe- is 
not always altered in refpe& to frequency, but it always 
becomes weaker than before; fometimes it is alfo flower 
than in health. fora fhort time. But as the fenfe of cold 
increafes, it becomes fmaller, and gradually more ard more 
frequent, and often irregular. While the contraGtions of 
the heart and arteries are thus feeble, all the fecretions of 
the fyftem are likewife diminifhed. The tongue and mouth 
become dry and clammy, in confequence of the diminifhed 
fupply of faliva and of the mucus of thofe parts; the fkin 

-alfo becomes dry, as well as pale and cold, there being 
little or no matter of perfpiration poured out. The 
changesin the urine are itll. more remarkable ; the impaired 
action of the fecretory veflels of the kidnies is evinced by 


the diminifhed quantity of the urine, at this period of fever, 
as well as by the palenefs of its colour, in confequence of 
its holding lefs of the mucilaginous and faline parts in folu- 
tion than in health, and by the abfence of any cloudinefs or 
depofition when it cools. There is generally alfo a fmaller 
quantity of feculent matter evacuated from the inteflines 
at the commencement of fever, or in other words a degree 
of conttipation, which implies a deficiency of the fluids fe- 
creted from the inner furface of the alimentary canal, as 
well as of the bile and pancreatic liquor, by which the 
feces are rendered more liquid and moveable, and the bow- 
els are ftimulated to aétion. Analogous to thefe changes 
in the fkate of the fecretions are the fudden and confider- 
able detumefcence of fwellings, which may happen to fub- 
fit on the furface of the body, and the drying up, or cef- 
fation of the difcharges from ulcers and wounds, during 
the cold ftage of fever. 

The refpiration alfo fuffers fome change in the attack of fe- 
ver, being often fhort and frequent, and fometimes attended 
with a cough, more particularly in intermittent fevers. There 
is at the fame time a great anxiety, or a fenfe of weight, full- 
nefs, and great uneafinefs in the breaft. This diftrefling 
feeling, which has been thought by fome phyficians a pa- 
thoguomonic fymptom of fever, and hence denominated 
febrile anxiely, 1s totally different from, and independent of, 
the general uneafinefs all over the body, which was before 
mentioned, and often occurs in a very difproportionate de- 
gree. It refembles that anxiety which takes place from 
grief, fear, and other depreffing paffions of the mind, and 
which is alfo accompanied by palenefs, and diminution of 
fize of the veins, which are feen on the furface. The pa- 
tient likewife refpires irregularly, as one under the influence 
of the paffions juft noticed, and frequently fighs deeply, 
as if to free himfelf from the load that opprefles the region 
of the heart. : 

At the beginning of the attack of fever, fometimes as the 
very firft fymptom, but often later, a dul! pain is felt in the 
{mall of the back, which feems to occupy the lumbar ver- 
tebre, but is not accurately referred to any particular point. 
It is very fimilar to the pain which arifes from weaknefs or 
fatigue; but, unlike that, according to Dr. Fordyce, it is 
equally felt in the horizontal, as in the ereét pofture of the 
body. The headsat the fame time is affected with pain, 
which is commonly feated in the forehead over the eyes, 
and feels to the patient as external ; fometimes it likewife 
occupies the back part of the head; and occafioually it is 
felt all round the head. It varies much in degree, but com- 
monly increafes as- the attack proceeds; it is ufually at- 
tended with a fenfe of weight, and is often augmented hy 
light falling upon the eyes. A fimilar pain generally arifes 
all over the body, which the patient often deferibes as feated 
in all his bones, without being able to particularize in what 
part of the body it is felt. Sometimes it is more particularly 
confined to the larger joints; and it is occafionally attended 
with great forenefs, as from over-fatigue. Such forenefs, 
however, is more commonly confined to the fublequent 
periods of the difeafe. , 

From the commencement of the attack of fever th 
natural fanétions are always deranged. The changes in the 
appearance of the tongue are among the firft indications of 
this derangement. Att firft the tongue appears to be thinly 
covered on its upper furface with an extremely vifcid fluid, 
efpecially in the nsiddle and towards the root, the edges and 
point being nearly free from it. The under furface of the 
tongue, below the point, is fearcely ever covered with this 
matter. Sometimes, at the very beginning of the diforder, 
the covering of the tongue is a folid cruft of a whitith 

vi] colour, 


x 


FEVER. 


colour, adhering fo firmly as tg be incapable of being 
feraped off; fometimes it verges towards a brown colour. 
At the approach of the cold ftage of fever the ftomach is 
commonly affected; the appetite for food ceafes, and 
averfion even to the fight or {mell of food often takes place. 
Dr. Fordyce remarks, that he “has known feveral inftances 
where perfons, fitting down to the table with a flrong appe- 
tite, an attack of fever having fuddenly taken place, in lefs 
than two minutes they have been unable to eat any thing, 
and have been feized with perfe@ averfion even to the fmell 
of food.”” (Loc. cit. p.g3.) Sicknefs at the ftomach 
offen comes on at the. firit attack, and this is increafed 
occafionally to fuch a degree as to produce vomiting. 
‘More commonly, however, this does not take place at the 
very commencement ; but the difinclination to food increafes 
gradually tonaufea, then to vomiting, which in fome cafes 
is very fevere, not ouly the contents of the ftomach being 
evacuated, but likewife thofe of the duodenum, and of the 
‘glands, the fecretory duéts of which open into it. Bile, 
therefore, and the pancreatic juice, are thrown up, together 
with the contents of the ftomach, and the other fluids 
fecreted into the ftomach and duodenum. Of thele fluids, 
however, the bile is the moft coafpicuous from its colour, 
tafte, and fmell, and it has, therefore, often been obferved 
by practitioners, while the gaftric and pancreatic, and other 
juices feereted into the duodenum, as they are not very 
confpicuous from their fenfible qualities, have not been 
taken into the account. Combined with the averfion to 
food, and ficknefs, there is generally a confiderable degree 
of thirft. 

' Few other fymptoms, which are obfervable at the com- 
‘mencement of fever, remain to be mentioned. The ftate of 
the countenance is very peculiar and charateriftic, from the 
‘moment of the attack. It not only becomes pallid, or of a 
“dirty hue, in common with the relt of the furface of the 
“body, but it affumes an expreffion of dullnefs or heavinefs, 
‘partly, in confequence of the languid aétion or relaxed con- 
dition of the mufcles of the face, and partly from the 
fame condition of the mufcles of the eye-ba]l, by which its 

, form and moticn are altered, and its ufual brightnefs and 
uicknefs are impaired. The difpofition to fleep is dimi- 
nifhed or loit; or, if it occurs, the repofe is fhort and in- 
“terrupted, and very imperfect, fo that there is much dream- 
fing, during which the ideas that prefent themfelves are 
moftly of an unpleafant kind. 

When the fenfation of cold, and the attendant fymptoms 
have continued for fome time, (the period being very 
various in the different kinds of fever,) the cold becomes 
lefs violent, and is alternated with fiufhes of heat. In the 
more fevere continued fevers, it frequently happens that the 
cold is not permanent for any length of time, but that this 
alternation of chills and heat takes place from the beyinning. 
By degrees the cold goes off entirely, and a heat greater 
than natural is extended, at firtt unequally in different parts, 
but at length gencrally over the whole body; but even 
when it is a far advanced, that the heat, meafured at the 
axilla or under the tongue, is greater than the ftandard of 
health, a flight acceffion of external cold will produce a 

eneral chillinefs. ‘Chere is no regularity in the reftoration 
of the heat to the furface; in fome parts the heat is above 
‘what is natural, while in others tt remains Below this 
ftandard ; aud hence arifes that mixed fenfation of cold and 
“heat, which every one acquainted with fever has experienced, 
in the tranfition from the cold to the hot ftage of the 
‘ aroxy{m. This inequality of the diitribution of the heat 

R lefs in the fimpler forms of fever, and greater in thofe 
‘which are mere complicated and irregular. In general the 


q 


fenfe of cold predominates, even after a morbid heat his 
taken place at the axilla, under the tongue, and in different 
parts of the thorax and abdomen. At length, however, 
the heat of the furface becomes general and uniform, rifing 
to 102°, 103°, 104°, and fometimes 105° of Fahrenheit’s 
thermometer. Different authors indeed {peak of febrile 
heat four or even five degrees higher than this; but fuch 
heat has never occurred under the obfervation of Dr. Fordyc= 
or Dr. Currie, the beft authority on this fubje& ; the writer 
of this article has frequently employed the thermometer, in 
cafes of continued fever, and never obferved a higher tem- 
perature of the body than 104°, in intermittent or con- 
tinued fever, the patients being in cool apartments, with 
very light bed coverings. The fenfation of heat becomes 
at length ftrong and fteady, and the acceffion of external 
air does not produce a return of chillinefs as before; this 
fenfation is moft powerful in the extremities, particularly 
on the palms of the hands and {cles of the feet. 

The increafe of the circulation takes place at the fame 
time as the returning heat, and often in the fame unequal 
manner, being evidently greater in fome particular parts, 
than in others. Thus it frequently happens, that one part 
fhall become red and enlarged, one arm, for inftance, while 
the other is pale and contracted ; the veins of the one being 
full, and the blood flowing in them more rapidly, while 
thofe in the other remain contracted. ‘This fhall continue 
for fome time, when the parts become affected in the oppo- 
fite way ; the arm which was florid and diftended, becoming 
pale aud contracted, and vice verfd. This fhifting, how- 
ever, remains but a fhort time in fimple fever, perhaps not 
above half an hour; in the paroxyfms of intermittents it 
continues longer, and itill longer in the firft attack of con- 
tinued fever. Univerfal rednefs at length takes place; the 
features of the face and other parts of the body recover 
their ufual fize, and become even more turgid; and the 
fuperficial veins evince the greater circulation now going on 
through them by their fullnefs and increafed fize. The 
{kin is relsxed and fmooth, no longer exhibiting the goofe- 
fin appearance, by its contraction round the litéle glands 
and roots of the hair, but it continues for fome time dry. 
The pulfe now becomes fuller and ftronger, and its fre- 
quency continues or is {till farther increafed; in fimple 
fevers, it beats occafionally at the rate of 140 or 150 ftrokes 
in a minute, with a confiderale degree of fullnefs and hard- 
nefs (Fordyce); but in the hot ftage of intermittents, and 
in the heat of continued fevers it is moft commonly from 
92 to 110, at this early period of the difeafe ; fubjeét, how- 
ever, to great variation according to the coniftitution of the 
patient, and the type of the fever. The refpiration, 
though more free than daring the chillinefs, continues {till 
frequent, and accompanied by a fenfe of load and anxiety, 
which the patieut endeavours to remove by occafional 
labouiou’s efforts, and deep fiching. The feeretions. fil 
remain diminifhed ; the fkim is parched, no perfpiration 
breaks forth; the tongue and mouth are alfo dry and 
parched, and the fur on the former becomes thicker, the 
urine, though it becomes higher coloured’ than in the cold 
ftage, remains tranfparent, and depofits no fediment; and 
the bowels are coitive. The thirft is confiderably increafed 
as the heat advances, the naufea and vomiting gradually 
diminith, but the averfion to food is augmented. 

The corporeal ftrength and the mental. powers become 
more oppreiled ; the fenfibility, however, is reftored in ge- 
neral with the returning circulation and warmth of ‘the fur- 
face ; fometimes it becomes even more acute than in the 
healthy ftate, fo that ‘the {kin. is more an irritated, the 
eyes are offended with the light, andthe leait-noife is heard 

§ bviseommas weds eager! 8 A 


FEV ER. 


with pain, and greatly difturbs the feelings of the patient. 
"The attention becomes lefs under the controul of the will, 
and the faculty of recolleétion and the reafoning power are 
exerted with difficulty, and imperfe@ly, fo that fome confu- 
fion.of thought takes place, which often arifes to delirium, 
when the hot ftage is completely formed: occafionally, in- 
deed, a degree of delirium occurs in the beginning of the 
cold {tage, but more frequently in the fubfequent periods of 
the fever. he numerous and diftreffing dreams, which 
conftantly recur in the difturbed and unrefrefhing fleep, 
which takes place. in the firft ftages of fever, may be con- 
fidered as the flighteft degree of delirium. (See the articles 
Devirium, and Dreams, in Pathology.) In the next 
degree the patient, when he awakes, is {ome time before he 
cau attend to the impreflions made on the organs of fenfe : 
he does not know his bed, jis bed-chamber, or his attend- 
ants for a few minutes, but feems to awake as it were a 
fecond time, and becomes periectly fenfible. If the deli- 
rium is ina little greater degree, the ordinary impreffions of 
external objects produce no effect; the ideas, which float in 
the mind rapidly, feem to be excited without train or con- 
nection ; the aflociation being carried en by the internal im- 
preflions alone.. If the attention of the patient, however, 
be ftrongly excited by external impreffion, he is capable of 
diftinguifhing the furrounding objects, and of returntug cor- 
rect_au{fwers to queftions put to him; but that flrong im- 
preflion being withdrawn, he relapfes into his delirious 
dream, \ 
fever, the faculty of diftinguifhing the objeéts_ that fur- 
round him gradually diminifhes ; he begins to exprefs his 
ideas in words, i. ¢, to talk incoherently ; the teas which 
prefent themfelves rapidly, and without apparent connec- 
tion, are generally difagreeable and diftreffing. He is fome- 
times in a church-yard among tombs, fometimes falling from 
a precipice, fometimes purfued by wild beafls, in the midit 
of conflagrations, &c. The delirium inereafing, he be- 
comes completely infenfible to external objeéts. . This is a 
eommon progrefs of the alienation of ce in fever, begin- 
ning on the fecond or third day, or later, and increafing to 
the fourteenth or fifteenth, if the patient furvive fo long ; at 
firtt being only obvious in the night, or during the imperfe&t 
flumbers, or in the waking moments, when external impre{- 
fions are fewer, or almoft entirely excluded ; but afterwards 
continuing night and day without intermiflion. 

With the beginning of the hot ftage, the head-ache is 
commonly increafed, and appears to be diflimilar from that 
which took place inthe cold ttage. ‘The latter pain, Dr. For- 
dyce remarks, always feels to the patient as external ; “ it 
as clearly a pain affecting the integuments of the head, per- 
haps the fkin alone, at moft the pericranium; but the pain 
which arifes in the fecond ftage is felt by the patient inter- 
mally, and gives him the idea that there is fomething diftending 
the head or the brain, fo as to attempt to burt the cranium.” 
{See Firlt Diff. on Fever, pp. 85 aud 228.) In the mean 
‘time the carotid and temporal arteries beat full and {trong, 
the eyes are wather red, and the face is flufhed. Conneéted 
with thefe fymptoms, which obvioufly imply an increafed 
quantity and impetus of the blood carried to the brain, the 
organs of fenfation, while fully capable of conveying impref- 
fions to the mind, neverthelefs produce fometimes erroneous 
impreffions. Thus the patient-can fee, but he miftakes ob- 
_jedts,; he fancies one individual is another, or that a man is 
a poit: and his organs of hearing, which are alfo more 
readily affected, do not convey the fame perceptions, which 
the fame founds would excite in health, The fame thing 
happens with regard to his other fenfes. 

KAR the fymptoms above enumerated increafe from the 


As the delirium increafes, with the advance of the _ 


_{weat, and ulcers again begin to difeharge matter. 


fecond day of fever, The tongue grows more foul, and the 
cruft which forms upon it thicker, until the middle of the 
fecond week. Towards the end of the fecond week this 
cru{t often difappears more or lefs, aud the furface of the 
tongue looks raw when moilt, and when dry has a polithed 
glaze, efpecially about the middle, fome of the cruit remain- 
ing upon the fides towards the edges (Fordyce.) 

Before thefe fymptoms, however, have advanced to the 
degree juit defcribed, and after the general heat has con- 
tinued for an indefinite time, (in the ephemeral and intermit- 
tent fevers a few hours, in continued tevers feveral days,) it 
often happens, that a partial moilture begins ig: appear on 
the fkin, generally on the forehead, which exte gradually 
downwards to the neck and breaft, and at length a free 
{weat takes place from the whole furface of the body. At 
the fame time the fymptoms of the firft flage of the fever 
begin to abate, fometimes one giving way firlt, and fome- 


times another, fo that it cannot be faid which has the prio- 


rity : fometimes the weight aud anxiety about the pracordia 
are firfl obferved to diminifh, fometimes the change of the 
pulfe from hardnefs to foftnefs is the firlt obvious amend- 
ment, and fometimes the relaxation of one or other fet of 
fecretory veffels, &c. Such a change of the fymptoms, 
terminating {peedily in a reftoration of the health, has beea 
called, by a term borrowed from the Greek, a Crifis, (which 
fee,) and the excreted fluids, which are poured torth at the 
time of this change, have hence been denominated critical 
difcharges. ‘The moit ftriking appearances both to the 
patient and by-ftander, is the perlpiration,- which is fre- 
quently carried to the extent of profufe {weating, in inter- 
mittents, and the fimpler forms of fever, but fometimes 
amounts only to gentle moifture. While the fweating 
continues, all the fymptoms of the previous ftages abate : 
the preternatural heat is gradually diminifhed ; the pulfe be- 
comes fofter and lefs frequent ; the breathing is likewife 
frequent, and more free, and is unaccompanied by fighing, 
and the anxiety and heavinefs in the cheit are greatly alle- 
viated ; the head-ache gradually goes off, and the pains of 
the loins and extremities ceafe ; the naufea and vomiting no 
longer diftrefs the patient, who now acquires a relifh for 
light nourifinent ; the thirit is removed ; the mouth and 
tongue become moill, as the falivary and mucous glands pour 
out their fluids, and the tongue becomes gradually =. 
firit upon the edges, afterwaxds in the middle and near the 
root, the cruit, which had formed upon it, coming off in 
{mall flakes, until the whole furface is in its ordinary itate. 
The fecretions of the liver, pancreas, and inteftinal glands 
being reltored, the bowels begin to act, and the evacuation 
from therm comes to its ordinary quantity. _ A loole ttool is 
commonly palfed, at the ead of a paroxy{m of intermittent 
fever; aud fometimes a diarrheea comes on in continued 
fever, and being the mof{t obvious, is then confidered as the 
critical difcharge. The urime generally undergoes fome 
peculiar changes in the crifis of fever: it is not only fecreted 
in larger quantity, but, although bright and tranfparent 
when difcharged, if allowed to yemain for fome time, it is 
obferved to grow turbid, as if containing a quantity of a 
yellowith-red powder, and at length to depofit fakey cryttals 
of adirty red colour, commonly termed a /ateritious {ediment. 
Tumours, which were diminifhed during the cold, and more 
painful in the hot ftage, return to their ufual fize during the 
The 
intellectual funétions are alfo reftored daring the crifis; the 
attention of the patient is no longer abforbed by his uneafy 
feelings, the confution of his head is relieved, and he is not 
harafled by the perpetual recurrence of diftreffing images to 
the mind, efpecially in his flumbers; a difpoiition to calm 

fleep 


FEVER. 


fleep returns ; and the countenance refumes its natural ex- 
preflion, ; 

It was remarked by Hippocrates, and the majorify of the 
ancient phyticians, that thefe crifes occurred more frequently 
on particular days of the fever, which they, therefore, ob- 
ferved with great care, as affording both particular indica- 
tions in practice, and the means of prognollicating the 

henomena of the fubfequent periods of the difeafe. Hence 
they called thefe days Criricat days, (which we have al- 
ready defcribed under that head). Thefe periodical changes, 
happening on particular days, are, however, feldom dil- 
tinétly noticed mn this country ; they feem to occur more 
decidedly in warm climates, where all fevers have a greater 
tendency to aflume the remittent form. Dr. Cullen, who 
believed that even in this country thefe critical days were 
obfervable, though lefs diftin@ly than in hot climates, ex- 
plained their occurrence upon the principle, that continued 
fevers were in fome degree difpofed to take on the types of 
intermittents ; and in this principle he has been followed by 
Dr. Fordyce. (See Cullen, Firfl Lines, § cxix, et fog. 
Fordyce, Third Differt. on Fever, parti. p. 120.) But 
it muft be remarked, that the do€irine of critical days, as 
taught by Hippocrates, was ridiculed by Afclepiades and 
Celfus, who practifed in the fame climate with Hippocrates; 
and in the fame city with Galen: (fee Ce'fus, Loc. cit, 
lib. iti, cap. 4.) and Herophilus altogether denied its truth, 
See Carticat Days. 

In this country, and in cold climates in general, continued 
fevers are feldom terminated by crifis. Some praétitiozers 
have maintained, that a crifis never takes place, whiift others 
have infifted that crifes happen in all continued fevers. Dr. 
Fordyce juftly remarks, that thefe extremes of opinion are 
both inconfiftent with correct obfervation. It is admitted, 
however, that crifes occur much lefs frequently iu this cli- 
mate than in hotter countries; and we think that the phy- 
fician juft mentioned confiderably over-rated the proportion, 
when he fays, that “ not above one-third part of the fevers 
which happen in London are terminated by a crifis.’’ 
suas cit. p. 126,) We believe the proportion to be very 
ar below this ftatement. In the great number of inftances 
of fever, no crifis takes place, but the difeafe terminates in 
a more flow recovery, or in death. 

The fymptoms, before enumerated, increafe gradually 
tothe end of the firlt, or middle of the fecond week ; fome- 
times by the feventh day the fymptoms have attained their 
greateft feverity ; fometimes, too, the fecond week is gone 
through without very fevere fymptoms, and in other cafes 
fymptoms of the greatett diftrefs and danger then occur; 
and there are all gradations between thefe extremes. 

The appearances in the fecond week, when the fever is 
not extremely fevere, are often as follows. The pulfe is 
frequent, beating from 100 to 110, in the evening, and in 
the morning fomewhat lefs; the fkin continues dry and 
hot, in various degrees; the tongue is covered with a 
brownifh fur; the appetite is often totally loft; thirft con- 
tinues, but is often complained of lefs during the fecond 
than during the firlt week ; and the depreflion of itrength 
is confiderable. The fleep is dillurbed and fhort, and the 
delirium is manifefted in the intervals by the incoherence of 
the obfervations of the patient, until he is completely 
roufed.by fome ftrong impreflion on the fenfes. In the 
morning the delirium 1s lefs than in the early part of the 
night, and the fleep fometimes tolerably quiet; even dur- 
ing the day there is confiderable confufion, and occafionally 
much flownefs of intelle&. Hence perhaps the thirft, as 
well as the head-ache, and pains of the back and limbs, is 
lefs complained of, rather than from actual relief or dimi- 


nution of thefe fymptoms. «The eyes havea dull and- con 
fufed appearance, and commonly fome degree of redaets, 
from a number of {mall veffels diftended with blood. Some- 
times a degree of ftupor comes on in the morning, and con- 
tinues till the more ative delirium of the night. If this 
{tate fhould remain, Dr. Fordyce obferves, till about the 
fourteenth day, the evening attacks become by degrees lefsy 
but the {Lupor continues, with deafuefs, and inattention to 
external objects, and thefe appearances remain the very lait 
{ymptoms of the difeafe. 

Very frequently about theend of the fecond week, and often 
fooner, the fymptoms begin gradually to diminifh in feverity, 
The firil appearance of this abatement is not uncommonly 
a cleannefs and healthy look about the edges of the tongue ; 
fometimes, although not very generally, a fweating takes 
place all over the body, and the fkin afterwards continues 
moift ; more commonly the moiiture and foftnefs of the fkin 
appear inalefs marked manner. The delirium abates alto- 
gether in the day, and returns lefs feverely at night ; or if 
the patient be deaf with fome ftupor, thele fymptoms are 
little changed in the twenty-four hours, but remain uatil 
the whole of the difeale has difappeared. he depreffion 
of ftrength goes off, but leaves real weaknefs behind. The 
urine depofits fometimes a copious lateritious fediment for a 
day or two, and afterwards returns to its natural appears 
ance. Sometimes there is a copious lateritious fediment in 
the urine made in the night, and a mucous one in that 
made in the day time. The coftivenefs goes off, and the: 
feces return to their ardinary appearance ; and all the fee 
cretions become gradually increafed, not equally, but fome- 
times one more fpeedily, fometimes another. The eyes, 
unlefs when the delirium has ended in ftupor, begin to have 
a more healthy.appearance, are more compofed aud clearer, 
and exprefs a greater attention to the objeéts around them, 
The fleep returns, but not-equally; the patient fometimes 
palling a quiet, at other times a reftlefs night. The appe- 
tite returns, although feldom regularly ; fometimes it is vo- 
racious, but the patient is notwith{tanding fatisfied with a 
yery {mall quantity of food; in the other cafes it returns 
very flowly. Although the depreffion of ftrength fomes 
times goes off almoft at once, yet it leaves the patient often. 
with a greater feeling of weaknefs. Thus, however, the 
whole difeafe difappears, and the patient recovers his ftrength 
very quickly, : 

But although this favourable termination of fever occurs 
in a large majority of in{tances in this country, itis never= 
thelefs a difeafe frequently fatal, and, under particular cire- 
cumitances, the caufe of great mortality. 

When fever terminates fatally, the fymptoms prefent 
themfelves chiefly under two different afpe€ts, but varioufly 
modified, approaching to each other, or even partially com- 
bined. The individual varieties it is impoflible to depi@ ; a 
knowledge of them can only be attained by perfonal ob« 
fervation of numerous cafes at the bed-fide of the fick. 
One of the forms, juft alluded to, confiits principally of a 
great aggravation of the fymptoms of the hot flage. The 
heat of the {kin continues great and pungent, and its furface 
dry and parched ; the countenance is flufhed, and the eye 
fulfufed with rednefs, and intolerant of light; the head. 
ache is fevere, little or no fleep is obtained, the delirium is 
augmented, and is accompanied with extreme rettleflnefs, 
often with, vociferation, and, even great mufcular itrength, 
fo that the patient is with difficulty confined in bed; and 
the pulfe is frequent, with confiderable harduefs. About 
the end of, the fecond week thefe fymptoms fuddenly 
change; the delirium ends in an indiftin@aefs or confufion 
approaching to itupor, the articulation becomes indiitinct, 

the 


OV ER, 


the breathing laborious, the ftrength finks rapidly, cold 
€weats, and convuliive motions enfue, and the patient is cut 
off in a few hours. Sometimes fymptoms of inflamma- 
tion of the lungs fupervene, and continuing together with 
the delirium, hot fkin, frequent pulfe, and brown tongue, 
the patient dies with fymptoms of fuffocation ; and fome- 
times inflammation of the inteftines, or other important 
organs, being fuperadded to the original fever, accelerates 
and modifies the fatal termination. This has been called in- 
flammatory fever. The other form of the difeafe, above- 
mentioned, is extended more commonly to the third week, 
fometimes later, and the progrefs of the fymptoms is more 
gradual. The depreflion of the mufcular powers continues 
to increafe with the difeafe ; the eyes become funk, dull, 
and liftlefs ; the countenance dejeéted, and of a dufky hue ; 
the deliriumsts-attended with a low muttering, and the pa- 
tient lies without the difpofition or the power of making 
any exertion, or he picks the bed-clothes ; the tongue be- 
comes crufted with a dark brown or black matter, a fimilar 
fordes colle&s upon his teeth and lips; the pulfe is frequent, 
beating from 120 to 130 times ina minute, and is at the fame 
time {mall and feeble ; the refpiration is alfo weak, generally 
frequent, and interrupted with fighing or a dry cough ; 
the voice becomes indiftin& or inarticulate ; and there are 
flight convulfive twitches, or fubfultus tendinum. At 
length the proftration of ftrength becomes extreme ; the 
patient lies on his back, being unable to fupport himfelf in 


any other pofition, and even flides down towards the bot- 


tom of the bed ; he is altogether infenfible to external im- 
preffions ; the fphinGters, as well as the mufcles of volun- 
tary motion are relaxed, and he paffes his Ytools and urine 
imvoluntarily in bed; the pulfe becomes very feeble, tre- 
mulous, and fearcely to be felt at the wrift; partial, clem- 
my f{weats break out; the eyes appear glazed and fixed, 
and the other features fhrink ; the patient is unable to fwal- 


tow; his breathing becomes irregular and laborious, at- 
oS 5 


tended with fome noife in the throat, as the fatal event 
approaches ; the extremities grow cold; and, often after 
fome hours, the fun@tions of life finally ceafe. When fever 
affumes this form it contlitutes zyp4us, or the nervous, ma- 
lignant, &c. fevers of authors. 

There are fome other appearances, which, though not 
the ordinary attendants on fever, occafionally occur, efpe- 
cially when the difeafe is of a fevere kind, and which have 
been confidered as evidence of malignancy, or of putref- 
eence. | Generally in the fecond week of the difeafe, but 
fometimes as early as the fourth or fifth day, (fee fir John 
Pringle’s Obf. on Difeafes of the Army, part iii. chap. 7, 
and Huxham on Fevers, chap. vii. p. 97.) an eruption of 
fpots, not elevating the cuticle, of a red colour, fometimes 
pale, often darker, or even of a livid or purple hue, ap- 
pears on the fkin: thefe f{pots, or pefechie, are thickeft on 
the breait and back, lefs numerous on the legs and arms, and 
are feldom, if ever, feen on the face. ‘They were frit de- 
feribed, among the moderns, by Ingraffia of Naples, af- 
terwards more particularly by Fracaftorius, under the names 
of lenticule, pundicule, or peticule ; whence alfo the fame 
appellations were given to the fevers themfelves. (See Fra- 
eattorius de Morb. Contag. lib. ii cap. 6.) Betechie ap- 
pear in fever, moft frequently in clofe and crowded fituations ; 
formerly they were very frequent attendants on the fevers 
which occurred in the perfons under confinement in clofe 
cells, or crowded apartments in our piifons. Dr. Willan 
has ftated, however, upon the asthority ef the prefent 
furgeon of Newgate, that fince a general attention to ven- 
tilation and cleanlinefs has been adopted, petechié do not 
#ow appear in more than one cafe of fever in thirty in that 


prifon. He has alfo added, from the obfervation of the 
phyfician of the Fever Inftitution, in London, (the writer 
of this article,) that the proportion of cafes, in which pe- 
techie occur in that inftitution, is about one ia forty- 
two. (See Willan on Cutaneous Difeafes, order iii. gen. 
Purpura, p. 468.) Sometimes the purple fpots are of a 
large fize ; in which cafe there are often alfo livid blotches, 
or ftripes like the ftrokes of a whip, vibices, and hxmor- 
rhages break forth from the internal parts, as the bowels, 
lungs, ftomach, and wherever the furface is covered with a 
very thin cuticle, as from the noftrils, the gums and mouth, 
&c. 

A rath of a different fpecies, which Dr. Willan has 
termed rofeola, “a rofe-coloured cfflorefcence, varioufly 
figured, without wheals or papule, and not contagious,” 
(Loe. cit. order ni. gerus 4,) fometimes makes its appear= 
ance in fever, of the. typhous type: fometimes it precedes 
the formation of purple fpots and vibices, and in other 
cafes it is feen early in the fever, but remais only fora 
fhort time without any material confequences. Some other 
cutaneons appearances occafionally occur, as mentioned by 
Huxham, (Loc. cit. p.97,) fuch as miliary puftules, a 
fcabby eruption about the lips and nofe, and aphthe. 

Appearance on Diffedion.— An examination of the bodies 
of thofe who have died of fever, though it has often thrown 
light upon particular fymptoms, efpecially on thofe which 
have occurred late in the difeafe, has neverthelefs failed to 
elucidate the fubject of fever in general. The appearances 
which have been prefented to ‘the view of the diffeétor have 
been fo various, the organs affected fo different in different 
inflances, even when fuch difference could not have been 
anticipated from a knowledge of the fymptoms, that the 
principal general inference which can be deduced from the 
obfervations of the anatomilts may be expreffed in the words 
of Riverius ; (fee his Praxis Medica, lib. xxvit. cap. 2. Ap- 
pendix,) that acute and dangerous fevers © rariflimé fieri 
fine interna et peculiari vifceris cujufdam affeGtione, et plee 
rumque inflammatione; quare nunquam omittenda cura 
hypochondriorum, capitis, thoracis, uteri, renum, et veficz ; 
ut omni ratione inveltigemus, gue harum partium infigniter 
jaboret, et ci, quoad fieri poteft, fubveniatur.”” Some one 
or other of the vilccra are moft commonly difordered, efpeci- 
ally by inflammation, in the courfe of thofe fevers, each of 
which demands our attention refpectively, in condu@ting the 
cure, according to the feverity with which it fuffers. Dr. 
Donald Monro has remarked, that, in fatal fevers, “the 
febrile matter is apt to fall on particular parts, and there te 
create abfceffes ; particularly in the brain, the lungs, and the 
glandular organs.”’ (‘Treatife on Military Hofpitals, vol. i, 
p: 237-) On the whole, it would appear, that the brain is 
the organ which has been found to have fuffered molt by 
the attack of acute idiopathic fever. But we have to ob- 
ferve, with regret, that diffections of bodies, cut off by fever, 
have been often too incompletely examined, to enable us to 
draw any fatisfa€tory comparative conclufions from them. 
Thus even fir John Pringle acknowledges that of the few 
difle€tions made under his infpection, fome were direéted to 
the brain or to the bowels only, all the cavities being examined 
but in a fmail number of cafes. In thofe inftances of fever, 
in which the funétions of the brain were much difordered, 
that organ has exhibited feveral morbid appearances: the 
mott frequent of thefe are a congeftion of blood; the veffels 
of the pia mater, or invefting membrane, being all diftended, 
as if inje&ed ; the brain itfelf, when divided, prefenting a 
number of red points, which pour out blood ; the arachnoid 
coat is not unfrequently at the fame time feparated from the 
pia mater by the interpofition of a gelatinous or feraus fluid ; 

thefe 


n 


FEVER.” , 5 


thefe membranes are both occafionally thickened, their 
tranfparency being partially loft, and they fometimes adhere 
clofely together in particular parts, as well as to the dura 
mater. Occafionally an effufion of ferum is found in the 
ventricles of the brain, Sometimes, though comparatively 
in rare inftances, the inflammation of the brain has been fo 
decided, as to have terminated in fuppuration, or abfcefles 
of the fubftance. Thefe have been chiefly obferved in the 
lobes of the cerebrum, the cerebellum in general being lefs 
liable to difeafe: but two inftances of purulent matter being 
formed in the cerebellum are noticed by fir John Pringle, 
(Loe. cit. part iii. cap. 7.) Even fuppuration of the 
cerebrum is not a common refult of fever in this country. 
Dr. Fordyce fays, that he“ has caufed the heads of many 
patients, who have died with very great delirium in fever, to 
be opened, and never found any marks of fuppuration. 
Molt commonly the brain appeared exaftly as it is com- 
monly found. Sometimes the blood-veffels were diftended 
with blood, but never was any fuppuration found; general- 
Jy no uncommon appearanee at all.”? (Third Dillert. on 
Fever, part i. p. 98.) In the yellow fever, Dr. Jackfon 
ftates, that “* the brain upon diflection appears to be more 
or lefs affe€ted in the majority of fubjeéts who die in the 
acute {tate of the difeafe ; the membranes are then inflamed, 
or-the blood-veffels turgid to an extraordinary degree, give 
an appearance of commencing gangrene rather than of in- 
flammation, properly fo called; water is {ometimes found in 
the ventricles, with evident effufion in the interftices ; but 
this is an effect not general, not even frequent.”” Inthe 
accounts of an epidemic fever, which occurred at Geneva, 
in the year 1805, publifhed by two phyficians, it is ftated by 
both that congettion of blood was often found in the brain, 
but in other cafes the brain was in its natural ftate. And a 
Dr. Eisfield, who publifhed an account of an acute typhus, 
as it prevailed at Leipfic, in 1799, obferves, ‘¢ in very’ many 
careful diffections of the brain (though I only once detected 
an abfcefs, and this was in the right hemifphere, about half 
an inch in diameter) the veffels, particularly thofe in the 
vafcular membranes, almoft always appeared turgid with 
blood. The four ventricles abounded with water, and fome- 
times a good deal of extravafated blood was prefent. The 
cortical fub{ftance was inflamed, foft, and flaccid.’? (See 
Beddoes’ Refearches, Anatomical and Praétical, concerning 
"Fever, as conneéted with Inflammation, p. 48.) The laft- 
mentioned circum{tance does not neceflarily imply inflam- 
mation. It was obferved by Chambon (Obf. Clin. Pract. 
Obf. 29.) that the fubflance of the brain in every part 
is often found harder than natural after malignant fevers. 
‘This, Dr. Clutterbuck remarks, we know to be a common 
effe& of inflammation in other parts. (Inquiry into the Seat 
and Nature of Fever, part i. p. 173.) The writer of this 
article lately witnefled an unufual firmnefs of the brain of a 
patient, dead of petechial fever, at a time when the abdo- 
minal vifcera had already become very putrid. The con- 
geftion in the brain was very confiderable. 
Not only, however, are thefe congeftions and inflammatory 
phenomenaof the brain frequently abfent, but fometimes toge- 
ther with them, and not feldom intheir abfence, fimilar ap- 
pearances are obferved in other vifcera, moreefpeciallyin thofe 
of the abdomen. Dr. D. Monro included other organs with 
the brain in his mention of the morbid changes produced 
by fever: and fir John Pringle remarks, that when contagi- 
ous fever proves fatal, it generally terminates either in the 
aGtual mortification of fome part, or inan abfcefs of the 
brain ; and he adds, that ‘* the inteftines more particularly 
are difpofed to mortify.”’ He likewife quotes the Traite 
dela Pelte, to prove that fome of the vi/rera were always 


Vou. XIV. 


mortified and inflamed, the brain and lungs moft frequently, 
in thofe who died of the plague at Marfeilles. Dr. Lisfield, 
continuing his defcription of the appearances difcoyered by 
the diffeétion of thofe who died of the Leipfic fever, fays, 
‘the lungs were often found deftroyed, inflamed, ulcerated, 
gangrenous, covered with much exuded lymph. The liver 
inflamed (efpecially the concave furface) tender, flaccid, 
full of blood, or pale and bloodlefs. I did meet with inflam- 
mation and gangrene of the uterus, the urinary bladder, the 
proftate and other glands (particularly the mefenteric) of 
the colon, and reétum.”? ‘The pains in the head were 
fometimes fo violent, and the delirium fo furious, as to indi- 
cate inflammation of the encephalon, which however was 
difcovered in the abdomen.’ In three difleétions of perfons 
cut off by an epidemic fever in Normandy, Dr. Moucet 
found the veffels of the brai and its membranes gorged with 
dark blood ; the lungs were alfo difeafed ; all the ramifica- 
tions of the mefenteric arteries full of black coagulated 
blood ; the inteftines in part inflamed, in part putrid and 
gangrenous, in two of the cafes; a prodigious congeftion 
in the fmall curvature of the ftomach and in all the in- 
teftines, efpecially the fmall. Of the fever which raged at 
Leghorn, in the fummer of 1804, Thiebault reports, “ that 
there were few of the vifcera which it did not leave fome- 
times found, fometimes gangrenous, or at leaft with black 
fpots on the furface. This alteration was efpecially feen on 
the concave part of the liver, the inner furface of the ftomach 
and inteftines, often in the right fide of the lungs and 
diaphragm: the abdominal vifcera, and {till more the abdo- 
minal mufcles, were exceffively flabby and tender. The 
cavities of the thorax and abdomén, the pericardium and 
the ventricles of the brain, contained a yellow liquid, often 
foetid,-and of a dark bloody tinge. The {uperticial veffels 
of the vifcera, efpecially thofe of the brain and inteftines, 
appeared dilated, and their extremities filled with a ‘black 
matter. ‘¢ Nothing was found conftant but the gangrenous 
nature of the alterations, and their being move concentrated 
on the ftomach’and inteftines than in the other vifcera.? 
(Recueil, period xxsiii. 12—13.) Palloni (Offervaz. Med. 
Livorno, 1804,) gives a very fimilar account. In his dif- 
feftions, the force of difeale {till more plainly appears 
to have been exerted upon the abdominal aad contiguous 
vifcera. During the fimilar epidemic of 1800, in Spain, 
profeflors Sabater and Ramos found in the abdominal vil- 
cera fanious and purulent effufion with gangrene. It is ex- 
prefsly faid that, in the two other great cavities, the head 
and the thorax, effential changes were feldom found. In 
fome fubjects, however, black gangrenous points appeared 
upon the lungs, and in others upon the brain, “ The altera- 
tions in the abdominal vifcera were the only ones that can be 
confidered as the dire&t end immediate produ& of the dif 
eafe.”’ (Berthe, Precis de la Maladie d’Andaloufie, 1802, 
p- !82—5.) Dr. St. Firth, houfe furgeon to the Philadel- 
phia difpenfary, informs us, in his diflertation on malignant 
fever, (1S04,) that the brain was generally found ina dileafed 
ftate, thementnges being confiderably inflamed, thedura mater 
being fometimes agglutinated to the pia mater, the blood- 
veffels turgid with blood-as if inje&ted, the brain firmer than 
ufual, water frequently in the ventricles, and fometimes 
blood effaufed between the meninges. The ftomach was 
always difeated ; great inflammation obftrvable through. 
out ; erofions of the villous coat frequent ; infammation 
extending to the inteitines; bladder diicafed; liver, {pleea, 
pancreas, kidnies generally found ; Igngs, pericardium, 
and heart inflamed.” We quote thefe obfervations fam 
Dr. Beddoes’ refearches, not having the original works. x 
add, that, im two cafes which we lately inveltigated by 
sf dikeRion, 


PE VE XK. 


diffection, the villous coat of the {mall inteflines was ulce- 
rated in parts, and altogether deftroyed in others; the brain 
at the fame time bore marks of- great congettion in the one 
cafe, and its ventricles were much diftended with ferum in 
the other. 

‘We have dilated upon the fubje& of the morbid ftructure 
oceafioned by fever, (which mult ever be deemed highly im- 
portant,) becaufe it is too much negleéted, partly from.a mif- 
taken fear of contagion from the dead body, which deterred 
even Morgagni from fuch invettigation; and partly from pre- 
conceived hypothefis, which has led te the examination of 
only one cavity of the body, when difeafe might be difco- 
vered in all. 

Ratio fymptomatum, or explanation of the 8S; ymptoms.— 
The firft {ymptoms of every fever obvioufly indicate a dimi- 
nution of the nervous power. Of the nature of this power 
we only know that it originates in the brain, and is com- 
municatéed to every part of the animal frame by the medium 
of the nerves ; and that the a¢tion of thofe parts, their mo- 
tion and fenfibility, depend upon this communication. ‘The 
firft fymptoms of fever, then, indicate that lefs of this 
nervous power is produced and imparted to the organs of 
the fyftem ; or, 10 ufe acommon expreffion on this occafion, 
that there is a torpor or atonic condition of the brain and 
nerves. This is fhewn by the /anguor and Jafitude, con- 
nected with the relaxation of the mufeles. A fimilar con- 
dition is produced by the depreffing paffions, atting through 
the medium of the mind on the nervous power ; wheuce 
the whole body becomes relaxed, as is fhewn by the lengthen- 
ed mufcles of the face, the lofs of ftrength, &c., and if the 
mufcles of the heart are alfo relaxed, fainting is produced. 
The depreffion of flrengih depends upon.the fame caufe ; the 
mufcles being unable to move the body with the ufual force, 
and the powers of the mind being impaired. ‘The mufcular 
erergy and powers of the mind are much conneéted in the 
animal economy; fo that if the body have been fatigued, 
the mind cannot exert its powers of attention, memory, and 
judgment with alacrity, and vice verfd. A ftudent in ma- 
thematics would be unable to trace the fteps of an intri- 
cate problem, after having contended in an athletic game ; 
or, on the other hand, stter having fatigued the mind by 
going through a new ard laborious demonftration, he would 
be unable to exert the powers of his body im a fox chafe. 
We cannot think much, and ufe ftrong exercife at the fame 
moment. Both thefe powers, therefore, feem to depend 
alike on the nervous energy, and the fimultaneous diminution 
of both implies the diminifhed ftate of that energy. Yet 
this is different from ordinary debility, and has therefore 
been diftinguiflied by the terms depreflion of ftrength ; the 
powers of the body not being loft, but only prevented 
from acting by the difeafe ; for if the difeafe ceafes in eight 
or ten hours, (as in the paroxy{m of an intermittent, ) the 
depreflion of ftrength: ceafes likewife, and both the body 
and mind can exert themfelves with a vigour nearly equal 
to that which they pofleffed before the difeafe began, or in 
perfect health. The nervous power is diminifhed, hke the 
action of a fpring, which is overcome by the temporary 
preffure of a weight, that does not de ‘troy its elalticity. 

Another refult of the mufcular relaxation is the feeble 
action of the heart, on which many of the fymptoms depend. 
This is evinced by the feeble, /maif pu//e, by its occafional 
irregularity, and even flownefs, at the onfet of the fever. 
This languor of the circulation, efpecially in the extreme 
veflfels, is the caufe of the palene/s of the /Rin, and the 
fhrinking and diminution of fize in the features, and every 
other external part, as well as of morbid f{wellings. The 
condition of the furface is the fame, to all appearance, as 


is produced by the application of external. cold, which con- 
ftriéts, or rather diminifhes the a¢tion of, she fmall fuper- 
ficial veflels; whence the cutis anférina, or goofe-fkin con- 
traction and roughnefs of the furface takes place. Whence 
alfo the /Sin is dry, at the fame time, as_perfpiration cannot 
be produced from veffels in which the citculation is nearly 
fufpended. It mufl be ebferved, however, that the action 
of the capillary veffels of the fkin is not entirely regulated 
by the ation of the heart and great arteries; for the former 
are fometimes diftended quickly, as in the. blufh of fhame, 
or collapfed, as from external chill, when the pulfe remains 
unchanged. From the fame caufe, (the languor of the cir- 
culation, and the contraéted condition of the extremities of 
the arteries,) the other fecretions are diminifhed. The 
mouth and songue become dry from the {canty fupply of 
faliva ; the pancreatic juice, the bile, the mucousand ferous 
excretions i the alimentary canal being diminifhed, as weil 
as the mufcular aétion of the bowels enfeebled, the faeces 
are not pafled fowards, and co/fivene/s takes place ; the urine 
isnot only fmall in quantity, but of pale colour, from the 
dimiaution of the faline and mucilaginous animal matter, 
which are fecreted by the kidiies in health, and give it its 
peculiar colour. From the fame imperfect circulation the 
difcharges from iffues and ulcers ceafe in the attack of 
fever. 

Until we obtain a more accurate knowledge of the origin 
and nature of animal heat, and of the means by which it is 
maintained at the regular temperature of 973° or 98’, not- 
with{tanding the varieties of the atmofpheric temperature 
in which we live, we {hall not be able to explain fatisfacto- 
rily the changés which the heat of the body undergoes 
during. the different ftages of fever. We knew, however, 
that the variations of the heat are much connected with the 
funGions of refpiration and circulation. In what are called 
cold-blooded animals, the funétion of breathing ts performed 
at long intervals, and is capable of great fufpenfion without 
injury to life ; and general coldnefs takes place in the human 
body, when the paffage of the blood is diverted from the 
lungs, as when the foetal organization of the heart remains 
in afterlife. With the circulation the connection of animal 
heat is fo well known, that, in popular Janguage, rednefs, or 
a florid colour of the fkin, (which arifes from its vefiels 
being diftended with blood,) is almoft fynonytmous with 
heat. Tn all inftances of acute inflammation the fenfe of 
heat is in a great meafure proportionate to the vafcularity 
and rednefs of the part affected. At the onfet of fever, 
then, both the aétual co/d and fenfe of cold are doubtlefs 
the effe&t of diminifhed circulation on the furface, which 
is fomewhat augmented, perhaps, by the imperfect re{pira- 
tion which is then carried on. It is not fo eafy to explain 
fatisfaftorily the fenfation of cold exiting, when to the 
feel of another perfon the heat is natural. This may be at- 
tributed partly, perhaps, to the {tate of torpor in the brain, 
partly to the difordered condition of the fentient extremi- 
ties of the nerves, and partly to the aétual chill, which res 
mains in particular parts, while others have become warm. 

The fenfibility of the organs in general, we have faid, 
is impaired, and the fenfations are occafionally not only 
diminifhed, but depraved. This alfo arifes principally 
from the deficient circulation in the extremities of the arte- 
rial fyftem. Senfibility is greatly dependent upon a fuf. 
ficient circulation of arterial blood to the extremities of the 
nerves, as well as to the brain. T'hofe parts of the body 
through which red blood does not flow are pofleffed of lit- 
tle or no feeling ; fuch are the cuticle, the nails, hair, ten- 
dons, &c. while, on the contrary, parts that are extremel 
vafcular, as the true flkin, are endowed with acute fenfibility. 


Again, 


; 
; 
: 
: 


FEVER. 


Again, the inereafed flow of blood to any part is generally 
attended with increafe of the fenfibility of the part; whence 
the augmented fenfibility, the forenefs and tendernefs of 
parts that are inflamed. Hence, then, we may explain the 
diminifoed and depraved fenfidility ot the fkin, and organs of 
fenfe, in the cold ftagze of fever. Even the torpor of the 
brain itfelf is increafed, and therefore partly to be accounted 
for by the weakened circulation in it, at that period of fever, 
and 1s probably, in many cafes, a fecondary effect. 

To the enfeebled circulation alfo, much of the anxiety, 
and fenfe of load about the region cf the heart, the fighing, 
yawning, and ftretchirg of the limbs, is to be attributed, 
as well as the fhort and di/furbed re/piration. The force of 
the heart being unable to propel the blood to the extremi- 
ties of the arteries on the furface, a greater quantity muft 
be accumulated in the great veflels about the heart and in 
the lungs; whence the load and oppreffion, the labour and 
irregularity of refpiration; whence alfo the fighing and 
yawning, which are a fort. of inftinG@tive aGion, by which 
we dilate the lungs, give a freer paflage to the blood, and 
efore relieve, for atime, the uneafy fenfation. Accord- 
to Dr..Vordyce, indeed, this fa&t has been proved by 

diffection. ‘¢ Im thofe diffections,’’ he fays, “ which have 
been made of patients, who have died in the attack of fim- 
ple fever, the large veins going to the heart, that is, the 
vena cava, both fuperior and inferior, the right auricle of 
the heart, and the pulmonary arteries, have been found dif- 
tended with blood to a much greater degree than they are 
commonly, when death takes place from other caufes.” 
( Virft Diflert. p. 90.) Sometimes a cough attends the cold 
itage of fever, arifing from the irritation of this accumu- 
ated blood in the thorax. 

The /ifilef{ne/s and gereral uneafinefs which are at the fame 
time prefent, are almoft the neceflary confequence of thefe 
morbid conditions of the fenforium, of the circulation, of the 
/breathing, and of the mufcles of all parts. Uneafy feelings 
lead us inftinGtively to feek relief in frequent changes of 

_ potture. Betides thefe uneafy feelings, however, there are 
bead-ache, and pains in the back and the limbs, which have 
been differently explained by different phyficians. Some 
have afcribed the head-ache to the ftate of the brain in the 
cold ftage of fever, but erroneoufly, in the opinion of Dr. 
Fordyce, fince, whether it occupy the forehead over the 
“eyes, or the back part of the head, it is equally external to 
the fenfations of the patient. In like manner, the fpinal 
‘Marrow, as it is improperly called, being a continuation of 
the fubftance of the brain through the tube of the fpine, 
has been confidered as the feat of the pain of the {mall of 
the back which commonly occurs. (See Clutterbuck on 
Fever.)-’ But why it fhould occur only in that part of the 
back, and not along the whole f{pine, it might be difficult 
toexplain: while, on the other hand, if it were an affection 
of the great mufcles of the loins, (and it very much refem- 
bles the pain of weaknefs and fatigue,) it fhould, like this 

ain, be greatly benefited by the horizontal polture; which, 
indeed, we believe to be the fact, notwithftanding the affer- 
tion of Dr. Fordyce... And the occurrence of fimilar dull 

“pains in all the limbs renders it probable that it is chiefty 
-mufcular, and connected with a deficiency of nervous energy, 
‘as in mufcles which have been exhaulted by fatigue. 

The-affection of the ltomach, indicated by the /oft of af- 
petite, fickne/s, thir/t, and foul tongue, tome or all of which 
sare among the fymptoms of the febrile attack, may not be 
fo capable of a fatisfactory explanation, It mult be obierved, 
however, that there are at leat three fources of derange- 
“ment to this organ in the cold ftage of fever; namely, the 
ftate of the mufcular fibres of the itomach and of its fecre- 


. 


tions, which fuffer in common with the other mufcles and 
fecretions of the body; the great fympathy which exiits 
between the ftomach and the brain; and, above all, 


perhaps, the intimate fympathy of the ttomach aud the fkin. 


It feems demonftrable, from the effets of ftimulant and 
tonic’ fubftances in augmenting the appetite for food, and 
the power of digeftion, that a certain vigour of the mufcular 
part of the {tomach is neceflary to, aid co exiftent with, the 
proper exercifeof thefe functions ; and, therefore, that,a re- 
laxation and debility of the fame part mutt be the caufe of 
a diminution of them, Obfervation alfo has taught us, 
that when the mufcles are exhautted by exercife, the itomach 
partakes of the fatigue, and the appetite and digellive 
power are greatly impaired or loft. ‘The influence of a 
morbid condition of the brain on the ftomach, by fympathy, 
is well known to be great, infomuch that fome writers have 
confidered this influence as amply fufficient to account for 
the diforder of the ftomach in fever. Both in infigmmation 
of the brain, andin the cafe of external injuries of the head, 
ficknefs and vomiting are among the moft invariable 
fymptoms. Dr. Clutterbuck remarks, that the ftomach 
not only receives nerves from the great intercoftal nerve, 
bat alfo communicates directly with the brain, by means 
of the eighth pair of nerves, or par vagum. “ Hence.” he 
adds, «it is little to be wondered at, that the functions of 
the ftomach in fever, like thofe of the other organs ot 
fenfe, fhould fuffer a deviation from the natural ftate. In 
this way the uneafy fenfation often felt at the pit of the 
ftomach in fever, the total want of appetite, the loathing 
and difguit commonly experienced even at the fight of food, 
are naturally and eafily accounted for.” _( Loc. cit. p. 74-) 
Dr. Cullen, on the other hand, is difpofed to confider the 
{tate of the fkin as the principal occafion of the affection of 
the ftomach, in confequence of the fympathy between the 
twoorgans. The fympathetic influence of the ftate of the 
fkin in inducing diforder of the ftomach is fupported by a 
curious fa& obferved by Sydenham in the plague. In the 
attack of that difeafe, he remarked, that vomiting oc- 
curred, which prevented both food and medicine from 
remaining onthe ffomach ; and that the means by which he 
was enabled to allay this fymptom, was inducing pertpira- 
tion by the aid of external covering; as foon as the fin 
became moift, the ficknefs diminifhed, and the proper medi- 
cines were then retained. (Sydenham, Oper. fect. ii. cap. 1.3 
We fhall ftate hereafter that the occurrence of the hot 
{tage generally removes the vomiting, that of the {weating 

ftage always. : 
This do@trine is {till farther fupported by a confideration 
of the origin and removal of the ¢hir/?, which occurs at the 
onfet of fever: ‘The fenfation of thirft doubtlefs arifes 
from different caufes, and under different circumitances 
the mere drynefs of the mouth and fauces, from evaporation 
of the moiiture, in confequence of the heated breath, or 
from deficient fecretion, may be attended with that feufa- 
tion; fometimes it feems to be excited by a peculiar condi- 
tion of the ftomach, while the mouth and fances remain 
moilt, as appears from the thirit which arifes from falted 
food in the itomach, or food of difficult digettion, or too 
great in quantity ; or, as Dr. Fordyce faggetls, -it feems 
to be fometimes occationed by a diminifhed proportion of 
water in the blood-veflels, as, in the cafe of diabetes, when 
the kidnies aét with extraordinary rapidity, or after a great 
difcharge of fluids by perfpiration, This author, however, 
confiders the matter as not capable of being determined, 
(fee his Firft Differt. p. 223.) although he is difpoled to 
refer it toa particular affeétion of the ftomach. (ibid. p. 59.) 
This opinion, we think, is fearcely to be queitioned for a 
Siz moment ; 


FEVER. 


‘moment ; fince thirft often occurs in fever, when the tongue 
and fauces are moilt, and generally before any diminution 
of the watery part of the blood has taken place. But 
feveral circumftances conduce to prove an intimate connec~ 
tion between this affe@tion of the ftomach, which ocecafions 
the fenfation ofthirft, and the ftate of the fkin, It has 
been found by feamen, when accidentally deprived of drink, 
(as by lieutenant Bligh, and his men, in_ their miferable 
voyage in the South fea,) that by inmerling the body in 
water, or applying wet clothes to the fin, the thirft has 
been relieved. Dr. Currie relates the cafe of a gentleman, who 
was prevented from taking any fub{tance, folid or fluid, into 
the ftomach, in’confequence of an ob{truétion in the cefopha- 
gus. In the frit days of his abltinence the fenfation of thirft 
was very troublefume; but it abated, and, as hedeelared, was 
always removed by immerfon in the tepid bath. (Med. Re- 
‘ports ‘on Water, &c. p. 2553 2d edit.) The fame author 
has ftated, from numerons experiments, that the thirft, 
which continues in the hot ftaye of fever, is almoft inftan- 
taneoufly removed by the affulion of cold water on the fkin, 
which at the fame time induces perf{piration, and refolves the 
febrile paroxy{m. (See Corp.) On the contrary, the 
{wallowing of cold drink, in the hot ttage of fever, which 
relieves the thirft, is often followed by a relaxation of the 
perfpiratory veffels of the fkin; and, whencold, drink does not 
produce a fenfible increale of perfpiration on the flkin, the 
elief which it affords to the thirft ie momentary only: which 
obvioufly proves the reciprocal fympathy of the organs. 
(Currie, loc. cit. 178.) And this is farther proved, as we 
have already ftated, by the ceffation of thirft when the {weat- 
ing ftage of fever is eftablithed. 

All the fymptoms, then, of the onfet of fevers con- 
Rituting the phenomena of the cold tage, are explicable, 
dire@ily or indireétly, on the fuppofition of a depreffion or 
diminution of the nervous energy, however induced. In 
like manner, the fymptoms of the hot ttage and the fub- 
fequent phenomena, in continued fevers, are referrable to 
an imperfect recoiling, as it were, of the nervous power, 
and more immediately to the increafed action of the heart 
and arteries, and of the capillary veffels. 

The heat, the rednefs of {kin, and flufhed countenance, 
the returning fize of the external parts, the reftoration 
or even increale of the fenfibility of the organs, are all the 
refilt of the diftenfion of the’ extreme veflels by the red 
blood; as the oppolite fymptoms of the cold {tage were the 
confequence of an oppofite condition of the circulation. 
Hence the frequent /orene/s of the body, which cannot bear 
its own preffure without pain; hence intolerance of light in 
the eye, and the quick fenfibility to noife in the ear, both 
of which increafe the head-ache, which is now more acute, and 
deep-feated: hence alfo difeafed parts become more pain- 
ful. The quick, and frong pul/e, implies the greater force 
of the heart, and of the arterial a€tion ; neverthelefs the dry- 
nefs of the fkin, and the continued fuppreffion of the reft of 
the fecretions, evince the continuance of a morbid condition 
(a conftriGtion or {pafm, it has been called) of the extremities 
ef the exhalant and fecretory arteries, by which their func- 
tions are impeded. This condition bears a confiderable 
analogy to the ftate of inflammation, (fee INFLAMMATION,) 
and’ when this ftage of fever, and thefe particular fymptoms 
mre very fevere, the fever has been called inflammatory 
Sever. 

Conneéted with, and in a great meafure the refult of this 
morbid condition of the circulation in the brain, is the 
delirium, which, though it occafionally occurs in the cold 
ftage, is ufually abfent until the hot ftage has been formed. 
At is often accompanied by a throbbing or ftrong beating of 


the carotid and temporal arteries, rednefs of the eyes, and 
fiufhed countenance, which give us reafon to believe that it 
arifes from over-excitement of the brain, by the quantity of 
blood thrown up into it by the increafed action of the heart. 
In this {tate the ideas crowd themfelves, as it were, upon 
the attention of the patient, and change rapidly from fub- . 
ject to fubje& ; he is unable to court the accefs of fleep, 
in confequence of the torrent of images which are prefent- 
edto the mind. The condition of the brain appears to be 
fimilar to that of the whole of the fentient parts; as the 
eye is more acutely fenfible to the impreffion of light, and 
the fin to that of touch; fo the brain or the fenforium is 
more ealily excited tothought, by the impreffions of inter- 
nal irritation, which are exceedingly multiplied in this ftate 
of fever. Hence the inceflant dreaming which diftreffes 
the patient, if he falls into an imperfect fleep; and as the 
internal feelings are all of a painful nature, whether we con- 
fider the anxiety, the head-ache, the pains of the back and 
limbs, or general uneafinefs, &c. the dreaming ideas, which 
are affociated with thofe feelings, are alfo of a pain- 
ful and diftreffing nature. (See Darams,in Pathology.) If 
this increafed aétion of the veffels of the brain continues, a 
degree of preflure is apparently produced by a more per- 
manent diftenfion of them, and a ftupor and deafnefs come 
on. If the patient die in this ftate, a general congeltion of 
the veffels of the brain is found upon difleétion; but the 
mere active delirium, unattended by ftupor and deafnefs, 
may even prove fatal, yet no traces of the morbid condition 
of the veflels of the brain fhall be difcoverable after death. 
(Fordyce, Third Diff. p. i. p. 99. 109.) In thefe cafes, it 
fometimes happens that the delirium ceafes fome hours 
previous to death, although the other fymptoms of fever 
continue. ‘This obvioufly arifes from the finking powers 
of the circulation ; whence the a¢tion of the arteries of the 
head is reduced to fomething approaching to the naturat 
{tate, before it ceafes altogether with death. Delirium is 
occafionally connected, it is fuppofed, with an enfeebled 
action of the veflels of the brain; in which cafe it aflumes 
another form, is not accompanied with any violence, but 
with great feeblenefs, and alow muttering rather than a 
boiiterous noife. It is the delirium mite of authors, (See 
De irium.) We believe, however, that even this low deli- 
rium is commonly the refult of fome degree of congeftion 
of the veffels of the brain, arifing from eee siealicy of 
the arterial ation, although that action may not be violent. 
The /weating, like the dry heat of the fecond ftage, is 
ee in a manner not very well underftood. It was 
uppofed by the older phyfiologifts, as by Albinus, Haller, 
&c. that the {weat, as well as the infenfible perfpiration, is 
a mere exudation of the watery part of the blood through 
the cuticle ; hence it was faid to arife, in fever, from a me- 
chanical relaxation of the extreme arteries, which were fup- 
poled to be fpaf{modically contraéted during the hot ftage. 
But it has been obferved, by later phyfiologifts, that this 
opinion refpecting the nature of the perfpiration is contrary 
to all analogy, and founded only upon experiments made on 
the dead body. The opinion of Dr. Fordyce and Mr. 
Cruickfhanks appears to be the true one: namely, that the 
matter of perfpiration is fecreted from the blood by the ca- 
pillary arteries, and thrown out on the furface by organic 
pores in the cuticle, (however difficult to be difcovered, ) 
“connected with the extremities of thefe arteries; and that 
in this procefs there is not a feparation merely, but a new 
combination, as in fimilar inftances of fecretion, (See Dr. 
Currie, loc. cit. p. 200.) Although, therefore, the oc- 
currence of perfpiration has been confidered as the caufe of 
the ceflation or diminution of the fymptoms of fever, (and 
5 certainly 


PEN E.R. 


certainly no fuch change takes place without fome appear- 
ance of moifture on the fkin,) yet it is probably only one of 
the figns or effects of that ceffation, in common with the 
reftoration of the other fecretions, which are alfo diminifhed 
or fufpended in the attack of fever. This point, however, 
feems to be afcertained, that the procefs of perfpiration is a 
cooling procefs, and the principal means by which the over- 
heating of the body is prevented or removed. The heat of 
fever declines gradually, as the perf{piration goes on; but 
the rapidity with which it declines is varied by the quantity 
of bed-clothes, and the clofenefs with which the body is en- 
veloped. While perfpiration goes on, it is difficult to raife 
the temperature of the body above the natural ftandard, and 
under fuch circumiftances it iscapable of bearing very extra- 
ordinary degrees of heat, as was proved by the experiments 
of fir Charles Blagden, Dr. Fordyce, aad others. Whether 
the refrigerating effect of iweating depends folely on the 
evaporation, or whether an abforption of heat takes place in 
the procefs of the fecretion of perfpirable matter, is not 
certain. 

The turbid urine, throwing down a fediment of a lateriti- 
ous or brick-duft appearance, arifes from the reftoration of 
the fecretion of the kidnies, which now feparate the lithic 
acid, as well as the animal extractive matter, in greater 
quantities than in health ; but the urine contains, at thefe 
times, only a fuper-abundance of thofe fubftances which it 
contains in a ftate of health, there being no new or morbid 
matter produced in it. This change in the urine has been 
Aikewife explained upon the fuppolition of a fpafm, in the 
fecreting afteries in the kidnies, which fuffered only the 
thinner parts to pals, or pale urine, in the firft ftages of 
fever ; but being relaxed in the fweating ftage, the thicker 
parts were allowed to pafs, and thus occafioned the fediment. 
But the kidnies, like the other fecreting organs, are not 
mere fieves, nor are thofe thicker parts exifting in the blood, 
previous to the commencement of the {weating flage ; they 
are then produced by the action of the kidnies. There is, 

_ however, an intimate conneétion of fympathy between the 
action of the perfpiratory veflels of the fkin, and the fecre- 
tion of this over-proportion of lithic acid, and animal mu- 
cilage by the kidnies: for it is geaerally producible at 
pleafure by a dofe of Dover’s powder, or other fudorific 
medicine. 

The fymptoms, which occur in the later periods of fever, 
when it goes on to a fevere or fatal degree, are explicable as 
the effects of anextreme prottration of ftrength. Hence the 
tremors, and flight convulfive motiens, or /ub/ultus, of the 
tendons and muicles ; hence alfo the irregular vifion, with 
the appearances of little bodies flying before the eyes, 
(mu/fce volitantes of authors) or of black {pots upon objects 
looked at, which imply a partial lofs of fenfibility in the 
retina, or nervous membrane of the eye; hence the general 
infenfibility, the difficulty and labour of refpiration, the in- 
voluntary difcharge of ftools and urine, the difficulty of 
{wallowing, &c. 

The regular periods at which the paroxyfms of intermit- 
ting fevers, and the exacerbations of remitting, and even of 
continued fevers, return, require fome notice, although a 
fatisfactory explanation may not be attainable. The fact 
has been generally referred to the influence of heéi/, which 
is produétive of many phenomena in the animal economy. 
(See Hazir.) It is obfervable, that all men, even ina 
dtate of good health, have a fort of feverifh condition in- 
duced in the evening, which goes off in the morning: there 
is fome depreffion of ftrength or debility both of body and 
mind, and the pulfe is quicker than in the morning. In 
proportion as the health 1s more delicate, this fate is more 


evident. It is probable that this diurnal paroxyfm is to be 
attributed to the efie& of the irritations of the day, which 
are fufpended during the night; and this diurnal habit 
might be fufficient to account for the ufual evening exacer- 
bation of continued fever. A fimilar diurnal habit is like- 
wife obfervable in many of our ations and funétions ; as in 
thé returns of fleep and waking, and of our appetites and 
excretions, which, if prevented from takiny place, or being 
gratified at the accultomed period, are apt to ceafe or be- 
come lefs urgent. This is often remarked with refpect to 
the defire of fleep, to hunger, and to evacuation of the 
bowels. Thefe faéts might afford an analogical explanation 
of the periodical returns of intermittent fevers, if they were 
all quotidian ; but they afford us little affiftance in account- 
ing for the return of the paroxy{m of thofe fevers at the end 
of forty-eight hours, in the cafe of tertian, or of feventy-two 
hours, in-the cafe of quartan fevers. But it is remarked by. 
Dr. Cullen, that even thofe diftant paroxy{ms are in fome 
degree connected with the diurnal revolution, as the times 
of their acceffion are generally fixed to one time of the day; 
fo that quotidians.come on in the morfing, tertians at noon, 
and quartans in the afternoon. (Firft Lines, § lvi.) Some 
writers have attributed all thefe periods to the habit, but as 
the fecond and third paroxyfms of a tertian occur as regu- 
larly, often more fo, at the end of forty-eight hours, than 
the feventh and eighth, habit could not be the caufe of the 
return in the former imftances, whatever might be fup- 
poted with refpeé to the latter. On the whole, we can 
only conclude that a difpofition to thefe periodical 
changes is a general fact in the animal economy. See 
Periops of Difeafe; allo CATENATION. ; 

General Prognofis in Fevers—In continued fevers the 
event cannot be prognofticated with any approach to cer- 
tainty. The difeafe is in its nature of a dangerous tendency; 
and although there fhall be no unfavourable fymptom for 
the firft feven or eight days, yet the fever may afterwards 
affume a dangerous character, and terminate fatally : while, 
on the other hand, recoveries occafionally take place, whea 
the feverity of the fymptoms feemed to preclude all hope. 
A large proportion of the cafes of fever, however, if pro- 
perly treated, terminate favourably. Under the various 
forms which fever puts on, we can arrive at a correct notion 
of the probable termination of each particular initance, by 
taking a comprehentive view, of the living machine; by 
eitimating the relative importance of the feveral organs and 
their fun&tions, in the maintenance of life; and, therefore, 
by obferving accurately the. number of thefe, which are 
affeGted by the difeafe, and the degree in which they are 
deranged ; and we mutt farther takeintothe confideration the 
{pecies or type of the fever, its general tendency, as well as 


the particular tendency of the prevailing epidemic; and 


likewife the peculiar circumftances of the patient, in refpe& 
to age, conititution, previous habit of body, mode of life, 
&e. 

The prognofis of a favourable termination is deduced 
principally “ad the lefler degree of violence in the fymptoms 
in general, or the fmaller number of thofe which are fevere ; 
and likewife from feveral changes in the courfe of the difeafe, 
which experience has afcertained to be falutary. 

Favourable Symptoms.—If the fenforium continues un- 
affected until the middle of the fecond week, and a delirium 
moderate in degree fhould then come on, it is not unfavour- 
able ; it implies a moderate affeGtion of the brain. Deaf- 
nefs is moit commonly a favourable fymptom in this 
country; it implies, indeed, a morbid condition of the 
brain, but one which experience has proved to be free 


from the danger which attends the eppolite condition. A 
Aeepy 


REENVVER: 


fleepy or dozing flate, from which the patient is ‘eafily 
waked, at the fame time taking his food, and difcharging 
his {tools and urine properly, is commonly favourable. A 
fpontaneous, thin, warm fweat, efpecially after the firft 
week, or about the fourteenth day, is genevaily favourable ; 
as is likewife a gentle bilious diarrhoea, about the fame pe- 
riod, if connected with foftnefs of the pulfe ; it generaily 
relieves the head. A copious difcharge of turbid urine 
about the fame period, although not a common occurrence, 
is generally critical; the turbid appearance of the urine 
fometimes anticipated the favourable changes in the other 
fymptoms of fever. If the tongue, after being dry and 
parched, becomes moiit and clean about the edges, it 1s a 
favourable fymptom, and it often appears like the laft men- 
tioned fymptom, for fome time before the other changes 
take place; it implies a reftoration of the fecretions, and 
therefore a refolution in the fever: it may be confidered 
alfo as a fign of falutary change in the organs of digeftion. 
‘The {tate of the pulfe, we have already obferved, is an un- 
certain index ; but it may be obferved in general, that when 
the pulfe does not rife to above 100 or 110, it may be con- 
fidered as favourable. When the countenance has a na- 
‘tural appearance, the eyes are not dim or heavy, the patient 
lies in a natural pofture, (fee Decusrrus,) the breathing 
is eafy, the voice natural, and the appetite returns, all thefe 
mutt be deemed favourable fymptoms, as they indicate that 
there is no failure of the vital powers. When the pulfe is 
obferved to rife in ftrength, in the latter periods of the 
difeafe, with an abatement of the {tupor, tremor, and other 
‘affeGtion of the nervous fy{tem, it is favourable, implying 
that the morbid condition is not fo fevere as to refift the 
influence of medicines. 

In intermittent fevers the previous occurrence of but a 
Amall number of paroxyfms is favourable ; for the fhorter 
the duration of the difeafe, the more eafily it is cured. 
The poftponing of the paroxy{m, or its occurrence later 
than the regular hour, is a favourable circumftance ; as is 
falfo that gradual change of the whole train of fymptoms, 
until the fit at length becomes incomplete, either in refpect 
to the cold, hot, or {weating ftlage. The more complete 
the crifis and the interval between the paroxyfms, the more 
effeQual the medicines given. 

Unfavourable Symptoms. —The degree of danger, which 
is to be anticipated in fevere fevers, is principally indicated 
“by the two following circumftances ; viz. by exceflive ac- 
tion or excitement ; and by exceffive debility, or failure of 
the vis vite, or nervous power. The firft of thefe conditions, 
generally, is obferved chiefly in thofe fevers which have 
been called ardent, or inflammatory; but, partially, that 
is, in individual organs, it isnot uncommon in all forms of 
fever. ‘The fecond, or exceffive failure of the vital powers, 
is peculiar to fevers of the low nervous ortyphous kind. 

The fymptoms of exceffive a€tion of the vafcular fyitem, 
which are neceflarily unfavourable, (for the powers of life 
may be exhaufted by fuch a@tion,) area ftrong, hard, and 
frequent pulfe; an intenfe heat on the furface; a quick 
refpiration ; a dry and parched tongue, without much fur, 
or that of a light colour; a violent delirium, efpecially 
when commencing early; a ringing or other noife in the 
ears; intolerance of light, with a confiderable reduefs of 
‘the eyes; intenfe thirft; conftant watchfulnefs, and reftlefs- 
nefs, with acute head-ache, or violent pain in the ear, and 
much throbbing of the temporal and carotid arteries. 


‘Thefe laft-mentioned fymptoms. imply a violent action of ' 


the veffels in the brain, approaching to inflammation, with 
~a long continuance of which the exiftence of the fafety of 


that organ, or of life itfelf, is incompatible, Tf any other» 


of the large or important vifcera are attacked with inflam- 
mation, as the Jungs, liver, inte/lines, &c., the danger is 
hkewife confiderable. The fymptoms, which denote the 
occurrence of fuch inflammation, will be found deferibed 
under the. proper heads. See Pyeumonia, Hepatitis, 
Enteritis, &c. : 

T’he fymptoms of a failure of the vital powers, however, 
which are more common in the fevers of this country, are 
lefs under the controul of medicines, and therefore more 
dangerous; and more efpecially when conjoined with a 
congeltion, or low degree of inflammation, in any of the 
Important vifcera. We fhall note thefe fymptoms of failure 
of the wis vite, as they are connected with, and exhibited 
by, the difordered flate of the funétions of the leading 
organs. It hes been ftated, under a former article, that 
death is always occafioned by an interruption of the func- 
tions of the brain, of the heart, or of the lungs (fee 
Deatnu) ; and accordingly the fymptoms which occur in 
the functions of the fenforium, and in the circulation, and 
refpiration, in fevers, are thofe which mark the greatelt de- 
gree of danger. 

The defect of energy in the fenforial fun&tions is indicated 
by the extreme mufcular debility, or prottration of ftrength, 
in the’ latter periods of Mees Thus, if the pa- 
tient is unable to fupport himfelf on either fide in bed, but 
lies conftantly on his back, and even flides to the foot of 
the bed, a dangerous debility is indicated. Tremors of the 
hands, (as wellas of the tongue, when protruded,) and of 
other parts, which with a flight increafe pafs to fubfultus 
or ttarting of the tendons, and thefe again into ‘convulfions, 
are bad fymptoms, as they imply an imperfe& and irregular 
diftribution of the nervous influence from the brain. fter 
the tremors and fubfultus tendinum patients frequently re- 
cover; but rarely, if ever, when convulfions fupervene. 
Sir John Pringle remarked, that a tremor of the hands in 
the beginning of fever was one of the moft conftant figns 
of that fever being of atyphous nature. (Loe. cit. part iii. 
chap. 7. § 2.) When the diaphragm is affeéted {pafmodi- 
cally, giving rife to hiccup, it is a fatal fymptom; as is 
likewife the relaxation of the fphin&ter mufcles of the blad- 
der and the ftraight gut, (or reétum, ) which allows the urine 
and the ftools to pafs involuntarily, and which marks an 
extreme degree of debility. And when the mufeles of the 
gullet, and thofe of refpiration, become fo far enfeebled, that 
the a& of deglutition becomes difficult or impra€ticable, 
and the breathing is fhort and very Jaborious, death is ge- 
nerally to be confidered as near at hand. ‘The foaming at 
the mouth, and the rattling noife in the throat, which is 
called by nurfes the dead-rattles, are the ftill*more imme- 
diate precurfors of death; and are oecafioned by air of 
refpiration paffing through the mucus and faliva, collected 
in the mouth and throat from total inability of {wallowing 
it. Other unfavourable fymptoms, indicating the deficiency 
of the nervous power, are found in the different degrees of 
{tupor and delirium, which are more indicative of danger, 
in proportion as they appear earlier in the difeafe; but 
which often occur, neverthelefs, to a very confiderable ex- 
tent, in cafes which terminate well: fo that we mutt take the 
other fymptoms into confideration before we decide upon 
the'danger of 'thefe. Dr. Fordyce has ftated, that * al- 
though the patient fhould be infenfible to all external objects; 
though he fhould fleep very little, or fcarcely at all; yet, 


if the‘deglutition and refpiration fhould remain unimpeded, 


the patient is not to be defpaired of ; it happens moft com- 
monl¥that he recovers. But if he refpires with great dif- 
ficulty or hardly at aH, or if the deglutition be almoft to- 
tally prevented; or if attempting it throws the patient into 

couvulfive 


IEW ER 


convulfive contractions, he rarely recovers.’? (Third Differt. 
on Fever, part i. p. 111.) Neverthelefs, he juftly eftimated 
the unufual continuance or increafe of delirium as a danger- 
vous fymptom; for, “on the other hand,’? he adds, “ if 
the other febrile appearances do not keep pace with the de- 
liriam ; though the pulfe fhould become more flow and lefs 
obitruéted ; though the tongue fhould become cleaner and 
moifter ; though the colour of the fkin fhould become more 
natural, the fecretory veflelsmore relaxed ; if, however, the de- 
lirium fhould {till continue, without itupor ordeafnefs, and the 
other marks which have been pointed out as accompanying 
fulnets. of the veflels of ‘the brain; in fuch cafe, notwith- 
ftanding the pratitioner and by-{tander are flattered, the 
patient is frequeatly cut off.”” (Lbid.) The more aétive de- 
lirium is often accompanied with an inflammatory condition 
of the brain, even in fevers arifing from contagion, in which 
the other organs evince a defeét of power, and the reit of 
the fymptoms are alfo indicative of great debility : this 
combination of a local inflammatory action with general 
defe&t of power, whether it be confidered as implying an 
inequality of the diftribution of nervous influence, or be 
explained by any other hypothefis, is invariably dangerous, 
in whatever organ the inflammatory action takes place, but 

articularly when it isin the brain. It is neceflarily em- 
Bacaitiog to the phylician, and difficult to treat fuccefsfully, 
from the oppolite nature of the remedies required for the 
fuppreffion of the local inflammation, and of the general 
prottration of ftrength; the nature of the one affection 
abfolutely contra-indicating the treatment, which the nature 
of the other ‘as decidedly requires. Conne&ted with the 
defe& of fenforial power, the abfence of thirft, while the 
tongue and mouth continue exceedingly dry and parched, is 
deemed an unfavourable fymptom ; and a delirious patient 
fancying himfelf well, is equalty unfavourable, as implying 
a great obtufenefs of the fenfations. 

In refpe& to the circulation, all unufual perturbation in 
the action of the heart and arteries is in fome degree unfa- 
vourable; but efpecially extreme frequency and feeblene!s 
of the pulfe, and irregularity. “When the palfe bears above 
¥20 times in.a’minute, or more, in fever, it muft be con- 
fidered 4s ca unfavourable fymptom; when it reaches 130, 
or upwards, the prognofis is extremely unfavourable. Al- 
though in fome difeafes, as in hydrocephalus, the pulfe has 
.been counted at upwards of 200 beats ina minute; yet, in 
fever, before it comes to 150, it is generally too {mall and 
feeble to be counted at the wrift, and the cafe is then to be 
confidered as defperate ; the pulfe, indeed, has fometiines 
been fo obfcure as not to be felt at the wrilt, for a day or 
two before death, when it might be felt at the temples, or 
in the axilla. In this ftate, the extremities are generally 
cold, which is another fatal fymptom, when combined with 
thofe before-mentioned. Sometimes, from an irregularity in 
the action of the heart, the pulfe intermits. An intermitting 
pulfe, according to Dr. Fordyce’s opinion, “is always a 
very dangerous fymptom, excepting where it alfo took 
place when the patient was in health, and before the difeafe 
arofe; but in the attack it is particularly hazardous.” 
(¥Firlt Differt. p. 85.) It is certain, however, that an in- 
termitting pulfe occurs in fome cafesalong with favourable 
fymptoms ; we have icen it‘in a few cafes, and only under 
fuch circumftances, in all of which recovery took place. 
It is remarked by Dr. Gregory, the prefent profeflor of 
phyfie at Edinburgh, that when the intermiflion is connected 
with an obfcurity or indiftinctnefs of the pulfation, it is 
always very unfavourable. Frequent irregular fluthes in the 
face, and other parts of the furface, are alfo among the un- 

6 1 


favourable fymptoms,.as implying great irregularity of the 
circulation. 

Great derangements of the refpiration, whether fuch as 
denote a degree of inflammation in the lungs, (conftituting 
the pneumonia typhodes of authors) which, from the contra 
indications already mentioned, is extremely difficult and em- 
barraffing to the pra¢titioner, or fuch as denote the failure 
of the-mufcalar powers, before alluded to, are always ex- 
tremely unfavourable fymptoms. 

Deficiency of the nervous or vital power is farther indi- 
cated by the effufions of blood which take place from the 
extremities of the arteries under the {kin, forming the pe- 
techie, vibices, and blotches, before defcribed. Thefe are 
always fymptoms of a fevere difeafe, but far from being 
mortal, The iarger they are, and the nearer they approach 
to purple in their colour, the more they are to be dreaded. 
(Pringle, loc. cit.) Dr. Huxham obferves, that. “ when 
black, livid, dun, or greenifh fpots appear, no one doubts. 
the malignity ; the more florid, however, the {pots are, 
the lefs is to be feared ; itis a good fign when the black or 
violet petechie become of a brighter colour. The large 
black or livid {pots are almoft always attended with profufe 
hemorrhages. The {mall dufky brown {fpots, like freckles, 
are not much lefs dangerous, than the livid and black ; 
though fluxes of blood do but feldom accompany them. 
The vibices, or large livid or dark greenifh marks, feldom 
appear till very near the fatal period.”” (Loc. cit. chap. viii.) 
The paffive hemorrhages mark a greater degree of the fame 
condition of the folids and fluids. Black and very fetid 
{tools ave bad; as indicating a ftrong putrefcent tendency 
of the bile and fordes in the bowels, and as partly arifing 
from blood effufed into the canal. The urine fometimes de- 
pefitsa black and fcetid fediment, which confitts of effufed 
blood, and is equally unfavourable. Thefe, together-with 
the black fur which colle&s about the teeth and mouth, the 
feetid breath, tle difpofition to gangrene in parts inflamed by 
blifters, or by the preflure of the body in bed, the loofe tex- 
ture, and black colour of the blood, &c., are the fymptoms, 
which have been confidered as denoting a putrid condition of 
the fluids in thefe forms of fever. It cannot be queftioned, that 
there is often a putrefcent /exdency in the circulating fvids 
and-in the folids, fo that they readily undergo the procefs of 
putrefaction, when difcharged or after death; but it is 
well afcertained, and has. been confirmed by direét experi- 
ments, that an aCtuailly putrid fate of the fmallef portion 
of the circulating fluids is incompatible with life. It is 
fufficient, however, to know that thefe fymptoms denote 
great danger, or a great tendency to death, and to have 
learnt from experience, the remedies which contribute to 
remove the fymptoms, and to counteract that tendency. 

The changes which take place in the urine were formerly 
much attended to, and although not fo much is to be learnt 
from its appearances, re{pecting the nature and progrefs of 
the fever, as was once fuppofed, neverthelefs this excretion 
ought not to be neglected by the praGtitioner. _ It is an un- 
favourable fymptom when the urife, after having been 
turbid, becomes again pale and limpid; as it implies a re- 
turn of the torpor or conftriGion of the extreme vefleis, 
i, e. a renewal of the febrile attack, and is therefore com- 
monly followed by. ether bad fymptoms, as by delirium, 
congeftions in'differentorgans, &e. Incontinence of urine, 
whether dependent on a laxity or paralytic ftate of the 
fphin@er mufele of the bladder, or whether the urine “is 
pafled involuntarily froma ftupor or indolence of the patient, 
isalways unfavourable: if this is overlooked, excoriations 
are apt to take place from the patient lying wet, whence 

i inflamma. 


FEWER. 


inflammiation and fometimes gangrene arife. A difficulty 
in difcharging the urine, or pafling it frequently in {mall 
quantities, indicate confiderable irritation and congettion’ of 
the bladder, and are therefore bad fymptoms : a fuppreflion 
of urine may be confidered as one of the worlt fymptoms of 
fever. When the urine exhales an offenfive odour, or is 
black in its colour, efpecially when containing the black or 
bloody fediment before mentioned, it indicates a ftate of the 
body which is dangerous. _ Even the ordinary healthy ap- 
pearance of the urine, combined with fymptoms of fevere 
fever, is confidered as indicating an unfavourable ftate. (See 
Lommius, Medicinal Obfervat. lib. i. p. 5.) 
Vomiting, efpecially of blood, or of matters of bad co- 
*Lour and {mell, is a fymptom of extreme danger. Obitinate 
coftivenefs in the latter {tage of fever, which is generally 
aceompanied with fevere héad-ache, is very unfavourable. It 
feems to imply preat torpor in the bowels, in confequence 
of the affeétion of the nervous fyftem. Diarrhea, in the 
late periods of fever, is generally unfavourable, efpecially 
when the fxces are liquid, and at the fame time very pale, 
or black, and feetid: the pale colour implying the abfence 
of the bile and proper fluids of the inteftines ; the black and 
fetid condition indicating a corrupted ftate of the bile and 
other fecretions, or a mixture of blood, and a putrefcent 
tendency of the whole contents of the bowels. A more co- 
pious difcharge of unmixed blood from the inteftines is a 
dangerous fymptom ; if hiccup or convulfions follow it, 
death generally foon enfues. This condition of the bowels 
feems to arife in many cafes from a neglect of opening them, 
or removing the fordes in the beginning. A great dilten- 
fion of the abdomen, er of the epigaltric region, arifing 
from flatus, which the ftomach and inteftines have not fuffi- 
cient power to expel, is often among the late and fatal fymp- 
toms of fever. 

The changes of the countenance afford very important indi- 
cations in alice: to the feverity and probablewevent of the dif- 
eafe. Witha {mall fhareof experience, indeed, any perfon will 
recognize fever, from infpeétion of the countenance alone: 
and the difeafe never advances to a dangerous ftate without 
being accompanied by proportionate alterations in the fea- 
tures. In extreme debility, the eyes are often much funk 
or collapfed ; fometimes they remain fixed and unmoved, 
which {tate is connected with the coma and ftupor ; and 
occafionally arifes from a fpafm of the muicles of the 
eye-bail,.in which cafe they are alfo fometimes prominent ; 
at other times there isa conftant rolling of the eyes, which 
is often connected with delirium: or there is a diftortion, 
or {quint, which commonly implies fome preffure or other 
affection of the optic nerves. All thefe are of courfe unfa- 
vourable fymptoms ; as is alfo that curious defect of vifion, 
from impaired fenfibility of the retina, which gives rife to 
the appearance of mu/ce volitantes. When the white part 
of the eye is principally feen, the pupil being turned up- 
wards, and the upper eye-lid a little let down, it is unfavour- 
able, as implying a {pafmodic contraCtion of the mufcles of 
the eye-ball, and great relaxation in thofe of the eye-lid. 
The prognofis is alfo bad, when a fort of film is formed over 
the eye, or mucus collects within the eye-lids, on their edges, 
or at the angles of the eye, or when the cornea is red; or 
when one eye feems larger than the other, implying irregular 
ation of the mufcles. Any diftortion of the features is a 
bad fymptom, for the fame reafon, indicating the great af- 
fection of the funétions of the fenforium. - 

.Great reftleffnefs, a conftant motion of the arms, un- 
covering the bofom, or the arms and legs, which neverthelefs 
are not hot, picking at the bed-clothes, as if to catch flies 


or infeéts, grinding the teeth, (which is a fpafmodic af- 
feétion of the mufcles of the lower jaw,) are all fymptoms of 
confiderable danger, as indicating great derangement of the 
nervous fyftem. The changes of the voice, as conne¢tedy 
with debility of the mufcles of refpiration, as wellas of the 
leffer mufcles of the larynx, are alfo unfavourable figns. 
The tone and articulation are thus varioufly~altered; and 
the thick black cruft and fur which collect on the tongue 
and lips, and in the fauces, farther contribute to impair the 
fpeech, by preventing the free motions of thofe parts. 
A cold fweat, cold extremities, and great collapfe of the 
countenance, together with laborious re{piration, and rattling 
in the throat, are figns of impending diffolution. 

The caufes of Fever-—At prefent we fhall confine ,our 
attention to the remote caufes of fever; the proximate 
caufe will be the fubjeét of difcuffion in the fequel. (See 
Cause, in Medicine.) It isnot always eafy to diftinguifh 
between the predi/pofing and the exciting caufes of fever ; 
thofe circumitances which have been ranked among the 
latter by fome phyficians have been confidered by others as 
operating only in the former way ; and it would feem that 
in certain cafes, where the predifpofing caufes are applied 
fuddenly or to a great extent, they actually become exciting 
caufes of the difeafe. The middle periods of life appear 
to be more liable to fever, than either of the extremes of 
old age or infancy. Inflammatory fevers in particular are 
more readily produced in the vigourof the conititution, or 
in youth, from the period of puberty to the age of 35 or 
40. Whatever produces either of the oppolite ftates of 
plethora and ftrength, or inanition and debility, predifpoles 
the habit to fever, and favours the operation of the exciting 
caufes: plethora giving a predifpofition to fevers of the 
inflammatory kind, while inanition predifpofes to intermit- 
tents, remittents, and to the nervous or typhous fever from 
contagion. Hence, with refpeét to the laft mentioned cir- 
cumitance, the connection between bad diet, or fearcily of 
food, and fever, has been obferved from the earlieft periods of 
hiftory, and peitilence and famine have been commonly mens 
tioned together. It is probable that the extenfive occur- 
rence of contagious fever in London, during the winters of 
1799 and 1800, was occafioned by the predifpofition-to be 
affected by contagion, which the fearcity of provifions in 
thofe years produced ; and that the almot total difappear- 
ance of fuch fever, fince that period, mutt be aferibed to 
the abfence of fuch predifpofition ; fince the exciting or 
occafional caufes continue to exilt as before. Galen juitly 
remarks, ** Oportet enim hoc in toto fermone memoria. 
repetere, quod nulla caufarum fine patientis aptitudine agere 
potelt.” (De. Differ. Febr. Tranfl. of Leonicenus, lib. i. 
1809.) It is not improbable, however, that the depraved 
aliment, which is ufed in times of f{earcity, may of itfelf 
a&tually produce fever. ‘The weaknefs produced either in 
the nervous fyftem, by deprefling paflions, fuch as fear and 
grief, or in the fanguiferous fyitem, by great evacuations, 
appears to conititute a great predifpofition to be affe&ted by 
fever. With refpe@ to the depreffing paffions, there cannot 
be a doubtof the influence which they exert in predifpofiag 
the body tu fuffer from the exciting caufes of fever. They 
obfervation that the panic occafioned by the prevalence of a 
coytagious epidemic difeafe, tends to favour its progrefs, is 
as old as Thucydides ; who has mentioned, that thofe who 
were low in fpirits, and felt much fear and anxiety durin 
the dreadful peltilence which he has defcribed, were cut of 
mott fpeedily. Diemerbroeck quotes an obferyation of 
Pigrzus, who compares the effect of imperfe& aliment.en 
the body with that of the deprefling paflions on the mind, 

ia 


PEVER. 


in facilitating the accefs of ‘the plague, € Sicut mala 
vidiis ratio preparat humores, fic animi paffiones preparant 
fpiritus ad recipiendam peftem; et triftitia, terror, ira, ac 
metus, funt pabulum ac nutrimentum pettis”? And 
Bauderonus obferves, ** Confidentes ut plurimum fervantur ; 
contra meticulofi facile corripiantur.””? (See Diemerbraeck, 
de Pefte, lib. i. cap. 8. § 9. and again, lib. ii. cap. 7. Annot. 
where much. evidence on this point is collected.) The 
debility occafioned by fatigue, from violent or long con- 
tinued exertion, is another caufe which predifpoles the 
body to be affeéted by the exciting caufes of fever. This 
is, without doubt, one of the reafons why foldiers, har- 
raffled by fatigues of a campaign, fo readily fall into fever 
when confined in hofpitals and barracks. The fact was fo 
generally obferved, at the time of the epidemic fever which 
Diemerbroeck has defcribed, that many among the lowett 


people abftained from hard labour; even the peafants during. 


the hay-harveit were unwilling to mow and colle the hay, 
being taught, by many lamentable examples, that thofe who 
undertook any fevere work were immediately afterwards 
feized with the plague. (Loc. cit.) It is probab'e, in- 
deed, that very violent exercife, as well as violent and fad- 
den gufts of paflion, may at once throw the fyftem into a 
febrile ftate: we are certain that au ephemera, beginning 
with fhivering, which is f{ucceeded by heat, and, laitly, by 
{weating, is not an uncommon refult of a fevere day’s jour- 
ney, or labour, in thofe who are unaccuftomed to fuch ex- 
ertion. Excefs in the gratification of the venereal appetite, 
as contributing to debilitate greatly, efpecially the nervous 
fyftem, is jultly ranked among the predifpofing caufes of 
fever. Evidence of the pernicious influence of this excefs 
was abundantly manifeft during the laft plague at Marfeilles, 
in which the recently married people fuffered greatly. Im- 
moderate ftudy or other application of the mind, which not 
only implies a fedentary life, but particularly an encroach- 
ment on the hours of fleep, which greatly debilitate and 
exhauft the nervous fyftem, alfo favours the action of the 
exciting caufes of fever, if it does not a€tually in fome cafes 
bring it on. 

Yet notwithftanding the unqueftionable influence of a 
debilitated ftate of the conftitution, in general, in giving a 
predifpofition to fever, it has been obferved, that perfons 
Jabouring under particular difeafes, which are connected 
with much debility, are not liable to be affe&ed by the 
exciting caufes of fever. Dr.Gregory remarks, in his 
lectures, that he has known perfons much debilitated by 
dropfy, and pulmonary confumption, who have been greatly 
expoled to the operation of contagion, without being at- 
tacked by fever; and Dr. Lind obierves, that thofe who 
labour under fcurvy are lefs liable to be attacked with fever 
from contagion, than thofe in health. (‘Treatife on 
Scurvy.) 

' There is a particular predifpofition attached to certain 
conititutions, (which are not to be diftinguifhed by any 
external charaéter,) to be affected by the exciting caufes of 
fever, upon every flight expofure to them. ‘This is daily 
exemplified in refpect to contagion, and is often obferved 
with refpeé to the efluvia of marfhes. The predifpofition 
to be affected by both thefe caufes, but more efpecially by 
the latter, is diminifhed by the habit of expofure; fo that 
new-comers are more certainly feized with intermittent and 
remittent fevers, for inftance in the countries where they 
revail, than the inhabitants ; and the attendants on patients 
ouring under continued fever are perhaps lefs liable to be 
infeéted than vifitors. The greateft predifpofition to inter- 
mittents appears to be occafioned by a previous attack of 
the difeafe, infomuch that a relapfe is often produced, at 

“Vow. XIV. : 


fome diftance of time by very flight caufes, and even, it 
pak appear, without expofure to the original exciting 
canfe. 

Particular feafons, efpecially thofe in which great heat 
prevails, or, in low countries, thofe which are very wet, 
feem to give rife to a great predifpofition to fevers ; the hot 
feafons producing a tendency to bilisus and inflammatory 
fevers, the wet to infermittents and remittents, and the 
combination or alternation of the two is particularly per- 
nicious. ‘The hiftory of medicine fhews us, that it is in 
fuch feafons that contagious-and pettilential fevers have 
moft generally prevailed. (See Errpemic.) Great heat, 
indeed, appears to be frequently an exciting caufe of fever, 
efpecially in warm climates. (See Insovation.) Anex- 
pofure to cold and moiiture appears alfo to favour the opera- 
tion of the exciting caufes of fever, efpecially of the miaf- 
mata of marfhes in the produCtion of intermittert and re- 
mittent fevers. It is hence, probably, that the night-air 
appears to be fo fatal near the coaits in tropical climates, 
as related by Dr. Lind, Dr. Badenoch, (Med. Obf. and 
Inquir. vol. iv. p. 156.) Bontius, Rouppe, and'others. Dr. 
Lind has ftated, that, ‘ during the fickly feafon, a boat, 
belonging to the Medway man of war, which attended on 
fhore every night to bring freflz provifions, was three times 
fucceffively manned, not one of her crew having furvived 
that fervice.” 

We mutt here notice a circumftance refpeéting the pre- 
difpofition to fevers, in warm climates, which was firft 
noticed by Dr. Lind, of Windfor, in his inaugeral effay, 
publithed at Edinburgh in 1768, and afterwards more par- 
ticularly examined by Dr. Jackfon and Dr. Balfour; namely, 
the influence of the moon, or of the fun and moon con- 
jointly, in giving a predifpofitionm to fevers to the human 
body. Dr. Mead, indeed, had collected fome evidence of 
the influence of thefe luminaries in: this climate, (fee his 
treatife De Imperio Solis et Lunz,) but that influence has 
been faid to be much more obvious in tropical countries, in 
producing relapfes or firlt feizures of fever. Dr. Lind ob- 
ferved eight feamen attacked by a relapfe at the fame time, 
during the occurrence of a lunar eclipfe, which of courfe 
implied a full moon. Dr. Jackfon made fome obfervations 
om the fubje& in 1776, in the Welt Indies, and found that 
of 30 cafes of remitting fever, 28 had happened on one or 
other of the feven days preceding a new or full moon; in 
the following years his obfervations were’ continued, and 
feemed'to confirm this refult. (See London Med. Journal, 
vol. viii. p. 25.) In 1785, Dr. Balfour publifhed’ « A trea- 
tife on the Influence of the Moon in Fevers,” in which he 
ftates that the attack of the bilious remittent fever of Bengal 
almoft invariably commenced on one of the three days which 
immediately precede and follow the change of the moon ; 
and that the changes of this planet are no lefs remarkable 
for occafioning relapfes. ‘ For my own part,’’ he fays, 
«« T have obferved this tendency to relapfe at the full and 
change invariably for thefe fourteen years ; and in particular 
cafes can proguofticate the return of the fever at thefe 
periods, with alnvof€ as much confidence, as I can foretel 
the revolution itfelf.”” Dr. Lind, however, fifteen years 
after the publication of his thefis, feems to have changed 
his opinion, and was difpofed to attribute the frequent at- 
tacks and relapfes of thefe fevers * to the noxious yaponrs 
arifing from the fwamps, produced by the high tides, which 
happen at the time of the full and change of the moon, and, 
overflowing a great part of the country, leave it in a marfhy 
{tate at low water. This I am induced to believe to be the 
fole caufe,’” he adds, “ firft, becaufe this lunar influence 
entirely ceafes, when the patient is removed but a few miles 

2 from 


FE V-E Rs 


from the {wamps that are left uncovered by the tide at low 
water; fecondly, becaufe intermittent fevers are not ob- 
ferved ta follow lunar periods at many places within the 
tropics, even at Canton, (where there ts a la:ge river and 
great tides,) by reafon of the induftrious Chinefe keeping 
the river within its bounds.””, (Lond. Med, Journal, vol. viii. 
p- 146.) But Dr. Jackfon contends, that at Savanna la 
Mar, in Jamaica, the connection of the moon with fevers is 
more. remarkable than in any other part of the world, in 
which he has been; although the tide fearcely ever rifes 
eighteen inches, and the beach is fandy. (Ibid. p. 302.) 
Dr. Balfour has fupported his original doctrine in fubfequeat 
publications “on fol-lunar influence;” to which we refer 
the reader for farther evidence. See alfo Dr. Jackfon’s 
Treatife on the Fevers of Jamaica. | 
Exciting caufes of Fever.—Dr. Cullen was of opinion 
that idiopathic fevers were induced by the operation of two 
exciting caufes only ; namely, contagion, or human effluvia, 
and the mia/mata of marfhy or {wampy ground ; the former 
giving rife to continued, and the latter to intermitting and 
remitting fevers. (See Erriuvia, in Medicine.) . It 
feems probable, however, that this opinion was adopted 
rather in conformity with his hypothefis refpecting the 
nature of fever, than from a comprehenfive obfervation of 
fa&ts; and his reafoning in fupport of it is lizble to much 
objeGion, if not to an eafy refutation. ‘ As fevers are fo 
generally epidemic,’ he fays, “it is probable, that fome 
matters floating in the atmofphere, and applied to the bodies 
of men, ought to be confidered as the remote caufe of 
fevers; and thefe matters prefent in the atmofphere, and 
thus aéting upon men, may be confidered either as conta- 
gious, that is, effluvia, arifing dire€tly or originally from the 
body of a man under a particular difeafe, and exciting the 
fame kind of difeafe in the body of the perfon to whom 
they are applied; or mia/mata, that is, effluvia, arifing 
trom other fub{tances than the bodies of men, producing a 
difeafe in the perfon to whom they are applied.” (Firft 
Lines, § Ixxviii.) Now, it has been demonftrated by mo- 
dern experiments, that contagious effluvia are not capable 
of floating in the atmofphere, to the diftance of even of a 
few yards, without lofing their infeétious quality, and that 
the noxious powers of miafmata are fimilarly, though not 
equally, limited, (See Conracion.) And, although fevers 
are often epidemic, yet they are feen daily fporadic, 7. e. 
limited to individuals, who breathe the fame air with thou- 
fands who efcape ; and we have endeavoured to thew, that 
the fuppo'ition of the exiftence of thofe canfes of epidemics 
floating in the atmofphere, is not only gratuitous, but ab- 
folutely in oppofition to a number of fats. (See Epipe- 
mic.) Befides, even vulgar obfervation has left no room 
for doubt, that many of the circumftances, which induce a 
predifpofition to feyer, or favour the operation of contagion, 
miafmata, and other exciting caufes, (if fuch exift,) are 
themfelves the exciting caufes of the fimpler forms of fever, 
whether denominated ephemera, fimple fever, fynochus, or 
by fome other term, ‘That fuch fevers are frequently oc- 
cafioned by expofure to great heat, and to cold and moifture, 
by fatigue, anxiety and grief, watching, intemperance, Ke. 
is admitted by phyficians in general; (fee Fordyce Firft 
Diff. on Fever, p.136to 179. Huxham on Fevers, p- 2. 
&c.) and when it is confidered how frequently we fee indi- 
viduals affected with fevere and even fatal fevers, when no 
fource of contagion was known, when no epidemic was 
prevalent, and when the reft of the family, whofe mode and 
circumftances of life were in all points the fame, were not 
affected by any difeafe, we can {carcely hefitate in afligning 
the origin of the fever to fome one of the caufes jult enu- 


* 

merated. The ftatements of the ancient phyficians accord 
accurately with thofe of the moderns, juit quoted, on this. 
aaa * Quod igitur ex Jaboribus,’? fays Galen, ** ira, 
triltitia, et folis ardoribus, atque frigoribus, vigiliis, et 
cruditatibus, ebrietatibus, et crapulis, quidam febricitare 
confpiciuntur, nemo eft qui, ipfa do€tus experientia, non , 
agnofcat.”’ (De Different. Febr. lib. i.) or 

Contagion is, however, the exciting caufe of the mof. 
dangerous and fatal forms of continued fever, whether ec- 
currring in gaols, hofpitals, fhips, camps, or, among the 
dwellings of the lower clafles of the people, aud thence 
denominated gaol-fever, hofpital-fever, &c. or malignant, . 
putrid, contagious fever, typhus, &c. OF the nature, 
origin, and mode of communication of contagion, as well 
as of the means of preventing, its operation, avoiding its 
influence, and deftroying its powers, we haye already treated © 
at length in a preceding article, to which we refer the 
reader. See CoNTAGION. , 

Many phyficians of the laft century were of opinion that 
intermittent fevers were produced by contagion ; among 
thefe were Boerhaave, Van Swieten, Baglivi, Cleghorn, and 
Fordyce. It is proable that thefe fevers may have fometimes , 
{pread in hofpitals, like eryfipelas, puerperal fever, and other , 
diforders, not in themfclves coutagieus, before the prefent 
fy{tem of ventilation and cleanlinels was fully adopted; but, 
we believe, that few phyficians at prefent fupport that opi- 
nion. Lancifi was the firft who pointed out the connec- 
tion cf intermitting fevers with the effluvia of marfhy ground; | 
his obfervations, however, were long overlooked by medical . 
men. But, in our own country, we have now ample eyi-~ 
dence of this conne€tion : it is chiefly in the low and fenn 
counties, as in Lincolnfhire, Cambridgefhire, the hundreds . 
of Effex, &c. that agues originate; and thofe which are 
feen in London, and other parts remote from the fens, can 


generally be traced to thofe counties. In the neighbour= 


hood of the Pontine marfhes, near Rome, the fact is fo 
univerfally known, that the villages are all perched upon | 
the hills; and there are fearcely people fhiment in the 
levels to expedite travellers from the poft-houfes, The 
army-phyficians have alfo obtained much decilive evidence © 
relative to this faét. The nature of the exhalations of , 
marfhes, which give rife to intermittent and remittent fevers, . 
is not however afcertained: it is obyious that itis not 
moi{ture alone, evaporating from the furface of the marthes 5. 
it appears to be rather the refult of the decompofition of ani- . 


mal and vegetable matter in water. (See Miasmara.) .° 


Sir John Pringle remarks, * that neither canals, nor even 
large inundations, where the water is deep, are nearly {fo 
dangerous, or exhale fo much noxious vapours, as marfhy 
grounds, or meadows that have been once floated and 
but lately drained ; and that fields, though dry in appear- 
ance, may yet be moift by the tranfpiration of the fubterra- ’ 
neous water.’”? (On Difeafes of the Army, part ii. chap. 2.) 
‘« It has been generally remarked,” Dr. Rollo obferves, 
“that the effluvia of marfhes are moft a€tive, when the wa-_ 
ter is drained off, and the earth appears, which was certain- 
ly the cafe in St. Lucia: the greater part of the regular , 
intermittents, that is, of the milder fevers we had, hap-_ 
pened when the rains were moft frequent, and before the 
ltagnating pools difcovered their bottoms; but the moft _ 
dangerous remittents appeared when the marfhes had no | 
water, but a fliny matter on their furface. - Cairo is healthy ~ 
while the Nile inundates the neighbouring lands; but _ 
when the mud is expofed, on the retiring of the river withia - 
its banks, the fevers begin to rage as the miafmata rife. — 
Thefe effluvia, like thofe of contagion, as we have alread be 
fated, are limited in their operation, we mean in the dil. , 


tance 


—— 


PoE WER. 


tance: to’ which they are: capable of being communicated 
through the air, in an aétive ftate. Dr. Lind obferves that, 
in fhips lying at fome diftance from a fwampy fhore, the 
amen efcape intermittent fevers, though immerfed in fogs ; 
‘but when they approach near fhore, or communicate with 
the land, they become affeéted. 'Thofe who were fent on 
dhore for provilions, efpecially in the night, as mentioned 
by Dr. Badenoch, fpeedily perifhed in confequence of the 
fever thus induced; partly, perhaps, in conlequence of a 
pre-difpofition to be readily affe€ted by the miaimata occa- 
dioned by the cold of night, and partly from the condenfation 
.and more active ftate of the miafinata arifing from the fame 
caufe, Thefe effluvia rife to fo {mall a height, that fol- 
Giers lying in the firft foors of barracks in Jamaica were 
defs affected than thofe in the ground floor, as ftated by Dr. 
Hunter: who has alfo affirmed, that a few hundred yards 


often include the limits between healthy and unhealthy _ 


ground in camps. (Obfervat. on the Difeafes of the Army 
in Jamaica.) See Epipemic, under the fecond head; 
where other faéts are enumerated, and fome obfervations 
yadded refpecting the difappearancte of intermittent and re- 
Mittent fevers in London, and other large cities, in confe- 
‘quence of the removal of the fources of miafmata, by im- 
provements in the ftruCture, and cleanlinefs of the ftreets, &c. 
Onder all, thefe circumflances, intermittent and remittent 
devers,are moft prevalent in autumn, in which feafon, efpe- 
‘cially when wet, they are the fatal endemics in low and damp 
countries. Of this we have a recent example in the 
mortality occafioned by the late unfortunate expedition 
to the ifland of Walcheren; which, indeed, might have 
‘been -anticipated ; (O&. 1809,) for fir John Pringle 
dong ago obferved, when {peaking of the United Provinces, 
© but the air is worlt in Zealand, as. that province is not 
Be low and watery, but furrounded with the cozy beaches 
of the eaftern and weitern Scheldt, and the moft marfhy 
arts of the country ; fo that almoft every wind, except 
‘from the fea, adds to its native moift and unwholefome air.’’ 
(Loe. cit. part i. chap. r.) In the autumn of very wet 
years, intermi rents have been obferved to occur even in 
high, sndat other times dry fituations ; thus they were pro- 
duced in certain high parts of Northamptonthire, where 
they were not known to have exifted either before or fince, 
in the year 1782, which was remarkable for the wetnefs of 
the fummer. (See the Syllabus of Lectures given at Guy’s 
Hofpital, p. 15.) The operation of heat, in augmenting 
the deleterious effeéts of thefe miafmata, is evident, as well 
from the general occurrence of intermitting and remitting 
fevers in the autumnal feafon, as from the more frequent 
and formidable fevers of this fort, which are generated in 
warm climates; witnefs the periodical fevers of Cairo on there- 
tiring of the Nile, and thofe which occur near the other great 
African rivers; as on the coaft of Guinea, where the country is 
often half depopulated by them, and fome parts even quite 
deferted from this caufe. (bid. ) The overflowing of the Eu- 
phistees and the ftagnation of the water on the adjoining de- 
fert, have always been confidered as the principal caufes,efpe- 
ally in the hotteft feafons, of the fatal remitting fever of Buf- 
forah. (See Tranfadt. of a Soc. for the Improv. of Med. and 
Chirur. Knowledge, vol. i.) Whence the Arabs fometimes 
inundate the defert, by breaking down the banks of the Eu- 
hrates, in order to be avenged on the Turks of Bufforah. 
Lhe fevers induced by a fingle inundation have been knownto 
deftroy between ite and fourteen thoufand of the inha, 
of that place. (See Wilfon on Fever, vol. i. p. 193.) 

t is fortunate, however, that the marfh miafma is not, like 
ontagion, capable of adhering to clothes, or other fub- 
Sees: but is diffipated and becomes harmlels in the atmo 
a 


boo “J 


fphere, as we have before obferved,’ata fhort diftance from 
its fource. : 
It is worthy of remark, that both contagion and miafmata, 
or, to ufe the words of Dr, Cullen, both «* human and marth 
efuvia,”’ appear at times, to eperate rather as predifpofing 
than exciting caufes ; while thofe circumftances before ent- 
merated, as inducing a predifpofition, become in fact the 
exciting caufes of the fever which enfues. It has been ob- 
ferved by Dr. Lind, and others, that perfons expofed to the 
influence of contagion, fometimes receive it into the fyftem, 
in which it remains latent, or producing only flight indifpe- 
fition, fuch as. head-ache, languor, &c. for a 
time ; when expofure to cold, an aét of intemp 
drinking, eatiag indigeftible food, fatigue, watct 
anxiety fhall occur, and immediately the contajio 
produced ; which would lead us to believe that many 
thofe perfons who remain. uninfected, after confiderable ex 
pofure to contagion, efcape in confequence of the abfence 
of fuch exciting caufe. “The fame caufes, which give rife 
to relapfes,” {ays Dr. Lind of Haflar, ** I am inclined to 
think do fometimes excite, or render active, an infection, be- 
fore received into the body; but fo flight, as of itfelf to’ pro- 
duce no bad confequences.. I am confirmed in this opinion 
by the quick and fenfible effe@ of infeCtion from bad fevers, 
when in fuch a degree as of itfelf to communicate the difeafe. 
But if a perfon perceives no fymptom of an infection, till 
many days after having left his place ofabode, and is firit 
taken ill of it immediately after having been wet with rain, 
expofed to'cold or damp; or having been guilty of intempe- 
rance and exceffes, it is probable that thefe caufes have 
excited this dormant poifon into a&tion ; and thats without 
their influence, it would never have affeGted the conftitution.” 
(Lind on Fevers and Infeétions, chap: ii. § 1.) Ina fimilar 
manner, the marfh miafmata often exert no influence on the 
conftitution, for feveral weeks after the perfon has left the 
fenny diftri&, when the ague fhall be immediately excited 
by a debauch, a quarrel, being wet or chilled, &c. 
_ Expofure to co/d is commonly mentioned among the excit+ 
ing caufes of fever; and it can fcarcely be doubted that 
the fimpler forms of fever do frequently originate from this 
caufe: and as thefe more fimple fevers are occafionally con- 
verted into the more fevere or malignant fpecies, by the coh- 
fined or uncleanly fituation of the patient, by improper 
treatment, or in confequence of fome peculiar itate of the 
conttitution, fo co/d may juftly be ranked among the com- 
mon caufes of fever. -This notion, however, as it is popt« 
larly entertained, is carried far beyond its juft extent. ° We 
have already feen that'cold operates by pre-difpofing the 
body to be acted upon by contagion and by:marfh miafmata; 
and alfo, fecendarily, by calling into attion the dormant 
poifon of both fpecies. In thefe cafes, its operation is only 
indire&t. More commonly the popular opinion arifes from 
a miftake, which confifts in fuppofing the firtt /ymptoms, 
(viz. the fhivering and fenfation ical to ‘be in fa the 
caufé of the fever; thefefymptoms being confidered as the 
effe& of an external chill, when they are, in truth, the re- 
fult of the internal condition of the circulation and ner 
vous fyftem, as before explained. Hence fevers have 
been attributed to.cold, which proved tobe the eruptive fever 
of {mall-pox, or meaifles, and, of courfe, origitated from con- 
tagion. On the whole, expofure to cold mutt be confi- 
dered as mot commonly concurring with the noxious efiu- 
via, and other catfes, in producing’ idiopathic’ fever, and 
net as alone the ative agent. Thowfands: are ‘conitantly 
expofed to cold in this climate, in whom no fever is ex» 
cited ; and in the great: majority of thofe who are affect 
ed by cold, the difeafes abe vecafioned. are principally 
‘ t2 the 


fiderable 


FEVER. 


the fymptomatic fevers conneéted with local inflammation, 
conflituting the feeond clafs of <« Phlegmafiz’? in Dr. 
Cullen’s arrangement, as mentioned in the commencement 
of this article. '[he general effeéts of cold on the hn- 
man body, as well as its particular effeéts in the pro- 
duction and alleviation of difeafes, have been difcufled at 
length under a former head. See Corp, in regard to 
its aGion on the living Body. 

It would appear that the effluvia arifing from animal, 
and even vegetable fubftances, during the procefs of pu- 
trefudion, have in fome inttances given rife to fevers ofa 
fevere and fatal kind. (See Epipemic.) But under 
what particular combination of circumftances fuch fevers 
have been excited, it were not eafy to ftate: it would 
feem, however, that animal putrefaction alone is not ca- 
pable of producing thefe effeéts ; fince perfons engaged 
in particular trades, in which they are much expofed to 
thefe efluvia, do not fuffer from fever, as {kinners, night- 
men, &c.; nor are ftudents of anatomy particularly af- 
fected by fevers from the often very putrid effluvia of a 
diflecting room. 

A redundance of Ji/e has been fuppofed to be a common 
exciting caufe of intermitting, remitting, and continued 
fevers, chiefly from the circumftance, that it is often thrown 
up from the ftomach in confiderable quantity, during the 
ficknefs which occurs at the onfet of thefe fevers. But it 
fhould be obferved, that vomiting, however excited, (whe- 
ther by the commencement of fever, by fubftances taken 
into the ftomach, or by agitation on fhip-board at fea,) if 
often repeated, with violent ftraiing, generally brings up 
alfo the contents of the duodenum, and emulges the duéts, 
which open into that part of the inteltines. Bile, therefore, 
and pancreatic juice, are thrown up in the laft efforts to 
yomit, but not in the beginning. This appearance of bile, 
therefore, is not an effential part of the attack of fever ; 
it is merely accidental, «If the pancreatic juice,” fays 
Dr. Fordyce, “had been blue, and had any particular tafte 
or{mell, and the bile had been colourlefs, infipid, inodorous, 
oras much fo as the pancreatic juice is, in that cafe, whatever 
has been faid of the redundancy of bile, as an effential part 
of the attack of fever, would have been faid of the pan- 
creatic juice.” (Firft Diff. on Fever, p.g5.) Dr. Cullen 
remarks, that the opinion may have been partly counte- 
nanced by the fact, that intermitting and remitting fevers, 
being the effeéts of marfh eMluvia, occur moft frequently in 
the warm feafons, and the latter in warm climates, from the 
influence of which the bile is difpofed to pafs, by its fecre- 
tories, in greater quantity than ufual, and, perhaps, alfo 
changed in its quality ; but he corifiders this appearance of 
bile, when vomiting takes ‘place, as a circumitance acci- 
dentally concurring with the fevers, from the flate of the 
feafon in which they arife. (Firit Lines, § 51.) 

When anexciting caufe of fever has once produced its 
operation, the conftant or repeated application of that caule 
is not required to keep up the difeafe ; on the contrary, the 
difeafe will then go through its courfe, although the caufe 
be entirely removed ; nay, farther, it will not be increafed, 
it is faid, in degree or duration, by a fubfequent application 
of the fame canfe, but will go through its courfe unaltered. 
(Fordyce, Firft Differt. p. 180, et feq. alfo in Tranfa&. of 
a Soc. for the Improvement of Med. and Surg. Kuow- 
ledge, vol. i. art.1.) Thus, to adduce-a palpable exam- 
ple, a fecond inoculation of {mall-pox adds nothing tothe 
violence of the difeafe produced by the firft infertion of the 
poifon; thus, alfo, to ufe the words of Dr. Fordyce, “a 
fever taking place from infeétion in the mot wealthy and 
obleft perfons in the country, and-treated with all attention, 


with regard to infection, goes threugh its courfe in the 
fame manner as in a patient in an hofpital, where there are 
many others affli€ed with the fame difeafe, provided that 
attention is paid that there fhall be an‘equal charge of the 
air of the atmofphere, and freedom from putrefaétion.’? 
(Loe. cit. p. 189.) On the whole, this ftatement may be 
confidered as begging the queftion, and Dr. Fordyce feems 
to have generalized too far, in transferring his obfervation 
refpecting {mall-pox to idiopathic fever. For if, with re- 
gard to contagious fever, we produce ‘ an equal change of 
the air” in an hofpital, as in the chambers of the rich, the 
contagion cannot be conftantly applied in any confiderable 
quantity, “And, with refpeét to intermitting and remit- 
ting fevers, it is a well known faét, (even {tated by Dr. For- 
dyce himfelf, though explained upon the notion of avoiding 
humidity,) that thofe fevers, although they remained obfti- 
nate while the patient continued expofed to the miafmata, 
which produced them, f{peedily yield to the fame treatment, 
when the patient is removed See the Tranfattions before 
quoted, p, 14. ; “ 
Daéitrines refpeing the Nature or proximate Caufe of 
Fever.—Phyficians have been eager to explain the nature 
of difeafes from the earlieft dawn of medical hiltory, and 
have too often quitted the laborious tai of obfervation in 
purfuit of hypothetical {peculations, which have tended to 
obfcure, rather than to elucidate, the feience of pathology, 
and to retard the progrefs of its improvement. Inftead of 
accurately marking and comparing the phenomena of life, 
aad thence deducing the laws of the animal economy, whe- 
ther in health or difeafe, phyficians have too often contented. 
themfelves with transferring the deductions of the collateral 
{ciences to the deétrines of life, milpending their’time and 
talents in finding out analogies, which exifted only in their 
own imaginations. Hence not only the fiétions of the Greek 
philofophy, but the principles of the more certain fciences, 
of mechanics, of chemiftry, of magnetifm, and of electricity, 
have been affumed in fucceffion as explanatory of the aétion 
of living bodies, and have each contributed not a little to con- 
fufe the language and opinions of pathologifts. ‘This is more 
particularly obvious with refpeét to the dorines relative 
to fever; which, frem the univerfality of its occurrence; 
the flriking appearances which it exhibits, and the ravages 
which it has committed in all ages, has always arrefted the 
attention of mankind, and has employed the pens of the 
mott enlightened profeffors of medicine for upwards of two 
thoufand years. Neverthelefs, it is at this moment a fub- 
ject of difcuffion, and of much differenze of opinion ;- eth 
ficians being divided in their views both of the effential na- 
ture of the difeafe, and refpeéting the feat which they af- 
fign to it in the body; and one of the lateft practical wnters 
on the fubjeét, whom we have often quoted,. has affirmed, 
that “ what the real derangement in the fy tem is, which. 
produces the external appearances in fever, Is not at 
known.” Fordyce. ™ 
Although nothing abfolutely fatisfaGtory, however, is to 
be obtained from an inveltigation of the doétrines which have 
been promulgated relative to fever, it will be neceflary to 
ftate the outlines, efpeciully of thofe of modern times, which 
have affumed a fyftematic fhape, and have given colour to 
the various modes of praétice that have been purfued. 
Various gratuitous hypothefes refpeéting morbid derange- 
ments of the fluids of the animal body, and the generation 
of new morbid humours, have prevailed, with occafional mo- 
difications, from the time of Hippocrates downwards: and 
although in the fyftems of Hoffmann and Cullen, and ftill 
more completely in thofe of Brown and Darwin, thefe hy- 
pothefes are reje€ted, and are alfo exploded among Britifh 
3 practitioners 


FEVER. 


practitioners in general, as incompatible with more correét 
obfervation, they are neverthelefs the prevalent doétrines of 
the people at large. (See Humorar Pathology.) Hip- 
pocrates confidered the morbid heat as the effence of fever, 
and upon this notion he feems to have founded his dif- 
tinction of the varieties of the difeafe; asthe cau/us, xxvo-, 
or burning fever; the /eipyria, Auzy;iz, ia which the exter- 
nal parts are cold, while the internal are hot; and the 
epialus, ixtadoc, or mild fever, in which there is a fimulta- 
neous feeling of heat and cold. (See Hippoc. lib. i. and 
Hi. ree wow, $5 (Edit Fafij. ac Prenot. &c.) Thefe 
different forms of fever he afcribes to the fuperabundance 
of one or other of the four humours, blood, phlegm, yel- 
low and black bile, (fee Hirrocrares,) and he feems to 
confider the difeafe as the refult of a conteft on the part of 
nature, (the prefiding principle of the animal body,) to ex- 
pel the morbid humour, or to render it inert and harmlefs 
‘by the procefs of concoéion. 

Paffing by the abfurd notions of Afclepiades, refpecting 
‘the motion of atoms or corpufcles, which, when it was free, 
cont{tituted health, and, when obftruéted, excited fevers, &c. 
which again differed according to the fize of the corpufcles; 
(fee Czlius Aurelianus, lib. i. cap. 14.) and the hypo- 
thefes of other ancient phyficians, which have been imper- 
fe@ly tranfmitted to us; we come to the dodtrines of Galen, 
which were univerfally received and taught, where fcience 
exifted, for the fpace of thirteen centuries. The hypothetis 
ef Galen was little more than an amplification of that of 
Hippocrates, with which he combined other hypothefes, 
deduced from the philofophy and fcience of his age, and 
ithus, by giving a fy{tematic form to the doétrine, and fup- 
‘porting it with much learning, he at once multiplied and 
perpetuated the corruptions of medical fcience, which the 
anduétive and experimental philofophy of our own times has 
not yet exterminated. (See Gaten.) He alfo confidered 
the preternatural heat as the effence of the febrile ftate, and 


enters into feveral plaufible ftatements explanatory of its: 


origin. He obfervesthat heat is excited by motion, by pu- 
trefaction, by the dire& application of heat, as of the fun 


or fire, or by the retention of warmth, which fhould be dif— 


fipated, or by the addition of a fort of ferment. Whence 


the exciting caufes-of fevers are ealily underftood in regard’ 


to their operation: the heat of the atmofphere, which pre- 
vails about the rifing of the dog-ftar, increafes the heat of 
the heart, (being taken in by breathing the hot air,) and 
alfo the heat of the arteries on the furface; over-faticne 
and violent exercife occafion heat by the friction of the 
mufcles, tendons, and joints; depraved and crude aliments 
produce an acrid and pungent humour, which excites heat ; 
and the putrid miafms in the air, during the periods of pef. 
tilénce, when infpired, excite putrefaétion and heat in the 
body, efpecially when the habit is already predifpofed to 
putrefaGtion, from bad d#t, &e. The fevers thus excited 


are modified by the prevalence or putrefaction of one or. 


other of the four humours of Hippocrates: of the three 
kinds of intermittents, the quotidian arifes from the cor- 
ruption of phlegm, the tertian from that of the yellow, and 
quartan from that of the black bile. Wherever the heat 
begins, it extends to the heart, whence the general com- 
motion of the veffels is excited: “ and Nature is employed 
in exerting her powers, endeavouring to affimilate the good 
humours to the parts which are to be nourifhed, andto expel 
the bad humours. But if at any time Nature is unable to 
expel all the morbid humour, either from its thicknefs, its 
abundance, or its tenacity, or from fome obftruction of the 
paflages, or from her own want of power, it neceflarily-will 
undergo putrefaction, if it remains long in the animal -body.”? 


But by putrefaétion Galen appears to mean any new com-- 
bination or change of quality, for he includes concofion 
under that term. ‘ Altera autem putrefaétio, quam et coc- 
tionem effe diximus, &c.’? (De Differentiis Febrium, lib.i. 
See alfo Van Swieten Com. ad Aph. 730.) 

This doctrine, which became known throughout Europe 
on the revival of learning, kept pofleffion of the fchools until 
the middle of the feventeenth century, when a new light 
was thrown upon the fubjeét of the animal economy by the 
difcovery of the circulation of the blood. But in the va- 
rious parts of this doctrine, afterwards varioufly combined 
with the fyftems which originated with the further progrefs 
of the collateral fciences, we fee the rudiments of moft of 
the theories which the modern fy{tematics advanced; until at 
length the phenomena, conneéted with the irritable and fenfi- 
ble properties of the living folid, were attentively invefti- 
gated in the courfe of the lait century. A humoral pa- 
tholory, conneéied with the notions of obftruction, acri- 
mony, lentor, plethora, or putrefaction in the vafcular 
fyftem, and of a regulating principle, nature, autocrateia, 
archeus, anima medica, vis medicatrix natura, or by what- 
ever term it may have been defignated, was found in all the 
fyftems, down to that of Boerhaave inclufive, whether 
among the mathematical, chemical, or mechanical feéts. 
(See Mepicine.) Hence various means:of removing fevers 
were fugeefted, and remedies were employed by one fet of 
theorifls for correéting acrimony, for refilting putrefaction, 
for aiding concoétion, for obviating plethora, for evacuating 
the morbid humours, or for diluting them ; and regulations 
were adopted by fome for {upporting the operations of na- 
ture, and for removing obftructions or interferences with 
them ; while others, confidering the rational foul as the di- 
re&ing principle, were content to look on, and truft to its 
wifdom, cultivating what they called the art of medicine 
by expectation ; which confifted rather in renouncing all 
art, and in banifhing all a&tive remedies. 

Thefe doétrines, refpeGting the morbid condition of the 
humours in febrile difeafes, and the confliG of nature in at- 
tempting to fubdue their effects, to change their nature, 
and to expel them: from the fyltem, &c., originated in ig- 
norance of the {tructure and operations of the animal frame, 
were fropagated by the bigotry of learning, which would 
vather err with Galen, than queftion his authority on mat- 
ters of the-fmalleft moment ; aud were ftrengthened by the 
facility with which the new difceveries in chemical and me- 
chanical philofophy combined with them, -in explaining the 
motions of the circulating fiuids. They were countenanced 
alfo by the various difcharges which occafionaily occur 
in the crifes of fevers, of which the notion of concoGion, 
er of fermentation and defpumation, dedeced from a che- 
mical analogy, afforded a plaufible explanation. But we 
have already tated, that the inferences drawn from the ap- 
pearance of thefe difcharges were incorrect ; for that the 
latter were the figns and effeéts of a favourable change in 
the difeafe, and not the caufes of it. (See Concoction,. 
and Crisis.) Nor is the notion of a materies mordi, in 
the fluids in fever, fanétioned either by obfervation, or by- 
the moft fuccefsful plan of cure.. When the difcharges - 
luded to confift of the fecreted fluids, they contain nathing 
which is not ordinarily prefent, although in lefs quantity ; 
when they confift of *blood,-it cannot be imagined that the 
fmall” portion evacuated has contained all the morbid hu- 
mour with which the general mais was infeed. But 
many fevers are.cured without waiting for concoéion, or 
evacuation ; and the occurrence of ab{olute intermiflions is 
not eafily reconcileable with «the exidtence of fuch morbid 
humour, 

The: 


BET W EPR: 


-© The dawn of a more correct knowledge of the merbid 
aGtions of the animal fyftem, of which jome glimmerings 
had appeared in the writings of our countryman, Willis, 
and of Baglivi, (in their treatifes ‘* de Pathologia Cerebri et 
Nervorum,”’ and “ {pecimen de febra motrice et morbofa,’’) 
was obvious in the works of Hoffmann, before the middle 
‘of the lait century. He direted the attention of phyficians 
to the primary moving powers of the animal frame, the 
‘funGtions of the nervous fyitem ; functions which, had 
not the pernicious influence of learned authorjty led medi- 
cal obfervers out of the proper train of invelligation, could 
‘not have been overlooked for fo many ages. ‘The proper- 
ties of the living folid were now inveltigated by Gaubius, 
Haller, and others; even Boerhaave himfelf began to at- 
-tend to them, and in the fourth edition of his Aphorifms, 
{fee Aph. 755.) added the words, ‘ forté et nervofi (cil. 
fucci) tam cerebri quanquam cerebelli cordi deftinati in- 
ertiz,” (a fluggifhnefs of the nervous fluid communicated 
from the brain to the heart,) to the flugeyhnefs of the ar- 
terial fluids, which he had formerly tated as the proximate 
caufe of intermittent fevers. 

From this time the phenomena refulting from the fenforial 
funétions in difeafe became the fubjeét of more attentive 
‘inveftigation, and hence have arifen three modern fy{tems, 
in which the nature of fever is explained by a reference to 
thefe funétions, to the exclufion of any fuppofition of 
-difeafe in the fluids, except as an effet of the fever. Thefe 
are the theories of Cullen, of Brown, and of Darwin. 
The theory which Dr. Cullen promulgated, from the me- 
dical chair in the univerfity of Edinburgh, almoit rivalled 
that of Boerhaave in the extent of its reception; and even 
continues to be adopted, with flight modifications, by fome 
later writers. (See Currie, Reports on Water, p. 165, 2d 
edit.) It had the merit of great ingeauity, and of accord- 
ing mere completely with the advanced flate of know- 
ledge refpecting the fundtions of life, than the hypothefes 
which preceded it. The Brunonian theory of fever is not 
particularly prominent in the general fyftem of its author, 
who reduced all difeafes to two or three very fimple princi- 
ples, without much regard to the variety of phenomena, by 
which they are charaéterized. That of Dr. Darwin is 
more complex, but much more comprehenfive in its applica- 
tion to the varieties of fever ; it is obf{cure, however, from 
the peculiar language in which it is expreffed. We fhall 
diate the outlines of each of thefe theories. : 

Dr. Cullen’s Theory.--'The firft. change induced in the 
animal fyftem, by the operation of the exciting caufes of 
fever, is, in the opinion of Dr. Cullen, a ‘* diminution of 
the energy of the brain ;” which is indicated by all the 
fymptoms of the firft ftage of fever, as we have already 
explained. The powers of the body and the mind, the 
fun@tions of fenfation and motion, refpiration, circulation, 
aiid fecretion, all fail, or are dimimifhed in the general de- 
bility ; but after a certain time, a morbid inereafe of fome 

-of thefe funGtions, efpecially. of the circulation, takes 
place, with an augmentation of the heat. ‘The three ftates 
of debility, of cold, and of heat, which regularly fueceed 
each other in fever, in the order juft mentioned, are pre- 
fumed to exilt in the relation of caufe and effect; the firft 
ftate being the refult of the -fedative or debilitating 
influence of contagion, marfh miafmata, and cold, which 
are the exciting caufes. Dr. Cullen acknowledges his 
inability to explain fatisfactorily, how the debility pro- 
duces all the phenomena of the cold ftage, efpecially. the 
JSpa/modic conftriétion of the extreme arterial veflels, which 
is inferred from the fufpenfion of the feeretions,.and the 
fhrinking of parts in the cold itage, as well as from the’ 


continuance of this"fufpeniion’ in the hot ftages after the 
action of the teart and large arterics is increafed. Were 
the conilriétion of the cold ftage merely the refult of the 
weakened aétion of the heart, it is fippofed, that, on the 
return of its ordinary or increafed aétion, the conftriGion 
would be removed, and the fecretions reftoreds Here Dr. 
Cullen reforts to ‘the Vis Medicatrix Natura, {o famous in 


the {chools of phyfic,’”? the innate preferving r of the 
conflitutiou, which has been appealed to for. ution of 
difficulties by all medical theorifts, from Hipp es down- 


wards. This s fpafm of the-extreme veflels,”? then, is 
contidered as ‘¢ a part of the operation of the vis medica- 
trix nature ;’? at the fame time, Dr. Cullen is of opinion, 
that, during the whole courfe of fever, there is an atony 
exilting in the extreme vefiels, depending on the diminifhed 
energy of the brain, and that the relaxation of the fpafm 
requires the reitoration of the tone and ation of thefe. 
To this atony in the veffels of the |! : 
lofs of appetite, naufea, and.von 
alfeted by fympathy.. The fp: 
yeflels throws. a load ‘of blood» 
the circulating fyftem,. which pro 
to the heart and arteries, and 
action, which continues till the fj -relaxed or overs 
come. The hypothefis is thus briefly reeapitulated. “ Upon 
the whole, our doéirine of fever is explicitly this. The 
remote caufes are certain fedative powers applied to the 
nervous fy{tem, which, diminifhing the energy of the brain, 
thereby produce a debility in the whole of the funions, 
aud particularly in the aGiion of the extreme veflels. Such, 
however, 1s, at the fame time, the nature of the animal 
economy, that this debility proves an indire& ftimulus te 
the fanguiferous fyftem; whence, by the intervention o 
the cold ftage, and {pafm conneed with it, the ation of 
the heart and large arteries is increafed, and continues fo till 
it has had the efleét of reftoring the energy of the brain, 
of extending this energy to the extreme veflels, of reftoring 
therefore their aétion, and thereby, efpecially removing-the 
{pafm affecting them; upon the removing of which, the 
excretion of {weat, and other marks of the relaxation of 
excretories take place.”? (Cullen, Firit Lines, § 46.) 
Plaufible as this hypothelis undoubtedly appears, it is 
liable to feveral objections ; partly, becanfe it is gratuitous 


in fome particulars, and partly, becaufe fill pl applicable 


ntral parts of 
Zigees BE. . 

rce of irritation 
m to a greater 


to all the phenomena of fevers. In the firf ce, it muft 


be remarked, that by afluming the exiftenee of @ peculiar 
power or agent, fuch as the vis medicatrix nature, we aes 
quire no knowledge, and advance net a ftep her in our 


explanation of the fads, than if we ftated fimply that the 
facts occur. It is an admiffion, that the fa@s are inexpli- 
cable, that they are part of the phenomena of life, which 
we deem incapable of farther generalization in the prefent 
ftate of our knowledges ‘Chis creation of imaginary agents, 
to account for ultimate fats, has had a pernicious influence 
in every department of fcience. What information did 
philofophers acquire refpe€ting the laws of gravitation, by 
the fubititution of an ether; or phyfiologifts, refpecting fen- 
fation and mufcular motion, by the fuppofition of a ner- 
yous juice? Yet upon the fame footing ftands this autocras 
tid, Or vis medicatrix, in regard to the laws of the animal 
economy. It is an impofition, by which we conceal from 
ourfelveS our own ignorance, and prematurely arreft the 
progrefs of inquiry. But this by the way. ' 
This hypothefis, however, isnot only gratuitous in the 
afflumption of a particular agent, but alfo in afluming the 
exiltence of a /pa/in in the extreme veflels, and -in fuppofing 
the cold flage to be the cawfe of all’'that follows. The 
phenomena, 


PE V-E-R. 


phenomena, prefented by the fkin in the cold ftage, may 
arife from the mere feeblenefs of the heart, which is render- 
ed unable to diftend the diftant and minute veffels with blood, 
or from a mere inaétion of the cutaneous capillaries, inde- 
pendently of the heart, as we believe to be the cafe; and 
not from a fpafmodic contraction of the extreme veflels. 
And the prefumption, of the continuance of that fpafm, 
when the fuperficial veffels are filled and diftended with 
blood to a preternatural degree, would appear to be incon- 
fiftent with obfervation; for fpafm and diltenfion are terms 
of oppofite import. The fame veflels, which receive little 
or no blood in the cold flage, and are over diftended with it 
in the hot ftage, cannot Le in both cafes affected with {pafm. 
But, it is contended, the perfpiratory veffels at leatt are 
{pafmodically conitrifted in the hot ftage, for no: fluid is 
oured out. Here, however, it fhould be obferved, that, 
although the poverty of language, which compels us to 
‘borrow the terms of mechanical fcience, in {peaking of the 
henomena of life, may render the ufe of fuch a word as con- 
ftriGiion admiffible ; yet it is not from a mere mechanical con- 
ftriGtion and relaxation of the extreme arteries that the 
per{piration and other fecreted fluids pafs off. ‘Thefe fluids 
are not pre-exiftent in the blood, and feparated as through 
a fieve, but are produced by new combinations, effected by 
an unknown aud inexplicable action of the fecreting extre- 
mities of the veffels ; this action is interrupted by various 
conditions of the veffels, by their over diftenfion, it would 
feem, as well as by their collapfe ; and as we are ignorant of 
the procefs of fecretion, fo we know not how it is fup- 
prefled. The fuppofition of fpafm is equally gratuitous in 
both cafes ; and the word conftriction is only to be confider- 
ed as exprefling, by an incorrect analogy, the non-appear- 
ance of the fluids to be difcharged. The contraction of 
the veffelsin the cold ftage, and their diftenfion in the hot, 
are equally to be confidered as part of the concourfe of the 
fymptoms, and not aneffential caufe of the fever. 

The hypothehs, which affumes the {pafm of the extreme 
veflelsin the cold ftage, as the caufe of all the following 
fymptoms, is not merely gratuitous, however, it is alfo in- 
confiftent with the various phenomena of fever. This incon- 
fifteney feems to have erifen from the aflumption of a fimple 
intermittent or ephemeral paroxy{m, as the prototype of 
every form of fever. But in many of the forms of pyrexia, 
and even of idiopathic fever, there is no evidence of the ex- 
iftence of this fpafm. The cold, itis true, generally ufhers 
in the paroxy{m of an intermittent ; but it is often fcarcely 
obvious in that of a remittent, and in various cafes of con- 
tinued fever it does not appear at all ; fo that the effect oc- 
curs without its imagined caufe.  Befides, there is often no 
proportion between the two; the cold flage may be fhort 
and flight, when the fucceeding hot {tage is long and fe- 
vere, and vice verfe. Even admitting, with Dr. Cullen and 
Dr. Fordyce, that continued fevers are but a feries of pa- 
rosyims, following each other, and generally diftintly di- 
vided by exacerbations and remiflions, yet a cold {tage does 
not occur to introduce the exacerbation, and confequently 
the , fueceeding phenomena are not the refult of a fpafm 
or cold fit. A degree of pyrexia, marked by heat, quick 
pulfe, oppreffion, languor, &c. is often produced by various 
ftimuli, {uch as much heating food, or drink, exexcife, &c. 
but the.cold ftage is wanting. 

We may conclude, therefore, that the occurrence of 
the heat, and its concomitant phenomena in fever, de- 
pends upon fome other principle in the animal economy, 
aud not upon the exiitence of a cold ftage, and its fup- 

ofed,fpafm. As well, indeed, might we fix upon the 
tae asa caufe.of the phenomena, which, in continued 


atten 


fevers, fucceed it; fueh as the delirtum,~proftration of 
ftrength, &c.; and, in truth, the omiffion to notice the 
influence of the morbia heat upon the future progrefs of 
the fymptoms conftitutes, as Dr. Currie has juftly re- 
marked, an imperfeétion in Dr. Cullen’s theory. For it 
is certain, that the accumulation of the heat itfelf is a 
fource of much irritation to the vafcular and nervous 
fyftems, as is. proved by the relief which follows the ab- 
ftra&tion’ of it by means of cool air, and the application 
of cold water to the fkin; for as the heat is decreafed, 
the pulfe immediately becomes lefs frequent, head-ache 
and reftleffnefs are diminifhed, fleep is induced, and even 
perfpiration is excited. 

We have yet to add, that the idea of a proximate 
caufe, implies that, which being prefent, the difeafe is 
prefent, and being abfent, the difeafe difappears. Now, 
the cold ftage is only prefent during a fmall part of the 
progrefs of fever, which is another reafon for confi- 
dering it only as one in the concourfe of the fymp- 
toms. 

The Brunonian Theory.—We have already given a brief 
view of the fyftem by which Dr. Brown attempted to ex- 
plain all the phenomena of the living body, whether in 
health or difeafe (fee Excrraziriry); ad the various 
modifications of fever were of courfe included in that ex- 
planation. The increafing number of fa€ts, which the 
proper ftudy of the animal economy after the time of Hoff- 
man produced, enabled the pupil to advance a ftep beyond 
his matter, in generalizing thofe fa&ts: and it cannot be 
doubted, that fome of the dogmas of Brown were the refult 
of a legitimate induétion, and therefore fome of his princi- 
ples were more juft than thofe of Cullen. But like moft 
theorifts, he overftepped the boundary of obiervation, and 
involved himfelf in hypothefis, to which he made fats bend 
by mifreprefenting them. Fevers, like all other difeafes, 
are attributed to debility, dire€t or indireét ; and he affirnss 
“ that the diftin€tions that phyficians have made about the 
differences of fevers are all without foundation, and that 
they are all the fame, with no other difference but in degree, 
and that, unlefs in that refpe€t, they do not differ from other 
difeafes 6f the fame form.’? (Elements of Medicine, § 662. 
note m.) But he does not attempt to explain how the va- 
rious fucceffion of fymptoms refults from the ftate of debi- 
lity, or how the various modifications of the pyrexiz are to 
be,accounted for upon this principle. The only approxima- 
tion tofuch an explanation, that we have been ableto difco- 
ver, reiembles the one given by Dr. Cullen, inafmuch as it 
is little more than an enumeration of the leading changes in 
the fymptoms, but lefs explicit than that of Dr. Cullen. 
Weare told, that * the debility during the cold ftage is the 
greateit, that of the hot lefs, and that of the fweating ftage, 
which ends in health for the time, is the leait ofall. Hence 
ina mild degree of the difeafe, as cold is the moft hurtful 
power, its effect is gradually taken off by the agreeable heat 
of the bed orofthe fun, andthe flrength thereby gradually 
drawn forth. The heart and arteries, gradually excited by 
the heat, acquire vigour, and, at lat, having their perfpira- 
tory terminations excited by the fame ftimulus, the molt 
hurtful fymptom is thereby removed, the hot fit produced, 
and afterwards the fame procefs carried on to the breaking 
out of fweat.’ (§ 666.) We are farther told that 
*€ the caufe of all thefe difeafes (wiz. fevers, from the fim- 
ple and intermittent to the gaol-fever and the plague,) is the 
{ame with that of difeafes not febrile, to wit, debility ; dif- 
fering only inthis, that it is the greateit debility compatible 
with life, and not long compatible with it.’ (§ 670.) 
It_ may appear ftrange that a theory fo vague’ and 

inexplicit 


REWER 


Mnexplicit fhould have obtained. the number of admirers, 
which the doctrines of Brown have every where gained. 
The mott rationai of its advocates however, Dr. Wiifen, 
who has {tripped the fyftem of many of its errors and in- 
conliltencies, not content with thefe general terms, has 
flated the proximate caufe of fever, according to the Bru- 
nonian principles, to be ‘¢a change in the laws of excitabi- 
lity, in confequence of which the fame agents no longer 
produce the fame efleéts :’’ that is to fay, the fame external 
agents, food, light, exercife, &c. which in health produce 
moderate excitement, in fever produce exceffive excitement. 
He adds, however, ** how the remote caufes of fever act in 
inducing this change, and on what change in the living folid 
this change in the laws of excitability depends, we neither 
‘can, nor ever fhall be able perhaps to determine.” (Trea- 
tife on Febrile Difeafes by Al. Phillips Wilfon, &c. vol. i. 
P 559-) 

Upon this ftatement, it is only neceflary to remark, that 
Dr. Wilfon has fallen into the error which is common in 
the difcuffion of proximate caufes, that of miftaking the 
fymptoms for the difeafe iefelf. ‘The change in the law of 
excitability is but a general expreflion for the change in the 
phenomena of the individual life, 7. e. for the fymptoms of 
the fever; whereas, the change in the living folid is, in 
fact, the eflence of the difeafe, 7. e. the proximate cante of 
‘the fymptoms, which he defpairs of inveftigating fuccefs- 
fully. 

Dr. Darwin’s Theory.-—In the theory of this ingenious 
wphyfician, the phenomena of fever are referred to thofe 
laws of organic life, which he has deduced with great acute- 
nefs from a comprehentive view of the phenomena of the 
living fyttem. His theory, indeed, is much involved im the 
obfcurity of thelanguage, which he has chofen to adopt ; 
Jt is, occafionally perhaps, aided by fancy, where obferva- 
‘tion was deficient ; and it is given by its author ‘ rather as 
obferyatious and conjectures, than as things explained and 
demonttrated ;”? but it appears to afford a glimple of the 
true explanation of the concourfe ef fymptoms in fever, un- 
der its various forms, a foundation and a fcaffolding,’’ to 
‘borrow the author’s words again, ** which may enable fu- 
ture indultry to erect a folid and a beautiful edifice.”’ (See 
Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life, by Eraf{mus Dar- 
win, M.D. &c. Clafs 4. Supplen. ad finem.) Dr. Darwin’s 
fy {tem is grounded upon the fame fundamental principles, as 
thofe of the Brunomian {chopl (fee Excirasriity) 3 the 
incongruities of which, however, he not only in a great de- 
gree avoided, but he likewife introduced a principle, which 
had been. overloeked by Brown, namely, the principle of 
affociation, or fympathy, by which, doubtlefs, many of 
the actions of the living body are regulated. It is upon the 
obfervation of this principle, that the Darwinian theory of 
fever is chiefly conftruéted ; whence the author gave it the 
title of the “* Sympathetic ‘Theory of Fever.” 

Two general laws of the animal economy are flated by 
Darwin, as well as by Brown; 1. That all excitement or 
action of the living organs and funétions occafions a diminu- 
tion: or exhauttion of their power (excitadili/y in the language 
.of the latter, /en/orial power in that of the former,) ac- 
cording to the degree of excitement ; 2. That reft, in- 
aétivity, or the abftraétion of the ufual ftimuli, render 
thofe organs more fufceptible of the action of the ftimuli 
fubfequently applied. Thus, when a {mall part of the 
capillary veffels of the fkin are expofed for a {hort time to: 
acold medium, as when the hands are immerfed in iced 
water for a minute, thefe capillaries become torpid or 
quiefcent, owing to the abftraétion of the ftimulus of hear. 
‘The fin then becomes pale, becawfene bload pailes through. 


the external capillaries, and appears fhrunk, becaufe their, 
fides are collapted from ina€tivity, not contraéed by fpafm 5 . 
the roots of the hair are left prominent from the feceding 
or fubfiding of the fin around them ; and the pain of colds 
nefs.is produced. But in this fituation, if the ufual degree 
of warmth be applied, thefe veffels regain their activity ; . 
and,. having now become more irritable from an accumula- 
tion of the fenforial power during their quiefcence, a greater 
action of them follows, with an increafed glow of the fin, 
and another kind of pain, which is called the hot-ache, 
eniues. Here we fee an epitome of fimple fever beginning 
in the vafcular fyftem. When the fame operation goes on 
more generally, as by immerfion in the cold bath, the cold 
fit fucceeded by the hot fit is more general, and both may 
be increafed and prolonged by continuing inthe bath, which 
has indeed: proved fatal to fome weak and delicate people, 
and to others who had been much exhaufted by heat and 
exercife; the fame torpor and fubfequent orgafm having 
extended to the heart and great veflels. 

Thus far the two theories nearly accord ; but beyond 
this point the Brunonian doétrine leaves us to a general 
{tatement of debility, altogether inadequate to account for 
the various forms and pkenomena of fever. But Dr. Dar- 
win appeals to other eftablifhed faéts in the animal economy, 
upon which thefe varieties appear to depend. From thefe 
a third general law may be deduced; namely, 3. That the: 
funétions of different parts of the fy{tem are fo far catenated, 
or aflociated with each other, as it were in cireles, either 
from direct connection in ftruéture, from the habit of aéting 
together, or more frequently from caufes at prefent inferu- 
table, (fee CaTENATION,) that an inereafe or decreafe of: 
the aétion of one organ is followed or accompanied by an 
increale or decreafe of the action of another; fometimes by 
a fimilar change, that is, increafe followed by increafe of 
activity, or decreafe by decreafe ; but occafionally by the 
contrary change, that is, increafe followed by. decreafe of 
activity, and vice verfé in the affociated parts. The 
former of thefe is termed a direé fympathy ; the latter a 
reverfe fympathy. The inftances of fympathy between 
different parts of the animal frame are very numerous. To 
the medical reader it were fufficient to mention the fympa- 
thiesin the funétions of the ftomach and brain, the ftomach - 
and {kin, the {tomach and heart, the brain and heart, the 
{kin and lungs, the uterus and mamme, &c.; but for the- 
unprofeffional reader a brief illu(tration may be requifite. 

The {ympathetic. aGtion of the flomach and the brain 
occurs perpetually to the obfervation of the phyfician. 
Thus indigeftion, however induced, is frequently the caufe 
of head-ache ; and head-ache, dependent upon certain ftates: 
of the brain, produces lofs of appetite and ficknefs, as in 
hydrocephalus. We have alfo inftances of both dire&t and 
reverle fympathy between thefe organs ; for when the aétion 
of the veflels of the brain is langiid and feeble, as in ap- 
proaching fyncope, naufea and lofs of appetite occur in the: 
{tomach, in which cafe the fympathy is direét; buts when 
the veflels of the brain are acting with inereafed power, as’ 
in phrenfy, naufea and lofs of appetite are likewife induced, 
in which the fympathetic action is reverfed. Similar fympa- 
thies occur between the ftomach and ikia. Thus, moilten- 
ing the fkin relieves thirft, as we have already ftated; and 
a copious draught of warm liquor will often at once produce: 
a. perfpiration on the fkin. We have feen that Dr. Culler 
attributed the fymptoms in the digeftive funétions in fever’ 
almoit entirely to fuch a fympathy ; and that Sydenham: 
removed ficknefs and vomiting by exciting perfpiration. 
The ftimulating influence ef food on the nerves and veflels, 
of the ftomach generally excites,, by direét fympathy, the 

nerves 


* FEVER. 


nerves and vellels of the fkin, and produces a glow on the 
furface; but in certain debilitated conttitutions, or ftates 
of the conftitution, the fame Rimulus in the ftomach occa- 
fions, by reverfe fympathy, a chillinefs, even a fhivering, 
and palenefs of the fkin. Expofure to a cold atmofphere 
(which abftraéts the ftimulus of heat) occafions an increafe 
of appetite and of the digeftive power, in ftrong habits ; 
but the fame expofure often deftroys the appetite, and pro- 
duces even waka, in feeble conttitutions ; thefe may be 
confidered as initances of direét and reverfe {ympathy ; or 
perhaps both as inftances of direct fympathy, the fenforial 
power accumulating in the ftrong conftitution, and pro- 
ducing increafed a¢tion of the cutaneous vetfels ; but not 
in the weak. The aétions of the ftomach and the heart are 
catenated to a confiderable degree ; heating food and drink 
generally quicken the pulfe, and the action of narcotic 

oifons on the ftomach immediately diminifh its frequency 
and ftrength, and often caufe it to intermit. "The a¢tions of 
the fkin and lungs are alfo much affociated ; thus cold ap- 
plied to the fkin, and producing torpor of the cutaneous 
capillaries, as fhewn by the paleneis, chilly fenfation, &c. 
immediately occafions difficult and laborious breathing, pro- 
bably from a fimilar torpor being produced in the capillaries 
of the lungs. The lofs of appetite and nausea induced by the 
aGtion of the uterus after conception, and by inflammation, 
or the irritation of a ftone in the kidnies, may be canfidered 
as examples of a reverfe fympathy between thele organs. 
There are many inftances of the fympathy of parts con- 
neéted by ftructure, or by the habit of ating together. 
Thus, the irritation of a ftone upon the neck of the bladder 
produces an action of the lower gut, with a fruitlefs effort 
to ftool, denominated tenefmus; and, vice ver/ii, a tenef- 
mus, as in dyfentery for inftance, often excites a degree of 
ftrangury or fruitlefs effort to pafs urine. In the fame way, 
not only will a pungent odour, affeting the noftrils, excite 
tears, but the fudden impulfe of ftrong light upon the eyes 
very frequently excites {neezing ; which may be obferved 
daily in the ftreets of London, during the fummer, in per- 
fons who fuddenly receive the reflected light from a white 
pavement, as they pais froma fhade. Thus alfo fympathe- 
tic pains of the mamme occur in diforders of the uterus, 
which organs are conneéted in the funGions and purpofes 
which they ferve in the animaleconomy. See Symparuy, 
and CaTENATION. 

Thefe three laws or principles of aétion in the animal 
economy, then, 1. The exhauftion or diminution of the fen- 
forial powers by exertion ; 2. The recovery or accumulation 
of the fame powers, during quiefcence or impaired action ; 
and, 3. The dire and reverle affociation of parts, by which 
the actions of one part give rife to actions in others, are 
the grounds of Dr. Darwin’s explanation of the phenomena 
of fevers. We have feen how the cold and hot fits of fimple 
fever are produced, frem the external influence of cold ; 
the firft by the torpor of the capillary veffels, from the ab- 
{traGtion of the ftimulus of heat ; the fecond, by the reno- 
vated aétivity of the capillaries from the accumulation of 
fenforial power during that torpor. Dr. Darwin, however, 
remarks, that this renovated activity of the capillaries is not 
owing to the renewed action of the heart, which forces 
them open by the mechanical impulie of blood; that the action 
of the eapillaries often recommences fooner than the ation 
of the heart, thefe veffels having a greater mobility than 
the heart and large arteries, as appears in the fudden blath 
of fhame ; and that, in low fevers, the capillaries acquire ia- 
creafed ftrength, as is evinced by the fiufh and heat of 
the fkin, while the pulfations of the heart and arteries re- 
main feeble. Hence fimple fever is of two kinds; in one 


Vor. XIV. 


the pulfe is ftrong, in the other weak: in the fever with 
ftrong pulfe, not only the cutaneous capillaries, but alfo the 
heart and arteries readily acquire a greater aCtivity by the 
accumulation of fenforial power during the torpid ftate, 
which laft is farther increafed by dire@ fympathy with the 
increafed aétivity of the capillaries ; this happens in ftrong 
conftitutions, and is often feen in vernal intermittents: in 
the fever with weak pulfe, on the contrary, the heart and 
arteries do not acquire much increafe of fenforial power, 
but continue in fome degree in their ftate of torpor, while 
the orgafm of the capillaries is produced, whence there is a 
hot fit, with feeble pulfe. 

But when the fympathies of other parts of the fyftem are 
called into aétion, together with this torpor and crgafm of 
the cutaneous veffels, and of the heart and large arteries, 
the fever-fit becomes more complicated and dangerous. 
And again, when the torpor commences, from the opera- 
tion of other exciting caufes of fever in other organs of the 
body, and extends, with the fubfequent orgaim, by dire@ 
or reverfe fympathy, to the organs aflociated with them, 
other various forms and modifications of febrile difeafe are 
produced. Thus, if the ftomach is affected with torpor, 
either primarily, as from the aétion of contagion, fvrai- 
lowed with the faliva, or fecondarily, by its fympathy’ with 
the cutaneous capillaries, or with fome internal vifcus, a total 
lofs of appetite occurs, followed by ficknefs and vomiting, 
Ifthe brain is affe&ed, either primarily, as by the depreflive 
pailions, by exhauftion from watching, &c. or fecondarily, as 
by the influence of contagtous or marth effluvia, received into 
the ftomach, or the lungs, then proftration of the general 
powers, head-ache, delirium, {tupor, tremors, convulfions, 
&c. are induced. In the fame way, the fecretions from 
the internal organs, as from the kidnies, are diminifhed 
when a torpor takes place in them, either primarily, or by 
fympathy with the cutaneous capillaries, or other parts, and 
are rettored with the renovated aétion. Thefe phenomena 
take place in different degrees in almoft all fevers, and vary 
according to the nature of the organs primarily affeGed, 
and to the ftate of the coniitution, or of the organs 
individually. Thus when the ftomach is flightly dif- 
ordered, as by indigeftible food, or when the vafcular 
{yftem is deranged from expofure to cold, (when no inflam- 
mation. is produced,) the fever which enfues is mild, the 
brainy fuffers little by fympathy, no delirium, &c. occur, 
and health is foon reftored. If, on the contrary, a virulent 
contagion aéts upon the ftomach, and through its medium 
upon the brain, the fenforial powers are greatly exhautted, 
and the complication of dangerous fymptoms, arifing from 
the morbid condition of the nervous fyitem, and from the 
total lofs of powers in the organs of dizeftion, eecurs, con- 
{tituting the contagious, nervous, and maliguant fevers, or 
typhus, under its various forms and denominations. The 
opinion that contagion operates firft on the ftomach, has 
been adopted by Dr. Lind, and other pra@tical writers, and 
is corroborated by many facts. When the contagion is 
fufficiently powerful to produce an immediate and fenfible 
effe&t, ficknefs, together with a difagreeable tafte, which 
has been defcribed as “reaching to the flomach,” is its 
ufual eperation, (fee Lind on Fevers and In fe&tion, 
chap. ii. fect. 1.) and is followed by fhivering tremors, head- 
ache, and a low and weak or irregular pulfe, from the fym- 
pathy of the brain and the fkin. ~The primary action of the 
contagion on the ftomach is probably the caufe of. the 
greater virulence of the cafual, than of the inoculated fmall- 
pox, which however is liable to be varied by the quantity 
of the contagious matter received by its virulence, and by 
the previous fufceptibility of the conftitutian. When the 

Uu fenforial 


FEVER. 


fenforial powers of the ftomach, heart, and brain, are pri- 
marily exhaufted by narcotic poifons, as by digitalis, to- 
bacco, and contagion, (which both Brown and Darwin 
confider, perhaps erroneoufly, as exhaufting by excefs of 
ftimulus,) thefe organs are longer in recovering their exci- 
tability, than when they fuffer from defect of ftimulus, or 
Secondarily, from fympathy with the capillaries of the 
fkin, or of fome other organ. From either fpecies of ex- 
hautftion the fenforial power in voluntary or involuntary muf- 
cles might be removed by a {hort quiefcence ; but with the 
heart to ref is death; whence that organ recovers more 
flowly, and thus produces fever with weak pulfe. Thofe 
organs which are in perpetual aétion, indeed, being en- 
dowed with a greater abundance of vitality, recover their 
fenforial powers in the farne proportion more readily, other- 
wife life could not continue. As the fenforial power accu- 
mulates, the actions of thofe organs increafe ; whence a de- 
gree of inflammation often occurs in the brain audits mem- 
branes, accompanied with fiuthed countenance, reduefs of 
the eyes, and delirium, fometimes followed by ftupor; or 
a fimilar inflammatory aGtion occurs in the ftomach, or 1:f- 
teftines, or in the lungs, or the heart. Thefe, however, 
are generally fecondary effects of low fever, but death is 
feldom produced without fuch an occurrence in fome of 
thofe vifcera. Dr. Darwin jultly confiders the painful or 
uneafy feelings, or (to ufe his language, the fenforial power 
of fenfation,) excited efpecially when inflammation takes 
place, as contributing farther to augment the actions of the 
heart and arteries, and of all the moving fyftem along with 
them; whence the pulfe, under fuch circumftances, ac- 
quires a degree of fharpnefs in its ftroke, unobferved in 
health. 

When the flomach is fecondarily affe@ed, and the torpor 
is primarily produced in fome other vifcus, the actions of 
which, on the reftoration of the fenforial power, are aug- 
mented to the degree conftituting inflammation, and of 
courfe pain, or the fenforial power of fenfation is alfo ex- 
sited, as in pleurify or peripneumony, the heart and arteries, 
not having been exhaufted by a narcotic power, as by con- 
tagion, foon refume a itrong action, the pulfe becomes 
hard, and the difeafe is termed an inflammatory fever, or 
phlegmafia, “Thus,” fays Dr. Darwin, ‘the peripneu- 
mony is generally induced by the patient refpiring very cold 
air, and this efpecially after being long confined to warm 
air, or after being much fatigued and heated by exceflive la- 
bour or exercife. For we can cover the {kin with more 
clothes, when we feel cold ; but the lungs, not having the 
perception of cold, we do not think of covering them, nor 
have we the power of covering them, if we defired it ; and 
the torpor thus produced is greater, or of longer duration, 
in proportion to the previous expenditure of fenforial power 
by heat or exercife. This torpor of the lungs affects the 
{kin with fhuddering, and the itomach is alfo fecondarily 
affeGted ; next follows the violent aGion of the lungs from 
the accumulation of the power of irritation, and an inflam- 
mation of them follows this violent ation, &¢.?? (Loc. 
cit. Supplem. 1. § 16. 7.) 

The theory, of which we have thus given an imperfect 
account, ftripped of the peculiar phrafeology of the author, 
appears to us incomplete, as it confefledly is, to afford an 
approximation to at leaft a more comprehenfive and more 
confiftent doGrine of febrile difeafe, than any that has yet 
been promulgated: more comprehenfive, becaufe it not 
only includes the varieties of idiopathic, but alfo of fympto- 
matic fevers ; while other hypothefes {carcely embrace more 
than one form of the firft, namely, the ephemeral, or im- 
termittent paroxy{m, and have dwelt toe much upen fome 


particular fymptom, as the caufe of the whole difeafe, fuck 
as the heat, the cold fit, or the quick pulfe ; and more con- 
fiftent, becaufe it is derived from thofe laws of the animal 
economy, which have been deduced. from the obfervation 
of the general operations of life, both in health and difeafe, 
To the language, however, many objections arife, as well 
as to feveral collateral ftatements, which are employed in 
filling up the outline, which we have drawn; fuch as the 
notion of a retrograde aétion of the abforbents, of the ab- 
forbent aétion of the capillary veins, of the exceffive itimu- 
lus of digitalis, and the matter of contagion, &c.; but 
thefe are not effential parts of the doctrine. We fhall now 
proceed to ftate briefly the principal points of another 
theory of fever, lately publifhed, which, from the erudition 
and practical knowledge with which it has been maintained, 
is entitled to confideration. Weallude to 

Dr. Glutterbuck’s Theory —Fever has ufually been called 
a general difeafe, affecting all the functions, in contra- 
diftinétion from /oca/ difeafes, in which fome particular 
organ is the primary feat of the diforder, and the affeGtions 
oi the other eee are fecondary, or fymptomatic, But 
Dr. Clutterbuck denies the exiftence of general difeafe, 
and maintains that all general or extenfive derangement of 
the animal fy{tem is ee to local derangement in fome 
one organ. ‘The organ univerfally affected in all the 
varieties of idiopathic fever which differ but in degree, as 
well as in thofe which arife from {pecific contagion, as ma- 
lignant fore throat, fcarlet-fever, {mall-pox, &c. is, in the 
author’s opinion, the brain. ‘This is manifeft, he contends, 
from the fymptoms, as the head-ache, the depreflion of 
{trength, and other derangement of the animal functions, the 
delirium, the tremors, failure of vifion, &c. It is manifeft 
from the nature of the remote caufes which aét chiefly on 
the brain and nervous fyftem, as intoxication, fear, grief, and 
other paflions, external irritation, not to mention miafamta 
and contagion, of the operation of which we are ignorant ; 
as wellas from the predifpofing caufes, which probably 
confift in a deficiency of fenfibility, as in idiots, negroes, 
old people, and infants: but it is more particularly manifeit 
from the confequences of fever whether after recovery, or 
after death, afcertained inthe latter cafe by diflection, Among 
the confequences of fever, which are not uncommon after re- 
covery, are an impaired condition of the fenfes; fuch ae 
deafnefs, imperfeét vilion, depraved talte; paralyticaffeGtions, 
or convulfive complaints, as epilepfy and chorea; derange- 
ment or lofs of the mental powers, fuch as melancholy, 
great irritability of mind, lofs of memory, or even complete 
fatuity. The confequences, obferved by diffe&tion atter 
death occafioned by fever, are frequently vifible difeale 
of the brain, of which feveral examples are quoted by the 
author. He then proceeds to fhew, that the local affection 
of the brain, thus manifelt, is in fact inflammation of that 
organ; or that fever, therefore, * is nothing lefs than a 
{fpecies of phrenitis, or topical inflammation of the brain,” 
and fhould be arranged in the order of Phlegmafie, with 
pleurify, enteritis, and other fymptomatic fevers: but as 
phrenitis has been generally applied to a particular form of 
inflammation of the brain, and implies delirium, which does 
not always occur in fever, although it is a frequent fymp- 
tom, Dr. Clutterbuck propofes the term Encephalitis ‘as 
the denomination for fever. The arguments adduced in 
proof of the notion that the topical affeétion of the 
brain, in fever, is inflammation, are, 1. The analog 
between the fymptoms of fever and thofe of inflammation, 
viz. pain, heat, throbbing, acute fenfibility, &c. bein 
common to both; 2. The occafional buff af the blood in 
both; 3. The fimilarity of feveral of the exciting caufes of 


both ; 
1 


Pee VER. 


both; 4. The occafional alternation of fever with inflam- 
mation; 5. The analogy in regard ta the cure of the two 
difeafes generally, as by means of blood-letting, vomiting, 
{weating, parging, bliftering, and the application of cold ; 
6. The Pantone of fever not being diftinguifhable, on the 
whole, from thofe which belong to phrenitis, a3 defcribed 
by authors; 7. That the morbid condition of the brain, 
difcovered by diffeGtion, is {uch as implied previous inflam- 
mation. (See an Inquiry into the Seat and Nature of 
Fever, &c. by Henry Clutterbuck, M. D. 1807.) The au- 
thor has illuftrated thefe arguments at confiderable length, 
with great perfpicuity, and with an ample collection of fa&ts 
and obfervations, compiled from the records of medicine ; 
“but our limits confine us to a mere fketch of the general 
doftrine, and to a few obfervations relative to its apparent 
folidity and truth. 
Inthe firft place, Dr. Clutterbuck, like other theorifts 
~enamoured of a favourite doétrine, appears to have laid 
too great ftrefs upon thofe phenomena which fupport that 
‘doctrine, and to have conceded le{s to oppofing facts, than 
‘they are entitled to claim. Hence, in retracing the delinea- 
‘tions of fever, in the words of the moft creditable writers, 
he has diftinguifhed by italics all thofe figns which indicate 
derangement of the encephalon, by which they are made to 
ftand the moft prominent features in the picture. Hence, alfo, 
he has aflumed the pofition, that the derangements of the na- 
tural and vital fun@tions, which are nearly, if not altogether, as 
univerfal concomitants of fever, as the diforders of the animal 
funétions, are, neverthelefs, in all cafes, fecondary fymptoms, 
originating from the primary affection of the brain. Thus 
thenaufea, the vomiting, the total lofs of appetite, and of the 
digeftive power, are believed to be always fympathetic of 
the affection of that organ; fo likewife is the quickened 
ation of the heart and arteries, and of the refpiration. That 
this, however,isa gratuitous affumption may be fhewn, 1. By 
attending to the very hiftories which Dr. Clutterbuck has 
quoted, in which the occurrence of the deranged condition 
‘of the ftomach is as conftantly mentioned, as that of the 
diforder of the encephalon ; 2. By obferving, that the fym- 
pathy between the brain and the ftomach is perfeétly reci- 
procal; fo that the brain fuffers in fympathy with the 
ftomach, not lefs manifeftly than the ftomach with the 
brain; and, 3. By remarking, that the fymptoms of dif- 
ordered ftomach are capable of being relieved or removed, 
while the fuppofed caufe (affe€tion of the brain) remains ; 
the thirft being allayed, and the ficknefs removed, by chang- 
ing the ftate of the fkin only, the former by moiftening it 
with water, the latter by exciting fweat, as obferved by Sy- 
denham. © Whence Drs. Cullen and Darwin feem to be 
rather juftified in attributing the derangement of the 
ftomach, when it is affeéted fecondarily, more frequently to 
ite fympathy with the ftate of the fin, than of the brain. 
Farther, the contieCtion of many of the leading fymp- 
toms with fome diforder of the brain, or common fenfo- 
rium, (is admitted by all, and equally favours the hypothefis 
of the other authors, as well as that of Dr. Chitterbuck ; 
fince whether the brain is primarily or fecondarily affeCted, 
certain phenomena in the nervous fyftem muft neceffarily 
enfue. We have juft ftated fome reafons for believing that 
itis often thus fecondarily affe&ed; and it now.remains to 
offer our reafons for fuppofing, that inflammation of the 
brain, when it does occur in fever, (to which we cannot 
conlider it ‘as‘effential, ) is commonly fecondary likewife. 
PoThe firkt fymptoms of the affe&tion of the brain are by no 
means thofe which indicate inflammation or unafal excite- 
ment’of the fenforitim ; on the contrary, they are fuch as 
indicate an oppofite ftate, which Dr. Cullen has termed 


atony and collapfe, and Dr. Darwin torpor: the head-ache 
itfelf, according to the obfervation of Dr. Fordyce, is 
altogether diftin@& from the head-ache of inflammatory 
excitement, or of the hot ftage. Any fymptoms that can 
be interpreted as indications of local inflammations, fuch as 
rednefs of the eyes, protrufion of the features, flufhed 
countenance, throbbing of the arteries, and even delirium, 
are the appearances belonging to a fubfequent period of the 
fever. But at this fubfequent period, inflammatory con- 
geftions are liable to occur in the other vifcera, if not fo 
frequently, at leaft, not unfrequently ; as in the flomach, for 
example, the inteftines, the lungs, and other organs, This fact 
has been noticed by many phyficians of accurate obfervation. 
Riveriis long ago remarked that ‘ acute and malignaszt 
fevers fearcely ever occur unaccompanied by inflammation 
in fome one of the vifcera ;’? and he has ftated in another 
place, in moft diftin@& terms, that we ought affiduoufly to 
recolle@, that all thofe fevers, with which local inflamma- 
tion is conjoined, are not fymptomatic, but often idiopathic, 
and that the inflammation fupervenes, not being the caufe, 
but the confequence of the fever; “ quz febrem iftam non 
efficit, fed illi potius fuccedanea eft.”” Thus, he adds, 
“we frequently obferve, in practice, that patients labour 
under continued fever for a day or two before pain of the 
fide and other fymptoms of pleurify appear ; thus alfo many 
perfons on the third or fourth day of fever fall into inflam- 
mation of the brain, &c.”? * Sic nobis frequenter in ufu 
practico videre licet egrotantes, ab initio febre continua 
laborantes per unam aut alteram diem, antequam dolor lateris 
et elia pleuritidis figna appareant : fic mu/# tertia vel quarta 
febris die in phrenitidem incidunt, &c.”’ (See River. Prax. 
Med. lib. xvii. cap. 1.) Dr. Donald Monro, whofe tefti- 
mony on fubjeéts of morbid anatomy is of confiderable 
weight with Dr. Clutterbuck, remarks, when {peaking of 
malignant fever, that ‘* this fever occafions in general more 
or lefs rednefs (I do not know that we can properly call it 
true acute inflammation) of the membranes ; and the febrile 
matter is apt to fall on particular parts, and there to create 
abfceffes, particularly in the brain, the lungs, and the 
glandular organs.” (See his Treatife on Military Hofp. 
vol. i. p. 237. and Dr. Clutterbuck’s Treatife, p. 172.) 
Obfervations to this effe&@ might be eafily multiplied, and 
we have already enumerated feveral in a former part of this 
article. It is fomewhat fingular, that Dr. Clutterbuck, 
who quotes the remark of Dr. Monro, fhould deem it fa- 
vourable to his hypothefis of exclufive inflammation of the 
brain ; fince it ebvioufly proves zn equal liability to inflam- 
mation in other organs, if it proves any thing. Now, it 
muit be admitted, that, if fever depends upon inflammation 
of the brain, and is merely fymptomatic of fuch a ftate, this 
ftate muft be always prefent, when the fymptoms of fever 
occur; one clear negative example is furely fatal to the 
theory. Dr. Beddoes collected a confiderable quantity of 
evidence from the hiftories of diffeGtions, made during the 
prevalénce of feveral epidemic fevers on the continent, from 
which it is proved, indeed, that congeltion, or fome other 
morbid appearance was frequently obferved in the brain or 
its membranes ; but it is alfo fhewing that abfceffes, gan- 
grene, or other marks of inflammation, were not lefs fre- 
quently found in the sifcera of the thorax and of the abde- 
men, efpecially in the ftomach and liver. Thele faéts we 
have detailed, when {peaking of the confequences of fatal 
fevers, as difcovered by difleGtion, and it is unneceflary to 
repeat them here. Dr. Beddoes is fairly led (fuppofing 
the facts accurately reprefented) to this inference, that “ ja 
idiopathic fever, the flomach and contiguous parts have 
been found more conftantly and more deeply affected with 

Uuta inflame 


FEVER. 


MERA, Acuvue, and Remitrent.) In the fynocha, or 
inflammatory fever, this is the principal indication to be 
followed; in the fynochus, or fub-inflammatory fever, it is 
the rule of practice in the greater part of the difeafe ; and 
evenin typhus, originating from contagion, it is commonly 
to be kept in view in the firft days of the complaint, and 
partially for a longer period. We are not in pofleffion of 
any means,. by avhich we can with fafety effect a direct di- 
minution of the aGtions of the animal fyftem in fever: our 
meafures, therefore, are limited to a negative or indire&t re- 
du@ion of excitement, by withdrawing or diminifhing thofe 
irritations or f{timuli, which are conftantly applied to the bo- 
dy, in one degree or other, and a€tually excite the actions 
of life, (fee Excirrasitity,) or which are more particular- 
ly the confequence of the febrile ftate. Of the firft of 
thefe irritations, the ordinary impreflions made upon our 
fenfes, the exercife of the body and mind, the ufe of food 
and drink of various qualities, are examples ; of the latter, 
the exceflive heat, the thirft, and the various painful fenfa- 
tions, &c. The fyftem of avoiding thefe as much as _pofli- 
ble, or of moderating their force, when that is imprattica- 
ble, conftitutes what has been called the antiphlogifitc regi- 
men, which it is requifite to purfue in almoft every conti- 
-nued fever. Although the irritations naturally occurring 
in health, are doubtlefs falutary, and fupport the aétivity of 
the living body ; yet, in the febrile ftate, when the body is 
more fenfible tothe operation of ftimuli, on the one hand, 
and more feeble, (in typhus at leaft,) and therefore lefs ca- 
pable‘of bearing their ation, without {uffering exhauttion, 
on the other, they become exceedingly prejudicial. 

1. Inthe hot ftage of fever, the fenfes are generally more 
acute, and the ordinary impreflions excite a painful irrita- 
tion, and thus contribute to augment the vafcular aétion, and 
to increafe head-ache, refllefsnefs, &c. Hence the obtru. 
fion of too much light is to be prevented, all noifes are to 
be excluded, and fuch covering, er-bed, to be employed as 
is leaft uneafy to the body of the patient. In large towns, 
fluffing the ears with cotton may perhaps more effectual- 
ly leflen the effe€t of noife than laying ftraw in the 
ftreet. But no impreffion is to be more carefully guarded 
againft than that of external heat; while at the fame time 
every other means of increafing the heat of the body is to 
be fhunned. Both thefe precautions are to be obferved as 
foon as a hot ftage is fully formed, and to be attended to dur- 
ing its continuance ; the more the morbid heat is augmented, 
the more neceflary this attention becomes, fince the uneafy 
fenfations conneéted with it are the conftant caufe of in- 
creafe to all the other.fymptoms. This is not lefs evident, 
than the general and fpeedy relief which follows the ab- 
{traGion of this morbid irritation, 7 ¢. in the common 
phrafe, the application of cold. Yet it was formerly an 
univerfal practice, to augment the heat in the early ftages of 
fever, in {pite of the inftinétive feelings of the patient ; 
partly under a notion, that fweating might thus be pro- 
duced, and a crifis accomplifhed ; and partly ‘from an hy- 
pothetical opinion, that heat contributed to accelerate the 
procefs of concoétion, and therefore to fhorten the fever. 
Our countryman, Sydenham, was one of the firft to point 
out the advantages of a contrary practice, which he adopt- 
ed when the reft of European phyficians were purfuing the 
hot regimen, ‘The fame notion of the humoriits, and with 
others, the fear of the fubfequent debility and proftration of 
ftrength, which occur in the latter periods of typhous fe- 
ver, and the doétrine that debility is the proximate 
caufe of the difeafe, have alfo contributed to conjoin with 
this a ftimulating mode of treatment, in fevers of this cha- 
racter ; fo that fome practitioners no fooner hear the name 


of fever, efpecially when the epithets putrid, contagiouss 
malignant, &c., are conneéted with it, than they imme- 
diately ply the patient with wine, Peruvian bark, and other 
ftimulants and cordials, whatever be the period or circum- 
ftances of the difeafe, for the purpofe of obviating or an- 
ticipating the confequences of debility. This the expe- 
rience of all enlightened and unprejudiced phyficians of the 
prefent day, condemns as a pernicious error, in the early 
{tages of fever, when there is a dry heat on the furface of 
the body. Tornot only is the general vafcular aétion, and 
with it the head ache, delirium, thirft, reftlefsnefs, &c., 
dire&tly augmented, but they are alfo indire@ly increafed 
by the increafe of the irritation of fuperficial heat; and the 
very debility, which is intended to be prevented, is, there- 
fore, actually accelerated and augmented, in confequence 
of the exhauftion which over-excitement induces. ‘Thus 
petechia, and other figns of putrefaction (as they have been 
termed, ) were common refults of the hot regimen ; which, 
on the other hand, was inadequate to produce a crifis by 
{weating, or to fhorten the febrile ftate by conco@tion, as 
we fhall prefently ftate. 
> The reduction of the morbid heat, then, conftitutes an 
important part of the fyitem of avoiding irritation. It 
is accomplifhed by external and internal means; the 
external confifting of the application of cool air, or of 
cold or tepid water to the furface of the body, and of 
furrounding the patient with light clothing, by which 
the animal heat is not accumulated; and the internal, of 
cold drink; and perhaps of what have been denominated 
refrigerant medicines. ‘The human body evolves a fufficient 
quantity of heat to preferve its regular and agreeable tem- 
perature, in fo rare a medium as the air, when the tempe- 
rature of this is not under 62° of Fahrenheit’s thermome- 
ter, or unlefs it contain moifture ; and in air at 62°, the 
caloric difengaged from the body is neither carried off, nor 
permitted to accumulate fo as to become unpleafant. But 
if more caloric be difengaged than in health, a lower tem- 
perature will be required Por its due abftraction, in propor- 
tion to the greater heat and ftrength of the patient. A 
temperature of the air in his apartment of between 45 
and 55 degrees will be the moft grateful, perhaps, in the 
ordinary forms of typhus. In the fynocha, in which the 
temperature of the body is higher, that of the patient’s 
bed-room may be kept as low as 35° or 40° with advantage. 
In this country, the former temperature is very commonly 
attainable ; if the heat of the atmofphere be higher, the 
evaporation of watery fluids, {prinkled upon the floor or 
other parts of the bed-room, efpecially fuch as are im- 
preguated with the effential oil of aromatic plants, contri« 
butes fomewhat to reduce the temperature, and feels re- 
frefhing to the patient. The free admiffion of pure air is 
at all times neceflary, not only as producing evaporation 
and confequent coolnefs, but as carrying off the morbid 
effluvia arifing from the body, and affording a pure pabu- 
lum for refpiration; of which we fhall have occafion to 
{peak hereafter. The late Dr, Gregory, father’ of the 
prefent profeffor at Edinburgh, ufed to remark, when he 
had been viliting one of the richer clafs of people in fever, 
that if he had the patient im acool ward of the infirmary, 
he ceuld enfure his recovery; whereas, from the mere cir- 
cumftance of the heat and clofenefs of the apartment, 
which he could not regulate according to his wifh, he weuld 
in all probability, find the fymptoms of the fever increafed 
at his next vifit. ‘The writer of this article has frequetitly 
experienced the great and obvious benefit of a cool and well 
ventilated room, independently of medicine. He has vifited 
patients, who had applied for admiffion into the Honfe of 
Recovery, 


FEVER. 


Recovery, in their own clofe and fuffocating apartments, 
and found them in a ftate of delirium, with dry black 
tongue, great heat, and other bad fymptoms; having di- 
reéted them to be removed to the Houfe, he has found 
them cool and perfectly collected, with other fymptoms of 
equal amendment, on the following morning, from the 
mere influence of a cool bed, and an airy apartment. 

Another mode of reducing” the morbid heat is the appli- 
cation of cold or tepid water to the fkin. As the fever is now 
fuppofed to have advanced beyond the fourth day, after 
which period a complete folution of it is not to be expected, 
either the cold affufion may be employed, or the furface 
of the body may be wafhed, by means of a fponge, with 
cold or tepid water, or tepid water may be ufed in the way 
of affufion. The fame precautionary rules, as we have 
already ftated, are to be obferved in regard to all thefe 
modes of tle external application of cold water. The 
tepid affufion (2. e. of water heated to that degree which is 
warm, but not hot to the fenfations, or from 87° to g7° of 
the {cale of Fahrenheit,) produces a cooling effect, equal to 
that of cold affufion, partly in confequence of a more 
{peedy evaporation, and partly becaufe fo great a glow, or 
re-a€tion, as it has been called, does not fucceed. ** Where 
the ebjec is to diminifh heat,’’? Dr. Currie obferves, (Re- 
ports on Water, vol. i. p. 69. chap. x. 2d edit.) * that 
may be obtained with great certainty by the repeated ufe 
of the tepid affufion, fuffering the furface of the body to 
be expofed in the interval to the external air; and if the 
beams of the fun be excluded, and a ftream of wind blows 
over it, the heat may be thus reduced where cold water 
cannot be procured, even in the warmeft regions of the 
earth, on the plains of Bengal, or the fands of Arabia.” 
The effects of the affufion of tepid water on the {kin are 
thus enumerated. ‘ It very generally produces a con- 
fiderable diminution of heat, a dimimfhed frequency of 
the pulle and refpiration, and a tendency to repofe and 
fleep. Ihave alfo ufed it in feverifh diforders of various 
kinds where the lungs are oppreffed, and the refpiration la- 
borious, and where of courfe the oppreffion might be dan- 
eeroufly augmented by the fudden flimulus of the cold af- 
tufion. It is alfo applicable to every cafe of fever, in 
which the cold affufion is recommended, and thofe may re- 
ceive much benefit from it whofe fears or whofe feeblenefs 
deter them from that energetic remedy. I have not, how- 
ever, found its effe€ts fo permanent as thofe of the cold 
affulion, and I have sever feen it followed by the total cef- 
fation of regular fever, as often occurs after the cold 
afiufion.”? (Currie, loc. cit.) 

Where the affulion of cold or tepid water is not employed 
in fever, benefit may be derived, though in an inferior degree, 
by fpunging or wetting the body with cold or warm water, or 
vinegar and water. According to Dr. Currie’s experience, 
however, it is not only lefs effectual, but in many cafes lefs 
fafe 5 for the fyftem will often bear a fudden, a general, and 
a ftimulating application of cold, when it fhrinks from its 
flow and fucceffive application. Inthe Houfe of Recovery 
belonging to the Fever Inftitution of London, all thefe 
meafures have been conftantly employed according to the 
circumftances of the patient, as pointed out by Dr. Currie, 
and relief has been invariably the refult ; no indivjdual re- 
medy, to which we have reforted, has appeared to produce 
fo prompt and decided a diminution of the febrile fymp- 
toms; which, though o/ten temporary only, is in many 
cafes permanent, and renders the future courfe of the 
difeafe apparently milder and shorter, than it would other- 
wile be. 

The fenfation of ¢/ir/? is another irritation, which is often 


very diftrefling in fever. In this inftance, as in that of 
extreme heat, the inftinétive feelings of the patient direé& 
him to the fource of relief; to fimple diluent drink in the 
one cafe, as to expofure tocool air, or immerfion in water, 
in the other. Had not the rage for hypothefis for ages, 
blinded the pra¢titioners of medicine, the obvious propen- 
fities of the conftitution could not have been fo long and fo 
obitinately thwarted, nor the grofs inconfiftency have been 
committed, of acknowledging the fuperintendance of na- 
ture, her falutary and healing exertions, her vis medicatrix, 
yet of countera€ting her inftin&tive difpofitions and opera- 
tions with fo much induftry. Thus, drink, as well as cool 
air, has been denied to patients in fever by fome phyficians, 
and, when allowed, was directed to be given warm, notwith- 
ftanding their defire for it cold. The ancient phyficians, 
indeed, with whom obfervation on the whole was paramount 
to hypothefis, generally admitted of a free ufe of cold 
drink; Galen confidered it as a moft important remedy in 
fever; and Avicen, Rhazes, and others of the Arabian 
phyficians, were more indulgent in this refpe€t than the 
Greeks. Neverthelefs, Aetius recommended total abiti- 
nence from liquids until the thirit was greatly augmented, 
and then to allow it to be fully gratified by copious draughts 
of cold drink. Celfus alfo recommends the ufe of copious 
cold drink in the height of the fever, ‘* but not before the 
fourth day, and after great thirft.”? (De Medicina, lib. iii. 
cap. 7.) “¢ In the article of drink,” he fays, in another place, 
“ the ftruggle is great, and that in proportion to the feverity 
of the fever ; for this inflames the thirft, and demands wae 
ter moft importunately, when it is moft dangerous.?? 
(Lib. iii. cap. 6.) After the revival of learning, when the 
Galenical hypothefis of conco¢tion was univerfally adopted, 
cold drink was generally prohibited until the fever had at- 
tained its acme, under the notion that it increafed the cru- 
dity of the fluids, and prevented the progrefs of concoGtien : 
“* verum materiam morbi incraffando, atque iutus includen- 
do,” fays Lommius, “ longe facere co€tioni rebelliorem, 
itemque meatus, quibus ea tandem vacuari debeat, obitru- 
ere.” (Lomm. de Febribus contin. curandis, fe&. iii. cap. 2.) 
The conclufion, however, which common fenfe wouid de- 
duce from a confideration of the inftin@ive propenfities of 
the conftitution, is fortunately corroborated by obfervation 
and experience. Dr. Fordyce, after refuting fome argu- 
ments and {tating fome facts, upon this point, adds this 
remark: ‘* the author, therefore, concludes, that as it is of 
no ufe to reitrain the patient from drinking as much as he 
pleafes, orto compel him to drink more than he chufes, fo 
it is of no ufe to prevent him from drinking it of the de- 
gree of heat that he likes beit.”? (Third Differtat. p. i. 
p- 211.) The abfurd oppofition to the intimations of na- 
ture, which many practitioners have been led to maintain by 
equally abfurd reafoning, almoft juitifies a farcafm of the 
late Dr. Moore, who faid, that “ between a good phyfi- 
cian and a bad one, there was a wide difference ; but between 
a good phyfician and none at all, the difference was very 
little.” At prefent, however, the obfervation is not ap- 
plicable ; fince the abfurdities of former phyficians are now 
adopted by the people at large, and one of the greateft 
difficulties which a practitioner has to encounter at prefent, 
is to prevent the mifchief of popular interference, and to 
defend the operations of the conftitution from popular in- 
terruption. 

With refpe& to the ufe of cold drink in fevers, Dr, 
Currie afcertained that its fafety and utility are dependent 
on the fame principles, and that its adminittration is to be 
regulated by the fame rules, as the external application of 
cold ; namely, that when there is a fteady heat of . 

ace, 


PiEIV’E R: 


face, without any fenfe of chillinefs, or a general perfpira- 
tion, itis fafe and falutary, and attended by fimilar effects, 
though generally lefs in degree, than thofe of the cold 
wafhing. ‘This principle was, indeed, long ago pointed out 
by Galen and others, though with lefs precifion. The 
degree of corporeal heat, the ftrength of the patient, the 
fummer feafon, &c., are ftated by Lommius, from the 
ancients, as indicating the fafety of cold drink. ¢ Fiduciam 
addunt, febris admodum urens, ztas juvenilis, corpus boni 
habitus, firmorumque vifcerum, atque his (ut fere fit) 
juncte vires, eftas media, confuetudo. Ingens febris ardor 
fine noxa frigide impetum fultinet, &c.”? (Loc. cit.) The 
effeéts of cold drink, when copioufly taken in the hot flage, 
as defcribed by the ancients, as by Actius, Celfus, &c. are 
{weating, a difpofition to found fleep, and relief from the 
fever. ‘ Poft que,” fays the author ju quoted, after 
having mentioned the quantity of cold water drank (three 
or four pints), and occafional. vomiting or diarrhoea produced 
by it, “ reclinati ac probe operti, mox uberrimis {udoribus 
totas noctes, vel etiam altiffime dormientes, defluxerunt, 
quibus finitis, omnem in poiterum amiferunt febricita- 
tionem.’? Cold drink is feldom employed, at prefent, to 
this extent ; but a treatife was publifhed nearly a century 
ago, by the reverend Dr. Hancock, of St. Stephen’s, Wal- 
brook, entitled * Febrifugum Magnum, or common water 
a cure for all fevers,”? in which he ftates, that very copious 
draughts of cold water, drank at bed-time, at the begin- 
ning of fevers, invariably produced copious iweating, and a 
folution ef the difeafe, in feveral cafes, which he has related. 
He was not, however, aware, that fuch a practice was only 
fafe after the hot ttage was completely formed. 

2. Another irritation, which it is requifite to avoid in 
fever, is motion, efpecially that which requires the exercife 
of the mufcles; and it muft be obferved, that every motion 
of the body is more {timulant and exhautting in proportion 
asthe body is weaker. Hence that pofture is to be chofen 
which employs the feweft mufcles, and which keeps none 
of them long ina {tate of contraGion. In the horizontal 
pofition, the patient is fupported in every part by the bed, 
and he is not obliged to exert many of his mufcles to main- 
tain an equilibrium, as when in the ere¢ét pofture. Some 
mufcular exertion is, however, required to lie on one fide 
or the other, although it be imperceptible in health; fince 
in the extreme proftration of {trength, in the laft flage of 
fever, the patient invariably flides upon his back. Speak- 
ing, which as it alfo tends to accelerate refpiration, fhould 
be particularly refrained from. 

3. The exercife of the mind alfo adds much to the ex- 
citement of the body, more efpecially when there is con- 
fiderable debility, as in fever, and when, therefore, the exer- 
cife of the mental powers requires more exertion on the 
part of the patient. Hence as foon as a febrile attack has 
come on, every circumftance that can lead to thought, and 
efpecially to fuch as is conneGted with anxiety, or may tend 
to excite paffion or emotion, is to be carefully fhunned. 
It is {carcely neceflary to warn the praétitioner againit ex- 
citing anxiety in the mind of the patient about his difeafe, 
by making it the fubjeét of converfation in his prefence ; 
but it fhould be inculcated to nurfes and friends, and all un- 
neceffary attendants and vifitors fhould be excluded, that 
the fubje& of bufinefs, and all other intereiting converfation 
may be avoided. 

4. A very important part of the antiphlogiftic regimen 
relates to the nature and qualities of the food and drink to 
be given to perfons labouring under fever, particularly in 
the early periods of it. The prefence of recent aliment in 
the ftomach always proves ftimulant to the fyftem, and the 
more fo in proportion to the quantity received, to the foli- 


dity of its texture, and therefore the difficulty of its digef- 
tion, &c.; im all thefe points the irritation ought to be 
moderated as much as poffible, confiitently with the fafety 
of the patient. In the beginning of continued fever no great 
quantity of nourifhment is immediately required, the fy item 
being able to fupport itfelf for a time, without any thing 
being thrown in to be formed into chyle and blood. Total 
abitinence from food, for the firft few days of continued 
fever, was much practifed by the ancients, who have left us 
a great many precepts refpecting the regulation of the diet 
in febrile difeafes. A confiderable degree of abftinence in 
fact is rendered abfolutely neceflary by the lofs of appetite, 
and even avertion to food, which prevail through the 
greater part of the courfe of fever; but fome aliment be- 
comes requifite to prevent the patient from finking under 
the exhauttion of the difeafe. In the firft place, however, 
no principal meal fhould be employed under thefe circum- 
{tances, even were the organs of digeftion capable of retain- 
ing a large quantity of food, or of converting it into chyle, 


on account of the irritation which it would induce: {mall - 


quantities, therefore, fhould be given, and repeated more 
frequently than in health. Inthe fecond place, no felid 
animal food ought to be given during the exiftence of con- 
tinued fever, however flight. 
when taken, if the ftomach do not altogether reje& it, is to 
increafe the heat of the patient, not only to his own fenfa- 
tions, but itill more to the feel of the by-ftander, and fre- 
quently, theugh not always, to the thermometer; to in- 
creafe the frequency of the pulfe and refpiration ; to excite 


great reftleffnefs and a fenfe of uneafineis, and to augment * 


the deprefiion of itrength, during the time that it remains in 
the ftomach and inteitines. In fhort, it totally deranges 
the fever, and often produces the appearance of a freth 
paroxyim. (Fordyce.) If the fame kind of food be per- 
fitted in, it increafes the evening exacerbations extremely, 
brings on delirium much more rapidly, and to a much 
greater degree than it would otherwife arife, and in every 
way aggravates the danger of the difeafe. Dr. Fordyce 
prefles a farther caution ftrongly upon the attention of his 
readers: ‘ even after the difeafe has been terminated by a 
crifis,”” he fays, ‘* animal food, in a folid form, fhould be 
rejected, there being no caufe which has produced relapfes, 
as far as the author’s obfervation has gone, fo frequently as 
ufing folid animal food too foon,’? from a notion that it 
would {peedily reftore the ftrength of the patient. And 


he properly fuggefts that under fuch circumftances, the | 


fever being gone, the depreffion of ftrength no longer exift- 
ing, and no farther caufe of weaknefs remaining, ‘* the 
patient, with very moderate nourifhment, and the ioe and 
rett which are fo apt to enfue after the fever has been com- 
pletely carried off, will have his {trength reftored in a ve 

{hort time, without ufing any thing that fhall run any if 


of reproducing the difeafe.” (Third Differt. part i. p.184.) - 


The moft proper nourifhment in fever, then, confilts of 
light, fluid, vegetable matters; efpecially the farinaceous 
fubflances, coagulated by heat. Decoétions of barley have 
been employed for this purpofe, as the fimpleft nourifhment, 
from the earlieft ages ; and the feeds of oats, or other fari- 


naceous grain, with the hufks removed, afford fimilar food © 


by decoction in water. ‘The various forms of vegetabe 
ftarch, which are prepared uader the names of fago, tapioca, 
arrow-root, &c. antwer the fame purpofe of furnithing 
aliment, which gives the leatt dilturbance to the organs of 
digeftion. 
of a decoétion of baked flour, or of bread twice baked, 
which we call rv/és, was much recommended in acute 
difeafes. All vegetable fub{tances, however, are not to be 
employed indifcriminately as food, in fevers. Even the 

farinaceous 


The effe& of fuch food, ° 


The polenta of the ancients, which was compofed » 


FEVER. 


farinaceous fubftances, if diffolved in water, without-being 
coagulated by heat or otherwile, afford a very vifcid food, 
which is not eafily digeftible, and difturbs the ftomach and 
the conftitution at large: all fuch vegetables as cabbage, 
lettuce, green peafe, and the like, are to be rejected, on ac- 
count of their difpofition: to run into the vinous and 
acetous fermentations, which the ftomach, having its powers 
depreffed, is not ftrong eHduch-to countereét; whence a 
confiderablé quantity of vapour is extricated, which diliends 
the ftomach and inteftines, and produces partial {pafmodic 
contraGttons ig them. Al! kind of ‘food which is adhefive 
to the ftomach produces Irritation in ‘the fyftem, fuch as 
firong folutions of. giim Agabic, fjellies, fornied from the 
fleth of! young anitals,,.or from the membranous parts, 
which fhould the¥efore be avoided. © The fruits, efpecizily 
the fub-acid or fumhmer sruits,: or fuch’-of, them asy from 
containing lefs mucilage, ‘are not very prone'to fermentation, 
(Fordyce, ) afford: 'a” light and agreeable nourifhment, as 
grapes, &c. ; thofe which ‘confift of much.acid, and little 
fugar, althongh agreeable in {mall quantities, do not con- 
tain fufficiest nonrifhment to be depended-upon, fuch as 
lemons. Another clafs of fruits, which contain, befides 
native vegetable acid, a fermentable mucilage, fugar, and a 
quantity of farinaceous matter, fuch as apples, pears, apri- 
cots, peaches, &c. fhould have their mucilage coagulated 
by heat, when given to patienté in fever : baked, boiled, or 
roatted, they conftitute a light and nutritious: food. If 
animal food be employed at all during the progrels of coa- 
tinued fever, (and the prejudice in favour of it in this 
country is fo ftroug, that it is almoft impoffible to prevent 
the attendants on the fick from giving it, or to convince 
them that the patient can be fultained through the fever 
without it ;) it fhould be ufed only in folution in water, 
and folutions only of the mufcular parts of full grown ani- 
mals. Thefe afford a lefs vifcid fluid than the flefh of 
young animals, or than the membranous, tendinous, or liga- 
mentous parts: the fat or oily part fhould be removed by 
cooling and fkimming it off, before the folution be given to 
the fick. i 
5. The nature of the drink whichis proper to be given 
to perfons labouring under fever requires fome coufideration, 
‘We have already obferved, that, with refpeét to quantity, 
it is ufelefs either to force the patient to drink more than 
his thirft requires, or to debar him from drinking as much 
as it urges him to take; and alfo, with ref{peé to its tem- 
perature, that it may be taken cold, even in large quantity, 
under the fame circumftances as the application of cold ex- 
ternally; namely, when the patient is ina fteady heat, 
without any fenfe of chillinefs on the one hand, or profufe 
general per{piration on the ether. In regard to the qua- 
lity of his drink, the principle of avoiding irritation or ex- 
citement of the arterial action is to be conftantly kept in 
view, at leatt in the carly ftages of fever. When there is 
confiderable heat of the body, water from the fpring is 
generally moft grateful to the palate of the patient, and is 
not, perhaps, to be excclled in wholefome qualities by any 
combination of art. The flight empyreumatic flavour given 
to it by toalted bread, or the impregnation of it with a 
fmall quantity of the effential oil of the plants of the 
clafs didynamia of Linneus, fuch as fage, balm, &c, mutt 
be deemed altogether indifferent in their effeéts on the dif- 
eafe; and may be employed or not, according to the fug- 
eftion of the palate of the patient. All fermented and 
pirituous liquors, as directly timulant to the fyftem, fhould 
be interdi&ed during the early and middle ttages‘of con- 
tinued fever, of whatfoever denomination, Dr. Fordyce, 
mifled by a piece of hypothelis refpeting the procefs of 
Vou. XIV. 


digeftion, and mifconflruing the meaning of the word jer- 
mentation, has recommended “ weak vinous fluids”? as drink 
in fevers. As thefe are ina ftate of fermentation, he fays, 
“and as fubftances in a ftate of fermentation are apt to 
excite any other fermentation that the fame fubflances are 
éapable of, are perhaps ufeful to excite in the ftomach the 
fermentations by which the food is converted ito chyle 3 
they are, therefore, fo far, perhaps, better than pure water.”” 
(Third Differt. part i. p. 216.) But this is an abufe of 
terms ;, for there is no analogy between the procefs of the 
vinous fermentation in vegetables, and that of animal di- 
geftion; and the fame author had already cautioned his 
readers againft the ufe of thofe vegetable fubftances as 
food, which were prone to fermentation, on account of the 
ill confequences which fuch fermentation produces. A 
more free ufe of vinoue liquors is reforted to, with great de- 
triment to the patient, by fome practitioners, who fuppofe 
that fever isa difeafe of mere debility, and therefore think 
of flimulating from the moment the idea of fever occurs: 
and the fame pernicious praétice is puriued by the people in 
general, at leaft the uninformed part of them, from the 
truly Englifh prejudice, that if a perfon eannot ect, (/. e. can- 
not take /o/id food,) he cannot live ; and that wine and fpirits 
are therefore requifite to nouri/h him. Thefe notions are fo 
general among the uninformed, whether in or cut of the 
profeffion, that it requires the conftant vigilance of the 
practitioner to prevent the praGtical mifchief refulting from 
them: we have hence thought it neceflary to {peak ftrongly 
upon this point; and regret that Dr. Fordyce, whofe opi- 
nion is by fome deemed Iittle lefs than oracular on this fub- 
je@, allowed himfelf to be mifguided by an hypothefis, fo 
as to give any countenance to the praétice. While the in- 
dication of avoiding irritation is to be purfued, fermented 
liquors,’even of the loweft quality, fuch as {mall beer, are 
{carcely admifiible, unlefs the febrile excitement be very 
moderate. 

6. here are other irritating powers which are occa- 
fionally applied, atid require to be removed in fevers ; thefe 
are e(pecially a colleG&tion of crude and undigefted food in 
the ftomach, and of feces in the inteftines. If food had 
been taken a fhort time previous to the attack of fever, 
it-muft remain undigefted, and therefore tend to aggravate 
feveral of the fymptoms, efpecially the uneafinefs about the 
precordia, the headache, the heat, and the velocity of the 
circulation and refpiration. This, therefore, isanother rea- 
fon for the adminiftration of an emetic, as well as for the 
free ufe of diluting liquids. And the ftimulus of retained 
feces in the bowels equally fuggeits the propriety of laxa- 
tive medicines‘or glyflers, by which they may be removed ; 
for, while prefent, they occafion a fenfe of fulnels and weight 
in the abdomen, and of uneafinefs and reitleffnefs in every 
part of the body, and augment the fever confiderably. Of 
the effet of putgatives, as a general evacuant remedy, we 
fhall have oceafion to {peak immediately. ‘* The avoiding 
of irritation im all thefe particulars,” Dr. Cullen obferves, 
after a brief enumeration of the fame circumftances, “ con- 
ftitutes the antiphldgiftic regimen, abfolutely neceffary for 
moderating the violence of re-a€tion ; and, if I miftake not, 
is proper in almolt every circumftance of continued fevers.” 
{Firlt Lines, § 132%) 

To enable us to fulfil the fivlt indication of * diminifhing 
exceffive ation’? in the fyftem, feveral remedies are com- 
monly ufed in aid of the antiphlogiltic regimen; thefe are 
chiefly fuch as produce an evacuation of the circulating 
fluids direétly, or of the fecretions from them through their 
refpective emun¢tories: for, as itis believed that the activity 
of the fyitem depends, in a great meafure, upon the itimulus 

AX of 


FEVER. 


of the fluids diftending the veffels through which they cir- 
culate, it is inferred, that the diminution of the quantity of 
the fluids muft diminifh the aétivity of the fanguiferous fy{- 
tem. The fa& is proved by, experience, whatever. expla- 
nation may be adopted. 

Blood-letting, by opening a vein in the arm, or any. other 
part of the body, is the moit direct means, of diminifhing 
the quantity of fluids in the fyflem, and has been reforted to 
from very ancient times ; its effects have been explained by 
various hypothefes, which it is notneceflary to. enumerate or 
difeufs.. "To abftraét that fluid, which is the immediate pa- 
bulum of life, cannot, it is obvious, be.a matter of indifference 
to the contlitution: if it be the moft powerful means of 
Ynfluenoing the vital a&tivns, fo it is the moft dangerous when 
improperly employed : if the molt effectual mode of dimi- 
nifhing excitement, it 18 confequently the moft apt to in- 
duce extreme debility. A cautious confideration of many 
circumftances is, therefore, requifite in determining on the 
propriety. of blood-letting in fever. Dr. Fordyce affirms, 
{peaking of fever in the fenfe in which we have defined it, 
(as diftinét from the phlegmafie, or local inflammations,) 
that, “ the taking blood from a large vein, in any part of 
the body indifcriminately, never diminithed, fhortened, nor 
carried off a fever, in any cafe he has feen, nor has he found 
any upon record in which it had this effeét.’”? (Diflert. 
Third, partii. p. 4.) A ftatement which may, perhaps, 
render the extent of his reading very queftionable; but 
which, as it relates to the fevers of this country, we are dif- 
pofed to confider as correét. A pure inflammatory fever, 
or fynocha, is never feen, we believe, in this country; pa- 
tients are feldom deftroyed by a mere general excitement, 
without topical congeftion; but. commonly by the fubfe- 
quent exhauftion, together with local injury of fome par- 
ticular organ. In the fevers which we are acquaiated with 
in this climate, then, blood-letting is generally to be avoided, 
on account of the danger of the fubfequent debility which 
it occafions ; more efpecially when we confider that this 
debility is to be expected, at all events, to enfue, in confe- 
quence of the failure of the digettive powers which fup- 
port the wafte of the body; of the lofs of fleep.neceflary 
to reftore the vital energy ; and of the conftant over-aétion 
‘of the whole fyftem, which is followed by proportionate 
exhauttion. In typhus, under all its modifications, thefe 
obfervations demand attention ; and its now generally ad- 
mitted that blood-letting is a pernicious practice in that 
form of fevers. 1t were not eafy, indeed, to comprehend 
how the practice in low fevers could have been fo generally 
and fo long puriued, did we not know the influence of au- 
thority in perverting obfervation. While the precepts of 
Galen and Celfus were followed by Sydenham, Huxham, 
and others, thefe fagacious obfervers did not fail to remark 
the occafional injuries which the practice produced; (fee 
Wilfon on Febrile Difeafes, vol. i. p.671, et eg.) yet they 
did not efcape from the trammels of authority, but re- 
peated the practice, expreffing ‘¢ great concern and aftonith- 
ment’? at the failure and mifchief, which were often moft 
evident. (See Huxham on Fevers.) 

As the employment of blood-letting, in idiopathic fevers, 
-requires much caution and difcernment, the following cir- 
cumitances were fuggetted for the confideration and guidance 
of the practitioner by Dr. Cullen, 1. The nature of the 
prevailing epidemic ; from which we learn the nature of the 
fymptoms which are to be expected, as well as the in- 
fluence of different remedies. 2. The nature.of the remote 
caufe; all fevers arifing from contagion, whatever be the 
ftate of the patient, or the appearances of the difeafe in 
the commencement, -will foon aflume the form of typhus, 


and therefore blood-letting is feldomn admiffible, althougk 
the excitement in the beginning be confiderable. 3. The 
feafon and climate in which the fever occurs ; for the fymp= 
toms are much more violent, and the changes more fudden 
in fultry than in temperate climates, in the autumn than in 
the fpring. The praétitioners in het climates have been 
divided in their opinions refpeétingWblood-letting ; but ia 
this, asin mett other cafes, the extremes are to be avoided ; 
and it feems probable, that blood-letting is only to be em- 
ployed in tropical climates, when the violence of the 
excitement threatens. to proye fpeedily fatal, or to induce 
extreme debility, and then only to pufh it to that extent, 
which the urgency of the fymptoms abfolutely requires. 
(See Fever, yellow.) 4. The degree of phlogiftic diathefis, 
or of high excitement; which, however, it is difficult to 
define, ‘he fame, degree of excitement, which warrants 
blood-letting in an epidemic, which partakes much of the 
Jynocha, or inflammatory charaéter, or in a fever from cold, 
violent exercife, or rage, does not warrant it in a typhoid 
epidemic, nor in fever from contagion, 5. The period of 
the difeafe. In the moft ardent fevers, as foon as the fymp- 
toms fhew any tendency to decline, the proper period for 
blood-letting is paft. Even Huxham, prejudiced as he and 
mott of his contemporaries were in favour of this remedy, 
admits that ‘* bleeding, unlefs an the beginning, feldom 
did fervice.””? 6. The age, vigour, and plethoric ftate of 
the patient, 7. The patient’s former difeafes, and habits 
of blood-letting ; if he has been fubjeét to inflammatory 
complaints, more vigorous remedies may be employed; and 
if he has been in the habit of lofing blood, he bears the lofs 
of it better, as habitual blood-letting produces habitual 
plethora, 8. The appearances of the blood drawn ; which 
are chiefly the firmnefs or loofe confiftence of the coagu- 
lum, the prefence or abfence of the duffy coat, the propor- 
tion of ferum to the craflamentum, &c. (See Broop, 
morbid alterations of the.) 9. And, laitly, the effeéts of the 
blood-letting that may have been already praétifed ; namely, 
the continuance or alleviation of the fymptoms, the occur- 
rence of debility, &c. (See Cullen loc. cit. § 142, and 
Wilfon on Fevers, vol.i. pp. 648, and 668, where this 
fubje& is fully and ably difcuffed.) On the whole, however, 
few cafes of fever in this country require venefeétion, and 
in no cafe, perhaps, under any circumitances, is this remedy 
admiflible after the firft five days of the difeafe. 

But the ufe of /ocal blood-letting, wy means of leeches, or 
cupping, is often of great advantage in certain conditions 
of fever, more efpecially in relieving local congeftions ot 
blood in the head, and the fymptoms thence refulting. 
Thus, when there is much head-ache, or delirium, accoms 
panied by flufhing of the countenance, and rednefs of the 
eyes, the application of a few leeches to the temples, or 
the fcarificator and cupping-glafles to the fame part, or to 
the nape of the neck, or even taking four or five ounces of 
blood from the jugular vein, has often diminifhed thefe 
fymptoms confiderably, fometimes carried them off entirely, 
and with them the whole fever. Under the fame circum- 
ftances bleeding from a part diftant from the head has been 
ofno manner of ufe. If the itrength of the patient be much 
diminifhed by the fever, or otherwife, the application of 
one leech to each temple is often of confiderable ufe. 
(Fordyce.) We are difpofed to believe, that the local eva- 
cuation of blood is a remedy too much negleéted in the 
general practice in fever. 

Sweatiug is another mode of diminifhing exceffive vafcular 
action in fevers. The obfervation, however, that a free 
{weating commonly takes place in the crifis cf intermittent 
fevers, and in thofe which occafionally occur in continued 

fevers, 


FEVER. 


fevers, has led to much abfurd and pernicious practice, for 
the purpofe of forcing perfpiration, Praétitioners miftook 
one of the fymptoms of the ceffation of fever for the caufe 
of that ceffation. But neither does fweating certainly carry 
off fever, (for it frequently takes place without even pro- 
ducing any alleviation,) nor is it alone a fymptom of its 
ceflation. Under fuch circumftances there is a general 
increafe of all the fecretions, the faliva, urine, &c.; and 
the tongue becomes moift, the fkin foft, and fo on. 
But when {weating is excited by the hot regimen, by ftimu- 
ant alexipharmic medicines, a load of bed-clothes, anda 
heated atmofphere, thefe beneficial accompaniments do not 
take place; on the contrary, the heat of the body, the 
thirft, and general excitement are increafed, as well as the 
head-ache, anxiety, and difficulty of breathing; and the 
very reverfe of the indication of « removing irritation, and 
diminifhing exceflive aétion,’? is accomplifhed. This arti- 
ficial excitement, fupported by the hot regimen, perhaps, 
will enable us to account for the appearance of relief often 
produced by blood-letting, and for the perfeyerance of our 
anceftors in the ufe of that remedy. More accurate obfer- 
vation, however, has decided, that, in general, the moft 
advantageous perfpiration is produced by the oppofite plan, 
viz. by cooling the body, and diminifhing excitement ; in 
which cafe it is an indirect confequence of the treatment, 
and approaches more to the {pontaneous fweating, which 
accompanies the natural felution of fever. On the whole, 
therefore, the ufe of diaphoretic medicines is to be con- 
fidered rather as auxiliary, than as an eflential part of the 
treatment of fever. 

_ The principal medicines now employed for the purpofe of 
exciting peipuato are the neutral falts, efpecially thofe 
compofed of an alkali with the vegetable acids, and the 


reparations of antimony. ‘The neutral falts poffefs a very 
Feeble power, which is fuppofed to be refrigerant ; a term 
which is not very intelligible, and perhaps originated from 
the cold produced during their folution; the combination 
of pata or ammonia with vinegar, or lemon juice, are 
chiefly employed. But antimonials are more certain in 

eir operation upon the fkin. Of thefe the fecret prepara- 
tion of Dr. James, commonly called James’s powder, the 
pulvis antimonialis of the London pharmacopeia, which is 
probably the fame as the former, and the tartarized anti- 
mony, or emetic tartar, are principally ufed. They are all 
fomewhat uncertain in their operation, and none of them is 
pofleffed of any {pecific febrifuge quality ; the two former, 
confifting of the fimple oxyd, and therefore being liable to 
be combined with any acid in the firlt paflages, and thus to 
be rendered more or lefs active, according to the quantity of 
acid which may be accidentally found there, are more un- 
Certain in their aétion, than the emetic tartar, in which the 
antimony is already faturated with an acid. The moderate 
ufe of diluent drinks tends to aid the operation of diaphore- 
tic medicines, partly by the fympathy of the fkin with the 
flomach, and partly, perhaps, by fupplying an increafe of 
the thinner parts of the blood. The ufe of diluents was 
carried to a great extent by the Spanifa and Italian phyfi- 
cians, in what they ealled the dieta aguea, which confilted 
of abftracting every other kind of aliment and drink, and 
giving, in divided portions every day, for feveral days to- 

ether, fix or eight pints of plain water, generally cold, 
but fometimes warm. (See Philofoph. Tranfa&ions, vol. 
xxxvi.) But this drenching has not been fubfequently coun- 
tenanced either by reafon or experience. The ufe of diluent 
drinks has been {uppofed to be advantageous by diminifhing 
the acrimony of the blood, and confequently its ftimulating 
quality, in fevers; but the exiltence of this {tate of acrimony 


: 


has never been proved, and we are not acquainted with any 
evidence that renders its exiitence probable. 

Purging, fo far as to empty the bowels of undigefted 
aliment, or feculent matters remaining in confequence of 
the weakened periftaltic motion, we have already faid, is 
ufeful, by removing a troublefome fource of irritation. Dr. 
Cullen, Dr. Fordyce, and others have confidered this as 
the only advantage derived from emptying the inteitines, 
and believed that it merely obviates the mifchief, which 
would enfue from the retention of thofe matters. Dr. 
Fordyce, indeed, afferts that all evacuation beyond this is 
detrimental, as inducing debility, “and that fimple evacua- 
tion from any of the glands, as tending alfo to weaken, is 
detrimental initead of being ufeful.”” Many other phyti- 
cians have expreffed fimilar opinions, and rather diffuaded 
us from the ufe of purgatives, among whom are De Haen, 
Werlhoff, fir J. Pringle, &c. who, with Dr. Cullen, con- 
fider it <¢ fufficient to prevent coltiveneis by almof daily 
clyfters, if the patient bad not otherwife regular ftools.’” 
(Pringle, Difeafes of the Army. p. iti. cap.1. See alfo 
Cullen, loc. cit. § 149, &c.) Dr. Cullen confiders purg- 
ing as injurious, both from producing debility, and from 
taking eff the determination to the fkin, and thus prevent- 
ing perfpiration ; but this, in the aétive ftate of fever, is 
not, we believe, the refult of its operation; fince, as we 
have fhewn, with regard to the diminution of the febrile 
heat by cold water, whatever tends to allay the exceffive 
ation of the cutaneous veflels, tends to produce a flow of 
perfpiration, The neceflity of preventing any accumulation 
in the bowels, however, whether by repeated clyiters, or 
gentle laxatives by the mouth, is univerfally admitted. 

But fince the prejudices of fyftem and of particular {chools 
have been fomewhat laid afide, it has been obierved by feveral 
intelligent praétitioners, that a more active employment of 
purgative medicines is frequently beneficial in fever ; and 
that not only in inflammatory fever, but in typhus. Dr. 
Hamilton has recently called the attention of the me- 
dical world to this important fubje&t; and he affirms 
that he has for many years given up the ufe of emetics and 
clyfters in typhus; and that he finds all the advantages of 
thefe remedies obtained in a more effectual manner by ca- 
thartics given internally. (See his Obfervations on the Uti- 
lity of Purgative Medicines.) With this view he chiefly 
employs a combination of the fub-muriate of mercury, or 
calomel, with a few grains of jalap or rhubarb. He con- 
fiders, that, if fever does not originate in many initances 
from an accumulation and corruption of the contents of the 
alimentary canal, it is generally conne&ted with, or produc- 
tive of, fuch a ftate; and he affirms, that the removal of 
the dark and offenfive matter which purging, under fuch 
circumftances, generally effeéts, is a moft important fep in 
the cure of fevers. The prefence of thefe matters in the 
canal is a fource of augmentation to the general fever; and 
we have in feveral cafes feen delirium removed, the head- 
ache diminifhed, and the ftate of the fkin, tongue, and 
circulation, proportionally alleviated by the operation of a 
moderate cathartic; in fome inftances, in which the fever 
had been preceded by confiderable conttipation, a brifk ca- 
thartic or two have appeared to remove the fymptoms al- 
together. In the early ftage of fever, then, cathartics are 
advifeable, both as removing a great fource of irritation, 
and as exciting the glands which open into the bowels, 
and the mucous follicles and exhalaat arteries in their coats, 
to pour out an increafed quantity of fluids, by which the 
geueral excitement is diminifhed ; although in a confiderably 
lefs degree than by blood-letting. (Sce Catuarric.) 
The firit operation, of removing irritating fordes, is after- 

Xx2 wards 


FEVER. 


wards neceffary during the whole pregrefs of the fever ; and 
in the weakeit condition the ufe of a clyfter may be re- 
‘forted to. The fecond operation, with a view of emulging 
the biliary ducts, and of evacuating the morbid fecretion 
of the liver, and of the other glands, and clearing the 
whole canal, is often required during the continuance of 
the difeafe. This is indicated, 1. By the appearance of the 
ftools, whether they are of a highly bilious colour, which 
implies a copious extrication ot bile from the liver; or of 
a dark brown or green hue, and very offenfive odour, which 
implies a morbid {tate of the fecretion ; 2. By pains in the 
abdomen, efpecially when there is at the fame time a degree 
of fulnefs and tenfion in the epigaftric and hypochondriae 
regions, and a tendernefs perceived on prefling the abdo- 
men; or when there is alfo a degree of tene/inus, or frequent 
defire to go to {tool. 3. When, together with thefe fymptoms, 
the tongue is much loaded and parched, or fometimes when 
there is a confiderable {pitting, when the countenance is of 
a dirty or leaden hue, and the breathing more oppreffled 
than the ftate of the circulation would lead us to expeé&. 
Sometimes with this ftate of the abdomen and counte- 
nance a great languor takes place, even to fainting, al- 
though there are no other fymptoms of extreme prottration 
of itrength, and the pulfe, though quick, is not equally 
languid; under fuch circumftances we have feen the lan- 
guor {peedily removed by a copious evacuation from the 
bowels. A degree of dyfenteric affeGtion is not unfre- 
quently feen in the advanced periods of fever, ‘that is, a fre- 
quent difcharge of loofe or flimy ftools, with fome griping 
and tenefmus ; this is molt effectually relieved by purgas 
tives with which opiates are combined, in order to obviaté 
the irritation and exhauftion which the operation of the ca- 
thartics might induce. Calomel and opium combined in fmall 
dofes feem to anfwer this purpofe very effe€tually. "Where 
the mere emptying of the bowels is ihe object of the medi- 
eine, and efpecially where extreme weaknefs has already 
come on, or is to be {peedily expected, the milder neutral 
falts, as the fulphate of magnefia, the Cheltenham, or Ro- 
chelle falts, caftor oil, magnefia and rhubarb, &c. are the 
moikt proper remedies ; (but the more active agents, as calo- 
mel, and jalap, in moderate dofes, (Dr. Hamilton’s formula 
confilts of three or four grains of the former, with fix, 
eight, or ten of the latter,) are requifite; and. thefe, in- 
deed; may almott fuperfede all other laxatives ; or fenna, 
yhubaro, &c. may be given with the calomel. It is not 
very important to dilate on the different remedies ; for when 
the indication is underftood, the means of fulfilling it will 
readily occur. An aétive purgative, during a ftate of ex- 
treme debility, may be produétive of great mifchief ; and in 
the latt ttages of contagious typhus {uch a medicine is to be 
abflained from altogether: even the mildeft cathartic ope- 
ration has, at fuch times, occafionally produced a dangerous 
finking of the vital powers. But from this faét it were an 
error to infer, that active purgatives are to be difcarded al- 
together from our praétice in typhus, as the Brunonians 
have afferted. 

The humoral pathologifts, from an hypothetical notion 
of the remains ot the materies morbi being retained in the 
conititution after the ceffation of fever, have directed the 
adminiltration of cathartics to carry them off, and to pre- 
ferve the convalefcent from their future influence; and fir 
John Pringle has fuggelted the propriety of ufing them, 
during the ftate of convalefcence, with a view to prevent 
a too hafty repletion, which an indulgence of the appetite 
is fometimes apt to produce; but, she obferves, cathartics 
at that time feem otherwife neceflary. But Dr. Fordyce 
remarks, that he has obferved more relapfes to take place 


when purgatives haye-been ufed after the ceffation of fevers 
than when they have not been employed. Indeed, the no- 


‘tion’ of the humorifts, that by partial evacuations, whether 


by bleeding or purging, the remaining fluids could be de- 
prived of the morbid matter, fuppofed to be diffufed in 
them, is too abfurd to require a ferious refutation. Never- 
thelefs, this pra€tice of purging, ‘to carry off the dregs’? 
of fever, fmall-pox, &c. is ftill generally prevalent among 
the ignorant, both in and out of the profeffion. 

Lhijiring the fkin has been reforted to asa remedy i 
fever, upon two very different principles, whieh are fearcely 
ecnfiftent with each other, and neither of them, perhaps, is 
much entitled to our confidence. Inflammation, and fup- 
puration, or fome other difcharge, having been obferved to 
precede the ceflation of fever in certain cafes, this procefs 
was attempted to be imitated by the-application of blifters 
or irritants, compofed of cantharides, muttard, &c.; and 
the humorifts, with their ufual abfurdity, fuppofed that 
thefe applications would, like a magnet, attract the morbid 
matter to this irritated part, by which it might be carried 
off. On the other hand, the inflammation, thus excited, 
has Leen confideredsby others as ftimulant to tie fyftem, and 
therefore as ufeful to fupport the ftrength in the laft ftage 
of proitration, the difcharge being altogether overlooked. 

Had the recommendation of blitters, as a general remedy 
in the early ftages of fever, refted. only upon the principles 
and pra¢tice of the humorifts, we fhould have difmifled 
thé fubjeét briefly: but it has been maintained by feveral 
eminent obfervers, and by nonemore ftrongly than by Dr. 
Lid of the Haflar hofpital, whofe experience and abilities 
are entitled to the higheit regard.‘ [ do not know a more 
certain proof,” fays this refpectable author, “ of a prevailing 
infeétious fever, than that of twenty patients in fevers 
blifiered at night, fixteen will next morning be entirely free . 
from heat, head-ache, pain, and fever.” (Loc. cit. chap. ii. 
fect. 1.) And he denies the ftimulating effe@ of blifters 
in contagious fevers, and affirms that, “according to the 
nurfes’ phrafe, the patient generally received a cool from the 
blifer.’ (Ibid.) Thefe encomiums, however, are very far 
from being corroborated by general experience, or by the 
authority of many able phyficians; on the contrary, the 
teitimony of the majority tends to prove, that little is to be 
expected from blifters in fevers unaccompanied by local 
affections. We have feen numerous. initances in which 
large blitters had been applied between the fhoulders in . 
the early periods of fever: but we never witneffed any 
marked effe&, either good or bad, in thofe cafes. Like 
the local blood-letting, however, they are decidedly bene- 
ficial in relieving local pains and congeftions; and every 
practitioner has experienced their utility, when the brainy. 
ftomach, lungs, &c. have been thus affe&ted. Sir John’ 
Pringle obferves, that blifters were only of fervice in the 
gaol fever, when the patient was threatened with.an inflam- 
mation of the brain. ‘ Blifters, before u/e/e/s, became then 
of fervice:’? and in the fynocha, or inflammatory fever, he 
was led by experience to confine their ufe to thofe cafes 
where the head-ache was confiderable, which they feldom 
failed to relieve. In fevers attended with coma or delirium 
they are often employed with advantage, being applied over 
the fhaven fcalp ; forthe nearer they are applied to the part 
affected, they are the more powerful in giving relief, like all: 
other local remedies. ' 

Dr. Cullen was likewife a {trong advocate for the ufe of 
blifters in fevers ; but he confidered them as moft beneficial’ 
in the advanced periods of the difeafe, “when the re-aGtion 
being weaker, all ambiguity from the ftimulant power of 
bliitering is. removed.”? We are difpofed. to believe, -how= 

every 


FEVER.’ 


ever, that the ftimulus of a blifter is produGtive rather of 
irritation, than of fupport to the finking fyftem ; and the 
inflammation thus occafioned, when the vital powers are 
low, is liable to terminate in gangrene. Rubefacients are 
fafer than blifters in this ftate of the fyttem, but do not 
feem to be of much benefit where there is no local affeétion. 
Sinapifms, or muftard poultices, are fometimes applied to 
the feet, efpecially where there is coma, or great failure of 
the vis vite: this, like the old practice of bleeding from 
the feet, 1 robably originated in the obfolete doctrine of ire: 
vulfion, Haienight be more efficacious, if the finapiims 
were applied to the region of the ftomach, or to the 
head. 

The fecond indication is, ** to increafe the actions that are 
defeGive.” It has been feen, in tracing the hiftory of the 
progrefs of fever, that the fymptoms, which occur in the 
latter ftages of the difeafe, are principally the refult of a 
eeneral failure of the vital power, or nervous energy: and 
that fuch a failure is the neceffary refult of the previous 
Over-excitement, and the privation of the ordinary means of 
fupport, from aliment, fleep, &c. Hence, then, the means 
of preventing this e of life coufilt partly in fulfilling 
the firft indication, minifhing the over-excitement, and 
partly in ufing thofe remedies which tend to fupport and 
increafe the vital aétions, when the f{ymptoms of their fail- 
ure appear. It mult be obvious, therefore, that the early 
employment of ftimulants, cordials, and tonics, (which was 
reforted to by the humoral pathologilts, in order to accele- 
rate the concodion of the morbid matter ; by the difeiples of 
Brown, with a view to obviate debility, and by others to 
prevent putrefaction,) muft be extremely pernicious. It is 
a practice founded on the fame grounds as the vulgar error 
of the people in forcing food upon a perfon in fever. They 
forget that, in order to nourifh the body, the food mutt be 
digelted, converted into chyle, and aflimilated; but that, 
while the fy{tem is incapable of performing thefe fun¢tions, 
the food introduced tends but to increafe the weaknefs, by 
increafing its caufe, the febrile ftate. In like manner, 
thefe praétitioners no fooner hear the name of fever, than 
they immediately ply the patient with wine, Peruvian bark, 
and various cordials, regardlefs of the period and circum- 
ftances of the difeafe, and thus accelerate the debility, the 
confequences of which they are moft anxious to avoid. 
This treatment cannot be too {trongly reprobated ; efpeci- 
ally as itis {till adopted by many in the profeffion, who 
practife by rote, notwithitanding the proofs of its injurious 
confequences, which experience has amply afcertained, And 
it is moft particularly to be condemned, when there are 
fymptoms of confiderable local congettion, efpecially in the 
head. : 

When, however, the means of moderating the excite- 
ment, in the former itages of the fever, have been omitted, 
or have failed to terminate the difeafe, and the fymptoms 
of exhaultion and defective action begin to appear, it then 
becomes requifite to adminifter thofe remedies which pof- 
fefs a ftimulant power overthe actions of the arterial and 
nervous fyftems. . Of the medicines which fupport and 
increafe the actions of the animal body, thofe which are 
poffeffed of ftrong fenfible qualities, and excite an obvious 
and immediate aétion, are denominated /limu/ants ;, and thofe 
which’ flowly, and by repeated exhibition, increafe the power 
and force of thefe actions, or the tone of the moving parts, 
have been called fonics. Of the former clafs are wine, 
{pirits, volatile alkali, the wthers, &e. ; of the latter are 
she bark of cinchona, cafcarilla, and other vegetable bit- 
ters, the metallic falts, and oxyds of iron and zinc, &c. 
Now, as the operation of the latter is comparatively flow, 


they are lefs ufeful in the late ftages of continued fever 

than the articles of the former clafs. The principal tonic 

medicine that has been employed in continued fever is the 

cinchona, or Peruvian bark ; which has probably been given 

in thefe fevers, in confequence of its fuccefs when admi- 

niftered in the intervals between the paroxyf{ms of intermit- 

tents. Between this operation, ho» ever, and the cure of a 

continued febrile flate, it is obvious that there is not muck 

analogy ; and experience has evinced accordingly, that the 

practice is-not beneficial; but that, on the contrary, it 

more frequently increafes the fymptoms of continued fever, 

and that its ufe is moft likely to be detrimental, efpecially 

when the tongue remains foul, the pulfe frequent, and the 

fkin not yet become ‘foft, ‘cool, and moift. Dr. Fordyce 

has accurately defcribed the confequences which we have 
oceafionally witneffed from the exhibition of the bark, 

even when the favourable remiffion of the fymptoms feemed 
to jutlify its ule. « The relaxations which began to take 
place in the difeafe have been much diminifhed, the pulfe 
has become more frequent in the morning, the head-aci e 
more confiderable, the {kin drier, the tongue covered with a 
thicker fur, the coftivenefs greater, if the patient was not 
thrown into a purging, the oppreffion upon the precordia 
greater, and likewife the difficulty of refpiration greater. 

On the following evening the head has been alfo: much 
more affeGted, that is, the confufien and delirium have been 
much more confiderable, and the patient altogether worfe 
than he probably would have been, if no remedy whatever 
had been exhibited, and there has been lefs chance of crifis 
in the fever, and it has been longer of being worn out.??” 
(Third Differt. part ii. p. 148.) Where there are marks 
of congeition in the head, lungs, or other vifcera, the ad- 
miniftration of bark is at all times to be deprecated.. Ina 
word, the moft accurate experience has taught us, that the 
cinchona, efpecially in fubftance, is feldom beneficial, and 
often injurious, in continued fever of any kind; and that it 
is moft ufeful in reftoring the ftrength in the convalefcent 
ftate, when the fymptoms of fever have altogether difap- 
peared. The only cafes in which we have feen any advan- 
tage from it, are thofe in which there is an obvious remiflion 
and exacerbation, efpecially at tertian periods ; a form which 
we have fometimes obferved the continued fever of this 
country to affume. 

A great variety of ftimulant remedies have been employed 
for the purpofe of obviating debility in the late periods of 
continued fever; of thefe cvine is generally the moft crate- 
ful, and not lefs efficacious than moft of thofe which have 
been recommended. But this, we believe with Dr. Gregory, 
has been often given in too large quantities, to the amount 
of two or three bottles in the day. We have certainly feen 
the ftrength rovfed by powerful {timuli in great quantity ; 
bnt we have alfo feen this new excitement immediately fol- 
lowed by a fatal inflammatory coudition of the brain. 
Perhaps a pint in the day may be generally fufficient. 
When wine cannot be precured, cyder, porter, or {pirits 
diluted with water, fweetened and acidulated, are tolerable 
fubftitutes. Dr. Cullen was of: opinion that the laft men- 
tioned ‘compound and opium produced all the efiecis of. 
wine : but opium does not appear to fupport the pulie like 
wine, With refpe& to opium, itis geuerally inadiiffible 
while any confiderable excitement exilts, and efpecially when 
the fkin is hot and dry, the tongue very foul, the bowels 
bound, and marks of congeftion in the head, or elfewhere, ap- 
pear :. under thefe circumitances itneither diminithes reftleil- 
nefs, nor tends to induce fléep'; but, on the contrary; it ins 
creafes the watchfulnefs, and difturbs the mind with exceilive 
and frightful dreaming, increafes the delirium, and the febrile 

2: heat. 


FREY 


heat and thirft. When the fin is moift and cool, and the head 
but flightly affeGted ; when the tremors, fubfultus of the ten- 
dons, or other fpaf{modic affeGtions manifeft themfelves ; 
when the bowels are exceflively relaxed, and the evacuations 
watery; opium may be ufefully employed. Under the 
fame circumftances camphor is frequently adminiftered as a 
ftimulant : but it may be juftly doubted, as Dr. Fordyce 
has obferved, whether the very {mall dofe contained in 
what is called the camphor mixture, ufually given, produces 
any decided efle&: fince much larger quantities have been 
given without av fenfible operation. Mufk, caftor, and 
other fubftances of powerful odour, have been often given 
in the lait flage of fever: but the effects have been differ- 
ently reprefented by different practitioners, fome believing 
them to be very effectual ftimulants, while others have 
deemed them almoft inert. Dr. Gregory confiders them as 
no farther active, than by theirftrong impreflion on the fenfes, 
and much, lefs efficacious antifpafmodics than wine and 
opium. The ferpentaria, or {nake-root, contrayerva, and other 
cordial and aromatic vegetable fubftances are often admi- 
niftered with advantage. It muft be remembered, however, 
that where there are marks of confiderable congeftion of 
the brain, all powerful {timulants, which will tend to aug- 
ment that condition, will ultimately fail to produce ftrength ; 
but, on the contrary, will increafe the moft dangerous fymp- 
toms)of the difeafe. 

Much has been faid relative to the prevention of putrefac- 
tion in the lait {tages of infectious fevers. ‘This, however, 
as chiefly the refult of extreme proftration of ftrength, is 
principally obviated by the means of fupport already 
pointed out. Thefe marks of putrefactive changes exiit 
principally in the excretions of the patient ; whichit is im- 
portant to remove, as their prefeuce feems to augment the 
depretfion of the vital powers: hence the utmoit attention 
to cleanlinefs is vequifite, and clean air, if we may fo fpeak, 
or air free from the noxious exhalations, admitted by a 
conftant ventilation, contributes to fupport the patient. 
The putrid fordes contained in the {tomach or bowels are 
often evacuated with great advantage, where that can be 
effected by gentle means, which do not contribute to farther 
exhauftion. Witha view to correé the putrefcency of thele 
contents of the alimentary canal, various antifeptics have 
been recommended, efpecially the mineral acids. ‘That thefe 
acids, efpecially the vitriolic or fulphuric, which has been 
principally employed, are fometimes ufeful, cannot perhaps 
be queftioned ; but it is probable that their admimiftration 
was fuggefted upon the principle of being chemically 
antifeptic to dead animal matter. A chemical explanation 
of the operation of a medicine on the /iving body is fome- 
what fufpicious; aud Dr. Fordyce has remarked, that no 
antifeptic can be applied in that proportion to the living 
folid, as wold be requifite to prevent putrefaétion in dead 
animal matter. (Loe. cit. part ii. page 172.) Thefe acids, 
however, tend to quench thirft, and to fettle the ftomach, 
and are grateful to the patient. 

Dr. Gregory is in the habit of concluding his le€tures on 
the fubje& of fever by ftrongly cautioning his pupils not to 
do too much to patients labouring under the difeafe ; for he 
juttly averred that, in many cafes, little more would be re- 
quifite, after the proper evacuations at the commencement, 
than cool drink, and the antiphlogiftic regimen already 
pointed out. And this is unquetlioanably true of fevers 
not occafioned by a virulent contagion, and where no con- 
fiderable local congeftion occurs; in which cafe it becomes 
us to watch rather than to be a@tive. This, however, will 
feldom fatisty a patient, or his friends; and hence the 
buftling mifchievous empiric is often preferred to the expe- 


E R. 


rienced obferver, as Sydenham, who attributes fome of 
the worlt fymptoms occafionally to the ‘* nimia medicorum 
diligentia,”’ feelingly laments. ‘.Sed, quod dolendum 
omnino eit, zgrorum quamplurimi, haud fatis gnari, quod 
perinde fit medici perite quandoque nihil agere, atque alio 
tempore efficaciflima adhibere remedia, probitatis atque Ader 
fruétum hunc capere nolunt, fed vel negligentia vel ignoran- 
tie id imputant, cum empiricorum in{ulfiffimus quilibct 
medicamenta medicamentis adjicere zque noyit, ac folet 
magis quam medicorum prudentiffimus.’? (Sydenham, 
Opera, fect. v. cap. 6.) sat 

Divifion of Fevers —Having difcuffed the nature, caufes, 
and cure of fever in general, it remains for us to notice the 
various forms of the difeafe, which have been diftinguifhed 
by particular appellations. From the earlieft periods of 
medical hiftory, a great number of names have been applied 
to the varieties of febrile difeafe, which, as they were often 
deduced from hypothetical notions, refpeéting the nature 
and caufe of the fever, often mere indications of the violence 
or abfence of particular fymptoms, and often very vague in 
their fignification, have tended to introduce much confu- 
fion into the writings of phyficians on this fubjeét. The 
majority of the names, which have been thus invented, are 
applicable to the fame fever ; at leaft to a fever arifing from 
one and the fame fource; whence, it has been juitly re< 
marked by Dr. Lind, that phyficians, who have had the 
moft frequent opportunities of feeing numerous patients in 
fevers, have always found great difficulty in arranging their 
cafes under the common appellations, and that the attempt 
has frequently led them into abfurdities. (On Fevers and 
Infeétions, chap. ii. fet. 2.) For to the fame fever the 
terms putrid, petechial, malignant, miliary, nervous, bilious, 
typhous, verminous, &c. are often equally applicable. It 
is obvious, however, that accidental fymptoms of local 
affeGtion, or the accidental violence or mildnefs of any par- 
ticular fymptom, do not mark a fundamental change in the 
nature of the difeafe, and are therefore not the proper 
grounds for multiplying names, which tend to eonfound 
diforders that are effentially the fame, and therefore to mif- 
lead us in our practice. 

The leaft ambiguous divifion, which is now generally 
adopted, is into three orders, of intermitting, remitting, and 
continued fevers; which are again diitinguifhed by their 
leading fymptoms. The intermitting fevere are thofe 
which occur in diftin&t paroxy{ms, or fits, in the intervals 
between which there is a complete apyrexia, ov abfence of 
all febrile fymptoms ; this is termed an intermiffion. lu the 
remitting fevers, which alfo confift of repeated paroxy{ms, 
there is no entire intermiffion between the paroxy{ms, but 
only a confiderable abatement or remiffion of their violence ; 
the return of a new paroxyfm, however, being generally 
marked by chillinefs, and fome other fymptoms of a cold 
ftage. By continued fever is underilood, a fever which goes 
on day after day, without any intermiflion or deciled re- 
miffion of the fymptoms ; not in an uniform progrefs, how- 
ever, but with an obvious aggravation or exacerbation of 
the fymptoms of a hot ftage, once in the twenty-four 
hours, and generally in the evening. Modt of the ancient 
and modern writers, indeed, down to the time ef De Haen 
and Cullen, have defcribed a continued fever, proceeding “in 
one uniform and unvarying tenor, without exacerbation or 
abatement of any fymptom, in a word, confilling of one 
lengthened paroxy{m: this they denominated a. continent 
fever, in contradiftin@tion from the continued fever, jutt de- 
{cribed. By the Latin writers the former is called febris 
continens, the latter febris continua ; by the Greeks the 
former was denominated qvesr95-cbvox05 fynochus ; the latter 

6 TUgETeS 


FEVER.” 


mierros curtysess fynechees. By fome writets, again, the 
continent fever is called continued, and what we now 
underftand by continued fever is called continued-remittent. 
Our countryman, Morton, whether through miftake or 
defign is not evident, has reverfed the common acceptation 
of the, terms, (as has been juftly remarked by Burferius, 
Inft. vol. i. § 194. and by Selle, in his Rudim. Pyreto- 
logiz,) and defcribes the continent fevers, or ovisxzec, as 
remittent. (See Morton, Pyretologia.) De Haen, how- 
ever, and Cullen, denied altogether the exiftence of a 
continent fever, without periodical exacerbation, as it never 
occurred to them in the courfe of a long experience; and 
their opinion is now generally admitted as correét. Burfe- 
rius and Selle maintain the ancient do@rine. 

The confufion which has enveloped this fubje& does 
not, however, end here. For Dr. Cullen, Burferius, and 
others, who have ftill farther reduced the orders of fevers 
to two only, viz. intermittent, and continued, (deeming 
the remitient fevers different only in degree,) lave never- 
thelefs widely difagreed in their arrangement of the latter. 
Cullen has claffed the, remittents with the intermittent 
fevers, confidering the remiffion as a leffer intermiffion ; 
while Burferius has placed them with the continued fevers, 
confidering it as a greater exacerbation and abatement: fo 
that we find the fame identical difeafes among the continued 
fevers. in the writings of Burferius, whieh are placed among 
the intermittents of Dr. Cullen. The arrangement of Dr. 
Cullen, however, would feem to be the meft corre& ; firft, 

_becaufe the intermiffion and remiffion more nearly accord in 
their phenomena ; and, fecondly, becaufe both thefe fevers 
arife in general fromthe influence of marfh efiluvia. 

We fhall now proceed to enumerate the principal appel- 
lations. of fever which are to be found in the writings of 
phyficians; referring for the full explanation of the majority 
of them to their places in the alphabet, as more contiftent 
with the nature of a diftionary. See alfo Fenris; where 
the Latin and Greek names, for which we have no corre- 

- {ponding Englifh terms, are enumerated. 

Fever, Acute, a term of indefinite application; fome- 
times ufed to denote idiopathic fever, and fometimes indi- 
cating a fever with violent fymptoms, whether idiopathic, 
or fymptomatic of local inflammation. 

Bever, Ardent, Febris ardens of the Latins, the fame 
with the cau/us, xxizec, of the Greeks, fignifies thofe 
forms of fever in which the heat in the early ttage is excef- 
five. The words are from ardeo, and xa», J burn. The 
terms have been varioufly applied to intermittent, remittent, 
and continued fevers, in which this fymptom prevailed. 
The yellow fever of hot climates is the moft ardent fever 
with which we are acquainted. (See Fever, yellow.) The 
word ardent is nearly fynonymous with inflammatory, See 
Sennertus de Febribus, lib. ii. cap. 12. 

Fsver, Bilious, a term applied to the autumnal fevers, 
whether idiopathic, as the remitting fever, and thofe con- 
tinued fevers in which there is a confiderable difcharge 
of bile, or to cholera, and dyfentery. (See Pringle on 
Difeafes of the Army, part ii. chap. 1. and part iii. 
chap. 4.) Hippocrates confidered all autumnal epidemics 
as.originating from a corruption of the bile, and the term 
has been often ufed, perhaps, upon his authority, without 
any evidence of a morbid ftate of this fluid. In hot 
climates and feafons, however, there is generally a tendency 
to fuperabundance of the bilious fecretion ; and the yellow 
fever, which is fo named on account of the bilious tinge of 
the furface, may be confidered as an example of bilious 
fever in its moft violent form. 

_ Fever, Catarrhal. See CaTarru. 


Frvenr, Contagious, is a term applicable to any febrile 
difeafe which is propagated by contagious effluvia, as 
meafles, fcarlet-fever, &c.; but when the term is ufed alone, 
by modern writers, it is generally underftood as applying 
to typhus, or the common contagious fever of temperate 
climates. See Tyruus. 

Fever, Continent, and continued ; thefe terms have been 
explained above. See Divifion of Fevers. 

Fever, Depuratory. See Derugarory. 

Fever, Diary. See Diaria, and Epoemera. 

Fever, Dy/fenteric, fometimes ufed as fynonymous with 
dyfentery ; but Sydenham {peaks of a dyfenteric fever 
which prevailed during and after the continuance of an 
epidemic dyfentery in the year 1669, in which the true 
fymptoms of dyfentery, the frequent dejeGtions and tenef- 
mus, did not appear ; the term, therefore, is almoft a fole-” 
cifm. (See his works, feé&. iv. cap. 5.) 

Frver, Ephemeral. See EpHEemera. 

Fever, Epidemic. See Epipsmic. 

Fever, £yrratic, a variety of intermittent fever, coniti- 
tuting the fourth genus, of the third order, of the clafs of 
fevers, in the nofology of Sauvages; and defined as confilt- 
ing of fevers, ‘¢ which occur in fimilar paroxy{ms at a longer 
interval than four days, or altogether of an uncertain 
type :’” the intervals mentioned are guintan, or of five days; 
Jeptan, or of feven; o@an, nonan, and deciman. But Dr. 
Cullen confiders all thefe as modifications of tertian or 
quartan intermittents. (See Sauvages, clafs ii. genus 12. 
Cullen Synopf. Nofol. clafs i. genus 1.) The latt fpecies 
of Sauvages is erratica vaza, the paroxy{ms of which 
occur at uncertain and irregular intervals. See Exraric. 

Fever, E£ruptive, any fever accompanied by an erupe. 
tion on the fkin ; it is the fame with exanthema ; which fee. 

Fever, Ery/fipelatous. See Erysipevas. 

Fever, Hedic. See Hecric. 

Frver, Hofpital, is the tvphus, or contagious fever, fo 
named, becaufe it frequently occurs in crowded hefpitals. 
See Typuus. 

Fever, Goal, the fame. fever occurring in crowded 
prifons. 

Fever, Jnflammatory, aterm fometimes ufed to denote 
that fpecies of febrile difeafe which is fecoudary, or fympzo- 
matic of local inflammation ; fuch as pleurnify, enteritis, or 
inflammation of the bowels, &e. In this fenfe fir John 
Pringle employs it, when, {peaking of the difeafes of an 
army, he fays, ‘¢ upon firft taking the field, as well as during 
the winter, pleurifies and peripneumonies are the moft com- 
mon forms of the inflammatory fever.’” (Part 1ii. chap. 1.) 
But more commonly the term is ufed to denote that form of 
idiopathic fever in which the fymptoms of the hot {tage are 
fevere, and are not fucceeded by the fymptoms of extreme 
debility, which chara&t-rize typhus. In this fenfe, the 
epithet inflammatory is put in oppolition to the term nervous, 
which applies to the varieties of the latter. ‘ Sometimes 
we can perceive no part more affected than another,”’ fays 
fir John Pringle, ‘¢and only fome general inflammatory 
fymptoms: the diftemper is then called fimply an infam- 
matory fever, though probably fome of the more. indolent 
parts may at this time be affected with in flammation.”’ (Loc. 
cit.) Dr. Cullen has applied the term /} to this modi- 
fication of fever, not anxious to employ the appellation ac- 
cording te the ancient acceptation of the term, but relying 
on his definition for conveying a clear notion of tic difeafe. 
The {ynocha is that fpecies of fever in which “ the h at of 
the body is greatly augmented ;. the pulfe frequent, iteong, 
and hard; the urine high-coloured ; 1 the rial 


and ¢ 
functions little difturbed.” (Cullen, Syaepf. } Meth, 


FEVER. 


clafs i. gen. 4.) Under this definition it correfponds 
with the /ynceha non putris, and continua nn putrida, of feve- 
ral authors, and the (abfurdly named) Pea plurium die- 
rum, or diary fever of feveral cays, of others. (See Sen- 
nert. De Febrib. lib. i. cap. 6. Boerhaave, 728.) Such 
divifions, however, cannot be regarded as accurate, or as 
diferiminating forms of fever effentially different in their na- 
ture; for, in fat, a pure /ynocha, or fever with no other 
but inflammatory fymptoms, is fcarcely ever met with, as 
we have already remarked; nor is a purely .oppofite, or 
typhous fever, which is characterized only by fymptoms of 
proftration of ftrength ; almoft every continued fever being 
infammatory, or marked by fome degree of excitement in 
the beginning, and nervous or typhoid, i. 2. marked by de- 
bility in the latter ftages. This conftitutes an intermediate 
genus, which Dr. Cullen has called /ynochus. Thus the 
caufus, or febris ardens of the ancients, and the yellow fever: 
of modern times, is chara&terized by the higheit excitement 
in its firft ftage, but is perfe@ly typhoid in the lait. 

The fymptoms of the /ynocha, or inflammatory fever, as 
it is commonly defcribed, are as follows. The depreffion of 
ftrength, which precedes and accompanies the-attack, is not 
fo great as in contagious fever, and the cold {tage is more 
frequently abfent, and lefs marked. The pulfe, even in the 
cold flage, is feldom {mall or very frequent ; after the heat 
commences it becomes full, rapid, and, as it hasbeen 
termed, vibrating; ftill, however, its frequency is lefs than 
in thofe fevers in which debility prevails. The refpiration 
is frequent,, hurried, generally oppreffed, and attended with 
adrycough. ‘lhe heat is greater than in other continued 
fevers, and although burning to the feeling of a by- 
ftander, it does not excite that pungent er acrid fenfation 
which is obferved in the fevere cafes of typhus. Dr. Moore 
remarks, {peaking of the latter, “ on. prefling the fkin of 
the patient a fenfation of a peculiar penetrating heat re- 
mains on the hand for fome minutes after ; whereas, the heat 
communicated by the fkin of a. patient in the inflammatory 
fever is more traifient.”’ 
Huxham, as well as Pringle.avd others, has remarked the 
** peculiar biting heat’? in malignant fevers, and obferves 
that Quefnay calls it «la chaleur @’acrimonie,” and very juftly 
diflinguifhes it from la chaleur inflammation. E 
tion in trathis as different as touching a very hot piece of 
dry wood, and dipping your finger into tepid {pint of hart{- 
horn. The head-ache in inflammatory fever is generally 
confiderable, accompanied with throbbing of the temples, 
and noife inthe ears: the face is full-and florid, and the 
eyes inflamed, and incajable-of bearing the light. The de- 
pravation of the fenfes, however, is lefs frequent than in 
fevers with debility, nor is delirium a common fymptom ; 
but when it does occur in fynocha, it rifes to a degree 
which, from the debilitated ftate of the fyftem, we fcarce- 
ly ever meet with in typhus: the patient becomes frantic, 
and is with difficulty retained in bed. This conftitutes the 
delirium ferox of authors, (See DELir1um.) When the de- 
lirium is obftinate in fynocha, we have reafon to fufpeét an 
inflammatory affeCtion of the brain, which there is {till more 
reafon to dread, if the patient be oppreffed with coma. In 
truth, between this form of difeafe, and inflammation of 
the brain, the diagnofis is difficult, if there be any effential 
difference. The fecreting powers are more completely 
fufpended than in moft cafes of typhus; the fkin, mouth, 
and throat are dry, andthe mticus covering the tongue be- 
«comes foul and vifcid; the urine is high-coloured, and the 
bowels coftive. Ina word, it is obvious that the inflam- 
matory fever is chiefly characterized by a higher degree of 
‘the fymptoms of the hot ftage of fever. 


(See his Medical Sketches.) Dr. 


The fenfa-- 


When fynocha proves fatal within a few days ofits com. 
mencement, (which, if it ever happens, is a rare occurrence,) 
the pulfe, it is faid, does not become weak or intermitting 
before death ; the patient feems to be carried off by the yio- 
lence of the excitement. When the difeafe continues for a 
longer time, thowever, and the remiffions are at all evident, 
the pulfe during thefe (although the fever has not yet affum- 
ed the form of typhus) becomes weak and languid, Sen 
tient appearing to beexhaufted by the foregoing paroxyfm ; 
which is renewed, howeyer, ina fhort time, with all its 
former'violence, or even ttronger marks of excitement. The 
hemarrlagies, which frequently occur in inflammatory fe- 
ver, are generally from the nofe, ears, lungs, reétum, (if 
the patient be fubjeét to the heemorrhoids,) or from the ute- 
rus, and are almoil always favourable ; the blood difcharged 


has the healthy appearance, except that the coagulum is 


frequently covered with the buffy coat. Hemorrhagies 
from the upper parts of the inteftines, kidnies, urethra, 
fkin, eyes, &c. are rarely, from the two lait perhaps never, 
obferved in inflammatory fever. 

Such arethe {ymptoms of well-marked fynocha; they 
vary in different cafes from thofe juft enumerated, tothe mild 
febrile fymptoms attending a common catarrh or ephemera. 
After they have continued for fome time, if they do not ter- 
minate the patient’s life, they always, at leaft in this coun- 
try, begin to be changed to thofe of typhus; fo that the 
whole difeafe is afynochus. The proportional duration, as 
well as violence of thefe refpective ftages of the difeafe, is 
different indifferent cafes; and proves an endlefs fource of 
variety: but the fymptoms which follow the ftate of in- 
creafed excitement are the moft dangerous as well as the 
matt varied part of the fever. 

The principal indication.in the cure of inflammatory fever, 
it mutt be evident, is that which we have ftated above as 
the fir/? indication, in the general cure of fever, (fee Fever,’ 
Method of Cures) viz. “to diminith exeeffive aGiion.”” The 
means of fulfilling this indication, by the antipblogiftic re- 
gimen, and evacuant medicines, inorher words, by remov- 
ing or diminithing all fources cfd4rritation, and by diminifh- 
ing the quantity of the circulating fluids, have been detailed 
af: length, and need not here be repeated. he higher the 
degree of inflammatory diathefis, the more requifite will it’ 
be to employ aétive evacuation, at an early period of the 
fever, and there will be the lefs hazard of carrying it to an 
injurious degree. 
already flated, fach a degree of fynocha is feldom feen, as 
requires, or is benefited by general blood-letting. In the! 
ardent, or yellow fever of tropical climates, the inflammatory: 
excitement is more rapid and more fevere, and the aétivity 
of the antiphlogiftic praétice matt be neceflarily greater.’ 
(See Wilfon on Febrile Difeafes.) See Pever, yellow. 

Tever, /ntercurrent; a denomination given by Syden- 
ham and others to thofe forms of fever which conttantly 


occur /poradically, that is, independent of the particular’ 


epidemic feafon, or of the reigning contagion. : 
Fever, /ntermittent, a fever which occurs in diftin® fits 
or paroxy{ms, with an interval of health, or complete ab-- 
fence of fever, between them: from the shivering which’ 
commences the fit, the difeafe has been called ague, which’ 
fee; and according as the fit recurs, every day, every al- 
ternate day, or ence in three days, it has been termed a guo- 
aioe a fertiany or a guartanague. See thele words be’ 
ow. : 
Fever, Jntefinal, aterm applied by fome writers to: 
thofe varieties of continued fever in which there is much! 
diarrhoea, with fetid ftools, &c. pain of the belly, diften-- 
fion, or other fymptoms of abdominal diforder. a 
thora 


In this country, however, as we have » 


FEVER. 


quick, weak, and uneqzial, fometimes fluttering, and fome-° 
times for a few minutes flow, nay, interjnitting 5 and then,’ 
with a fudden flufh in the face, immediately very quick,’ 


thors have ufed the epithets ga/ric and mefenteric with the 
fame intention: and the febres /lercorates and excremen- 
zofe of others are the fame. This multiplication of names 
is altogether ufelefs, fincethey do not imply any difference 
in the effential nature of'the fevers, and it 
great confufion in medical langnage. i 
*Pever, Lenticular, the fame with petechial. See be- 
low. ; : 
Fever, Malignant, a vague and improper term generally 
applied to fevers of a contagious origin, with fymptoms of 
extreme proitration of ftrength, petechiz, hemerrhagies, 
feetid difcharges, &c.; in a word to typhus, in its worlt 
forms; and alfo to fearlet fever in its moit fevere modilica- 
tions, the plague, and other dangerous epidemics. 

Fever, Miliary, a modification of common fever, ac- 
companied with an eruption of {pots not larger than millet 
feeds. See Mitrary eruption. , 

Fever, Milk, a fever afleGting puerperal women, and 
accompanied with diitenfion of the mamme. See Mirx- 
Fever. 

Faver, Morbillous, Febris morbillofa, aterm given by 


Sydenham, perhaps with the fame impropriety as in the: 


cafe of dyfenteric fever, (fee above, ) to a fever occurring dur- 
ing the prevalence of epidemic meafles, but without the erup- 
tion, or with very little of it. Sec Measvers. 

» Fever, Nervous, a name given by fome writers to all 
the varieties of fever, accompanied with debility, in contra- 
diilinétion to thofe which are characterized by arterial 
ftrength, which they call inflammatory. But Dr. Huxham, 
aud after him many other phyficians, have appropriated the 
‘term nervous to a particular form of fever with debility, 
which goes through a long and flow courfe, unattended by 
the exceffive excitement of inflammatory fever, on the one 
hand, or by the extreme proftration of typhus on the other. 
At the fame time, as it is accompanied by great lofs of 
muicular powers and mental inaCtivity, without the marks 
of putrefcency in the fluids difcharged, it was fuppofed to 
be a difeafe of the ‘animal fpirits,’? or nervous fluid, and 
not of the blood ; whence the term nervous was adopted. 
Dr. Huxham’s defcription is confidered as a very matterly 
example of medical hiftory, and we fhall give the outline 
nearly in his own words. 

The patient at firft grows fomewhat liftlefs, and feels flight 
chills and fhudders, with uncertain fudden fluthes of heat, 
and a kind of wearinefs all over, like what is felt after great 
fatigue. This is always attended with a fort of heavinefs 
and dejeétion of f{pirit, and more or lefs of a load, pain, or 
giddinefs of the head; a naufea and dif-relifh of every thing 
foon follows, without any confiderable thirlt, but frequently 
with urging to vomit, though little but infipid phlegm is 
brought up. Though a kind of lucid interval of feveral 
hours fometimes intervenes, yct the fymptoms return with 
aggravation, efpecially towards night. The head grows 
more heavy or giddy, the heats greater, the pulfe quicker 
but weak, with an oppreffive kind of breathing. A great 
torpor, or obtufe pain and coldnefs, affeéts the hinder part 
of the head frequently, and oftentimes a heavy pain is felt 
onthe top, along the coronary future ; this, and that of the 
back part of the head, generally attend nervous fevers, and 
are commonly fucceeded by fome degree of delirium. 

In this condition the patient often continues for'five or fix 
days, with a heavy, pale, funk countenance, feeming not 
very fick, and yet far from being well; reftlefs, anxious, 
and commonly quite void of fleep, though fometimes very 
drowfy and heavy ; but although he appears to thofe about 
him a@tually to fleep, he is utterly infenfible of it, and de- 


nies that he doth fo. ‘The pulfe, during all this time, is. 


Vor. XIV. 


gives rife to” 


and perhaps foon after furprifingly calm and equal ; and 
thus alternately. 
unequal, fometimes a {udden colour and glow appear in the 


The heats and chills are as uncertain and’ 


cheeks, while the tip of the nofe -and ears is cold, and the’ 
forehead at the fame time in a cold dewy fweat. Nay, it is- 


very common, that a high colour and heat appear in the 
face, when the extremities are quite cold. 
commonly pale, and often limpid, frequently of a whey 
colour, or like vapid {mall beer, in which-there is either no 
manner of fediment, or a kind of loofe matter, like bran, 
irregularly feattered up and down in it. The tongue at the 
beginning is feldom or never dry or difcoloured, tut fome- 
times covered with a thin whitifh mucus; at length indeed 
it often appears:dry, red, and chapped, or of the colour of 
pomegranate rind; but this moftly at the clofe of the 
difeafe ; yet, however dry the tongue and lips feem, the 
patient fcarcely ever complains of thirft, though fometimes 
of a heat in the tongue. 

About the feventh or eighth day, the giddinefs, pain, or 
heavine!s of the head become much greater, with aconftant 
noife in it, or finnitus curium, which is very dilturbing to 
the fick, and frequently briags on a delirium. The loadon 
the precordia, anxiety, and faintnefs grow much more 


* urgent, and the patient often falls into an a€tual deliquium 


The urine is’ 


or fainting ; efpecially if he attempts to fit up; coldith- 


{weats fuddenly come on in the forehead, and on the backs 
of the hands, {though at the fame time there is too much 
heat in the cheeks and the palms,) and as fuddenly go off, 
If the urine now grows more pale and limpid, a delirium is 
ertainly to be expeéted, with univerfal tremors and fubful- 
tus tendinim. The delirium is feldom violent, but as it 
were a confufion of thought and aétion, the fick muttering 
continually to themfelves, and faultering in their fpeech ; 
fometimes they awake only in a hurry and confufion, and 
prefently recolle& themfelves, but forthwith fall into a 
muttering dozy ftate again. 
The tongue grows ofteu very dry at the height of the 
fever, efpecially in its middle part, with a yellowifh lift on 


each fide, and it trembles greatly when the fick attempt to° 


put it out. When the tongue at this time grows more 
moift, and a copious {pitting comes on, it is always a very 
good fign; buat where difficulty of fwallowing, continual 
gulping, or choaking WM the throat fupervene, it is a very 
dangerous fymptom, efpecially if attended with any degree 
of hiccup. Frequently profufe fweats pour forth all at 
once about the ninth, tenth, or twelfth day, commonly cold- 
ifh or clammy on the extremities ; ofcentimes very thin ftools 
are difcharged, both the one and the other are generally 
colliquative and very weakening. However, a warm 
moiiture of the {kin is generally falutary, and a gentle diar- 
thoea frequently carries off the delirium and comatofe dif- 
pofition. 

Now nature finks apace, the extremities grow cold, the 
nails pale or livid, the pulfe may be faid to tremble and 
flutter, rather than to beat, the vibrations being fo exceed- 
ing weak and quick, that they can fcarcely be diftinguithed ; 
though fometimes they creep on furprifingly flow, and very 
frequently intermit. ‘The fick become quite infenfible and 
ttupid, fcarcely affected by the loudeft noife or the flrongeit 
light; though at the beginning ftrangely fufceptible of 
the impreflions of either. The delirium now ends in a pro- 
found coma, and that foon in eternal fleep. The itools, 
urine, and.tears run off iavoluntarily, and denounce .a 
{peedy diffolution, as the vait tremblings and twitching “0g 

e 


-- 


FEVER. 


the nerves and tendons are prelude’ to a general convulfion, 
which at once fnaps off the thread of life. In one or other 
@f thefe ways are the fick carried off, after having languifh- 
ed for fourteen, eighteen, or twenty days, nay fometimes 
much longer. 

_ All perfons grow deaf and ftupid towards the end of 
the difeafe, fome extremely deaf, though too quick and 
apprehenfive in the beginuing, infomuch that the lealt 
noife or light greatly offended them. Many, from their im- 
moderate fears, feem to hurry themfelves out of life, where 
little danger was apparent at the beginning : nays feveral 
will not fuffer themfelves to fleep, from avain fear of dozing 
quite away ; and others from the vaft hurry, anxiety. and 
confufion which they ave fenfible of in it, or at awaking. 
Where the deafnefs ends in an impofthume of the ear, itis 
geiterally a good fymptom ; and fo it is when a parotis fup- 
purates, or a large puftular angry eruption breaks out 
about the lips and nole. 

The nervous fever attacks perfons of delicate conftitu- 
tion, who have fuffered great evacuations, a long dejection 
of {pirits, immoderate watching, ftudy, or fatigue, as 
well as thofe who have ufed much crude unwholefome food 
and drink, or have been long confined in damp foul air, or 
expofed to other caufes of debility. 

It is obvious that, in this {pecies of fever, there is no 
opportunity of ufing {trong meafures, efpecially great eva- 
cuations, either by bleeding, or aétive purging. nor is the 
cold affufion admiffible, where the heats are moderate, par- 
tial, and tranfient. A very mild emetic or gentle laxative 
may be advifeable in the early {tage of the fever; asa little 
rhubarb, Epfom falt, manna, &c. But Dr. Huxhain af- 
fums, “ if you give any thing dra/lic, be affured your 
patient will rue for it, and you will repent it.” ‘ Moderate 
diaphoretic medicines, with a well regulated diluent, but 
nutritious regimen, are the remedies principally applicable 
to this form of fever. This regimen itfelf, judicioufly ma- 
naged, Dr. H. remarks, “ will go a great way in the cure, 
aflifted by well timed and well applied blifters, anda due 
care to keep the patient as quiet as poffible both in body 
and mind.”? Te rejeéts ftrong opiates, as commonly per- 
nicious ; but where the lownefs and dejeCtion are very con- 
fiderable, allows of a little more ftimulating plan; as the 
ufe of camphor, caftor, and faffron, with thin wine whey, 
or gruel with a little wine ; and as the difeafe advances, a 
little chicken broth, fago and wine, &c.; the wine being 
efpecially ferviceable where profufe cOlliquative {weats oc- 
cur. As no violent meafures can be adopted in this fever, 
-avith a view to halten its termination, the principal treat- 
ment neceflarily confilts in fupporting the ftrength, without 
adding much to the excitement ; for which purpofe a gen- 
tle cordial diaphoretic regimen is requifite, efpecially to- 
wards the decline of the difeafe. There is feldom any 
very marked crifis; and time only feems, in general, to 
wear off the fever. A gentle diarrhoea is fometimes of 
manifeft fervice, indeed, towards the end of the complaint, 
and the patient is always moit eafy, when in a gentle per- 
{piration; but when thefe difcharges are great, they are 
never cdvantageous ; but on the contrary fink the ftrength 
of the patient extremely. There is no evacuation of a 
more favourable portent, than a pretty free falivation with- 
out aphihe ; where this happens, Dr. Huxham obferves, 
‘with a kindly moifture of the fkin, I never defpair of my 
patient, however weak and ftupid he may feem; indeed, 
the deatnefs many times makes the fick at the clofe of the 
diftemper appear much lefs fenfible than they really are ; 
not but that many, under thefe circumftances, efcaping 
the grave, degenerate into mere idiots.” (See Huxham 


on Fevers, chap vii. Manningham on the Febricula.) The 
difeafe, above deferibed, is the typhus mitior of Dr. Cullea’s 
claffiication. © é 

Fever, Peffilential, a fever which fpreads rapidly and ex- 
tenfively, and is deftruétive to numbers, whether typhus, 
the plague, fcarlet fever, &c, See Epipemic, and Pracue. 

Fever, Petechial, called alfo peticular, punGicular, and 
lenticular, is a term applied to typhus, or other fevers, in 
which the purple fpots, refembling flea- bites, and denominated 
petechia, peticule, &c. appear upon the fkin. Thefe {pots 
are confidered as marks of malignancy and putrefcency, as 
above mentioned, in the defcription of the fymptoms of the 
advanced {tage of continued fever. See Perecut, and 
Purpura. 

Fever, Puerperal, or child-bed fever, a fever which occurs 
within a few days after parturition, and is conne&ted with 
an inflammation of the peritoneum, ar membrane lining the 
cavity of the abdomen; hence its nofological name of 
Prrivonitis pucrperarum, which fee: allo Pusrperat 


fever. 


Vever, Purple, the fame with petechial, (fee abov&) fo 
denominated from the ordinary colour of the petechix, 
which, in the language of the nurfes, are called the purples. 
See Purrura, and Perecniz. 

Fever, Puirid, a term applied to all the forms of fever, 
whether typhus, remitteat fever, fearlet fever, the plague, 
yellow fever, Sc. in which there is extreme proftration of 
ftrength, with black and offenfive difcharges, hemorrhages, 
and purple fpots; with what propriety will be difcufled 
under the head Putrip difeafes, which fee. 

Fever, Quartan, and quotidian, appellations of inter- 
mittent fever, when the fit occurs every third day, or every 
day in fucceffion. The word guartan, lignifying fourth,might 
appear to be erroncoufly applied; but phyticiars reckon 
the day on «which a difeafe commences the fiz, and con- 
fequeatly the third day after this is the fourth of the difeafe; 
in continuing the calculation, therefore, the day of every fuc- 
ccflive paroxyfm is twice reckoned, viz. as the fourth of 
the preceding period, or cycle, and the firlt of the fucceed- 
ing cycle. In like manner, the intermittent, which occurs 
on the alternate days, is denominated a ¢ertian. The com- 
mon people, however, denominate the guartan a third day 
ague, and the tertian a /econd day ague, not being acquainted 
with the more complicated medical calculation. See 
AGUE. 

Fever, Remittent, a fever confifting of periodical increafe * 
and abatement, but without an interval of freedom from 
the fymptoms, as in the intermittent. See RemitrenT. 

Fever, Rheumatic, a term applied to rheumatifm, when 
accompanied by a general febrile condition, and which is then 
more commonly and correCily termed acute RutumMATisMy 
which fee. 

Fever, Semi-tertian, that form of remittent fever in 
which there is daily exacerbation and remiffion, (fee Feris 
amphemerina,) but on alternate days the exacerbation com- 
mences with rigors, or great chillinefs and fhivering ; as if 
a tertian were joined with an amphemerine fever. This is 
the hemitriteus of the Greek writers: and the Amphimerina 
hemitriteus of Sauvages. (Nofol. Method, clafs. ii. geans 6. 
{pecies 7.) 

Fever, Ship, is the typhus occurring in crowded veflels. 
See Typuus. 

Fever, Scarlet, a fever of the exanthematous or eruptive 
clafs, which, like the {mall-pox, meafles, &c. is propagated © 
by.a {pecific contagion, aud occurs but once during the life 
of the individual. It is chara¢terized by a clofe effloref-— 
cence, of a fcarlet colour, appearing on the furface of the - 


bedy, 


‘FEV ER. 


" body, or withia the mouth and fauces, ufually on the fecond 

- day of fever, and terminating in about fiye days, but without 
certainty of a crilis to the fever. Being a difeafe, obferved 
only by the moderns, we have no claffical appeilation for it ; 

-and the nofologiits have adopted a barbarous term, firlt 
applied to it by Britifh writers, namely, /car/atina, from 
the fearlet colour of the rafh which accompanies it. Dr. 
Heberden calis it Febris rubra. 

The fearlet fever occurs wider three different forms, or 
varieties : there is alfo a fourth form of difeafe, originating 
from the fame contagion, namely, the ulcerated fore throat, 
which, being unaccompanied by the fearlet rafh, cannot with 
propriety receive the fame denomination. ‘The three 

_Warieties, firft mentioned, are rt. The fever, with the efloref- 

cence only, and no affection of the throat, which is com- 
morly a mild difeafe, and has been termed fearlatina_/im- 
plex: 2. The fever and effiorefcence with an accompanying 
fore throat, or angina, a more fevere diforder, which has 
been denominated fcarlatina anginofa: aud, 3. The fame 
combination, in which the fever affumes a typhoid type, 
i.e. 1s marked by great proftration of ftrength, a gangre- 
nous difpofition in the ulcerations, fectid difcharges, &c, and 
has been called’ f{carlatina maligna. The fourth modifica- 
‘tion of the difeafe has been called the putrid fore throat, 
the malignant ulcerated fore throat, angina maligna, cy- 
nanche maligna, &c. We hall briefly deferibe the con- 
-courfe of fymptoms under cach of thefe modifications of 
this difeafe, which, in its malignant forms, has at different 
times raged like a plague, and carried off multitudes. 

I. The fearlatina fmplex. This form of the difeafe con- 
fills merely of the rafh, and a moderate degree of fever for 
three or four days, not being, like the other f{pecies, at- 

tended with any local fwelling, inflammation, or ulcer. 
The firll fymptoms are general debility, naufea, and flight 
fucceflive fhiverings, terminated at lenpth by confiderable 
heat and thirtt. On the fecond day numerous fpecks, or 
minute patches of a vivid red colour, appear about the face 
and neck ; within twenty-four hours a fimilar efliorefcence 
is diffufed over the furface of the body, likewife in the nof- 
trils, on the iufide of the lips, cheeks, and eye-lids, over the 
tongue, palate, and the whole fauces. ‘Mhefe internal parts 
beiug red, the effects of the difeafe upon them do not per- 
haps attract attention, till the high fearlet fluth be produced. 
The eruption on the fkin is at firlt compofed of innumerable 
red points, which {pread into a diffufe rednefs on the third 
day, and the efflorefcence becomes almoft continuous on the 
limbs and cheeks. Several papule, or pimples, are {cat- 
tered on the back of the hand, brealt, arms, and lower ex- 
tremities, producing a roughnefs, like the cu/is an/erina. 
On the trunk of the body the efflorefcence is feldom uni- 
verfal, but in patches, or forming a fort of net-work, like 
veffels injeéted with wax. On the loins and nates, and 
within the flexures of the joints, the fearlet colour is moit 
ftrong and general; and in thofe fituations it alfo remains 
the longett. The rath is always lefs florid in the morning 
than at night, its colour being higheft on the third and 
fourth evening. On the fifth day it begins to decline ia 
colour; on the fixth its appearance is very indillin@, and 
it is wholly gone by the end of the feventh. Between the 
fourth and fifth day there is often a feattered eruption of 
milia velicles on the temples, neck, breaft, and 
fhoulders. On the fifth day a flight fcurfinefs fometimes 
appears on the fame parts ; but a more general feparation of 
the cuticle takes place on the eighth and ninth days, large 
pieces of the cuticle fometimes coming offentire, efpecially 
rom the hands, fingers, and fect, a new cuticle having been 
previoufly formed underneath, 


The pulfe, during the eruptive flage of fimple fearlatina, is 
ufually very quick and feeble. The tongue exhibits on its 
upper furface a whitifh fur, through which the elongated 
papillz extend their fearlet points; the fides of the tongue 
are of a darker red colour. The urixe is clear, and of 2 
bright flraw colonr. The face is confiderably tumeficd, 
There is ufually great reitleffiels, with a feafe of itching or 
tingling in the fin, and often flight delirium. "Thefe {yinp- 
toms continue with more or lefs violence from three to 
{even days. A few patients efcape without fever, pain, or 
any particular uneafinefs. 

This difeafe, although now known to arife from a diftin@ 
fpecies of contagion, has been confidered by many authors 
as a variety of the meafles, and, as the two dileafes refemble 
each other, foas to be occafionally miftaken, we (half reca- 
pitulate the diagnoftic charatters, as pointed out by Dr. 
Willan. 

1. The efflorefcence in {carlet fever generally appears on 
the fecond day ; in the meafles it is feldom vilible til the 
fourth. 2. It is much more full and fpreading in the for- 
mer than in the latter difeafe, and confifts of ingumerable 
points and fpecks under the cuticle, intermixed with minute 
pimples, in feme cafes forming continuous, irrecular 
patches, in others coalefcing into aa uniform fluth Secs a 
confiderable extent of furface. In the meafles the rafh is 
compofed of circular dots, partly diftin@, partly fet in {mall 
clufters or patches, and a little elevated, fo as.to give the 
feniation of roughnels when a finger is paffed over them ; 
thefe patches are feldom confluent, but form a number of 
crefcents, or fegments of circles, with large intervening por- 
tious of cuticle, which retain their ufual appearance. The 
colour of the rath is alfo different in the two difeafes, being 
a vivid red in the fcarlatina, like thac of a builed lobfter’s 
fhell; but in the meafles a cark red, with nearly the hue of 
arafpberry. 3. During their febrile ftage, the meafles are 
diftinguifhed by an cbftinate harfh cough, with expe@ora- 
tion of a tough acrimonious phlegm, by an inflammation of 
the eyes and eye-lias, with great fenfiuility to light, by an 
increafed difcharge from the ‘lachrymal gland, fneezing, 
&c. The fearlet fever is alfo freque: tly attended with a 
cough, and with reduefs of the eyes from an extenfion of 
the rafh to the tunica albuginea, circumilances which rene 
der the diftin@ion between this complaiit and the mezfles 
particularly difficult, if other fymptoms be not clear and 
decifive. On minute examination, however, it will be re- 
nerally, perhaps always found, that the cough in fearlatina 
is fhort and irritating, without expectoration ; that the red- 
nefs of the eye is not attended with intolerance of light, 
that the ciliary glands ate not affeéted ; and that, althouch 
the eyes appear fhining and watery, they never Overflow, 
4. When the rafh appears on the third or fourth day, being 
{cattered, and of a dark thade ef colour, as fre quei tly hap. 
pens in the fecond and third form of fcarlatina, the ifedte 
may be diftinguifhed from meafles by the appearances in the 
throat, by the rigidity of the mufcles of the neck, and other 
peculiar fymptoms hereafter to be deferibed. 

For the cure of {éarlatina fimplex, it feems only requifite 
to keep patients in a moderately cool and equable tempera- 
ture, in clean open apartments ; to preferibe licht diet, 
without animal food ; and to give cooling liquors for drink, 
When there is no morbid appearance or fenfation in the 
throat, our chief care fhould be to prevent neediefs appli- 
cations; fince, according to Sydenham’s obfervation, « pone 
die of this diforder except from a ‘too great officieufnefs in 
the practitioner.” It is but nominally a difeafe, he fays, 
unle{s the patient is imprifoned in bed, and medicines-are 
poured in “nimis doéeé et fecundum artem ;”? then “nore 

Yy2 bus 


CREE Wiehe. 


bus flaeim intenditur, et zer non raro nulla alia de caufa, 
“quam nimia medici diligentia, ad plures ee! (Seét. vi. 
cap. 2.) We wifh that this were popularly underftood ; 
for, we have already remarked, when concluding the article 
Fever in general, that friends, and nurfes will not be con- 
tent without more decifive proofs of the learning and art 
of the doG&tor, whofe moft difficult taflk is, therefore, to 
_prevent their active interference in fuch cafes, by feeming 
to be ative himfelf. 

II. Scarlatina anginofa, or fearlet fever with fore throat, 
is more fevere than the preceding. In this fpecies of the 
difeafe there is fuperadded to the fever and efflorefcence a 
confiderable {welling of the tonfils, velum pendulum palati, 
and uvula, accompanied witha florid rednefs of their whole 
furface, often terminating in numerous flight ulcerations. 

The primary febrile fymptoms are in this {pecies the fame 
“as in the former, but more violent. The affection of the 
throat fometimes begins with the fever, at other times is 
not perceptible till the fcarlet eforefcence has arrived at its 
height ; moft frequently it is felt when the rafh appears, 
and increafes and declines with it. A fudden fenfation of 
ftiffnefs in the mufcles of the neck, and lower jaw, takes 
place at the beginning of the difeafe. On the fecond day 
of fever the throat is rough and {ftraightened, the voice be- 
comes hoarfe, and deglutition is performed with pain and 
difficulty. Thefe fymptoms are attended on the fecond, 
third, and fourth day, with naufea, vomiting of bile, head- 
ache, delirium, reftleffuefs, and great heat, with a feeble flut- 
tering pulfe, a quick refpiration, and extreme languor or 
faintnefs. On examining the throat there appears a con- 
fiderable enlargement of the tonfils, and a florid rednefs of 
their furface, which extends over the palate and the potte- 
rior part of the throat. The tongue alfo affumes a high 
red colour, and the papille over its whole furface are greatly 
elongated. 

In fome cafes no further change is obfervable in the 
fauces, neither do the appearances above-mentioned continue 
beyond the fifth or fixth day: no deep or confiderable 
ulcer forms in the tonfils. . Slight fuperficial ulcerations are 
very frequent, and more efpecially at the latter end of the 
year. ‘They occur at an early period of the difeafe, as on 
the fecond or third day, fomctimes later. The formation of 
them is preceded by a very quick and unequal pulfe, with 
lownefs and great inquictude. Small white patches are 
then vifible over the pendulous part of the palate and the 
toniils; at the fame time, the red colour in thofe parts be- 
comes darker in fome places than in others, fo that the whole 
furface has a peculiar fpeckled appearance. Soon after- 
wards, fiflures or excoriations take place at the centre of the 
white patches, which are almoft immediately covered with 
whitifh floughs. When thefe are numerous, the throat is 
conftantly clogged with a large quantity of tough vifcid 
pblegm: hence the difficulty of {wallowing is increafed, and 
nuch pain is felt upon preffure externally applied. The 
{loughs are in fome cafes removed about the fifth or fixth 

ay, at the declitie of the efilorefcence; in other inftances 
they continue to the eighth day, or even later ; and when 
they feparate, partial excoriations remain, which may, how- 
ever, be readily healed. 

The efflorefcence, in this form of fcarlet fever, differs in 
a few particulars from that defcribed under the head of {ear- 
latina fimplex. ft. It does not appear fo early in the 
difeafe, but is often delayed to the third day. 2dly. It does 
not fo conftantly extend over the furface of the body, but 
comes out in {cattered patches on the baeky fides, neck, and 
breaft, or about the joints. 3dly. It fometimes wholly va- 
nifhes the day after its appearance, and re-appears partially 


at uncertain times. Hence, 4thly, the whole duration of 
it is longer thanin fearlatina fimplex. Thefe variations are 
mott frequent during the autumnal and winter months, when 
the difeafe is in general moft fevere. 

During the ftate of extreme debility, which ufually fuc- 
ceeds the /carlatina anginofa, fome patients are affected with 
anafarcous fwellings of the face and hands, but more ef- 
pecially of the lower extremities. The {welling becomes 
con{picuous about the eighth or tenth day from the difap- 
pearance of the rafh, and continues for two or three weeks, 
In cafes exhibiting a very full and vivid efflorefcence, the 
anafarca takes place more frequently, and toa greater de- 
gree. When the throat is much ulcerated, and the rafh not 


-extenfive, and when no defquamation of the cuticle fucceeds, 


dropfical fwellings rarely occur. Occafionally, though very 
rarely, effufions of ferum into the abdomen, or thorax, or the 
ventricles. of the brain, take place. An enlargement of the 
parotid glands happens frequently in adults, and continues 
a long time without fappurating. Children, at every period, 
of the difeafe, are liable to tumours both of the parotid and 
fub-maxillary glands, fometimes ending in tedious and pain- 
ful abfceffes. With thefe they have, during the latter itage 
of the complaint, ulcerations at the corner of the mouth, 
{trumous ophthalmia, {welling of the upper lip, and puru- 
lent difcharges from the ears, fometimes accompanied with 
deafnefs: they are alfo fubje& to puttules or {mall ulcera- 
tions of the tongue, which prove troublefome for fome days, 
but without any ferious confequences. 

During every epidemic fearlet fever many cafes occur in 
which the efflorefcence is confined to the throat and mouth, 
there being no appearance of a rafh on the fkin: but the 
febrile fymptoms, vomiting and delirium, continue violent 
for feveral days. A’ crimfon colour of the throat is per- 
ceptible often before the fever commences; in the ae of 
which numerous fmall fpecks of ulceration are formed on 
the tonfils, &c. and become, inmany places, confluent, when 
the increafed fecretion of phlegm, the tumour, pain, and 
difficulty of {wallowing, occafion great diltrefs. This com- 
plaint feems peculiar to adults, and is evidently a {pecies of 
{carlatina, becaule it affeéts fome individuals of large fami- 
lies, while the reft are labouring under other forms of the 
difeafe, and becaufe it is capable of communicating, by in- 
fection, all the varieties of it. Perfons who have previoufly 
gone through the fearlatina anginofa experience, while con- 
verfant with the fick, very uneaty fenfations in the throat 5 


‘they remain, however, free from fever, although the {welling 


and inflammation of the tonfils be confiderable. 

The cure of /carlatina anginofa requires a more attive ad- 
miniftration of remedies. Although blood-letting has been 
recommended by Morton, De Haen, and others, the expe- 
rience of our later writers on this fubje& coincides in deem- 
ing it injurious. Dr. Willan fays, wherever it had been em- 
ployed great depreflion and faintnefs were the immediate 
confequences, the pulfe becoming more weak and frequent, 
and often irregular. And Dr. Withering difcountenances 
even local bleeding. «* Sometimes, where the fiery rednefs 
of the eyes, and the ftate of delirium feemed to demand the 
application of leeches to the temples,”’ he obferves, “ I have 


* {een them applied, but never with any good effe&.” 


Lmetics ave recommended by all the beft writers on this 
difeafe, among whom, indeed, there is very little diiference 
of opinion on the fubje@&. In the very firft attack,” fays 
Dr. Withering, “ a vomit feldom fails to remove the dif- 
eafe at once: if the poifon has begun to exert its effe€ts upon 
the nervous fyftem, emetics {top its further progrefs, and 
the patients quickly recover. If it has proceeded {till far- 
ther, and occationed that amazing action in the = 

7 eewhit 


SE EY VEER, 


whieh exifls when the fearlet colour of the fkin takes 
-place, vomiting never fails to procure a refpite tothe 
‘anxiety, the faintnefs, and delirium.’ ‘In autumn, 
“when the throat was more affeéted, when the tumefaGtion 
‘of the fauces was fuch that the patients could not fwallow, 
but with the utmoft difficulty: when the peripneumonic 
fymptoms -threatened fuffocation, and bleeding was inef- 
fe&tnal; an emetic opened the gullet, and unloaded the lungs, 
fo that deglutition became eafy and refpiration free. But it 
is neceflary to add, that a vomit only fufficiently ftrong to 
evacuate the contents of the ftomach is hy no means ade- 
“quate to thefe effects,. The vomit muft be powerful, and, 
‘in ordinary cafes, repeated once in forty-eight hours; in 
thofe with more urgeat fymptoms daily ; and in the worft 
cafes twice in twenty-four hours. The patients never fail 
to exprefs the relief they find after the operation, aad the 

hyfician foon difcovers it in the countenance and pulfe. 
‘As tothe form of the emetic, the prattitioner may vary it 
ashe pleafes; but I generally combiae tartar emetic in fo-- 
dution with ipecacuanha powder, that I may be more certain 
of their full effet on the ftomach, and avoid the danger of 
‘their aGting asa purgative. I alfo give them in much larger 
dofes than ufual, in order to fecure a certain violence of 
aGtion upon the fyftem.” (Withering on Scarlet Fever, 
page 75-8.) Dr. Ruth recommends this repetition of vo- 
miting, but he alfo “ gave calomel in moderate dofes in 
every ftage of the diforder.”. Dr. Willan agrees with thefe 
phydicians, in the propriety of adminiitering emetics, but 
has never found it necefflary to repeat them fo often as Dr. 
Withering has advifed. 

With velpe& to purgatives, Dr. Withering, it is obvious 
from the above quotation, contidered them as dangerous ; 
and Dr. Willan aflirms, that they ‘* have nearly the fame 
debilitating effe&t as blood-letting. They aie indeed very 
feldom neceffary ;’’ he adds, “ for though a few patients 
may, onthe firlt day, be afflicted with bilious vomiting and 
diarrhcea, the ftate of the bowels is more uniform than in 
‘other febrile complaints.”? Nevertheleis, he thinks the oc- 
‘cafional {timulus of a {mall dofe, as two or three grains, of 
calomel, very ufeful. Dr. Binns exprefies an acknowledg- 
‘ment to a brother pra€titioner, ‘ for his removal of a pre- 
judice againit laxatives in the early ftage of the difeafe, 
ambibed from various authors, and confirmed by the dread- 
ful confequences | had feen when a diarrhoea came on in 
this fever. By his perfuafion {mall dofes of calomel and 
other laxatives were occafionally given; and fo far from 
producing injury, I believe, that by evacuating the acrid 
matter, which is often fwallowed, they had a tendency to 
prevent excoriations of the inteftinal canal, and the con- 
fequent diarvhcea which I dreaded.”? (See Willan on Cu- 
‘taneous Difeafes, part iil. p. 357.) Dr. Hamilton of 
Edinburgh has, however, fhewn us that fuch prejudices 
were completely unfounded, and that moderate purgatives 
of calomel and rhubarb, or jalap, in the early ftages of 
{carlatina, are as beneficial as in fimple fever; and he even 
-confiders them as fuperfeding the exhibition of emetics. 
We believe that both the remedies are advantageoufly ad- 
miniftered ; and that a lax ftate of the bowels, produced 
by medicine in the early itage, tends to prevent the diarrhea 
of the fucceeding periods, as Dr. Binns remarks, and as is 
alfo probable in common fever. ‘ 

In cafes of {carlatina anginofa where the throat is inflamed 
-and fwelled, fo as to occafion very painful deglutition, d/i/ers 
applied to the external fauces, or between the fhoulders, 
- afford confiderable relief. 

It is proper to enjoin the fame adherence to the anti- 
- plilogiftic regimen as in the fimple form of fearlatina, or 


. 


as mentioned under the head Fever, particularly with 
regard to cool air, cool drink, and light coverings; the 
cutaneous heat arifes to a higher degree in this than in any 
other febrile difeafe in this country. ““* If the thermometer 
be applied to the iurface of the body,”? Dr.Currie obferves, 
when {peaking of this fever, “ after the fenfation of heat 
has become fteady, the mereury will be found to rife to 
105° and 106° even in mild cafes, and in the more violent 
cafes to 108°, 109”, ad 110°. I have knownit rife as high 
as 112°, the greateit heat I ever obferved in the human 
body.”” (See his Reports on the Effe@s of cold Water &c. 
vol. ii. p.428 ) Accordingly the experience of this ex- 
cellent phylician, as well as that of profeffor Gregory of 
Ediaburgh, and of feveral intelligent correfpondents, has 
afcertained that the external application of cold eater to the 
fkin is the moft certain and effeGtual method of removing 
this difeafe. “(See Corn, effeas of, as a remedy.) In this 
cafe, as in that of idiopathic fever, already defcribed, 
the cold affufion aQtually terminates the difeafe, when applied 
before the appearance of the efforefeence, and the cold 
wafhing, at fubfequent periods of the difeafe, while the fkin 
2mains hot and dry, invariably diminithes all the febrile 
fymptoms, and gives great relief to the feelings of the 
patient, as we have witneffed in numerous cafes. Dr. 
Stanger, when {peaking of the fame general wathing of the 
body, among the children of the Foundling Hofpital, 71 

of whom went through the fearlet fever, remarks, that 
“its effects in cooling the fkin, diminifhing the frequency 
of the pulfe, abating thirit, and difpofing to fleep, were 
very remarkable. Finding this application fo highly bene- 
ficial,” he adds, I employed it at every period of the 
fever, provided the {kin were hot and dry.” (See Dr. 
Willan’s treatife,. above quoted, p. 360.) With what 
fuccefs the cold affufion was employed by Drs. Currie and 
Gregory, in completely annihilating fearlet fever in its 
commencement, in their own children, will be remarked 
with pleafure by the readers of Dr. Currie’s fecond volume, 
P- 442, aud 435. While this remedy is ufed, Dr. C. ob- 
ferves, cold water and lemonade fhould be ufed as drinks 

and the howels opened, if neceflary, by calomel. « If left 
to myfelf I ufe no other means.? We can add, that we 
have feen feveral cafes, in which the patients fpeedily reco- 
vered from a {mart attack of the difeafe, in which the cold 
wathing, by means of a {ponze, repeated from time to time 
as the heat was great, and a dofe of calomel, were the only 
remedies employed. 

We have before ftated, that the effe&s of cold, applied 
to the fkin, when there is exceffive heat, and a@ion of the 
cutaneous capillaries, is the moft effe&tual mode of inducine 
Sweating, (fee Coun,) which, whether as a caufe ora con. 
fequence and fign of the reduétion of fever, has been gene- 
rally an object of the practice of phyficians. Many of them 
endeavour, in the firft fix days of fearlet fever, to excite 
perfpiration by antimonials, camphor, aromatics, dulcifed 
fpirits, and volatile alkali faturated with vinegar oy juice ét 
lemons. But Dr. Willan juitly remarks, that before the 
decline of the efllorefcence, fuch remedies and oppreffive 
coverings, for the’ moit part, fail to produce their ufual 
effe&ts, and often increafe the heat, anxiety, and reftlefinefs, 
which they were intended to relieve ; and that before that 
decline he never fucceeded in the endeavour to excite per- 
{piration, yet perfpiration is the almoit certain refult of the 
external ufe of cold water, properly employed. 

The mineral acids have been found ferviceable in {carla. 
tina anginofa, and acidulated gargles are generally ufefd, 

where the throat is much afleted, and feem to carry off 
the virus with pe faliva is tainted, and thus to pre- 
Yeat 


BLE, VeEi R. 


vent the irritation of the bowels, which it occafions when 
{wallowed. The ufe of bark in the firft days of fearlatina 
anginofa is now given up by the majority of practitioners 
as detrimental ; but it is generally admitted that, at the 
decline of the eflorefcence, if the fever alfo declines, and is 
not fucceeded by a cough, the bark, mineral acids, wine, 
and nutritious diet, obviate the debility and opprefiive 
languor, which remain after the difeafe, and contribute to 
prevent the acceflion of dropfy. (See Willan, loc. cit.) 

III. The fymptoms of the Jcarlatina maligna on the firft 
day, according to the author juft quoted, are nearly the 
fame as in the fcarlatina anginofa ; but fome of the tollow- 
ing peculiarities are afterwards obfervable ; 1. A {mall, in- 
diftinét, and nregular pulle, a brown or black incrutiation 
of the tongue, teeth, and lips; 2. A dull rednefs of the 
eyes, a dark red flufhing of the checks, deafnefs, delirium, 
or coma alternating with fretfulnefs and violence : 3. Breath 
extremely fetid ; a rattling and laborious relpiration, 
partly occafioned by a thick tough phlegm clogging the 
fauces ; a conttriGtion of the jaws, and painful deglutition 5 
afulnefs and livid colour of the neck, with retraétion of 
the head: 4. Ulcerations on the tonfils and adjoining parts, 
covered with dark floughs, and furrounded by a livid bafe : 
5 Anacrid difcharge from the naitrils, cauting forenefs, or 
chops, and even blilters, about the nofe and lips, the fluid 
being at firft thin, but afterwards thick and yellowith: 
6. The rath is ufually faint, excepting in a few irregular 
patches; and <ll of it prefently changes to a dark or livid 
red colour; it appears late, is very uncertain in its duration, 
and often intermixed with purple fpots, or petechie. In 
fome inftances the rath fuddeuly difappears a few hours after 
it is formed, and comes out again at the expiration of a 
week, continuing two or three days. 

Patients who withitand the violence of the firft attack of 
malignant {carlatiwa have neverthelefs to ftruggle through 
a feries of moft untoward circumi{tances, continued far be- 
yond the ufual febrile period. The ulcerations gradually 
{pread from the throat to the gullet, laryns, and wind-pipe. 
Violent pains of the bowels, and excoriations about the 
nates fucceed ; alfo hetical paroxy{ms, with fuppurations 
of the glands, a teizing couzh, great difficulty of breathing, 
pains in the fide, anda remarkable alieration in the found of 
the voice. A few recover after having been harafled, almott 
inceflantly, for fix or eight weeks. In the year 1756, 
when the fearlatina maligna was epidemic in London, more 
than two-thirds of thofe affeéted with it died between the 
{eventh and nineteenth day of the fever. The fymptoms 
portending danger are, continued coma, dulneis of the 
eyes, laborious breathing, diarrheea, petechiw, vibices, and 
hemorrhagy. The degree of danger in the complaint does 
not depend on the greater or lefs extent of the rafh on the 
fkin; the filleft rednefs affords no decided fecurity, nor is 
the total ebfence of it incompatible with a mild dileafe. 
Many patierts fink under this difeafe, unexvectedly, at a 
wery early period, as on the fecond, third, or fourth day, 
no fymptoms having preceded, which could excite an ap- 
prekention of immediate danger. It has been thoughi that 
fo fudden a mortality is owing to a gangrenous {tate of the 
throat, gullet, ftomach, inteitines, or lungs ; and this opi- 
nien feems to be confirmed by diffections. 

In the treatment of /carlatina maligna, a bold and perfe- 
vering courfe of emetics, as recommended by Dr. Withering, 
is confidered by Dr. Willan and others as the moit effec- 
tual mode of obviating. the fingular malignity of this 
diftemper. When adminiftered in due time, fays the lalt- 
mentioned author, they very generally prevent the tranfition 
from the milder to the more virulent forms of f{carlatina, 


an 


and remove the febrile {ymptoms at the earlieft poffible 
period. Indubious cafes, if powertul dofes of ipecacuanha, 
either alone, or combined with tartayized antimony, entirely 
fail to produce their ufual effects, it may be concluded that 
the moft unfavourable itate of the difeafe has begun, amd 
that the patient’s fituation is extremely dangerous: lifters 
are feldom ufeful in this form of fcarlet fever, and fome- 
times prove injurious. Bleeding and purging are always 
hurtful, according to Dr. Fothergill, Dr. Willan, and others; 
a itrong cathartic, or even the application of a few leeches 
to the’ throat, fays the latter, has been known to produce 
an immediate finking, and fometimes death within a few 
hours, in cafes which feemed previoufly favourable. But 
from the confeffion of Dr. Binns, above noticed, we learn 
than unreafonable prejudices have exifted againft purging, 
in other forms of this fever ; and we cannot eafily reconcile 
the encomiums on ftrong and reiterated vomiting, with the 
extreme fears of moderate purging, at leaft in the commence- 
ment of the difeafe. 

Fumigation of the throat with nitrous acid is recommend- 
ed by Dr. Willan as ufeful in keeping the throat clean, and 
often fuperfeding the neceflity of gargles ; but he admits 
that gaigles remove the vifcid and offenfive matter from 
the throat, and thus preferve the fomach and bowels from 
its dilagreeable action. Thofe prepared with contrayerva, 
according to the diretions of Dr. Fothergill, (Treatife on 
the Ulcerous Sore-throat, p. 64.) are the moft grateful 
and advantageous: and gargles of a more ltimulating qua- 
lity have been ufed with benefit. In the Weft Indies the 
favourite gargle is made with capficum or Cayenne pepper, 
which, though produ€tive of much pain, is faidto be very 
cflicacious. Occafional immertions in warm water are re= 
commended in this form of {carlatina by fome praétitioners, 
Dr. Currie remarks that the affufion of cold water is fearee- 
ly applicable to the f{carlatina purpurata, and that the tepid 
affufion makes little impreffion- upon it. Dr. Willan has 
obferved confiderable advantage from the application of 
warm vinegar and brandy to the limbs, and to the greater 
part of the body. 

When emetics have not been exhibited at a proper period, 
it becomes neceffary, as the difeafe advances, to direét cor- 
dials, wine, opium, Peruvian bark, miueral acids, &e. aecord- 
ing to the cireumftances of the cafe. In this point, al- 
molt all authorities, foreign and Britifh, coincide, The dif- 
eafe i; then to be treated as other fevers of extreme debility, 
or malignancy, asit has been termed, which the gangrenous 
tendency of the ulcerations, as well as the other fymptoms, 
manifeftly indicate. pts 

IV. In the ulcerated fore throat, which affe&s adults 
without any efllorefcence on the fkin, emetics, given early, 
according to Dr. Willan, prove of great advantage, and 
the treatment recommended in the fcarlatina anginofa will 
be found effectual. Gargles, whether acid or detergenr, 
if very fharp, or if injeéted forcibly enough to remove the 
floughs, oceafion much pain, and often protraét the difeafe. 
Dr. Wall, Dr. Johnftone, Dr. Ruth, and. others, reeom- 
mend the inhalation of the vapour of myrrh and vinegar. 
Dr. Willan is of opinion, that Dr. J. Carmichael Smythe 
mode of fumigation, by pouring heated oil of vitriol on 
powdered nitre in a proper veffel, is intitled to a preferemce, 
The refrefhing antifeptic vapour, he fays, detached by this 
procefs, and circulated through the room, prefently clears 
the patient’s throat, and at the fame time removes the fector 
both of the breath and perfpiration. oc. cit. p. 368.) 

It is truly fiagular, that the signet of all eruptive 
fevers, and the mott violent, the moft fatal difeafe known in 
this country, fhould rank together and {pring from the.fame 


4 origing 


FEV 


origim, Experienee, however, has decided, that the fimple 
{earlet fever, the {carlatina anginofa, the fcarlatina (or angina) 
maligna, and the fcarlet ulcerating fore-throat without the 
eflorefcence on the {kin, are merely varieties of one dileafe. 
‘Phat all of them proceed from the fame fource of conta- 
gion is evident ; becaufe under the fame roof, in large fa- 
milies, fome individuals have the difeafe in one form, fome 
in another, about the fame period. According to the flate 
of the air, the foil, climate, or feafon of the year, one form 
predominates over all the reft, and gives the general cha- 
racter to every epidemic fcarlatina. Hence arife the various 
accounts and opinions refpeéting it, which are to be found 
in medical writers. Dr. Currie, however, remarks, “ that 
the varieties of fcarlatina are, in fa&, not greater than the 
varieties of the {mall-pox, to which they bear a very {tri 
analogy.” (Reports, vol. ii. p. 422.) It isnow underituod, 
that the fecarlet fever is lable to attack the fame individual 
but once ia his life; an oceafional exception only occurring 
in this, as in the fmall-pox, meafles, and other eruptive fe- 
vers. (See Dr. Binns’ account, in Dr. Willan’s Treatife, 
p- 283.) Dr. Withering fays, “ I have never yet feen an 
inftance of the fame perfon having the fcarlet fever twice, 
and I believe it tobe as great an improbability as a repetition 
of the f{mall-pox.” (p. 53.) 
The fearlet fever {preads rapidly by contagion, efpecially 
among children, (adults are uot very fufceptible of its in- 
fluence, ) and the fymptoms often commence on the third or 
fourth day, and the eruption appears on the fifth cr fixth, 
after expofure to the contagion. Net ouly does the conta- 
gion extend itfelf rapidly, but when it once finds its way 
into large families, fchools, &c. it is with great difficulty 
arrefted in its progrefs, even by keeping the infeed fepa- 
rate from the reft, by ftri€& attention to ventilation, and to 
cleanlinefs throughout the houfe. (See Conracion.) 
This was ftrongly exemplified in the year 1803, in the 
feminary founded by the quakers at Ackworth, in which, 
notwithftanding the ative adoption of thele meafures, 
under the judicious management of Dr. Binns, 171 perfons 
were affected with {carlatina, and the difeafe continued there 
upwards of four months. (See the whole account in Dr. 
Willan’s Treatife before quoted, p. 380, et fig.) Neverthe- 
lefs, thefe meafures of prevention are advifeable in all fimilar 
inftances, and in fmaller academics than that of Ackworth 
they have been found effectual, when carefully purfued. 
Dr. Haygarth relstes an inftance, in which thirty-feven 
boarders in the family of a clergyman at Chefter were pre- 
ferved from the infection, brought to the [chool by one boy, 
by immediate feparation of the latter. ** My patient’s 
chamber was fituated in the middle of the houfe,”’ Dr. Hay- 
arth obferves, “‘at the landing of the firlt pair of ftairs. 
All the feholars went clofe patt this door feveral times a 
day. The rules of prevention were placed on the door, and 
rigid attention to their faithful obfervance was required. 
The event fully juftified my hopes. Though all the thirty- 
feyen {cholars remained in the fame houfe and family during 
the whole difeafe, yet not one of them was infeed.” At 
this time Winchefter, and feveral other large fchools in 
England, fent home and difperfed their {cholars, on account 
of this difeafe, which had alarmingly fpread among them. 
(See Dr. Haygarth’s letter to Dr. Percival, p. 81. | See alfo 
Dr. Withering on Scarlet Fever, p. 67. and Dr. Black- 
burne on the fame, p. 23.) All thefe writers give a caution 
ainft the ufual practice, on the appearance of the difeafe, 
of haftily dilperfing the {cholars, who may, after returning 
home, diffufe contagion in their refpe&tive families and 
neighbourhoods. As we deem this fubject of high public 
importanee, we fhall make noapology for tranferibing the 


‘ 


De 


active meafures which were adopted, under the fuperintend- 
ance of Dr, Blackburne, with fuccefs in a large academy. 

«Ina numerous fchool, near town, where the f{carlet 
fever had infeéted feveral young gentlemen, in coufequence 
of one of them being fuffered to affociate with his {choo]- 
fellows, in a few days after his recovery from the complaint, 
which he had bronght with him from home, it was effeétu- 
ally extinguifhed, and was attended with no unpleafant 
confequences, by adopting the following means. When 
it became evident that the convalefcent had infefted the 
{chool, he was withdrawn, and apartments allotted to him 
completely feparated both trom the healthy and the fick: 
to which apartments, it will be feen, the fick were removed 
after a certain period of convalefcence. The infeéted were 
then conveyed to an adjoining houfe, and the doors, which 
communicate between it and the bed rooms of the fchool, 
were clofed up, to preclude the poffibility of any mtercourfe. 
The fick were there attended by uurfes, the regular fervants 
of the family being kept entirely from them ; and to prevent 
efiz€tually the progrefs of any farther mifchief, not auly 
their linen, but even their knives and forks, and plates, &c. 
were appropriated folely to their ufe; and nothing belonging 
to them was fuffered to enter the houfe, wiere the healthy 
ftill remained. One of the family, who was neceflarily 
called to fuperintend the management of the fick, went at 
no time during the illnefs near the {chool, from an apprehen- 
fion of conveying the infeétion, but confined herfelf to the 
care of the invalids. The fchool-room, dining-hall, and ail 
the bed-rooms, fuppofed to be infected, were immediately 
cleared out, and nothing but the bare wails left; they were 
then white wathed and diftempered ; the young geatlemen in 
the mean time occupying apartments, which were known not 
to be infected, and which were afterwards alfo diftempered 
with the fame colour for the fake of uniformity. Ail the 
blankets, counterpanes, &c. throughout the houfe were 
feowered: the rooms ard ftaircafes were fpriak!ed with 
vinegar; the bedfteads were taken down, well ferubbed, and 
{punged with vinegar ; and for fome time the feather-beds 
were expofed to the open air, and alfo fprinkled with 
vinegar. During this period, however, and for feveral days, 
fome, who had originally takea the infeGtion, but had not 
fhewn the fymptoms fo early as the others, were facceflively 
taken ill. They were of courfe removed from the f{choob, 
and their beddivg, clothes, &c. fent with them to the fick 
houfe. Thus, it being generally imagiued, that no infeétion 
is communiceted in the firlt age of the complaint, it was 
concluded, that fuch young gentlemen as had efcaped in the 
iirft inftance were, by the afore-mentioned precautions, now 
fecured from all poffible danger ; and the event fatisfaétorily 
proved, that norie of thofe who fell ill in the fchool had, at 
the time, infeGtive influence. ‘Phe young gentleman, who 
was laft taken ill, fhewed the fymptoms on the eleventh day 
in the midit of the fchool, and with him it ftopped’” (See 
Faé&s and Obfervations concerning the Prevention and 
Cure of Scarlet Fever, &c. by W. Blackburne, M. D. 1803, 
p- 21. et feq.) 

The origin of the difeafe in this fchool, namely, from a 
convalefcent boy, leads us to an important qnettion refpeét- 
ing the period after the ceflation of the fever, when the 
patient ceafes to carry infe€tion about his perfor ; as well 
as to the confideration of the means of diminifhing his infec- 
tious power. Dr. Willan remarks, that * in making the 
feparation here recommended, we may fafely a& on the 
fuppolition, that perfons under the influence of contagion 
do not communicate it till they are aGually affected with 
the fever and efflorefcence’—He adds, “ it is to be res 
marked, that. convalefcents from fcarlatina, notwithftand- 


ing 


FE VE &. 


ing a minute attention to cleanlinefs and change of apparel, 
remain, for favo or three weeks, capable of infecting perfons 
fulceptible, efpecially children, with whom they have inter- 
courfe. ‘hefe periods I have been able to afcertain in 
feveral inftances.”? (Loc. cit. page 387—8.) He therefore 
recommends the procefles adopted by Dr. Binns, for puri- 
fying convalefcents previous to their intercourfe with the 
healthy, as not sore than fufficient for the purpofe. 
« When the’ fever and floughs in the throat were wholly 
removed,” fays Dr. Binns, “the patients ftayed a few 
days in the convalefeent rooms, and had an opportunity of 
walking in the garden, at the front of the houfe, to clear 
themfelves from infelion by repeated expofure to the open 
air. After this they went acrofs the garden to a wafh- 
houfe, about equally diltant from the fever-houfe and the 
{chool, where they were entirely ftripped, aad wafhed with 
foft-foap, particular attention being paid to cleanfing their 
hair. “They then put on freth clothing, and went up to 
the rooms in the fchool; being, however, kept apart for 
{ome time longer. Their bed and body. linen was frequently 
changed on their return, as it before had keen tv the fick- 
rooms. When they had continued thus about a week, and 
appeared to have recovered their flreneth, the general ab- 
lution was repeated ; and after rambling in the fields for 
fome hours, they were permitted to mix with the other 
children.’ (See Dr. Willan’s Treatife, p. 383 —4.) 

From thefe details, the principles upon which the pre- 
vention of the fpreading of the active contagion cf {carlet 
fever may be accomplifhed will be obvious ; and in order 
to be effectual, they mutt be purfued in the ftricteft and 
mott rigid manner ; for, as we have already pointed ont, the 
extent to which infection is communicated through the air 
is extremely limited ; (fee Conracion,) and therefore a 
perfect feparation and interruption of intercourfe by per- 
fons, clothes, utenfils, or other things, will infallibly pre- 
vent its communication, And as all the forms of the 
difeafe may be produced in the fame family, from any one 
fource of the contagion: the precautions above f{pecified 
fhould be obferved on the appearance of the fimple fcarla- 
tina, as well as when our attention is called to the more 
dangerous forms.of the diftemper. 

With refpe& to the hiftory of /carlet fever, our limits 
will not allow us to;enlarge greatly on this curious and in- 
terefling part of the fubjeét: we muit content ourfelves 
with a brief {ketch, and refer the reader, who may be de- 
firous of amore comprehenfive view of the progrefs of the 
difeafe, to Dr. Willan’s elaborate detail of the faéts, im his 
treatife on Cutaneous Difeafes, to which we are indebted 
for much of the information contained in this article. 

The fearlet fever does not feem to have been known in 
this couutry more than 150 years; for Sydenham and Mor- 
ton are the firft Englth writers who mention it. Sir 
Robert Sibbald, phyfician to king Charles II., for Scot- 
land, fays, in the year 1680, this difeafe had appeared fo 
lately at Edinburgh, and was fo little underitood, that he 
could not venture to give any obfervations refpeCting it. 
Sydenham only mentioned the fimple form; but Morton 
has defcribed the fymptoms of fearlatina anginofa, and fome 
cafes of the malignant form, which he confidered as a 
variety of meafles. (See his treatife De Morbillis et Febre 
Scarlatina, cap. iv—v.) During the 18th century the 
difeafe was frequently epidemic in Britain, and has been 
amply deferibed by- Huxham in 1734; Fothergill in 17.48; 
Cotton at the fame time ; and fubfequently by feveral other 
authors. On the continent of Europe, however, from a 
much earlier period, it has frequently raged, and ravaged, 
towns and diftricts, with all_the virulence and fatality of a 


true plague. It has been defcribed again and again, by 


fuceeflive obfervers in different fituations, as-a new and- 


unknown difeafe, and under a great variety of denomina- 
tions. 

The firft account of fearlatina on record is that of In- 
graffia, a Neapolitan phytician, about the year 1500; it was 
then known by the name of Roffalia at Naples. 


next find the difeafe epidemic in Holland in 1517, in its 
malignant form, as deferibed by Foreftus; and through 


Lower Germany in 1565 and 6, as defcribed by Wierus, as © 


a peftilential fore-throat. A few years afterwards the 


fame diforder was epidemic at Paris, and called by Ballo-. 
nius rubiole, which he carefully dittinguifhes from the : 
meafles, merbilli: the mortality of the diftemper in the ° 
autumn of 1575 was dreadful, cfpecially among children. : 
The fearlet fever and fore-throat is to be traced again in the © 


garrotilla of the Spaniards, which occurred after the influ- 


enza of 1580, and remained among them forty years, : 


{preading to all the fea-ports of Italy, Sicily, and Malta, 
and reaching Naples in 1618, where, as in Spain, it was 
deferibed asa new difeafe, under a variety of new appella- 
tions, and is faid to have deftroyed 500,000 perfons within 
two years : it was particularly fatal to children, This itate- 
ment, however, is doubtlefs exaggerated. During this 


period, we find, from the writings of Sennertus, Doringius, ° 


and others, that the milder forms of {carlet fever prevailed 
in different parts of Germany ; and were deferibed under 
the utles of morbilli ignei, roffalia, ery fipelata, and univerfal 
eryfipelas. It was again defcribed as a new difeafe under 
the title of © febris miliaris rubra,’? which is laid to have 
appeared at Leipfick about the middle of the feventeenth 
century. It was alfo called “ febris coccinea,” and “ febris 
purpurea,” by other writers at Leiplick. The fcarlatina 
{pread through Poland in the year 1665, and has been well 
deferibed by Schultzius under the denomination of “ pur- 
pura epidemia maligna.’ (SeeAG. Acad. Natur. Cur. dec. 1, 
ann. 6, 7. p. 206.) It was extremely fatal among infants and 
children. A few years after this 1t was noticed by various 
authors in Denmark, Holland, Switzerland, Lombardy, 
Bavaria, Auftria, England, and Scotland. It raged at 
Berlin, under the form of f{earlatina anginofa, from 1694 to 
1701, and has been well deicribed by its proper title, in the 
Agta Med. Berolin. decad. i. vol. 2, and dec. ii. vul. 5. § 3. 
Its f{ubfequent appearances in different parts of Germany 


and Italy, until the middle of the lait century, are noticed 


by feveral writers on the febris miliaris, purpura miliaris, 
purpura rubra, purpura febrilis, morbilli maligni, &e. And 
Dr. Willan has, in another part of his work, fated reafons 
for believing the “ putrid meafles,”’ deferibed by fir Wil- 


liam Watfon, as in fat a malignant fearlatina. (See Dr.- 


Willan’s Treatife on Cutaneous Difeafes, pp. 284—350. 

p i.) 

& Fever, Spotted, the fame with petcchial, and purple fever. 

See above. : 
Fever, Zertian, an intermittent fever, the paroxy{ms of 

which occur on alternate days, as explained above. See 

Fever, Quartan. : 


Fever, Zyphoid, or typhous, or fubftantively typhus,» 


febris typhodes, mugizds ruQadns, of the Greeks, the oppofite 


of inflammatory fever, or fever with debility, including the 


nervous, contagious, malignant, and putrid fever of authors; — 


as well as the varieties denominated, from the Tocal circum: 
{tances of its origin, gaol, hofpital, and {hip-fever ; or, from 
the predominancy of particular fymptoms, brain-fever, . 
inteftinal, gaftric, and mefenteric fever, purple, {potted, 
petechial fever, &c. It is the ordinary fever of temperate : 
climates, 


(See his” 
Treatife de Tumor. preter naturam, tract 1. cap,.1.) We 


FEVER. 


, e . 
climates, and its fymptoms, caufes, nature, and treatment, 
may be confidered as having been difcufled above, under the 

eneral head of Fever. See Tyruus. 

Fever, Veficular, aterm applied to-a febrile difeafe, of 
the exanthematous clafs, which is principally characterized 
by an eruption of large watery veficles ; -it is more com- 
monly denominated Pemphigus, which fee. 

Fever, Worm, an appellation given by fome writers to 
the febrile diforders of children, conneGted, or fuppofed to 
be conneéted, with the irritation of worms in the inteftines. 
See Inranrs, Difea/es of, and Worms. — : 

Fever, Yellow, a name given to the endemic fever of 
hot climates, from the yellownefs of the ‘kin, which com- 
monly occurs in the latter ftage of tie difeafe. 


his fever, which has rendered the Wett-Indian iflands, 


at different periods the grave of Europeans, and has ravaged 
the cities of America, has been the fubjeét of great difference 
of opinion among thofe writers who have had an opportu- 
nity of witneffing its phenomena : it were therefore not eafy 
to decide, at a diftance, upon the points which they have 
left in difpute. We fhall endeavour to give a fuccinét view 
of thofe fa&ts which appear to be moft fatisfaCtorily afcer- 
tained ; beginning with the fymptoms of the fever. 


The approach of the yellow fever is often announced by 


a feeling of laffitude, heavinefs, oppreffion, lofs of appetite, 


and flight head-ache, which in a few hours, or on the fol-_ 
lowing day, is fucceeded by the violent fymptoms of the, 
Sometimes, however, the attack is fudden and . 


difeafe. 
violent from the firft; the patient is feized with a faintnefs 


and giddinefs of the head, with a flight degree of chillinefs 
and horror, but never with a complete rigor or fhivering ; 
thefe feelings are immediately followed by a high de- 
gree of fever, an arid and fcorching heat of the fkin, 
accompanied by acute darting pains in the head- and back, 
and often down the thighs and legs, and a ftrong beating of 
the arteries, particularly of the carotid and temporal arte- 
ries; the face and neck are flufhed and tumid, the eyes red 
and protruding, with a fenfe of burning heat in the eye- 
balls, and the countenance is prim; great anxiety and op- 
reflion are felt at the precordia, with an intenfe burning 
in at the ftomach, and almoft continual ficknefs, which 
increafes as the difeafe advances, with violent reachings, in 
which bilious matter is brought up, afterwards a dark co- 
loured, and fometimes a bloody fluid. There is extreme 
reftleffnefs, and a heavy refpiration, with much fiching ; 
the pulfe is quick, generally full and ftroug, but foft ; in 
fome cafes quick, low, and vacillating. The urine is deep 
coloured, and in fmall quantily., Thefe fymptoms con- 
tinually increafe ; the reaching and vomiting become almoft 
inceffant, the anxiety exceffive, the fighing frequent, and 
the reftleffnefs fuch that there is a continual toffing, and no 
eafe in any pofture, little or no fleep, and that difturbed, 
unealy, and without refrefhment to the fick. Thefe fymp- 
toms generally continue to the third day, but fometimes 


not longer than the firft, or fecond day, or even a few | 


hours, and in others to the end of the fourth day, and 
may be confidered as conftituting the fix? fage of the 
difeafe. / : 

The fecond flage begins with an abatement of many of 
the preceding fymptoms, often with a deceitful appearance 
of a general remiflion of the fever. The vomiting, head- 
ache, and burning heat, greatly abate or nearly, difappear ; 
the pulfe lofes its ftrength, and falls to nearly the ufual fre- 
quency of health in many inftances, but is always low and 
feeble. “* Sometimes,” fays Dr. Mofeley, * in this period 
of the difeafe, the fymptoms are fo mild, and the patient 
fo tranquil, that the difeafe is fuppofed at an end, and all 

"Vou. XIV. 


means negleéted, or thought unneceflary, until the form 
appears that fucceeds this fatal calm, arrayed in thofe 
dreadful forms, which are charaCteriftic of the concluding 
flage, and completes the cataftrophe.” (Treatife on Tro- 
pical Difeafes, page 411.) This interval, however, is often 
extremely fhort, fo that the difeafe paffes at once from the 
inflammatory {tage to the black vomiting. At all events, 
either a repetition of fimilar viclent fymptoms foon takes 
place, accompanied with marks of greatly diminifhed ency- 
gy, or the patient finks at once into a comatofe flate, only 
iaterrupted by vomiting of a dark coloured, porraceous 
fluid. ‘The ftomach rejeéts every thing ; the thirft, which 
in fome is exceffive, in others is moderate; and the {kin is 
moiftened with partial clammy fweats. The eyes, which 
were before red and inflamed, now become tinged with 
yellow : and this yellownefs begins to appear round the 
mouth, eyes, temples, and neck, and foon afterward difiufes 
itfelf over the whole fkin, varying in intenfity from a fallow 
hue to a deeper orange tint: in many cafes, however, it is 
altogether abfent. The yellownefs feems to ufher in the 
concluding and moft fatal fymptoms of the difeafe ; and 
growing deeper coloured, as the other fymptoms become ag 

ravated, is the immediate forerunner of death. The lait 
fritters are a deep coma, with a heavy refpiration or 
convulfive kind of fighing, a low, creeping, and intermit- 
ting pulfe, delirium, and confiant reitleffuefs and ftruggling, 
faultering fpeech, trembling, ftarting of the tendons, vo- 
miting of a black, bloody cruor, and ftools of a fimilar 
nature, hamorrhagies or oozing of blood from the mouth 
and noftrils, fometimes from the corners of the eyes and 
ears, black urine, livid fpots or blotchcs about the fkin, 
great coldaefs of the extreme parts, muttering,—and death, 
either in a convulfive itruggle, a ftate of terpid apathy, 
or fometimes in a calm and colleGed refignation of life. (See 
Hillary on the Difeafes of Barbadoes, 2d edit. p. 150. 
Mofeley, loc. cit. Lining, inthe Edinburgh Phyf. and 
Literary Effays, vol. ii. art. 29.) 

The preceding defcription correfponds, with the general 
order and manner of the difeafe, when the patient dies 
from the third or fourth to the feventh day. But many pa- 
tients do not experience all the fymptoms above mentioned. 
Some have no chillinéfs at firft, nor faintnefs, nor flufhings 
in the face, and the pulfe is fometimes deeply depreffed, and 
not quick ; and there are grofs habits of body, which have 
been attacked in damp fituations in very fultry weather, in 
whom the inflammatory period has been only of a few hours 
duration, and the tranfition fo rapid, that the black vomit- 
ing, and the gangrenous condition have unexpectedly ap- 
peared, and terminated the life of the patient in twenty- 
four, or thirty-fix hours. And, on the contrary, there are 
fome inftances where the difeafe has been protracted to the 
eighth, ninth, or tenth day; and others where it has never 
pafled from the inflammatory ftage; but being checked, 
though not extinguifhed, it has been lengthened out, and 
at lait converted into a remittent of great duration, of moft 
difficult cure, and t-dious recovery. (Moieley.) In other 
cafes, it does not pads through thofe ftages, nor put on the 
moft characteriftic fymptoms of the difeafe. Speaking of 
the yellow fever, in December, Dr. Pinckard fays, ** Many 
of the fick now fall into a ftate of coma, and without ex- 
hibiting any other ftriking mark of illnefs, without uttering 


~a complaint or a groan, fink very rapfdly into the arms of 


death. The countenance becomes pale; the {kin afumes 
t : 

a clay or lead-colonred hue; a ttupor dupéreenes ; th 

tient lies ina ftate of tranquil infenfibility ; and without 

yellownefs, or the other common marks of the fever, and 


in the courfe of a few ‘days he fleeps to wake no more! 
Searctimes 


© pa- 
© pa 


Zz 


BokoViyEoRey 


Sometimes only a few hours complete the courfe of the 
Giteafe.”? (Notes on the Welt Indies, vol. iii. p. 198.) 
‘Thete various anomalies in the-fever arife from the different 
feafon in which it occurs, the difference of conflitution, 
and habits of life of the patients, as well as of the pre- 
difpofing and oceafional caufes, the early treatment, &c. 
The greateft diftrefs, it would appear, during all the 
periods of the yellow fever, arifes from the flate of the pre- 
cordia ; the burning heat, the anxiety and oppreffion, the 
conftant vomiting, the extreme forenefs and uneafinefs, 
complained of from the leaft preflure at the pit of the tto- 
mach, all point to that region, which, ia the words of 
Warren, “feems from the beginning to be the chief feat 
and throne of the furious conqueror.” (Ina treatife on 
this fever addrefled to Dr. Mead.) Hillary aferibed this 
particular and uniform fuffering about the precordia to 
the vicinity of the liver and gall-bladder ; but it feems to 
be attributed with more correéinefs to the ftate of the fto- 
mach by others. For as Dr. Mofeley obferves, ‘“ this 
vilcus feems to bear the chief burden. of the difeafe, while 
life remains, and the priucipal internal vettiges of its effects 
after death.” He obferves, in another place, ‘¢ oninfpeét- 
ing many dead bodies, I have always found fome part or 
other of the ftomach, and frequently the fuperior part of 
the duodenum in a gangrenous ftate, and never without 
evident marks of injury from inflammation, let the difeafe 
have been of ever fo fhort duration. Thefe appearances 
are univerfally produced by a mortal yellow fever; but 
from the appearance of the liver, and gall-bladder, though 
both muft be materially affeCted in this difeafe, there is no 
inference to be drawn that can be depended on.”? (Loc. 
cit. p. 414.) Dr. Pinckard’s obfervations aceord with the 
preceding ftatement ; he fays ‘ the appearances were not 
precifely fuch, as from converfing with other pra¢titioners, 
and reading a variety of authors, we had been led to expe&t. 
The ftomach was found to be the organ which exhibited 
the ftrongeft’ marks of derangement. The inner coat was 
furcharged with blood, appearing very red, and at one fpot 
near the upper orifice it was of a livid hue, and its texture 
fo weakened, that the finger was paffed through it by only 
a flight preffure.? (Loc. cit. vol. ii, p. 226.) This author 
flates in other parts of his book, that fimilar appearances 
were obferved in other cafes, which were examined by dif- 
feGtion. (Ibid. p. 322, &c.) Dr. Ruth, however, affirms, 
and from what we know of other fevers, we believe truly, 
that the morbid appearances of the internal parts of the 
body, as they appear by diffeétion after death, from the 
yellow fever, are different in diflerent countries, and in the 
fame countries in different years; as the fame difeafe during 
different epidemic feafons aflumes very different afpeds. 
Lroin the obfervations of feveral phyficians, quoted by Dr. 
Rufh, it appears that the liver and gall-bladder have been 
often difeafed in the yellow fever, marks of inflammation 
and gangrene, and a morbid colour and confiftency of the 
bile, having been dete&ted. The difleGions of Dr. Mit- 
chell, Dr. Mackiltrick, Dr. Phyfick, and others, coincide 
in the difcovery of inflammatory difeafe in the ftomach. 
«The ftomach was inflamed both on its outfide aud in- 
fide ;” fays the firft of thefe phyficians, < its villous coat, 
like that of the duodenum, was covered with fuzzy and 
flimy matter.’ The fecond, after ftating that the liver 
was differently affeGted in different cafes, fays ‘the ftomach, 
the duodenum, and ilinm were remarkably inflamed in all 
cafes.” The two laft mentioned gentlemen remark, ‘¢ that 
the ftomach, and beginning of the duodenum, are the parts 
that appear moft difeafed,” and inflammation of the villous 
membrane at the pyloric end of the ftomach extending into 


the duodenum, was the difeafe in fome ; extravafations of 
blood in others; the former in thofe who died early in 
difeafe, the latter in thofe who died at a more protracted 
period. In thofe cafes in which the brain was examined by 
Dr. Mitchell, * it was not affef&ted,’? and the two latt- 
mentioned phyficians affirm, ‘that the brain in all parts 
has been found in a natural condition.” (See Dr. Ruth’s 
Account of the Bilious Remitting Yellow Fever of Philae 
delphia, in 1793, 2d edit. pp. 114—122.) We may re- 
mark, by the way, that thefe fa&s are fomewhat adverfe to’ 
the do€trine of fever, lately promulgated by Dr. Clutter- 
buck, on which we have animadverted above, when treating 
of the doétrines refpeCting the nature of fever in general. 

The yellow fever has been aflerted by fome writers to be 
a new difeafe, the produét of modern times, and even un- 
known till within a very recent period. We believe, how- 
ever, with Dr. Mofeley, Dr. Miller of New York, and 
others, that it is a modification of that difeafe which was 
familiar to Hippocrates, Areteus, Galen, and other phy- 
ficians of antiquity, the charaéteriftic fymptoms of which 
have been defcribed by them, and the prognoitic indica- 
tions well peinted out. It is, in fact, the xztr0:, can/usy 
and febris ardens of the ancients, aggravated by the ex- 
ceeding heat of climate. Hippocrates obferves, in the 
ninth feé&tion of his book of Crifes, ‘ in burning fevers 
(the cau/us,) a yellowne/s of fkin appearing on the fifth day, 
and accompanied by hiccup, is a fatal fymptom.” The 
terrible fymptom of black vomiting is alfo frequently men- 
tioned by Hippocrates, and reprefented as being of fatal 
import. Inthe twelfth fe@ion of his prognoffics, he aflerts, ° 
that if the matter yomited be of a livid or black colour, it 
betokens ill. In the firft feGion of book i. of his Caan 
prognoftics, he enumerates black vomiting in a catalogue of 
the molt fatal fymptoms. And alfo in the fourth fection of 
the fame book, he confiders porraceous, livid, or black 
vomitings, as indications of great malignancy. ‘Thefe max 
ims imply the familiarity of their great author with thofe 
fymptoms which are not known except as belonging to 
the yellow fever. (See a Paper by Dr. Miller of New . 
York, in the Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journal, for 
July, 1807.) 

This deftru€tive fever has never been known to appear, 
except either in tropical climates, or in thofe feafons, in 
the more temperate climates, in which the atmofpheric 
heat has for fome length of time been equal to the tropical 
heat, that is, at er above 80° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, » 
This fa@, Dr. Blane afferts, is inconcrovertibly eftablithed 
by obfervation ; for there is no inftance, either in North 
America or Europe, of the yellow fever appearing, except 
at thefe degrees of heat, nor of its furviving after the at- 
mofphere had fallen to a lower degree of temperature. 
This is lefs to be wondered at in North America, where 
the winters are extremely fevere, but it holds equally true 
at Cadiz, Malaga, Gibraltar, and other parts of Spain, 
where the winters are warm, and where this difeafe fpon- 
taneoufly difappeared, in degrees of heat equal to the ufual 
fummer heats in the noith of Europe. (See Dr. Blane’s 
Letter to Baron Jacobi, refpe@ting the Prevention of the 
Yellow Fever, in the Edinburgh Journal, for O&ober, 
1807.) 

1 feems to be well afcertained, then, that the yellow fee 
ver is an endemic of hot climates, or an epidemic of hot — 
feafonsin other climates ; and this fa& willenable us to ex- 
plain the hiftory of the difeafe, as well as to difpel our fears, 
that it may ever be brought to this country. By Dr. 
Mofeley it is called the * endemial caufus” of the Welt 
Indies, e ; 

i 


FEVER. 


Tt isa well known fa, that when Europeans firll take 
up their refidence in tropical climates, it is ufual for them, 
fooner or later after their arrival, to undergo an attack of 
the endemic fever ofthe country. This fever of the vifitors 

of the Welt Indies, in times of tranquillity, when the “ new 
comers” are few, istermed a * /ea/oning fever ;?? but Dr. 
Pinckard obferves, <‘in times of war, when, from great 
multitudes arriving at the fame time, its deftrutive effects 
are more ftriking, it is baptized with the terrific name of 
yellow fever”? "This circumftance ferves to explain the 
can of the opinion that this fatal fever is the produét of 
modern times ; when the fyftem of colonial war has only 
multiplied the victims whom it might facrifice. (See Notes 
on the Weft Indies, vol. iii. p. 416and 445.) The ordinary 
yellow fever feems to be juftly confidered by the moft accu- 
rate obfervers as an aggravated form of the ‘ bilious re- 
mitting fever,’? common to hot climates, efpecially where 
aparticular condition of the foil, or fome other fource of 
Avia, co-operates with the heat. The natives, or old 
refidents in thofe fituations, become habituated to the in- 
fluence of thefe cates, and are lefs liable to be affeted by 
this fever; and when they do fuffer it, it is in a lefs fevere 
degree. Creoles atid negroes, Dr. Pinckard remarks, are 
not often affeéted with the difeafe, and are not {ubject to it 
in its continued or moft malignant form, but when it does 
invade them, it nore commonly affumes an intermittent or 
remittent type. Europeans, who have refided during a 
period of feveral years in the Weft Indies, have become in a 
great meafure habituated to the climate, and have acquired 
a ftate of conftitution approaching to that of the natives ; 
they are feldom attacked by the fever in its continued form ; 
it commonly affeéts them in a remittent type. It is almoft 
exclufively in ftrangers, and in thofe from a northern climate, 
that the difeafe afflumes the malignant and continued form. 

North America, the inhabitants, who conftantly refide 
in the moft fouthern ftates, are feldom attacked with the 
fever in its more violent or continued form; while thofe of 
the north-eaft ftates are deftroyed by it in great numbers. 
Ina word, it appears that perfons fuffer the fever of hot 
climates in the different degrees of violence and feverity of 
form, according as they are more or lefs feafoned or habi- 
tuatec to the temperature under which it occurs. Hence it 
has been properly fuggefted, that, in order to preferve our 
troops fent on fervice to the Welt Indies, they fhould be 
Pepeue for the climate gradually ; for example, by firft 
etting them ferve for atime at Gibraltar, and afterwards 
employing them for a year or two in the more windward 
iflands, as Barbadoes and Antigua, before they were fent to 
the other celonies. 

Among the Europeans attacked with the ardent fever of 
the Weft Indies, the difeafe varies according to the ftate of 
the conftitution. ‘hus the ftrong and plethoric, thofe of 
rigid fibre and rich blood, are the moft liable to be attacked, 
and fuffer the difeafe moft violently and fatally. Hence, 
thofe who perfevere in their accuftomed ftrong and ftimu- 
Jating diet fuffer in like manner more feverely than thofe 
whole vigour of habit is fomewhat reduced by extreme tem- 
perance. Itis obferved that perfons are moft frequently 
attacked during or after expofure to great heat or fatigue, 
and to the night air, when it becomes cold and moift. Hence, 
on the one hand, thofe employed as cooks and black{miths 
Samar ety liable to be feized, and fentinels, men occu- 
pied in fifhing, and boat parties, on the other, We have 

before mentioned,, when {peaking of the caufes of fever, a 
fact related by Dr. Lind, that a-boat’s crew was three times 
deftroyed and replaced, after going on fhore for provisions 


yellow fever. 


in the night, the whole being as often feized with remittiag 
fever, on the coaft ef Africa, 

This cndemic cau/usy like the remittents or northera 
climates, is more particularly prevalent in feafons when 
moift and marfh exhalations co-operate with great heats, or 
cold and damp nights alternate with hot days. Hence, in 
more northern climates they have occurred only in the au- 
tumnal feafons, as at Cadiz in 1800, and at Malaga in 1803, 
and commonly at fimilar periods in New York and Phila- 
delphia. After inveftigating the caufe of an exceflive pre- 
valence of yellow fever in Demarara, in the month of 
July, Dr. Pinckard concluded that it was ‘‘ probably the 
mere effe&t of the feafon, refulting from the increafed heat 
of the days, the damp chillinefs of the evenings, and the 
offenfive miafmata exhaled from half-expofed mud.”?—* The 
quantity of rain that now falls is not fuflicient to cover the 
feculent fediment of the numerous ditches, nor to prevent 
their unwholefome vapours from rifing into. the atmofphere ; 
and the partial fhowers, which occur during the evening and 
night, by foftening the half-dried furface, favour the exha- 
Jation, while they produce a chilling dampnefs, which per- 
haps contributes to render the body more than ufually fuf- 
ceptible of impreffion. The evenings are now fo much 
colder to our feelings than we have found them during the 
preceding months, that we have lately been able‘to fit with 
the door fhut, and have even thought that a blanket, during 
the night, might have been fupportable.” (Notes, vol. ii. 
Pp. 52.) Writing again from Demarara, in the enfuing 
month, (\uguft,) Dr. Pinckard fays, ‘¢ the prefeut mo- 
ment may be faid tobe the high feafon of the pe/loaw fever. 
It now rages in its utmeft violence, and with forrow I re- 
mark that great numbers perifh from its malignity. Until 
the partial rains of the prefent period have ceafed,.and the 
dry feafon be weil f{etin, it is faid that we are to expeGa 
continuance of. ficknefs, &c.”? (Ibid. p. 83.) In this 
refpe@ the difeafe is altogether analogous to the autumnal 
remittents of our temperate climates, or of the warmer extra- 
tropical countries, when moitture fucceeds or alternates with 
warmth, as we have already mentioned, when treating of the 
caufes of fever. Webkave there feen that moift weather, 
after heat, generally produces a remittent fever, in conn 
tries where the foil is favourable to the formation of miaf- 
mata, and this is milder in its fymptoms in the more northern 
and more violent in the fouthern degrees of latitude ; thus 
it is an ague, er a remittent of moderate feverity in England 
and Holland, but afevere and fatal ardent fever on the 
banks of the Nile and the Euphrates, after inundations have 
left the ground moift and flimy. On the fhores of the Me- 
diterranean, where Hippocrates praétifed, and frequently 
faw the yellow fkin and black vomit of the ardent fever, 
Dr. Cleghorn found that the common tertian fever, when 
it attacked Englifhmen, put on the ufual fymptoms of the 
(On the Difeafes of Minorca, p. 176.) Dr. 
Ruth, and other phyficians of Philadelphia, and alfo thofe 
of New York, Dr. Miller, &c. are fatisfied that the yelfoew 
fever, which has appeared im thofe cities in the autumnal 
feafons of hot years, originated in thole cities, and was but 
an aggravation of the ordinary remitting fever, In Phila- 
delphia the origin of the fever has been traced to the 
{treets adjoining the docks and wharfs; in 1793, it was 
more particularly attributed to. the putrefaGion of a large 
quantity of damaged coffee, which was expofed in July or 
a wharf ia the dock, inthe vicinity of which the fever com- 
menced. In New York, in 1805, Dr. Miller fays, “on 
the whole, the low grounds on the margin of the two rivers 
certainly produce a ehief part of the cafes.’? The different 

422 degrees, 


FEVER. 


degrees, then, of fever originating from miafmata, accord. 
ing tothe heat of the climate or feafon in which they oecur, 
appear to bein the following f{eale ; 1. Common mild inter- 
mitting fever, 2. Common remitting, or-bilious remitting 
fever, and, 3. The yellow fever. Ttiefe feem to bear the 
fame relation to each other, as, 1. The fimple continued fever. 
2. The contagious typhus, or gaol-fever; and, 3. The 
plague. (See Dr. Ruth onthe Feverof 1793, in Philadel- 
phia, 2d edit. p. 178. Dr. Pinckard, loc. cit. vol. iii. p. 417. 
Dr. Miller, Report to the Governor of tlie State of New 
York, in the Edin. Med. and Surg. Journal, ~ before 
quoted.) Dr. Miller puts the identity of the ordinary re- 
mittent fever and the yellow fever ina ftrong light; “ as 
the materials of putrefaGtion, and the degrees of heatin a 
large city,’ he obferves, “ greatly exceed what is found in 
the adjacent country ; fo the difeafe arifing under fuch cir- 
cufnftances muft be proportionably more malignant. ‘The 
pettilential fevers of our city differ only in grade from the 
bilious and remittent fevers of the country. They prevail 
in the fame climates; they come on at the fame feafon of 
the year; they are chiefly difpofed to attack perfons of the 
fame cenftitution ; they commit their ravages on the fame 
organs of the body, and produce fymptoms rae only 
in degree, and they decline and difappear at the fame feafon, 
and under the fame circumftances. In the city we often 
fee in the fame family, and under equal circumitances of ex- 
pofure, the malignant forms of peftilence, and the mild 
forms of remittent fever; and in the country, while the 
great mafs of cafes are ufually mild, we occafionally meet 
with fome, which exhibit the violent attack, the intenfe 
malignity, and the rapid diffolution, which more frequently 
mark the peftilential fevers of the city.’? The identity of 
the yellow and bilious remitting fevers is maintained, in 
equally ftrong terms, by Dr. Ruth, and twelve other phy- 
ficians, who prefented a memorial to the governor of Penn- 
fylvaniaon the fabje@. Their reafons for this opinion are 
the following: 1. The famenefs of their origin ; both be- 
ing the offspring of putrefaction. 2. The yellow fever 
makes its appearance in thofe months chiefly in which the 
bilious fever prevails, and-is uniformly checked by the fame 
caufes, viz. heavy rains and frofts. 3. The fymptoms of 
the bilious and yellow fever are the fame im their nature. 
4<« The common bilious and yellow fever often run into each 
ether; andthe improper ufe of remedies will mutually con- 
vert them. 5. The common bilious and yellow fevers are 
alike contagious, under certain circumftances of the weather, 
&c. 6. They mutually propagate each other. 7. And, 
laitly, the yellow fever affects the fyftem more than once, 
jn common with the bilious fever. (Ruth. loc. cit. vol. v. 
P» 455 et feqg.) Thele reafons are fatisfa€torily dluitrated 
at fome length. 

Ts the yellow fever contagious ? Jt might appear rather 
extraordinary to the general reader, that the eye-witnefles 
of fo fatala peftilence thould be at variance with refpecé to 
the exiftence or non-exiftence of contagion connected with 
it 5 were it not recolleéted that a fimiar difagreement and 
difeuffion have oceurred with regard to the contagious na- 
ture of the plague itfelf, and more particularly among the 
phyficians of the 16th and 17th centuries, who had the 
moft frequent opportunities of witnefling its devaitations. 
Some of the writers who contend for the identity of the 
yellow and remittent fevers deny the exiftence of conta- 
gion‘in both: while others maintain that thefe two fevers’ 
are eflentially diltin@, the latter being void of contagion, 
and the yellow fever being propagated by contagion only. 
Moft of the Weft Indian phyficians deny the contagion of 


yellow fever; while Dr, Chifholm, and feveral of the 
Americans, confider the difeafe as generally imported and 
extremely contagious. We commonly find truth between 
the extremes. It has been well underftood, at leaft fince 
the time of Dr. Lind, that the effluvia of human bodies, 
even in health, when accumulated in clofe and crowded fitu- 
ations, become capable of exciting fever, or, in other words, 
become infedious ; and that thofe which arife from the bodies 
of perfons labouring under febrile difeafes {till more readi- 
ly become infectious, and propagate the original difeafe, 
whether idiopathic fever, dyfentery, eryfipclas, &c. (See 
Contraction.) Upon thefe grounds, it would feem, Dr. 
Rufh and his colleagues maintain the occafional contagious 
influence of both the vellow and bilious remittent fever. ‘* In, 
a Welt India climate,’’ he fays, ‘¢ where the accumulation. 
of the effluvia from tick people is prevented by open doors 
and windows, it is eafy to conceive this (yellow) fever cannot 
be often propagated by contagion. Even in our own 
country, (Pennfylvania,) it has rarely been obferved to be, 
contagious in the months of July and Auguft. But after. 
cool weather renders it neceflary to exclude the frefh air 
from fick rooms, it is as eafy to conceive the fame effluvia 
may be fo accumulated and concentrated, as to produce the 
difeafe in other people. In this way it was propagated in 
fome inftances during the year 1797, but by no means fo. 
often as in 1793, under equal circumitances.”” (Med. Ing. 
and Obf. vol. v. p. 37.) 

The teftimony of many other writers might be adduced, 
in corroboration of the fact, that yellow fever. been 
often propagated by contagion, efpecially under the cir- 
cumftances juft alluded to; we fhall content ourfelves with. 
ftating the following faéts and obfervations. ** Some. 
late authors,’””? fays the veteran Dr. Wright, “ who have 
written on Welt India difeafes, have roundly afferted, that, 
in tropical countries fevers are not contagious ; but whoever 
has had the care of crowded hofpitals, of gaols, of thips of 
war, or of tranfports full of troops, muft have feen 1 rous. 
and fatal inftances of contagion in the Welt Indies; more. 
efpecially where cleanlinefy and free ventilation have been 
negleéted. From caufes of this fort a moft fatal and deltruc- 
tive diforder broke out in the Weit Indies in 1793, and foon 
after in Philadelphia, viz. the yellow fever. From Dr.. 
Rufh’s book, and from the numerous letters of my corre- 
fpondents, there remains not a doubt in my mind of the 
yellow fever being typhus, exalted to a great degree of viru- 
lence from climate, fituation, and other adventitious circum- 
ftances.”? (See Practical Obfervations on the Treatment of 
Acute Difeafes, particularly thofe of the Weft Indies, by 
Wm. Wright, M.D., &c. in the Med.. Fa&ts and Obt. 
vol. vii. p. 6.) Dr. Chifholm.has advanced fome ftrong evi- 
cence to prove, that the malignant yellow fever, which Dr. 
Wright alludes to, was generated on board a fhip on the 
coait of Africa (at Bulama or Boulam), aud the contagion 
imported to Grenada ; whence it was afterwards carried to 
the other leeward iflands, and to Philadelphia, We 
cannot here follow out the whole detail of circumftances as. 
given by Dr. Chitholm; the following are fome of the 
leading facts. The fhip Hankey failed from England, 
laden with ftores, and upwards of 200 adventurers, for the 
projected colony at Boulam. The project failed, and they 
all lived on board during nine months on this coaft. In this _ 
crowded veffel a malignant fever broke out, and deftroyed 
three-fourths of the crew, leaving only the mate and two 
feamen to navigate the fhip when fhe failed. Four men 
were put on board from fhips of war at St. Jago to aid in 
navigating her to the Welt Indies. On the third day after 

leaving 


FEVER. 


leaving St. Jago, the men they procured from the fhips of 
war were feized with the fever, and two of the four died ; 
the remaining two were put on fhore at Grenada and St. 
Vincent in a wretched ftate. No method was taken to pu- 
rify or ventilate the fhip, or the clothes, bedding, &c. 
From the period at which the Hankey arrived at Grenada, 
viz. the 13th of February, 1793, Dr. Chifholm dates the 
commencement of the deftruGtiive yellow fever, the progrefs 
of which he defcribes in the following manner. A captain 
Remington was the firft perfon who vifited the Hankey 
after her arrival in St. George’s bay. He went on board 
the evening after fhe anchored, and remained tiree days, at 
the end of which time he left St. George’s, and proceeded-in 
a coafting veffel to Grenville bay, where his own hip lay. 
He was feized with the malignant fever on the paflage ; 
and the violence of the fymptoms increafed fo rapidly, as on 
the third day to put an end to his exiftence. The crew of 
the Defiance were the next who fuffered by viliting this 
fhip ; the mate, boat{wain, and four failors went on board 
the day after her arrival; the mate remained either on deck 
orin the cabin, but the reft went below, and ftayed all night 
there. All of them were immediately feized with the 
fever, and died in three days. The mate was alfo taken ill, 
‘but, probably from his having been lefs expofed to the vi- 
rulence of the infection, he recovered. The crew of the thip 
Baillies, from the fame imprudent civility or curiofity, were 
thennext who fuffered. ‘hefe communicated the infeGtion 
tothe fhips neareft them ; and it gradually {pread from thofe 
neareft the mouth of the Carenage, where the Hankey for 
fome time lay, to thofe at the bottom of it ; not one efcaping 
in fucceffion, whatever means the captains took to prevent 
it. Had the difeafe arifen from the exhalations from the 
Lagoon, or the mangroves around that piece of water, it 
mutt have originated of courle among the fhips in the inner 
part of the harbour, Dr. Chifholm remarks, and its pro- 
grefs would have been outward towards the mouth of the 
Carenage, and not inward towards the bottom of the har- 
bour. In the thort {pace of time from the beginning of 
March to the end of May, 200 of about 500 failors, who man- 
ned the fhips of the regular trade, died of this fever. About 
the middle of April the difeafe began to appear on fhore. 
The firft houfe in which it thewed itfelf was fituated clofe to 
the wharf, and the infe@tion was evidently introduced, Dr. 
C. fays, by a negro wench, who took in failors’ clothes to 
wath; it extended to every individual of the family, a few 
negroes excepted. Among the troops, it firlt appeared in 
that part of the garrifon quartered neareft to where the 
Hankey lay. One of the officers vilited the fhip, and with 
two or three foldiers who rowed his boat, remained on board 
fome time. The confequence of this imprudence was fatal 
to himfelf almoit immediately after ; and ina little time to 
many of the men;. the officers and men were fucceffively 
feized, but it proved fatal only to recruits who had lately 
joined. (See an Effay on the Malignant Peftilential Fever, 
introduced into the Weft Indian Iflands from Boulam, on the 
coaft of Guinea, as it appeared in 1793, 4, 5, and 6, inter- 
fperfed with obfervations and facts, tendiug to prove that 
the epidemic exifting at Philadelphia, New York, &c. was 
the fame fever introduced by infeétion from the Weit 
India iflands, &c. by C. Chifholm, M.D., &c. vol. i.) 
How far the latter part of the itatement in the title page is 
proved, we cannot pretend to decide. 
Dr. Blane has ftated a circumi{tance, very clearly fhewing 
_ the propagation of yel/ow fever by contagion, ‘* The pre= 
valence of yellow fever being limited by a determinate range 
of atmofpheric heat,” he fays, “and alfo by a certain 
degree of purity of air, many people of the beft under- 


ftandings, who either did not know, or had not maturely 
confidered the whole facts, have contended that itis not of 
an infeétious nature. The doubts refpecting this are founded 
on arguments fimilar to what have been employed in fup- 
port of the paradoxical opinion entertained by fome au- 
thors, even of our own times, that the plague itfelf isnot 
contagious. ‘The infeétion of both may be aptly compared 
to the feeds of vegetables, or the eggs of animals, which 
require a nice concurrence of certain degrees of heat, moif- 
ture, reft, nutriment, &c. to animate them. Infeétious 
matter has, by a very appropriate metaphor, been termed 
the feeds of the difeafe; and by a fimilar propriety of ex- 
preffion, it has been faid, that acertain nidus is neceflary to 
give iteffect. The nidus of the yellow fever isa given 
range of atmofpheric heat, and a certaia concentration and 
corruption of animal efHluvia, but equally indifpenfable. 
It would be too tedious to enumerate the various proofs, 
derived from my own obfervation, and the teltimony of 
others, in proof of the infectious nature of yellow fever; 1 
fhall content myfelf with citing one, taken from my letter 
to Mr. King, minifter of the {tates of America to this court, 
who applied to me on this fubjeét in the year 1798- On 
the 16th of May, 1795, the Thetis and Huflar frigates cap- 
tured two Trench armed fhips from;Guadaloupe, on the coaft 
of America. One of thefe had on board fome men ill of the 
yellow fever ; and out of fourteen hands fent from the Huf- 
far to navigate and take care of her, nine died of this fever 
before fhe reached. Halifax, on the 28th of the fame month, 
and the five furvivors were fent to the hofpital fiek of the 
fame diftemper. Part of the prifoners were fent on board 
the Huffar; and though care was taken to fele& thofe 
feemingly in perfe&t health, the difeate {pread rapidly in that 
fhip, fo that near one-third of the whole crew was more or 
lefs affeGted with it.’”? (Letter to Baren Jacobi, before 
quoted.) 

Thefe faéts, and many others that might be adduced; 
leave no doubt, we apprehend, that a contagious yellow fever 
often exilts; which may be, in fome initances, the remitting 
bilious fever rendered infectious by the clofe, crowded, and 
unventilated fituation of the patients; and, in others, the 
ordinary ¢yphus, fhip’or hofpital fever, aggravated by the in~ 
fluence ot a hot climate on the European conftitution, or at 
leaft on a conftitution habituated to cold in the winter, as 
in the inhabitants of North America. At the fame time, it 
cannot be queftioned, that the bilious remitting fever, which 
is endemic in hot climates, is not ordinarily a contagious 
difeafe. (See Lind on Fevers and Infeétion, chap, ii. 
feet. 5.) The advocates for the univerfally infeGious na- 
ture of the yellow fever, when it has appeared as an epi- 
demic and pettilential difeafe, have attempted to lay down 
the diagnoftics of the remittent and the epidemic, but, it ap- 
pears to us, with little fuccefs. ‘They admit of the yellow- 
ne{s in both, of the black vomit, and of petechiz in both ; 
(fee Chifholm, loc. cit. vol. i. chap. 6, 7. Dr. Currie of 
Philadelphia, quoted by Dr. Ruth, loc. cit.) but an occa- 
fional difference in the degrees of feverity can. fcarcely be 
confidered as marking an effential difference in. the two. 
difeafes. The name of yellow fever has, indeed, led fome 
phyficians to fuppofe that a yellow colour of the {kin was 
effential to this fever; but this miftake has been pointed out 
by Drs. Mofeley, Ruth, Pinckard, and others. ‘* The yel- 
lownefs of the flan,”? Dr. Mofeley obferves, ‘like the black 
vomiting, is not an invariable fymptom of this fever ; thofe 
who are fortunate enough to recover feldom have it; and 
many die without its appearance.. Betides, the yellownefs 
alone leads to nothing certain; it may arife from an inoffen- 
five fuffusion of bile.’® (Qn Tropical Diltales, p. 399- 

5 See 


rs 


FEVER. 


See alfo: Dri Pinckard’s notes, &e. vol. ii, p. 224. Dr. 
Ruhh, loc. cit. p. 238.) As thofe who have been daily 
occupied in the mid{t of the devaftation of the yellow fever 
have difagreed as to the mode of its propagation, it is im- 
poflible to decide, at a diftance, in what inftances it was 
eombined with contagion, or when it was the refult of the 
feafon and miafmata only. It would feem, however, that 
while the probability of infe€tion arifing in the clofe and 
crowded parts of a large city, when a fever is by any means 
introduced, is very great ; the a¢tual progrefs of the fever 
of Philadelphia, for inftance, appears to favour the notion 
of an exifting contagion. (See an Account of the Fever of 
Philadelphia, in 1793, by Matthew Carey. ) 

The violence and rapidity of the fymptoms of yellow 
fever render the prognofis extremely difficult and uncertain : 
no particular fymptom affords any accnrate prognoltic ; and 
it is only from attention to the general {tate of the patient, 
or the refult of a combination of all the figns, that any idea 
of what the event may be is to be obtained. The ftate of 
the eyes, the change of voice, the general afpeét of the 
countenance, and the degree of torpor or infenfibility of the 
fyitem, afford the moft important information. Dr. Chif- 
holm remarked, ‘that the longer the fymptoms of the in- 
flammatory diathefis continued, provided their violence was 
net progreflive, the event became more favourable; and, on 
the contrary, that when the fudden difappearance of thefe 
was immediately fucceeded bya feeming ftate of apyrexia, the 
worlt fymptoms, fuch as coma, delirium, clammy cold 
{weats, vibices, and death, might be foon expeéted. In 
the firft cafe, the patient was gradually thrown into an agree- 
ably warm and univerfal diaphorefis ; irritability of ftomach 
eeafed ; the eyes became more lively ; and, in a little while 
after, the figns of returning health were evident.”? (Chif- 
holm, loc. cit..chap. v.) 

Dr. Ruth prefents us with the following combinations of 
fymptoms, as indicating a more or lefs favourable iffue of the 
difeafe. 

Signs of moderate danger —1. A chilly fit accompanying 
the attack of the fever. The longer this chill continues, the 
mmore favourable. 2. The recurrence of chills every day, or 
twice a day, or every other day, with the return of the exa- 
cerbations of the fever. A coldnefs of the whole at the 
above periods without chills, a coldnefs with a profufe 
fweat, cold feet and hands with febrile heat in other parts 
of the body, and a profufe {weat without chills, or coldnefs, 
are all lefs favourable fymptoms than a regular chilly fit, 
buvthey jndicate lefs danger than their total abfence during 
the courfe of their fever. 3. A puking of green or yellow 
bile on the firft day of the difeafe is favourable. A dif. 
charge of black bile, if it oceur on the fir# day of the 
fever, is not unfavourable. 4. A difcharge of green and 
yellow ftools, It is more favourable if the ftools are 
of a dark or black colour, and of a fetid and acrid na- 
ture, onthe firft or fecond day of the fever. 5. A foft- 
nefs and moifture on the fkin, in the beginning of the 
fever. 6. A fenfe of pain in the-head, or a fudden tranfla- 
tion of pain from internal to external parts of the body, 
particularly to the back. An increafe of pain after bleed- 
ing. 7. A fore mouth, 8. A white or a yellow tongue. 
9. Anearly difpofition te fpit freely, whether excited by na- 
ture, or the ufeofmercury. ro. Blood becoming fizy, after 
having exhibited the ufual marks of great morbid a@ion in 
the blood-veffels. 11. Great and exquifite fenfibility in the 
fenfe of feeling coming ow near the clofe of the fever. 

Signs of great danger—1. An attack of the fever, fud- 
denly fucceeding great terror, anger, or the intemperate ufe 
of venery. 2, The firlt paroxy{m coming on without any 
premonitory fymptoms, ora chilly fit. 3. A-coldnefs over 


the whole body, without chills for two or three days: 
4. A fleepinefs on the firt and fecond days of the fever. 
5. Uncommon palenefs of the face, not induced by blood 
letting. 6. Conftant or violent vomiting without any dif- 
charge of bile. 7. Obftinate coftivenefs, or a difcharge of 
natural or white ftools. 8. A diarrhcea towards the clofe 
of the fever. go. A fuppreflion of urine. It is moit alarm 
ing when without pain. vo. A difcharge of dark-coloured 
and bloody urine. 11, A cold, cool, dry, fmooth, or fhining 
{kin, 12. The appearance of a yellow colour in the face on 
the firlt or fecond day of the fever. 13. The abfence of 
pain, or a fudden ceffation of it, with the common fymp- 
tyms of great danger. 14. A difpofition to faint upon a 
little motion, and fainting after lofing but a few ounces of 
blood. 15. A watery, glafly, or brilliant eye. A’red eye 
on the fourth or fifth day of the difeafe: it is more alarm- 
ing if it become fo after having been previoufly yellow. 
16. Imperfe& vifion, and blindnefs in the clofe of the dif 
eafe. 17. Deafnefs. 18. A preternatural appetite, more 
efpecially in the laft ftage of the fever. 19. A flow, inter= 
mitting, and fhattered pulfe. 20. Great reftleffnefs, deli- 
rium, and long contitiued coma, 21. A difcharge of cof 
fee-coloured or black bile from the ftomach after the fourth 
day ef the fever. (Ruth. Med. Ing. &c. vol. v. p. 129— 
133.) 

she methods of cure adopted in the yellow fever have 
been very diflimilar, and not very fuccefsful, on the whole. 
That the praétice purfued in different countries, and in the 
fame country at different times, muft be diffimilar, if ju- 
dicioufly chofen, cannot be doubted; for the fame difeafe, 
when epidemic at different periods, and under different cir- 
cumftances of climate, conttitution of the people, feafons, 
&c. is wont to affume very different charalers, and to de- 
mand a correfponding difference of treatment. It has been 
too much the practice with medical men to preferibe’ for 
the name of a difeafe, negle€tiig the varieties of type and 
charaéter which it puts on; but it is fufficient to mention 
the modifications of {mall-pox and fcarlet fever, to prove 
the error of fuch fweeping rules of treatment. Between 
the mild diftin@ fmall-pox, ard the virulent confluent fmall- 
pox, there is hardly any analogy (in a practical view): and 
between the fimple fearlet fever, which is fearcely a difeafe, 
if the bufy hand of art does not interfere with it, and the 
pettilential {carlet fever with the malignant ulcerated fore 
throat, the practical difference is as wide as poffible: yet 
they are the fame difeafe, originating from the fame poifon. 
In like manner, the yellow fever, when it occurs as a remite 
tent among the natives or long inhabitants of hot climates; 
as a more fevere remittent or continued fever, among the 
emigrants from northern latitudes, or the people of coun- 
tries where a tropical degree of heat is only cafual; or as 
combined with a typhoid contagion: in all thefe cafes’ it 
affumes a form varied in point of feverity and fatality; not 
to mention the varieties of the fame form, according to the 
different epidemic conftitution, as the phrafe is, the caufe of 
which we cannot explain. Thus, in one epidemic’ feafon 
the inflammatory fymptoms, or morbid excitement may run 
high; in another the fucceeding failure of the vital powers 
may be more prevalent, &c. Perhaps a confideration of 
thefe cireumftances, and of the different hypothetical no- 
tions which individuals adopt, may enable us to explain 
both the diffimilarity, and the general want of fuccefs, in 
the treatment of yellow fever, unlefs the cathartic and mer- 
curial treatment may be excepted. 

Two oppofite modes of praétice have been purfued- ih 
this fever; the one diGated by an opinion that the difeafe™ 
was highly putrid, and the other that it was of ahighly 
inflammatory nature. Other practitioners again have, to 

7 a certain 


FEVER. 


avcertain degree, combined thefe plans, inftituting moderate 
€vacuations in the firft ftage, as on the firft or fecond day of 
the fever, and afterwards fupporting the vital powers by 
bark, wine, laudanum, and aromatic tonics; not to mention 
the exhibition of mercury, fo as to excite falivation, which 
others have employed. The practice fuggefted by the no- 
tion that yellow fever is of a highly putrid nature, viz. the 
ule of bark, wine, and other cordials, from the moment 
the difeafe was feen, fhall be Arft briefly noticed, and dif 
miffed as a baneful mode of treatment, which has been hap- 
pily exploded by practitioners in general. 

Dr. Chisholm remarks, that, “ from the hiftory of the 
difeafe it will not appear extraordinary that pra¢titioners 
fhould have recourfe to bark very early in it; and before 
they become fufficiently acquainted with its true nature and 
peculiarities, The fuddennefs of the changes, and the ap- 
parent finking of the vital powers, a few hours after the ac- 
ceffion of the fever, naturally incline us to confider it as a 
difeafe wherein tonics and antifeptics, with the whole tribe 
of cordials, could alone be ufeful. But no indication can be 
more fallacious than this ; and innumerable inftances occur- 
red of the fatal confequences of adopting it. The ufe of 
the bark in the violent cafes of the malignant peftilential 
fever; immediately after the operation of the evacuating 
medicines, was hurtful in the extreme, &c.”? (Loc. cit. 
vol. i. p. 365.) Dr. Ruth affirms, that, “« had the whole 
materia medica been ranfacked, there could not have been 
found any three medicines more oppofite to the diforder 
than bark, wine, and laudanum. In every cafe in which I 
prefcribed bark it was offenfive to the ftomach. Wine was 
neatly as difagreeable as the bark to the ftomach, and equally 
hurtful. TI tried it in every form, and of every quality, but 
without fuccefs: it was either rejected by the ftomach, or 

woduced in it a burning fenfation. Laudanum has been 
called by Dr. Mofeley ‘a fatal medicine” in the yellow 
fever. In one of my patients, who took only fifteen drops 
ofit, without my advice, to eafe a pain in his bowels, it pro- 
Guced a delirium, and death in a few hours.’’? (Med. Inq. 
and Obf. vol. iii p. 298, e# feg.) At the commencement 
of the deftruétive epidemic of 1793 in Philadelphia, Dr. 
Ruth ufed this plan fully, until his want of fuccefs compel- 
led him to turn his attention to other meafures. ‘ I had 
recourfe to a gentle vomit of ipecacuanha on the firft day 
of the fever, and to the ufual remedies for exciting the a&tion 
‘of the fanguiferous fyitem: I gave bark in all its ufual 
forms, of infufion; powder, and tin€ture. I joined wine, 
brandy, and aromatics withit. Finding them all ineffectual, 
Lattempted to roufe the fytem by wrapping the whole 
body, agreeably to Dr. Hume’s practice, in blankets dip- 
pedin warm vinegar. None of thefe remedies appeared to 
be of any fervice ; for although three out of thirteen reco- 
vered of thofe to whom they were applied, yet I have rea- 
fon to believe that they would have recovered much fooner, 
had the cure been trufted to nature.” (Ibid. p. 193.) Dr. 
Ruhh, having requefted the advice of a Weit Indian phy- 
fician, accidentally at Philadelphia, was recommended to add 
the cold affufion to the large adminiftration of bark; but 
the bark was offenfive to the ftomach, or reje&ted by it in 
every inftance. The affufion of buckets full of cold water 
frequently upon the fick was grateful, and produced relief 
in feveral cafes, by inducing a moifture on the fkin, But 
three out of four of the patients thus treated died: fome 
cass loit ‘all their patients, and whole families were 
weptioff, where thefe medicines were ufed. 

TIn.a word, this early ufe of {timulant medicines is in this, 

as we Gelieve ia all other fevers, degidedly prejudicial. 


And, although feafon and climate vary all difeafes, we are 
difpofed to apply ftill more generally Dr. Rufh’s obferva- 
tion, when he fays, ** without feat of being refuted, I will 
notwithftanding affert, that the proper remedies for this 
fever, at all times,.and in all places, in its firff flage, mu/? be 
evacuations.”” (Ibid. p. 335.) 

The fuccefs which Dr. Ruth, and many others upon his 
fuggeftion, experienced from commencing the cure by eva- 
cuations, efpecially purging, was remarkable ; and we can- 
not but enter into the heartfelt gratification of this diftin- 
guifhed phyfician, when, in the forlorn ftate of ignorance as 
to the means of alleviating the diftrefles of his fellow citizens, 
in the commencement of a raging peitilence of unexampled 
fatality in that city, he was accidentally dire€ted to an ufe- 
ful remedy; and in his note-book of the 1oth of Septem- 
ber wrote the following : ** Thank God! out of one hus- 
dred patients whom I have vifited, or prefcribed for this 
day, J have loft none.?? This remedy confiited of a com~ 
bination of calomel and jalap, employed as a fpeedy purga- 
tive, in the dofe of ten grains of the former with fifteen of 
the latter: ‘* even this dofe was flow and uncertain in its 
operation. I then iffued three dofes, each confifting of fif- 
teen grains of jalap and ten of calomel; one to be given 
every fix hours until they procured four or five large eva- 
cuations. The effe&ts of this powder nct only anfwered, 
but far exceeded my expettations. It perfe&ly cured four 
out of the firft fve patients to whom I gave it, notwith- 
ftanding fome of them were advanced feveral days in the 
diforder.”? (Ibid. p. 201.) The fuccefs of this remedy 
was communicated to the College of Phyficians, and the 
plan was immediately adopted by feveral’ phyficians with 
a great and decided fuperiority over all other means hitherto 
employed, Large families were altogether recovered by it. 
From this moment Dr. Rufh gained a great acceffion of 
bufinefs, and the demand for the purging powders became 
greater than could be eafily fupplied. Together with this 
evacuation, Dr. Rufh employed other means of abktrating 
excefs of ftimulus from the fyftem: thefe were blood-let- 
ting, cool air, cool drinks, low diet, and applications of cold 
water to the bedy. By thefe meafures Dr. Rufh publicly 
afferted that a greater proportion than ninety-nine out of a 
hundred of all who applied to him on the firft day of the 
diforder, before the 15th day of September, were cured, 
And others were ina fimilar manner fuccefsful. ‘* Dr. Pen- 
nington affured me,” he fays, ‘* on his death bed, that he 
had not loft one out of forty-eizht patients whom he had 
treated agreeably to the principles and practice I had recom- 
mended. Dr. Griffiths triumphed over the difeafe in every 
part of the city, by the ufe of what were called the new 
remedies. My former pupils fpread, by their fuccefs, the 
reputation of purging and eed wherever they were 
called”? Not only is the general fuccels of this plan of 
treatment thus fhewn; but it is farther evinced by the 
great confidence which was excited in it. * Twenty men,” 
fays Dr. Rufh, “ employed conftantly in putting up this 
medicine, would not have been fufficient to have complied 
with all the demands which were made on me for it. Hun- 
dreds who were ia health called or fent for it, as well as the 
fick, in order to have it in readinefs, in cafe they fhould be 
furprifed by the diforder in the night, or at a diftance from 
a phylician.” 

It is fufficient here to have ftated thefe fa@s; we muft 
leave the reader, who is anxious to learn the objections, 
which were urged againit this pratice, and the confutation 
of them, whish Dr. Rufh has added, to refer to his 


book, 
‘ With 


FEVER. 


Vith refpe& to the propriety of clearing the bowcla at 
the commencement of yellow fever, by cathartics, the mott 
experienced and intelligent practitioners agree, although 
they differ as to the extent to which this evacuation fhould 
be carried. Dr. Hillary is fatisfied with the ufe of a glyfter, 
or very gentle laxative; and Dr. Chifholm is of opinion, 
that ic is never neceffary to excite a larger difeharge by flool, 
than is barely fufficient to remove the acrid and offeafive 
jumours from the ftomach and bowels; * and from the 
wonderful aptitude of the perfons of the fick, in the ma- 
lignant peftilential fever, to fink into an irremediable ftate 
ae debility, under alvine evacuation carried beyond this, I 
have confidered it unjuftifiable, in every refpect, to adopt 
fuch practice.”” I 
the epidemic in the Weft Indies was fuch as to bear 
fevere evacuation, even in its commencement; with lefs 
fafety than the epidemic of Philadelphia. * Some practi- 
tioners in the Weft Indies I finds”? fays Dr.Chifielm, 
<< have adopted the plan of Dr. Ruth, but by no means with 
the wonderful fuccefs he has attributedtoit. The hofpitals 
have afforded, I fear, but too many proofs of its difaitrous 
confequences in a hot climate. In the year 1796, at Fort 
Royal, where the malignant peftilential fever was epidemic, 
many of the praCtitioners gave calomel and jalap in the 
manner recommended by Dr. Rufh, and confequently ex- 
cited a moft profufe difcharge. ‘The event was, however, 
very different from the ftatement of Dr. Rufh; for the 
mortality among the inhabitants was very great ; fome fhips 
were entirely flripped of their crews, and many loft more 
than one half. I am well affured, that five out of fix 
perifhed on this occafion of the whole feized with this 
dreadful malady. A hypercatharfis was induced, under 
which the fick immediately funk.’? (Vol. i. p. 169.) 
Although the plan, which was fuccefsful in North America, 
might be too violent within the tropics, when carried to the 
fame extent, it would feem, however, that the principle 
was ufefu'ly applied, and that Dr. Chifholm himfelf, not- 
withftanding his favourite object of exciting mercurial 
aétion in the fyilem, adopted A principle in a preat mea- 
fure. His firlt practice gonfifted of clearing the bowels by 
neutral falts and antimony; on the re-appearance of ‘the 
difeafe, in 1794, he gave calomel alone, «* repeating it till 
the inteftinal canal was cleared of its contents ;’? and he 
afterwards increafed its a€tivity by the addition of jalap, or 
any other purgative medicine of quick operative effect. 
“ The great rule, in fhort,”’ “he affirms, ‘ is to empty the 
inteflinal canal as {peedily and as completely as poffible, fo as 
to prepare it for the reception and abforption of mercury.” 


Whatever be the mode of rea/oning on the fubject, it is. 


obvious that, in point of fad, this practice is eflentially the 
fame, except in degree and extent, with that of Dr. Ruth; 
and we may therefore conclude, that purging, iy the attack 
of yellow fever, has been found the moft efficient remedy 
that has hitherto been employed. 

Dr. Chifholm, however, adminifters the calomel with a 
view to its influence on the conftitution as a mercurial, not 
merely as an evacuant ; but it is obvious that, in the quan- 
tity in which he employs it, it muit produce confiderable 
evacuation in general. ‘ My mode of ufing the calomel,” 
he fays, “ after the re-appearance of the malignant pettilen- 


tial fever in 1794, was to give fen grains, either alone, or, 


with an equal or a double quantity of ja/ap; to an adult 
patient as foon as poffible after I faw him. This generally 
acts as an evacuant in the degree required, about an hour or 
two after itisgiven, Atthe end of three hours I repeated 
the dofe of calomel. At the end of three hours more, the 


It is probable, indeed, that the nature of 


fame quantity is given, adding opium or mot, as the preced~ 
ing dofes have acted, In this manner ten grains of calomel’ 
were given every three hours, till the falivary glands became 
affected, which generally happened in lefs than twenty-four’ 
hours from the commencement of the treatment, if it was 
faithfully conduéted. The effe& of the medicine, given in 
this manner, may be perceived after the third dofe in general; 
the patient becoming calmer, lefs reftlefs, lefs anxious ; his 
fkin being fofter, and poffeffed of an agreeable heat; the 
ftomach being perfeély retentive, however irritable it might 
have been before ; and the eyes recovering their former lultre 
and fenfibility. When at length falivation takes place, the 
patient is left free from difeafe, with a- moderate warm 
moifture on his fkin; and very foon after figns of returning 
health are indicated by calls for food, &c. The recovery of: 
itrength is proportionally rapid to that from difeafe; nor is 
it at all neceflary to have recourfe to bark, or any other 
mediciie whatever; a circumftance truly gratifying oth to: 
the patient and the phyficiaa, ina difeafe wherein nature’ 
revolts at the very idea of it. ‘Chere are circumflances; 
however,”? Dr. Chifholm candidly adds, “in which the 
utmolt difficulty is experienced in obtaining this effe& from 
calomel; and others in which the candid praCtitioner muft 
acknowledge its infufficiency.’”? (Loc. cit. vol. 1. p. 253-) 
Dr.Chifholm declares, that the fuccefs attending this practice 
exceeded his moft fanguine expectation ; ‘ to great, indeed,’ 
was it, that I did not lofe a fingle patieut in whofe cafe it 
was pufhed to the full extent :”? (ibid. p. 352.) 

In the fubfequent occurrences of the epidemic in Phila-. 
delphia, viz. in 1794, 5, and 7, Dr. Ruth employed the 
mercurial remedies, fo as to produce /alivation, with great 
advantage. He endeavoured to excite it early in all thofe 
cafes which did not yicld immediately to bleeding and 
purging, ‘I was. delighted,” he fays, ‘* with its effects’ 
in every cafe in which I ufed it. Thefe effeéts were as 
follow: 1. It immediately attraéted and concentrated in the 
mouth all the fcattered pains of every part of the body. ' 
2. It checked a naufea and vomiting. 3. It gradually, 
when it was copious, reduced the pulfe, and thereby pre-: 
vented the neceflity of further bleeding or purging. I with 
it were poffible to render the ufe of this remedy univerfal in 
the treatment of malignant fevers. It is a rare occurrence 
for a patient, that has been fufliciently bled and purged, to 
die after a falivation takes place.’’ ¢* [ loft but two patients 
in our late epidemic in whom the mercury excited a faliva- 
tion. One of them died from the want of nurfing; the 
other by the late application of the remedy.” (See Rufh’s 
Medical Inquiries and Obf. vol. iv. p. 93, and vol. v 

Be a) ° 
The good effeéts of purging and of /alivation, fpeedily 
excited in the yel/ow fever, appear, then, to reft upon ftrong 
evidence ; for befides their perfonal experience, both Dr. 
Rufh and Dr. Chifholm have adduced the teftimony of 
feveral other practitioners, in whofe hands the adminiftration 
of thefe remedies was attended with a iimilar fuccefs. 

The evidence, with refpeét to the advantages of J/ood- 
letting, is fomewhat more contradiftory: Dr. Ruth, and» 
feveral other phyficians of Philadelphia, conjoined bleed- 
ing with the purging plan, and their fuccefs is {tated 
to have been generally great. Dr. Rufh affirms that “blood- 
letting, when ufed early on the firft day, frequently ftrangled 
the difcafe in its birth, and generally rendered it more 
light, and the convalefcence more {peedy and perfe@.” But 
he admits that where it * had been omitted for three 
days, in acute cafes, it was feldom ufeful ;” nay, he éven 
fays, ‘ I am not fure that it ever fhortened the duration of 

the 


BREA VVESR: 


the fever, where it was not ufed within a few hours from the 
time of its attack.2? (Med. Ing. and Obf. vol. iii. 
p- 266 & 7.) Yethe mentions numerous iaftances in which the 
benefit was moit decided, and has defcribed at length the ob- 
viousadvantageswhich generally refulted fromit. He doesnot 
however recommend it indifcriminately ; the repetition of 
the operation, and the quantity of the blood to be drawn, 
muft be regulated by the obfervation of the phyfician. Dr. 
Chifholm confidered the evacuation as invariably perniciaus 
in the yellow fever of the Welt Indies in his firft publica- 
tion. In his fecond, he fays, ‘‘ with a trifling modification, 
it is the opinion I now hold, after again fecing the difeafe, 
and after becoming acquainted with the fentiments on it of 
the moft judicious Welt India practitioners, I am fatisfied, 
that when it is poffible to fee the fick in this difeafe at the 
period of its acceffion; that when thefe are young robutt 
men, immediately from England, or any other country pof- 
feffing a fimilar climate ; that when the temperature of the 
weather is fuch as feems moft to favour the propagation of 
the difeafe ; and that, when the predifpofing cauies have 
been fuch as have a tendency to accelerate the motion of the 
fluids and to give rife to other unequivocal figns of an in- 
flammatory difpofition; then one plentiful bleeding may, 
undoubtedly, be of infinite fervice. Gut when moft of 
thefe circumitances are abfent ; and when, confequently, no 
juft indication for the employment of this remedy can be 
formed, I confider the ufe cf it as a wanton abufe of con- 
fidence, and as inevitable deftru€tion to the patient. This 
obfervation may be extended to the yellow remittent fever 
without limitation; for in it the means of unqualified 
depletion are fully as pernicious as thofe of repletion, or 
thofe which feryve to maintain oy augment the vigour and 
tone of the body.’? He attributes the freedom of Dr. 
Rufh’s practice to the difference of climate, the greater ten- 
deney to local inflammations, and the other circumftances 
above mentioned. But the teltimony of Dr. Jackfon, Dr. 
Mofeley, Dr. Pinckard, and others, tends to prove the 
falutary effeAs of carly bleeding, even in the yellow fever 
of the Weft Indies. (See Dr. Robert Jackfon on the 
Fevers of Jamaica, Drs. Mofeley and Pinckard, as before 
quoted.) It cannot be queflioned, however, that, generally 
{peaking, this remedy is principally beneficial at the very 
onfet of the difeafe : and that when its vigour is abating 
the practice muft be mifchievous, and accelerate the malig- 
nant {vmptoms. © Dr. Ruth admits, that even an active pur- 
*gative, given after the fift/ day, has been hurtful. 
- Onthe whole, it feems to be demonttrable, that the 
treatment of the yellow fever has been moft fuccefsfully 
conducted upon the principles which we have laid down for 
the cure of fever in general ; namely, by a fteady fy{ftem of 
withdrawing all ftimuli, internal and external, at ay com- 
mencement, i. e. by the antiphlogiftic plan, purfued with a 
vigour proportionate to the violence and fatality of the 
difeafe : and that {timulants and cordials are pernicious, if 
given early, and nearly unneceflary at the later periods, 
where the proper evacuations have been adopted in the 
beginning. 
Forthe fame reafon which fuggelts the propriety of di- 
‘minifhing internal ftimuli by evacuations, the diet mult be 
light aud liquid, and the drink cold and diluent, All felid 
animal food is to be forbidden for many days after the intire 
cure of ‘the fever ; as the indulgence of the appetite too 
fuddenly in that way is the caufe of numerous relapfes. A 
weak vegetable diet, with fruits, fhould be ttri@ly adhered 
to. The drink fheuld be thin and diluent; fuch as cold 
- “water, toait and water, lemonade, tamarind or raw apple- 
water, or weak balm and camomile tea, where the flomach 
Vou. XIV. 


iseffeQed with ficknefs. The fubacid drinks were prefers 
red in moft cafes, Dr, Ruth fays, as being not only moi 
agreeable to the tafte, but becaufe they tended to correct, 
by mixture, the acrid qualities of the bile. All thefe drinks 
may be taken in the early ftage of the diforder. In the 
convalefcent {tage of the fever, and in fuch of its remiffions, 
or intermiflions, as are accompanied by great laogour in the 
pulfe, wine whey, porter and water, and brandy and water, 
may be taken with advantage. 

Upon the fame principle of withdrawing ftimulus and 
irritation, cool fre/o air, and cleanlinefs, are very beneficial. 
Coel air is equally proper, Dr. Ruth obferves, whether the 
arterial fyftem is deprefied, or whether it fhewed in the 
pulfe a high degeee of morbid excitement ; and is only im- 
proper where a chillinefs attends the difeafe. 

Cold bathing, or afiulion of cold water upon the fkin in 
the hot ttage of the yellow fever, has been found extremely 
beneficial ; Dr. Rufh found its employment advantageous 
under the fame circumftances as Dr. Currie recommended it. 
(See Corp, and Fever above.) Dr. Chifholm and Dr. 
Jackfon affirm that the cold affufion is moft effe€tnally uficd 
in-a manner fomewhat fimilar to the practice of the Ameri- 
can Indians, and of the Ruffians, viz. by a fucceflion of 
alternate warm and cold bathing. ‘lhe patient being frit 
immerfed in a warm bath, and then removed, while the fen- 
fation of the heat is flill upon him, a bucket of cold water 
is thrown over his naked body. Dr. Jackfon recommends 
this praCtice after evacuation by blood-letting. has been em- 
ployed, and Dr. Chifholm affirms that evacuating medicines 
are adyantageoufly ufed at the fame time. The local ap- 
plications of cold have been often very fuccefsful in remov- 
ing local fymptoms, fuch as head-ache, delirium, irritability 
of ftomach, &c. Cold water, or a folution of falts, fuch as. 
the muriate of ammonia, or of foda, applied by means of 
cloths repeatedly foaked in them to the head, and pit of the 
ftomach, have often quieted exceflive a€tion in thofe parts, 
and thus afforded material relief. Cold water injected into 
the bowels by way of clyfter has produced fimilar refults ; 
and bathing the feet in cold water has frequently had the 
agreeable effe@t of relieving the head, the opprefiion at the 
precordia, and the general heat. Dr. Ruth affirms that cold 
water thus applied to the feet very certainly diminifhes the 


“frequency of the pulfe, and mentions an experiment, in 


which the pulfe, in the courfe of a few minutes, was reduced 
24 itrokes, and became fo weak as hardly to be perceptible. 
(Loc. cit. vol. iii. p. 288.—Chifholm, vol. i, p. 399. 

With regard to the employment of d/jfers in the yellow 
fever there is the fame contradiction of fentiment, as to their 
ufe, among the phyficians of our climate in fevers in general, 
Dr. Chifholm, both upon his own obfervation and the telfti- 
mony of others, affirms that blifters were never of any ufe, 
at any period of the difeafe, or to whatever part of the body 
they were applied, not even in relieving head-ache, or 
other local fymptoms; while Dr. Rufh, like Dr. Lind, 
conliders them of great fervice, when applied to any part of 
the body, but particularly to the crown of the head, In 
his fubfequent publications, however, he exprefles himfelf 
rather lefs favourably of their utility, and limits their good 
effets to a particular junture, which he calls the dfi/ering 
point, and which, in bilious fevers, hg fays, is generally cir 
cum{cribed within eight and forty hours; for “ when ap- 
plied ina itate of great arterial ation, they do harm ; whea 
applied after that ation has nearly ceafed, they do liutle or 
no fervice.”? (See Med. Ing. and Obf. vol. iii, p, 2gt. 
iv. g5.and vy. 122.) Weare very {ceptical as to the operation 
of blifters in fever, except in relieving local congeftion. 

After the reduction of the morbid aétion of the blood- 

3A veilelsy 


EVESVWEGRS 


veffels, by means of the remedics which have been mentioned, 
no other tonic is neceflary than & nourifhing and gently 
ftimulating diet, and change of air, The beft authors 
éoincide in Mating that, contrary to what occurs in moft 
febrile difeales, bark and wine were not only ufelefs or ab- 
folutely hurtful, but were generally loathed and rejected by 
the convalefcents. The diet which is generally molt agree- 
able to the palate, as well as the lighteft and mof nourifhing, 
confifts of fago, panada, and arrow root, ptepared with 
Madeira wine, and fpice, with oyfters, eggs, and malt li- 
quors, which the patients relifh greatly. ‘The convalefcence 
from the yellow fever is generally rapid, but ia fome cafes 
it is very flow. As long as the patient remained in the 
infeed room or houfe, Dr. Chifholm remarks, although all 
the fymptoms of the difeafe had difappeared, the progrefs of 
his recovery was remarkably flow, and more efpecially when 
bark had been employed in the treatment, without the 
previous ufe of deobftruents, and the appropriate antiphlo- 
giftic. A change of airand fituation became advifeable from 
the moment that figns of convalefcence appeared ; and the 
purer the atmofphere, and the more elevate: the fituation to 
which, the patient. was removed, the more rapid was: his 
acquifition of ftrength. : 

Prevention of Yellow Fever.—As thofe perfons, who were 
in the higheit ftrength and vigour of health, and who were 
not relaxed and énfeebled by long refidence in hot climates, 
or by a low diet, were the moft frequently attacked by the 
yellow fever, when it was epidemic, both in the Welt Indies 
and in America; fo a fy{tem of diet and regimen, which was 
conducive to a diminution of plethora, was the molt effec- 
tual means, of preferving individuals from being attacked by 
the difeafe. Dr. Ruth recommended his fellow citizens 
to reduce their diet during the prevalence of the epidemic. 
He lived fparingly himfelf upon tea, coffee, milk, and the 
common fruits, and garden vegetables of the feafon, with a 
{mall quantity of falted meat and {moaked herring. His 
drinks were milk and water, weak claret and water, and 
weak porter and water. ‘ I fheltered myfelf,’’ he fays, 
as much as poflible from the rays of the fun, and frova the 
ation of the evening air, and accommodated my drefs to 
the changes in the temperature of the atmofphere. By 
Similar means, I have reafon to believe many hundreds efcaped 
the difeafe who were conftantly expofed to it. ‘There ap- 
pears to be no combination of climate and miafmata that 
can refit the good effe&ts of abftinence or depleting medi- 
cines, in preventing or modefating an attack of this fever.”? 
(Med. Ing. and Obf. vol. v. p. 39-) He recommended 
alfo to the people, befides a diet of milk and vegetables, 
cooling purges to be taken once or twice a week, and mo- 
derate blood-letting to all fuch as were of a plethoric habit : 
and he advifed them to avoid heat, cold, labour, and every 
thing elfe that could excite the contagion (which he knew 
to be prefent in all their bodies) into a€tion, (Ibid. voll iii. 
p- 295:-297.) The advice of Celfus, during the prevalence 
of peltilence, is very comprehenfive ; ‘¢ vitare fatigationem, 
cruditatem, frigus, calorem, libidinem, multoque magis fe 
continere.”? But it is a mortifying confideration, Dr. 
Chifholm remarks, that few of our countrymen can be pre- 
vailed upon.to fubmit to the deprivation of any gratification 5 
which, if within their ability to purchafe, 1s very generally 
and very pertinacioufly reforted to. I'he comparative feeurity 
from, and lefs mortality of, the yellow fever in the French 
and Spanifh thay in the Englifh iflands in the Welt Indies, 
have been juftly attributed to the more temperate habit of 
the people. When the peftilential fever raged at Grenada, 
Dr. Chifholm obferves that the French inhabitants remained 
almoft totally exempt from it. Among them, animal food 

‘ 


and flrong liquors were very moderately ufed; their die” 
being chiefly compofed of vegetables, and fmall acid red 
wine. The fame author, indeed, remarks, ¢ during the 
prevalence of pellilence, I am inclined to think, froma 
variety of facts, that abftinence from every Species of ftrong 
liquor, wine itfelf not excepted, is more conducive to the 
maintenance of health, than any other dietetic regulation 
whatever. It is an eflablifhed fa, that water-drinkers 
either efeaped the malignant peftilential fever altogether, or 
had the difeafe in a remarkably mild degree. On the other 
hard, many inflances occurred of free livers receiving the 
infection in the morning, and having the attack of the fever 
after a plentiful repaft of animal food and wine in the fol- 
lowing night.”? (Chifholm, loc. cit. vol. iis p.49.). In 
fhort, the fact, that extreme temperance, and even evacua-- 
tions inthofe that are plethoric, when in hot climates, is the 
mott certain to efcape the difeafes peculiar to thofe countries, . 
and efpecially the /ea/oning, or yellow fever, is now afcertain- 
ed beyond all queftion. Dr. Moteley fays, ‘the Englifh drinks. 
more wine and fpirits than the French: the French more 
than the Spaniards ; and we calculate the mortality of each 
by this rule. The Spaniards live to great ages in the 
plains of St. Jacques, &c. in St. Domingo, partly from the- 
falubrity of the air, but chiefly from their fobriety.”* (Oa 
Tropical Difeafes, p. 53.) And he affirms, that, while the 
inflammatory diathefis of the body remains, (as it will with. 
fome people, who migrate to hot climates, for many years,) 
*‘thofe who ufe water for their common drink, will never be~ 
fubje& to troublefome nor dangerous difeafes.”? (Ibid. 


hope 
The queftion relative to the contagious or non-contagious 
nature of the yellow fever, above noticed, is not a matter of: 
mere curiofity and {peculation, but of the greateft praQicalim— 
portance, with a view both:to individual and to public fafety. - 
The means to be adopted tor the prevention of the {pread- 
ing of the epidemic mutt neceflarily be very different; if it - 
arife from imported contagion, and if it be of domeftic 
origin. Thofe means which afford feeurity in either cafe 
muit be ufelefs, and therefore virtually detrimental in the- 
other. Should the fever be the refult of imported conta-- 
gion in its origin, the ufual methods of quarantine, and 
fumigation, &c. of goods, fhips, and perfons, mult be- 
reforted to. (See Conracion, Pracue, and Quarans 
TINE.) But the beft writers attribute the ye//ow fever to » 
the miafmata and putrid exhalations from various domettic 
fources ; and we have underftood that by diminithing thefe. 
fources of the peftilence, Philadelphia has been much le{s 
fubje& to its occurrence in the ufual feafon. In the 
memoir of the thirteen phyficians above alluded to, the ~ 
governor of Pennfylvania is informed, and the information - 
is fupported by accompanying documents, that the epi- 
demic tever was derived from the following circumftancess: . 
which are ftated more in detail by Dr. Caldwell, Thefe 
are, 1. Putrid exhalations from the docks and wharfs, the - 
ftreets, fewers, gutters, cellars, privies, dirty yards and- 
alleys, ponds, and collections of filth in the seighbourhood 
of the city ; and alfo 2, The foul and noxious air emitted - 
from the holds of fhips. Of the origin of thefe fevers from 
the putrid exhalations, arifing within and around Phila- 
delphia, Dr. Caldwell and others have {tated much: evis 
dence ; (fee Med. & Phyf. Memoirs, containiie, among- 
other fubjeéts, a particular Inquiry into the Origin and 
Nature of the late Peftilential Epidemics of the United 
States. By C. Caldwell, M.D. Philadelgtia, 1801,) and 
the correctnefs of attributing the origin of thefe fevers to 
fuch caufes, is farther {lrengthened by our kuowle of 
the conne¢tion of remittent and peftilental. fevers in Le 
. VIZ _odon, 


FEVER. 


don, and the other large cities of Europe, in fimilar feafons, 
with a filthy condition of the ftreets and houfes, and a bad 
arrangement of the fewers, gutters, &c. See Epipemic. 
(See allo Dr. Heberden, jun. on the Increafe and Decreafe 
of Dif. Lond. 1801, and the Annual Med. Regifter, 
‘vol. i. for 1808.) With refpeét to the fecond fource of 
fevers, wiz. the foul air of fhips, Dr. Ruth has adduced 
fome ftrong evidence of its occurrence in fhips, containing 
efpecially vegetable matters in a ftate of putrefaétion. In 
1797 the yellow fever firfl appeared on board a veffel at one 
of the wharfs, and in the: neighbourhood, affeGing a great 
number of perfons at the fame time: this fhip had in her 
hold a quantity of prunes, almonds, olives, capers, &c., in 
a putrid flate, and emitted a molt offenfive imell, after 
fhe had difceharged her cargo, which was perceived by 


perfons feveral hundred yards from the wharf where the | 


avas moored. At Tortola, Dr. Ruth itates, a fever was pro- 
duced, in June 1737, from noxious air generated from a few 
bufhels of potatoes, which deltroyed the captain, mate, and 
moft of the crew in a few days. Some retted bags of pep- 
per onboard a French Indiaman produced the yellow fever, 
in June 1793, at Budgetown: ‘all the white men, and 
moft of the negroes, employed in removing this pepper, 
perifhed with the yellow fever, and the foul atmofphere 
aifeGted the town,” where it proved fatal to many of the in- 
habitants. Several other facts, of a fimilar nature, are 
mentioned, and Dr. Rufh adds, that this fource of yellow 
devyer in warm climates is fo well known, and ‘Yo generally 
admitted, that Dr. Shannon, a late. writer, in enumerating 
its various caufes, exprefily mentions “ the putrid effluvia 
of a fhip’s hold.”’ Thefe faéts not only lead to the certain 
means of preventing one of the fources of the yellow fever, 
but ferve to explain the reafons why failors are fo often its 
firft victims, aud why, from this circumftance, the origin of 
the difeafe has been fo hattily afcribed folely to impor- 
tation. 
Under thefe impreffions as to the origin of the yellow 
fever, Dr. Ruth, Dr. Caldwell, and the others who ad- 
drefled the governor of Pennfylvania, recommended the 
following means of prevention, 1. A continuance of the 
laws for preventing the importation of the difeafe from the 
Weft Indies, and other parts of the world where it ufually 
prevails. 2. A removal of all thofe matters from the 
fireets, gutters, cellars, gardens, yards, ftores, vaults, 
sponds, &c. which, by putrefaction in warm weather, afford 
the mot frequent remote caule of the difeafe in America. 
_3- “ We molt earneftly recommend the frequent wathing 
of all impure parts of the city in warm and dry weather; a 
meafure wvhich we conceive promifes to our citizens the 
moitt durable exemption from bilious fevers of all kinds, of 
domettic orig. 4. To guard againit the frequent fource 
of yellow fever from the noxious air of the holds of fhips, 
. ave recommend the unladiag all fhips, with cargoes liable to 
putrefaétion, at a diftance from the city, during the months 
of June, July, Auguft, September, and OGober. To pre- 
yent the generation of noxious air in the fhips, we conceive 
every veflel fhould be obliged by law to carry and ufe a 
ventilator, &c.’? They add, ‘ It has been by adopting 
~ meafures, fimilar to thofe we have delivered for preventing 
peltilential difeafes, that moft of the cities in Europe, which 
are fituated in warm latitudes, have become healthy in 
warm feafons, and amidit the clofeft commercial intercourfe 
with nations and iflands, con{tantly affli€ted with thofe 
difeafes. The extraordinary cleanlinefs of the Hollanders 
awas originally impofed upon them, by the frequency of 
ypettilential fevers in their cities. This habit of cleanlinefs 
ented to characterize thofe people, after the caufes 


which produced it have probably ceafed to be known.’? 
(Ruth, Med. Ing: & Obf. vol. v. p. 54, ef feg. Caldwell, 
loc. cit. Chifholm, vol. ii. chap. 1.) 

Befides the denominations’ of fever above explained, 
feveral others are to be found, efpecially among the older 
medical writers, which, however, require no notice here, as 
they are improperly applied, and are not ufed at prefent. 
Such are arthritic, afthmatic, hyfteric, chlorotic, fcorbutic, 
sever, &c. See Arrueritis, Astum4, Hysteria, &e. 

Fever ward, Fever-houfe, or Fever-hofpital, wards or 
houfes fet epart for the receptica of typhus, ur contagious 
fever. 7 

The country is indebted to Dr. Haygarth, formerly of 
Chefter, now of Bath, (1809;) for the fuggeftion of thefe 
admirable inftitutions. Jt had been obferved by Dr. Lind 
of the Haflar hofpital, that the infeCtious diftance of com- 
mon contagious fever was {mall; or, in other words, that 
the effluvia from the bodies of perfons labouring under 
typhus were incapable ‘of infeGiing thefe in health, ata 
greater dillance than a few feet, and that in a pure atmo- 
{phere, or well ventilated room, the efluvia were fo much 
diluted and weakened, 2s to be no longer capable of com- 
municating the difeafe. Hence the inference, which Dr. 
Haygarth proved by the teft of experiment, that by fepa- 
ratmg thofe perfons, labouring under contagious feyer, om 
others in the fame hofpital, or by appropriating wards: to 
this difeafe, the contagion might be prevented from fpread- 
ing in thefe crowded receptacles of the fick: and fecondly, 
that by having fuch wards, or feparate hofpitals, for the 
reception of fever, conitantly open for the admiffion of 
patients, efpecially in crowded towns, or in epidemic 
feafons, whole families might be at once preferved from the 
contagion by the removal of the firft perfon infe@ed inte 
them; and that thus the contagion of typhus might be ex- 
terminated. Upon this. principle, fuch fever-wards were 
opened in the hofpital at Chelter, and in that of Liverpool, 
and fubfequently feparate hofpitals have been eftablifhed in 
many of the large towns in England and Treland ; firft at 
Mauchefter, then at Cork, Waterford, Dublin, Leeds, 
London, &c. Thefe were happily named, we believe by 
Dr. Ferriar of Manchefter, ** Houfes of Recovery ;” 2 
denomination conveying lefs alarm to the prejudiced and 
ignorant, than that of peft-houfe, or fever-houle, and by 
which they are now generally defignated. Thefe imititu- 
tions are not only calculated to preferve the crowded popu- 
lation of large tewns from the fatal effets of epidemic fevers, 
but to diffufe the maxims of ‘cleanlinefs and ventilation, 
which are inculcated in the habitations of the poor, whence 
patients are removed ; and alfo to difprove thofe falfe and 
pernicious notions, relpeCting the general diffufion of conta-. 
gion in the air, which are too widely prevalent even among 
the unlearned part, 7. ¢. the majority of the profeffios. 
See House of Recovery ; under which head we {hall ftate 
more fully the principles upon which thefe inftitutions have 
been eftablifhed, as well as the fuccefsful refult of their 
praGtice, and the regulations under which they-are’ con- 
ducted. (See alfo Contacion.) Haygarth on the fmall- 
pox, and his Letter to Dr. Percival refpecting the fup- 
preffion of contagion—An excellent Collection of Papers on 
the fubject of a fimilar eftablifhment at Newcaitle. Alfo 
Dr. Ferriar’s Med. Hiltories and RefleGions. The Re- 
ports of the Houfe of Recovery at Dublin, Cork, 
London, &c. 

Fever, in the Veterivary Science, is a diforder to which 
horfes are very fubject from a variety of caufes. The fymp- 
toms which denote the horfe to be affi@ted with a fever are 
great reftleffnefs, by reafon of which he ranges from one 

3A2 end 


; FEVER. 


end of the rack to another, beating of the flanks, rednefs 
and inflammation of the eyes, a parched and dry tongue ; 
his breath is hot, and of a ftrong fmell; he lofes his ap- 
petite, and nibbles his hay without chewing it, and is fre- 
quently finelling to the ground; he dungs often, but little 
at a time; and his dung is ufually hard, and in {mall pieces; 
he fometimes ftales with difficulty, and his urine is highly 
coloured; Le is always craving for water, and drinks often, 
but little at a time; and his pulfe beats full and hard, 
fifty itrokes and more ina minute. The firft part of the 
cure is bleeding; and the quantity, if the eae is {trong 
and in good condition, fhould be two or three quarts: then 
give him four times a day a pint of the following infufion ; 
take baum, fage, and camomile flowers, each a handful ; 
an ounce of liquorice root, fliced, and three ounces of nitre ; 
and pour on thefe ingredients two quarts of boiling water ; 
when cold, ftrain it off, and {queeze into it the juice of 
two or three lemons, and fweeten it with honey ; or an 
ounce of nitre mixed into a ball with honey may be given 
thrice a day inftead of the drink, and wathed down with 
any {mall liquor. he horfe’s diet fhould be fcalded bran 
in {mall quantities, or dry bran {fprinkled with water, or a 
handful of picked hay may be put into his rack. His wa- 
ter fhould be a little warmed, and given to him often and 
in {mall quantities ; his covering fhould be moderate. If 
the horfe refufes to feed, in a day or two more blood fhould 
be taken away, and the drinks continued, to which may be 
added two or three drams of faffron. If his dung con- 
tinues hard and knotty, a clyfter may be given, prepared 
by boiling two handfuls of marfhmallows, one of eamo- 
mile flowers, and an ounce of fennel-feed, in three quarts 
of water, till it be reduced to two, and adding to the 
ftrained liquor four ounces of treacle and a pint of linfeed 
oil or any common oil. This clyfter fhould be repeated 
every other day; and on the intermediate day the follow- 
ing drink may be given: take of cream of tartar and of 
Glauber’s falts, of each four ounces ; diffolve them in bar- 
hey-water, and add an ounce or two of lenitive eleétuary, or 
a dram or two of powder of jalap. By purfuing this treat- 
ment the horfe will begin to recover; and nothing more 
will be found neceffary than to give him gentle exercife in 
the air, and plenty of clean litter in the {table. 


There is another fever to which horles are fubjeét, more - 


dangerous than the former: this isa flow fever attended with 
great depreflion ; the horfe is fometimes inwardly hot and 
outwardly cold, and at other times hot all over; his eyes 
appear moift and languid; his mouth is continually moitt, 
fo'that he has no inclination to drink, and he is fatisfied 
with very little. He eats little, moves his jaws in a feeble 
loofe manner, and grates his teeth ; his body is commonly 
open, his dung foft and moilt ; his ftaling irregular, fome- 
times little, and at other times profufe, and his urine pale, 
with little or no fediment. ‘Thefe fevers are attended with 
a running at the nafe, and the matter difcharged is of a 
reddifh or greenifh dufky colour, and of a confiftence like 
glue. About three pints of blood fhould be firft taken 
away, and bleeding repeated according to the ftrength and 
fulnefs of the horfe, the degree of his cough, or any ten- 
dency to inflammation. After this the nitre drink already 
prefcribed may be. given, with the addition of an ounce 
of fnake-root, and three,drams of faffron and camphor dif- 
folved in a little {pirit of wine. 

The horfe’s diet fhould be f{calded or fprinkled bran, and 
the beft hay, with which he fhould be fed by hand, as he 
fometimes cannot lift up his head to tke rack, Drinking 
plentifully will greatly contribute to dilute the blood ; but 
af the fever fhould increafe, balls of contrayerva root, 

8 


myrrh, and {nake-root, pewdered, of each two dramsy 
faffron, one dram; mithridate or Venice treacle, half an 
ounce, mixed with honey, fhould be immediately given, 
twice or thrice a day, with two or three horns of infufion 
of fnake reot fweeteued with honey; to g pint and a 
half of which may be added half a pint of treacle water 
or vinegar; if thefe balls produce no fenfible effe&, let a 
dram of camphor or caftor be added to each of them; or 
the following drink may be fubftituted in their ftead for 
fome days: take a dram of camphor diffolved in one ounce 
of rectified {pirit of wine; then gradually pour on a pint of 
diftilled vinegar warmed, and give it at two dofes. If the 
horfe fhould be coltive, recourfe mult be had to clyfters or 
the opening driik ; and if he purges to a confiderable de- 
gree, diafcordium may be added to his drinks inftead of the 
mithridate. The operation of medicines in this difeafe is 
much promoted by plentiful drinking ; the horfe’s falmg 
fhould be reltrained when it is confiderable and weakening, 
by proper aftringents, or by mixing lime-water with his 
drinks ; and when he is remifs in this refpe&, and ftales fo 
little as to occafion a {welling of his body and legs, two or 
three of the following balls may be given at proper inter- 
vals, with a deco€tion of marfhmallows fweetened with 
honey: take of fal prunella or nitre, one ounce ; juniper- 
berries and Venice turpentine, of each half an ounce ; and 
make thefe ingredients into a ball with oil of amber. If 
with this treatment the horfe’s fkin feels kindly, his ears 
and feet are moderately warm, his eyes brifk and lively, his 
nofe becomes clean and dry, his appetite increafes, he lies 
down well, and {tales and dungs regularly, there is a fair 
profpect of a fpeedy recovery ; but he fhould be fed 
{paringly, and his diet fhould be light, and increafed by 
degrees as he gains ftrength. 

If the fever fhould intermit, giye an ounce of Jefuit’s 
bark in the interval of the fits, and repeat it every fix 
hours till the horfe has taken four or fix ounces. (Bartlet’s 
Farriery, and Farmer’s Dictionary.) mn 

Mr. White, in his ‘* Compendium of the Veterinary 
Art,” diftinguifkes only two kinds of fever, the one, an 
idiopathic or original difeafe, and termed /imple ; the other 
dependent upon external inflammation, and juftly denomi- 
nated /ymptomatic fever. The former does not occur fo fre- 
quently as the latter, nor is it by any means.fo formidable 
in its appearance. The fymptoms are fhivering, fucceeded 
by lofs of appetite, dejected appearance, qice pulfe, hot 
mouth, and fome degree of debility; the horfe is generall 
coftive, and voids his urine with difficulty. The difeafe is 
alfo often accompanied with quicknefs of breathing, and in 
a few cafes with pain in the bowels, or fymptoms of colic. 
As foon as a horfe is attacked with this difeafe, Mr. White 
adyifes, that he fhould be bled freely ; and in cafe of cof- 
tivenefs, to give a pint of caftor oil, Or the oil of olives, 
and to injeét a clyfter of warm water-gruel. The following 
drink he has found to be avery ufeful laxative; take of 
Barbadoes aloes powdered, 3 drams, prepared kali 14 dram, 
caitor oil 4 0z. to 6 oz. fimple mint-water and pure water, of 
each, 4 0z.; thefe ingredients fhould be mixed and will ferve 
for one dofe. After the operation of the laxative, the 
fever powder is to be given once in twelve hours, and con- 
tinued until it has produced confiderable diuretic. effeét. 
Mr. White has given’ feveral formule for preparing this 
powder, e. g. 1. Powdered nitre, 1 oz. and camphor, and 
tartarized antimony, of each, 2 drams; or, 2. Powdered 
nitre, 1 oz. and unwafhed calx of antimony, 2 drams; or, 
3. Antimonial powder, 3 drams, and camphor, 1 dram ; 
either of thefe to be mixed for one dofe. Warm water and 
mathes are to be adminiftered frequently in {mall quantities, 

warm 


FEVE R. 


warm cloathing, frequent hand-rubbing, and a liberal al- 
lawance of litter are alfo neceffary. And when the fever 
runs high, it is advifeable to infert rowels about the cheft 
and belly, in order to prevent the recurrence of internal in- 
flammation. When the difeafe appears to be going off, 
the horfe looking more lively, and his appetite returning, let 
him be led out for a fhort time in fome warm fituation, and 
give now and then a malt mafh for recovering his ftrength. 
_ The /ymptomatic fever is generally occafioned by high 
feeding, clofe ftables, and want of proper exercife ; in fome 
cafes it is caufed by a fudden tranfition from a cold toa 
hot temperature. This kind of fever is not preceded by 
fhivering, like the fimple fever ; nor isit fo fudden in its 
attacks, except when it is occafioned by preat and long 
continued exertion. In this cafe the complaint affumes a 
very dangerous appearance in its earlteft ftaze. The lymp- 
toms which this fever has in common with the fimple fever, 
are lofs of appetite, quick pulfe, dejetted appearance, hot 
mouth, and debility ; and if tothefe be joined difficulty of 
breathing, and quick working of the flanks, with coldnefs 
of the legsand ears, the caufe of it may be concluded to 
be an inflammation of the lungs. If the horfe hang down 
his head in the manger, or lean back upon his collar with the 
appearance of drowlinefs, the eyes appearing watery and in- 
flamed, it is probable that the fever depends upon an accu- 
mulation of blood in the veffels of the brain, and that the 
flaggers are approaching ; in this cafe, however, the pulfe 
is not always quickened, but fometimes has been found un- 
ufually flow. When the fymptoms of fever are joined with 
a yellownefs of the eyes and mouth, an inflammation of the 
liver isindicated. If an inflammation of the bowels be the 
caufe, the horfe is violently griped. An inflammation of the 
kidnies will alfo produce fever, and is diftinguifhed by a 
Tuppreffion of urine, and an inability to bear preflure upon 
the loins. When the fever arifes from inflammation of the 
bladder, the horfe is frequently flaling, voiding only very 
{mall quantities of urine, with confiderable pain. Exten- 
five wounds, and particularly thofe of joints, willalfo pro- 
duce fymptomatic fever. In all cafes of this kind, the 
effential remedies are copious and early bleeding, with 
rowels and blifters. (See InrLAmMarion.) In cafes of 
fymptomatic fever it will generally be neceflary to take 
away four or five quarts of blood at the firft bleeding ; aud 
even fix quarts have been taken away with manifeit advan- 
tage. 
ne modern writers on farriery have defcribed ancther 
kind of fever, termed putrid or typhus, in which bleeding 
is extremely injurious. On this fubjeét Mr. White makes 
the following obfervations. The grand characteriltic of 
fever he conceives to be an unufually quick pulfe, i.e. from 
feventy to one hundred ina minute; a peculiar kind of 
fenfation which it gives to the finger, as if it were ftruck 
fharply by the vibration of a cord; and at the fame time a 
feeblenefs, or fmallnefs, quite different from the gradual 
{well of the healthy pulfe. When a horfe labours under 
confiderable debility, either from hard work, want of fufii- 
cient food, or other caufes, except fever, the pulfe is more 
or Jefs languid or weak, fometimes flower, and fometimes a 
Tittle pace than ulual ; neverthelefs, it {wells gradually, 
and does not give that fenfation which phyficians term 
« hardnefs,”’ and whieh has been already defcribed. Simple 
debility, or weaknefs, is diftinguifhed from fever by other 
circumftances: the mouth and tongue are in their natural 
ftate; the horfe readily {weats; and when the weaknels 
is confiderable, the ears and hind legs will feel rather cold, 
and his flanks generally move quicker than ufual. Ifblood 
be drawn, it will be found very different fiom that of ahorfe 


labouring under fever or inflammation. Though bleeding 
in fuch cafes is extremely injurious, a mild laxative is 
ufeful, unlefs the dung be fofter, and is more copious than 
natural; and if there be a deficiency of urine, or any diffi- 
culty in voiding it, a diuretic, compofed of camphor and 
nitre, fhould be given. After the laxative, tonics, with a 
nutritious diet, and good grooming or nurfing, generally 
reftore the animal in a fhort time to health. This difeafe 
is fometimes miltaken for fever, and treated improperly. Se- 
veral cafes have occurred where debility fucceeded the in- 
flammatory commencement, and rendered bleeding, and fome- 
times purging alfo, highly improper: and perhaps, fays Mr. 
White, fuch cafes have been miftaken by fome writers for 
the typhus, or low putrid fever; or others may have copied 
their defcription of it from that given by authors on human 
difeafes. In cafes of fimple debility, the following medicines 
have been found very beneficial, giving the laxative in the 
firtt place, if the horfe be coitive, or even if the bowels be 
in a natural ftate; during its operation, however, it is_ad- 
vifeable to give ftrong gruel inftead of bran mafhes. The 
laxative is prepared by mixing, for one draught, Barbadoes 
alces, 3 dr.; powdered canella, 14 dr.; prepared kali, 
1 dr.; and mint-water, 8 oz. The tonic is compofed of 
yellow Peruvian bark, 6 dr.; cafcarilla, 1 dr.; powdered 
opium, 4 dr. ; prepared kali, 1 fer. ; with fyrup enough to 
form a ball fora dofe. It is often found neceffary to in- 
ereafe the proportion of bark, and fometimes of the other 
ingredients ; but when the horfe becomes coftive, the opium 
mutt be omitted, the moft proper food on thefe occafions is 
good {weet oats, and the beft hay, given frequently in {mall 
quantities. The horfe fhould be allowed to drink frequently, 
and his -exercife fhould be very moderate. If he become 
cottive, a cly{ter, or even a mild laxative, may be given. 

Tever, Epidemic, or Diftemper of Horfes, generally ap- 
pears in the form of a violent catarrh, or cold; the firlt 
fymptems are cough, heavinefs of the head, the eyes 
often watery, or a little inflamed; fometimes there is a 
quicknefs of breathing : and the inflammation of the mem-- 
brane which lines the nofe, throat, and windpipe, is often 
fo confiderable as to caufe a difficulty in fwallowing ; and 
the pulfe is generally quicker than ufval. Without -recur- 
ring to the proper remedies, wealkmels enfues, and confider- 
able fever takes place; the appetite goes off; the cough 
and quicknefs of breathing increafe, and debility is fo great, 
that the animal flaggers in his-walk.. The nofe difcharges 
offenfive matter; and after lingering for fome time, the 
horfe dies from a confumption- 

When an epidemic. happens, horfes fhould be carefully 
watched ; and on the firft appearance of any fF 3 
the difeafe, the animal” fhould be bled moderately, u 
is in low condition, or previoufly exhaufted by 
work,. old age,. or unwholefome food. 


} hard 
After bleeding, 
give the following laxative, viz. Barbadoes aloes, 2 dr. 3 
tartarized antimony, 1 dr. ; firft mixed with about four oz. 
of’ warm water, and then add 4 oz. of caftor oil; the 


whole to be given asa dofe: let the horfe’s diet confit of 
bran mafhes, {weet hay, and a very {mall quantity of oats. 
A velapfe fhould be prevented by good nurling, and giving 
every day a dofe of fome antimonial preparation, of which, 
that which refembles Dr. James’s fever powder is the bet. 
But when the inflammatory fymptoms are at frit violent, 
when there is-a quicknefs of breathing, forenefs of the 
throat, and diftrefling cough, a blifter tothe throatis ne- 
ceflary ; and unlefs weaknefs forbids, bleeding even to three 
quarts is proper. A laxative is always beneficial at firlt, if 
the bowels be not too open; after which, the antimonial 
with nitre isto be given daily. Warm cloathing, and fre- 
quent. 


FEV 

quent hand-rubbing to the legs, are ufeful; but a cloie 
{table is injurious. The horfe fhould be turned loofe into a 
large ftall; and if a difcharge from the nofe appear, let it 
be encouraged by caufing the vapour of warm water to pafs 
through the noftrils, and cloathing the head and ears. 
When the difeafe, from being negleéted, or improperly 
treated at firlt, becomes alarming, and the weaknefs is con- 
fiderable, nothing but tonic medicines and a nutritious diet 
can do any good. 

Fever, in AZythology, one of the Roman divinities, who 
had a temple on Mount Palatine, mentioned by Cicero. 
Valerius Maximus fays that fhe had others, into which they 
catried the remedies ufed in difeafes. On one monument 
fhe is called the *¢ Holy Fever.” 

Frver-Root, in Botany. See TriostEuM. 

Fever-Weed. See Eryncoium. 

FEVERFEW. See Marraicaria. 

Feverrew, Baflard. See ParruEentum. 

Feverrew, inthe Materia Medica, the parthenium of 
Diofcorides, has been very generally employed fince his 
time for medical purpofes. In natural affinity it ranks 
with camomile and tanfy, and its fenfible qualities fhew it to 
be nearly allied to them in its medicinal character. Accord- 
Ing to Bergius its virtues are tonic, ftomachic, refolvent, and 
emmenagogue. It has been given fuccefsfully as a vermi- 
fuge, and for the cure of intermittents ; but its ufe is moft 
celebrated in female diforders, efpecially in hyfteria: whence 
it is fuppofed to have derived the name -‘* Matricaria.”” 
Its fmell, tafte, and analyfis prove it to be a.medicine of 
confiderable aétivity: fo that we may fay with Murray, 
«¢ Rarius hodie pree{cribitur quam debetur.”” 

The leaves and flowers communicate by infufion.their 
{trong {mell and bitter tafte to water and rectified {pinit. 

“The watery infufions, infpiflated, leave an extract of con- 
fiderable bitternefs, and which alfo difeovers a faline matter 
both to the tafte and by throwing up to the furface {mall 
ery {talline efilorefcences in keeping :, the peculiar favour of 
the matricaria exhales in the evaporation, and impregnates 
the diftilled water, on which alfo a quantity of effential oil is 
found floating. The quantity of {pirituous extract, accord- 
ing to Cartheufer’sexperiments, 1s only about {th the weight 
of the dry leaves, whereas the watery extraét amounts. to 
near one-half, Lewis. Woodville. 

FEVERSHAM, in Geography. See FaversHam. 

FEUGEROLLES, a town of France, in the depart- 
ment of the Rhdne and Loire; 5 miles S. of St. Etienne. 

FEUILLANS, in Ecchfiaftical Hiftory, an order of 
religious clothed in white, and going bare-foot, wha live 
under the {triét obfervance of the rule of St. Bernard. 

“The name was occafioned by.a reform of the order of 

Bernardius, firft made in the abbey of Feuillans, a village 
in France, five leagues diftant from Thouloufe, by the fieur 
Barriere, who eftablifhed it about the year 1580. 
» It was approved of by pope Sixtus V. and the popes 
Clement VIII. and Paul V. granted it its particular fupe- 
riors. King Henry II. founded a convent of Feuillans in 
the Fauxbourgh St. Honoré at Paris in 1587. 

There are alfo convents of nuns who follow the fame re- 
form, called Feuillantes; the firft of which was eftablifhed 
near Thouloufe in 1590. 

FEUILLE de Scie, in Heraldry, expreffes that an 
ordinary, asa feffe, pale, or the like, is indented only on 
one fide ; becaufe it then looks like the leaf of a faw, as the 
French -phrafe imports. 

FEUILLEA, in Botany, named by Linneus in honour 
of Father Louis Feullée; fee Feuinits. Linn. Gen. 523. 
Schreb. 690. Jul 397. (Nhandiroba ; Plum. Gen. t. 27.) 


FEV 


Clafs and order, Divecia Fentandria. “Nat. Ord. Cucure 
bitacea ? Sul. S 

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped, 
rounded at thebafe, fpreading in the upper part, cut half way 
down into five fezments, Cor. of one petal, wheel-fhapeds 
limb cut half way down into five convex, rounded feg- 
ments; the centre clofed with a double ftar, whofe rays 
are alternately longer and fhorter, regarding the courfe of 
the fun. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped; anthers twa- 
lobed, roundifh. ‘There are five compreffed incurved fila- 
ments, ranged alternately with the {tamens. 

Female, Ca/. Perianth as in the male, but with the ger- 
men at its bafe. Cor. asin the male; the central ftar fur- 
nifhed with five heart-fhaped plates. Pi/?. Germen inferior; 
ityles five, thread-fhaped; ‘tigmas heart-fhaped. Peric. Berry 
every large, ovate, obtufe, flefhy, three-celled, with a woody 
coat, encompafled by the calyx. Seeds feveral, orbicular, 
compreffed, oblique. 

Ef. Ch. Male, Calyx five-cleft. Corolla five-cleft. 
Stamens five, with five alternate barren filaments. ’ 

Female, Cal. and Cor. as in the male. Styles three. 
Berry hard, three-celled. Seeds orbicular. 

Obf. The above charaéters, copied from Linnzus, ap- 
pear to have been taken by him entirely from Plumier’s 
figure, except that the defcription of the fruit was partly 
borrowed from Marcgrave. We have feen the feeds, fent 
from Jamaica by the name of Antidote Cocoon, which ap- 
pellation is mentioned in Browne’s Jamaica, p. 374.5 and as 
they agree with Plumier’s figure above quoted, we are fo 
far right as to the genus. 

With regard to the {pecies, whether one or two, they are 
to be known from Plumier and Marcgrave only, : 

1. F. cordifolia. Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 1013. Plum. Ic, 
t. 209. ‘ Leaves heart-fhaped, angular.” iNhandiroba 
fcandens, foliis hederaceis angulofis; Plum. Gen. 20.) 
Native of the Weft Indies, or South America. Stem 
climbing, furrowed. Leaves alternate, ftalked, heart- 
fhaped, acute, with three or five flight angles, entire, 
{mooth on both fides, reticulated with numerous veins, 
dark green above, rather paler beneath. S¥ipulas none. 
Tendrils axillary, folitary, fimple, about as long as the 
leaves. H/ower-/lalks axillary, either with refpeét to the 
leaves or the tendrils, compound, alternately branched, 
many-flowered. Our defcription is taken from: Plumier’s 
figure, aflifted by a leaf gathered by himielf. 

2. F. trilobata. Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 1014. Plum. Ie. 
t. 210. ‘ Leaves with three (or five) lobes.?? (Ghandi- 
roba, vel Nhandiroba Brafilienfibus; Maregr. Brafil. 46, cum 
ic. Sloane Jam. v. 1. 200.) Native of Brafil and Jamaica, 
in woods and hedges. This appears to differ from the 
former chiefly in-the form of its /aves, which are deeply 
three-lobed, the lateral lobes being moreover generally 
elongated at the bafe into two other fhorter more obtul 
lobes. In colour, texture, and habit, they appear, by an 
original fpecimen, to agree precifely withthe former. “The 
inflore/cence is fo different in Plumier’s, t. 210, that we ap- 
prehend fome miftake. It there confilts of a few folita 
flowers, from the bofoms of {mall leaves on a Jateral branch. 
Yet this is not altogether diffimilar to Marcerave’s figure. ~ 

Linneus feems tohave been led by Browne to unite the 


-two in Sp. Pl. ed. 2, by the name of J. /canders ; but he 
ragain feparated them in his Syft. Veg. He very errone- 


oufly confounded with the latter his own Trichofanthes 
pundata, Sp. Pl. 1432, as well -as the Trichofanthes of 
Browne’s Jamaica, 354, two plants as unlike each other as 
they are to either of the Feuillee. As great a miltake exifts 
in_his fon’s herbarium, where, under the name of F, 17#oba, 

4s 


a, 


REV 


is found the Modékka of Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 8. 39. 
t.20. This belongs to a genus hitherto not defined by 
fyftematic botanifts, though mentioned by Juflieu, for 
future confideration, under Pafifora. Linneus in his 
fecond Mantiffa, 336, ftrangely confounds it with Convol- 
vulus paniculatus. We have a fpecies or variety of 
Modékka {rom Sierra Leone, gathered and afcertained by 
Dr. Atzelius, which flowered in September 1793, in the 
flove of the late Lady Amelia Hume, where we gathered 
and fully defcribedit.. This very plant, which was a male, 
bore fome fimple heart-fhaped leaves, like thofe of O're/a- 
modékka, Hort.Malab. t. 23, with others that were varioufly 
lobed, moftly three-lobed, like t. 20. See alfot. 23. Such 
a variation, ina plant fo much allied in natural affinity to 
Freuillea, may jultifythe union of its two fuppofed fpecies 
into one. S. ' 

EFEUILLE'E, Lous, in Biography, a Francifcan friar, 
of the order of minims, celebrated as a botanift and natural 
philofopher, was born at Mane in Provence, in 1¢6c. He 
travelled to the weftern coail of South America, invettigat- 
ing the natural produétions of New Spain and the neigh- 
bouring iflands, from the year 1707 to 1712. He had 
previoufly vifited Carthagena, and the ifland of Martinico, 
in 1703 and 1704.. Thefe, with feveral other voyages, the 
number and courle of which are not exattly recorded, 
he accomplifhed under the patronage of Louis XIV. by 
whom he was penfioned and greatly encouraged. The 
king caufed an cbfervatory to be built for him at Marfeilles, 
in which town Feuillée, worn out with his labours, died in 
1732, aged 72. He is faid to have been of that modett 
frmple character, which belt becomes an ecclefiaftic anda 
true philofopher. Neverthelefs, he was excited to a con- 
fiderable deoree of refentment againft Monficur Frezier, a 
rival phil fopher and naturalift, fent out likewife by Louis 
XIV., whom he criticifes at fome length, in a rather con- 
temptuous ftyle, in the preface to the Journal of one of his 
voyages. 

Feuillée publifhed “ Journal des Obfervations phy fiques, 
mathematiques, & botaniques, faites par Vordre du Roi, 
fur les cétes oricntales (occidentales)° de Amerique meri- 
dionale, & dans les Indes occidentales, depuis l’année 1707 
jafqnes en 1712,” Paris: 1714, in two vols 4to. with nu- 
merous plates. This is a circumftantial and exa& work, 
written with no elegance of ftyle, but valuable for folid 
information upon all the fubjects announced in its title, with 
Various incidental matter befides. What relates to Peru 
makes a principal part of thefe volumes. The defcriptions 
of plants occupy 62 pages at the end of the fecond, accom- 
panied by 50 very tolerable plates, in which Linneus con- 
fided for his definitions of feveral fpecies, without feeing 
fpecimens, a meafure he rarely adopted. But it does not 
appear that Feuillée was one of thofe writers who, having 
heen found to have mifled him, caufed him, in the preface 
to his Species Plantarum, to declare againit that practice in 
future, ** non vifas plantas heic omifi, toties elufus ab 
auctoribus.”? The repnted medical virtues of the plants 
met with laudable attention from Feuillce, and are always 
added to his botanical defcriptions. Haller remarks that 
he firft eftablifhed the genus Lpipadis in this work, and he 
certainly deferibes fome fpecies {till unknown to us, not 
only of that genus, but feveral others. (See Errpacris.) 
The niagnificent FYori-pondio (Datura arborea) was here 
firlk made known to botanitts. 

He publithed another quarto volume, with a fimilar title, 
in.1725, in the preface to which he cenfures Frezier, as 
above-mentioned. The appendix, of 71 pages, with 50 
plates; defcribes many extremely interefting plants of Chili, 


PEL 


among which are the firft defcribed Calceoluriz, the Sweet 
Potatoe, Convolvulus Batatas, whofe flower is fearcely 
known but from this figure, the Buddlea globofa, now fo 
common, as well as the equally common, but tranfcendently 
elegant, Puchfia coccinea. 

Thefe 100 botanical plates were, according to Haller, 
republifhed at Nuremberg in 1756 and 1757, in two vols 
4to., with a German tranflation of their defcriptions. 

The original drawings of Feuillée, many of which were 
never publifhed, remain in the Bibliothéque Nationale at 
Paris. ‘They are very rudely coloured, end without any 
pretenfions to the fkill of a painter. Whatever merit of 
that kind, flight as it is, can be difcerned in his plates, is 
entirely owing to the engraver. S. 

Feuixce'e, La, in Geography, atown of France, in 
the department of the Lower Seine; eight miles W. of 
Gournay. 

FEULEN, a town of Germany, in the principality of 
Culmbach ; fix miles S.E. of Culmbach. 

FEUQUIERES, Anruony vet Pas, Marguis of, in 
Biography, was defcended from a family diftinguifhed in 
arms, and born in 1648. He, following the fteps of his 
anceftors, became noted for aéts of heroifm and military 
prowefs. His condué& in the campaign in Germany, in 
1688, obtained for him the rank of marechal-de-camp. For 
the part which he took in feveral a€tions in Piedmont, he 
rofe, in 1693, to the rank of lieutenant-general. This was 
the higheft promotion he obtained ;-and he felt moit feverely 
the flight put on him, as he thought, in paffing himover when 
others were appointed marfhals of France. He became the 
euemy of all contemporary commanders, whofe conduct was 
rigidly ferutinized by Feuquieres. He difcovered, and 
enumerated, twelve capital blunders which the French gene- 
rals had committed at Blenheim. He publifhed the refuit 
of his enquiries and criticifms on the generals employed by 
Lewis XIV., ina work entitled ** Memoirs.”? This vos 
lume has a good reputation for clearnefs of ftyle ; for the 
freedom of its reprefentations, and for the depth and faga- 
city of itsremarks. He died in 1711, having a few hours 
before his death written a letter to the king, in which, with 
great feeling, he recommended to his majefty’s faveur his 
only fon, a3 innocent of what had made him unfortunate, 
and born of a race which had always faithfully ferved their 
king. Gen. Biog. 

Feuguielres, in Geography, a town of France, 
in the department of the Oife; eight miles W. of Gran- 
villiers. ’ 

FEURBON, Justus, in Biography, who fiourifhed in 
the 17th century, was brought up to-the profeffion of the 
law, which he foon relinguiihed for the ftudy of theology 
and the belles lettres. He obtained feveral retpeftable fitu- 
ations, till at length, on the death of Helvicus, in 1617, he 
was made profeflor of divinity at Gieffen, of which town he 
was already the paftor of the church. In 1649 he was 
nominated preacher to the court by the Landgrave George ; 
and in the following year he received {till higher preferment 
at Gieffen. Afterthis, his high reputation obtained for him 
invitations from other places, but he preferred {pending the 
remainder of his days at Gieflen, where he died in the year 
1656. He was author of many theological works which are 
enumerated by Moreri and others. 

FEVRE, Goy ve, was born, in 1541, at the family feat 
of La Boderie, in Lower Normandy, whence he obtained the 
title of “ Sieur de la Boderie.” It has been fuppofed, from 
the bent of his ftudies, that he was intended for the ecclefi- 
a{tical profeflion. He was a diligent ftudent in the oriental 
Janguages, and had, in after life, a large fhare in the cempo- 

Tien 


FVEAV 


fition of the Polyglott of Antwerp, of which Arias Mon- 
tanus was the chief direétor. We complains that neither 
himfelf, nor his brother Nicholas, who had likewitfe a fhare 
in the fame work, was properly remunerated fortheir labour. 
On his return to France he was made fecretary and 
linguift to the duke of Alengon, who was likewife deticient 
in the principle of gratitude. He died on his eftate at La 
Boderie in 1598, leaving behind him various works relative 
to the Syriac, Chaldaic, and other oriental languages. He 
tranflated a treatife on baptifm, written by Severus, patri- 
arch of Alexandria; and wrote fome poetical pieces, by 
which he acquired confiderable reputation among his con- 
temporaries. His brother Anthony, born about 1555, was 
fome time Charge des affairs for Henry IV. at the court of 
Rome, and afterwards ambaflador extraordinary in England ; 
and when he left this country. he received fingular marks of 
friendfhip from king James and feveral of the nobility. An 
account of his negociations, in letters written by him to the 
minifters, and their replies, were publifhed in 5 vols. 12mo. 
amder the. title of « Ambaflades de M. de la Boderie en 
Angleterre fous le Regne de Henry IV. et la minorité de 
Louis XIIT.”? More. 

Frevre, or Fasrt, James pe, who flourifhed in the 
16th and 17th centuries, was born at Etaples. ewas of 
low extraction, but pollefled vigorous mental powers, 
which he improved by a diligent application to the different 
branches of ufeful and ornamental learning. He purfued 
his ftudics in the univerdity of Paris, where he afterwards 
took the degree of doctor, and delivered le€tures to nume- 
rous pupils in the belles lettres and philofophy. The fyf- 
tem which he taught, or rather his oppofition to old and 
long eftablithed theories, expofed him to the jealoufy of ig- 
narant zealots, by whom he was accufed of being friendly 
to Lutheranifm. He was obliged to leave Paris, and, on the 
invitation of William Briconnet, bifhop of Meaux, he took 
sefuge in the family of that worthy ecclefialtic, who was 
obliged, in a fhort time, for the fake of his own peace, and 
that of his family, to withdraw the proteétion of which Fevre 
fo much {tood in need. He was now abandoned to the wide 
world, and firft went to Blois, thence toGuieune, about which 
time he was degraded from the doétor’s degree, by the 
faculty of the Sorbonne. Not content with this, his enemies 
induced the parliament of Paris to order a procefs to be 
carried on againft him; from the effeéts of which he was 
timely delivered by an order from the fovereign Francis I., 
who forbade them to come to any refolution againft Le 
Fevre without his injunction. Margaret, filter to the 
king, and herfelf queen of Navarre, took the perfecuted 
man under her proteétion, and honoured him with her 
confidence and efteem during the remainder of his life. _ By 
her authority he went to Strafburg to confer with Bucer 
and Capito, refpe€ting a reformation in the church ; it does 
not, however, appear that he was prepared to go far into the 
bufinefs of reform.. He continued, by profeffion at leatt, 
attached to the church of Rome till his death in 1537. But 
towards the clofe of life he felt uneafinefs at not having 
been more bold in the caufe of truth. While at dinner with 
his patronefs, the queen of Navarre, and in a company of 
Jearned men, he was obferved, in the mid{t of the entertain- 
ment, to burftinto tears, and, in explanation, he declared that 
his confcience accufed him of being highly criminal, in 
having known the truth, and taught it to others, who had 
fealed it with their blood, aud yet thrunk from his duty in 
vowing it, and timidly taken refuge in a place of fecurity, 
far from the fcenes where the crowns of martyrdom were 
diftributed. The queen endeavoured to confole him, but 
probably without much effect ; he felt that he had not 


FEV 


done all that he might and ought to have done, and was 
come to that point of time in which felf-deception could no 
longer avail, ‘This declaration feemed to give eafe to his 
labouring mind ; he made fome arrangements with regard to 
his property, and almoft immediately expired. Le Fevre 
publifhed various works that difplay much folid erudition, 
and great critical fill; and if the opinion of Simon be of 
weight, he is to be ranked with the beft commentators of his 
age. Fis tranflation of the New Teftament into French is 
highly efteemed, and is now very fearce. Je Fevre once 
involved himfclf ina conteft with Erafmus, by treating his 
notes on the New Teftament with undue feverity, and even 
charging the author with mtentionally corrupting the ferip- 
tures, and advancing impieties. Erafmus vindicated his 
conduét in the mott fatisfa€tory manner, and freely forgave 
his antagonift, affuring him that he fhould, notwithftanding 
what had happened, continue to refpeét him. . Such liberal 
conduét on the part of Erafmus produced the happieft 
effect on Le Fevre, who fincerely repented of his having 
attacked Erafmus; and “ they continued,’ fays the learned 
and candid Jortin, “to {peak of each other with great re- 
{pect and efleem ;” hence, he infers, that “it would be 
happy if wrangling geniufes would. copy from their 
example, and confider a little how all men of fenfe and man- 
ners applaud fuch moderation, and how they abhor and de- 
{pife thofe, who having begun to quarrel, perhaps upon 
mere baubles, never end their contefts and animofities, tilt 
death comes and puts them to filence.” Bayle, Moreri. 
Jortin. 
Feyre, Tannecui Le, was born at Caen in the year 
16 5: He received a private education, and then finifhed 
his {tudies at the college of La Fleche, where he diftinguifhed 
himfelf. At Paris he obtained the patronage of cardinal 
Richlien, who procured him a penfion of 2000 livres, as in- 
{fpetor of the works printed at the Louvre. At the death 
of Richlieu he went to Langres, where he avowed himfelf a 
Proteftant, and was invited to Saumur to the profefforfhip of 
clafflical literature. His mode of inftrution was fo excellent 
that he had pupils from all parts. Voltaire, in fpeaking of 
him, afferts, that he defpifed thofe of his feét, and lived 
among them more as a philofopher than a huguenot. He 
died in 1672, as he was preparing to quit Saumur for 
Heidelberg, whither he had been invited by the prince 
palatine. His works were tranflations of, and comments on, 
Greek and Latin authors; he publifhed two volumes of 
« Letters,’”? and Greek and Latin poems. He wrote Latin 
elegantly, though not without fome Gallicifms. He was 
a man of ftriét probity and integrity, of which he 'gave 
proof by dedicating a work to Peliffon while a ftate pri- 
foner. Moreri. ’ 
Fevre, Craupe Le,apainter, a native of France, horn 
in 1633. He principally painted portraits, but he like- 
wife attempted flowers, and even hiftorical fubje&s, but 
not with fo great fuccefs. He came to London, where he 
met with much encouragement for feveral years, and there 
he died in 1675. ° Lagi 
FEURS, Forum Secustanorum, in Geogra Ay, a 
town of France, in the department of the Loire, and chief 
place of acanton in the diltri& of Montbrifon ; 25 miles W. 
of Lyons. The place contains 1,796, and the canton 14,016 
inhabitants, on a territory of 250 kiliometres, in 18 com- 
munes. About a league from this town, at the foot of a 
ay called Dinzy, isa mineral {pring, of a fulphureous qua- 
ity. : 
FEUTSKING, Joun Henry, in Biography, was 
born in the duchy of Holftein in the year 1672. Having 
acquired a good {lock of elementary knowledge, he went te 
Roftock 


Rey 
Roftock to ftudy philofophy and theology, and from 


thence he removed to Wittemberg, where he was created 
doéor in philofophy, in the year 1692. Here he acquired 
much reputation, and was appointed paftor and fuperintend- 
ant of the diocefe of Jeffen in the year 1697. In the fol- 
Jowing year he was admitted to the degree of doétor in di- 
vinity. He obtained feveral offices, and at length became 
paitor of the church of St. Bartholomew at Zerbit, preacher 
to the court, confeffor and ecclefiaftical counfellor, and fu- 
perintendant of the diocefe of Zerbit, in Anhalt, by the 
prince of that name. In the year 1709 he undertook the 
offices of profeffor of divinity, and afleffor of the ecclefiatti- 
cal confiftory of that city. At the fame time he preached 
once a week before the electrefs of Saxony, and was 
honoured with the poft of ecclefiaftical counfellor to the 
duke of Saxe-Gotha. His laft appointment was that of con- 
feffor to the eleGtrefs of Saxony, in 1712, an office that he 
enjoyed but a few months, as he died in 1713, when only 
41 yearsof age. His works, which are very numerous, are 
chiefly on theological fubjeéts. "They are enumerated by 
Moreri, who may be referred to by the curious. 

FEWEL. See Fueu. 

FEWMET. See Fumer. 

FEWS, in Geography, a barony of the county of Ar- 
magh, Ireland, with a village of the fame name. The 
fouth and weft parts of this barony are full of mountains. 
The foil of thefe mountains is much inclined to grafs, which 
as lefs coarfe than that ufually met with on mountain ground, 
fo that the cattle have always full pafture, except in time of 
continued fnow. The grafs-farms are large and exteniive ; 
-and there is alfo much tillage in this.diftri@. The Fews 
abound with whins or gorfe (ulex Europeus), ferns, and 
‘thofe plants which flourifh ina warm foil. There is no 
limeftone in the diftriG, but either a brittle and decayed free- 
ftone with a ferruginous tinge, or a hard {tone found in large 
blocks, which is called whinftone, but which differs from 
other ftones called by thatname. Cooite’s Armagh. 

FEY, in Rural Economy, is aterm which fignifes the 
winnowing or cleaning of grain by means of the natural 
wind. It likewife fignifies the bed or ftratum of earthy ma- 
terials by which chalk, marle, and other fimilar fubftances 
are covered, and which muft be removed before the workmen 
an come at them. This fort of labour is confequently 
termed feying, aud is ufually paid for by meafure, accord- 
ing to the difference indepth. In both chalk and marle pits 
they are confidered the more valuable the lefsithe fey. 

Fey is alfo in fome diftritts applied to the cleaning and 
digging out of ponds and wells. 

FEYDANY, in Geography, a town of Samogitia ; 16 
miles 5.S.W. of Miedniki. 

FEYDEAU, Marruew, in Biography, was born at 
Paris inthe year 1616. He purfued his tludies in the col- 
lege of the Sorbonne, and fo conducted himfelf in that place 
as to obtain the efteem of perfons of all ranks. In the year 
1645, he wasengaged by M.de Bellegarde, archbifhop. of 
Sens, to deliver a courfe of inftructions to the candidates for 
holy orders in his diocefe. He obtained fome preferment 
in thechurch, and compofed feveral ufeful books, among 
which was one entitled “ A Catechifm on Grace,’? which 
was afterwards reprinted with the title of « Tlluftrations of 
certain Difficulties refpeGting Grace.”? This work was con- 
demned by a decree of the inquifition at Rome, which M. 
Fougqnet, attorney-general of the parliament at Paris, would 
not permit to be promulgated in that city, In 1656, M. Fey- 
deau was one of the feventy-two doctors who wereexpelled by 
the faculty of the Sorbonne, for refufing to fubferibe to the 
.condemnation of M, Arnauld, and on this account he was 

Vou, XIV. 


FE Z 


obliged to relinquifh his church preferment. After this, for 
feveral years, he lived chiefly in retirement, and produced 
his * Refleétions on the Hiftory and Harmony of the Gof- 
pels,” in 2 vols. 12mo.; a work which has gone through 
feveral editions. In 1665, he was prefented by the bifhop 
of Aleth with aprebend in his diocefe ; this he reficned 
in 1668, in order to undertake the cure of Vitrile Frangdis, 
in Champagne. Here he officiated feven years, and was 
then obliged to give up his charge in coniequence of the 
perfecutions-with which-his party was harafled. He was 
banifhed by a lettre de cachet to Bourges in 1677: and by 
another procefs he was fent to Annonai in the Vivares, 
where he died in July 1694, in the 79th year of his age. 
He publifhed many works, and left behind him maay others 
that have not yet appeared. A long Latin epitaph was en- 
graved on histomb, whichis preferved by Moreri. 

FEY-HIANG, in Geography, a town of China, of the 
third rank, in Pe-tchéli; 12 miles S.E. of Quang-ping. 

FEYJOO, Benepict Jerom, in Biography, a \earned 
phyfician of the order of St. Benedi&, born in Spain, who 
died in the year 1765. By his writings many have thought 
that he contributed as much towards curing the mental dif- 
eafes of his compatriots, and reforming the vitiated tafte of 
his countrymen, by introducing liberal notions in medicine 
and philofophy ; as the great Michel Cervantes had done thofe 
of a preceding age, by writing his immortal work, the in- 
comparable hiftory of Don Quixotte. In the Teatro Criti- 
tico, publifhed in fourteen volumes, are many fevere and 
cutting refletions againft the ignorance of the monks, the 
licentioufnefs of the clergy, ridiculous privileges, abufe of 
pilgrimages, exorcifms, pretended miracles, &c. &c. 3; by 
which he made a formidable hoft of enemies. The confef- 
for of truth, he would certainly have been alfo a martyr, 
had the numerous calls of vengeance been liftened to by thofe 
in power. In a fuperflitious country like Spain, it was 
fufficient only to have praifed fuch men as a Bacon, a Def- 
cartes, a Newton, &c. to incur the charge of herefy. 
learned part of the nation, however, undertcok his defence, 
and he efcaped the grafp of the inquifition, And although 
in his writings he has demonftrated the uncertainty of the 
healing art, and the charlatancy of many among irs practi- 
tioners ; yet the medical college at Seville conferred on him 
the degree of doctor, and honoured him witha feat at their 
board. Mr. Bourgoing obferves, that Dr. Feyjoo,.or Fe 1}005 
was one of thofe writers who. treated.this conjectural art in 
the moit rational manner... Tableau de l’ Efpagne. 

FEYOE’, in Geography, a {mall ifland of Denmark, a 
little to the north of Laaland. N. lat..54° 57’. E. long. 
et P25 

FEYREGG, a town of Auttria ; 8 miles W.S.W. of 
Steyr. 

FEYSTRIZ, atown of Auftria; 15 miles S.S.W. of 
Ebinfurth. 

FEZ, a province of the empire of Morocco, in Africa, 
fituated to the north ef Tedlaand Shavoya, and having to 
the weit the provinces of Benihaffen and Garb, and mount 
Atlas to the eaft, and ftretching to the north as far as the 
provinces of Shaus, Rif, and Garet. This was formerly a 
kingdom of very great extent, and itill its dependencies are 
numerous and extentive, including feveral mountains, abound- 
ing in inhabitants, and weil cultivated. According te Jack- 
fon, the diftri& of Fez, exclufive of the cities or towns, 
contains 1,280,000 inhabitants. The kingdom of Fez 
has. been united to Morocco, fiuce it firit became aa 
independent fovereignty in the 13th century. Although a 
confiderable part of this country lies walte, and a traét to 
the weit of Olé Fez ahounds with marthes, which render the 


3 B air 


The 


FEZ 

ai unwholefome, and the people unhealthy ; the foil is elfe- 
where fertile, and produces, in the greateft abundance, corn, 
fruit, flax, falt, gum, wax, &c. and alfo oranges, lemons, 
figs, and olives. The mountains abound with game, and the 
forefts with wild beafts. The lions of Fez are the moft dar- 
ing and:f{avage of any in Africa; horfes, camels, kine, 
fhvep, goats, and hares, are very numerous, | The princi- 
al exports from this province are hides and leather of all 
Pitas particularly that denominated Morocco, fins, furs, 
wool, dates, almonds, figs, raifins, olives,,honey, wax, 
filk, cotton, flax, horfes, oftrich-feathers, gold-duit, &c. 
The imports chiefly confift in {picery, cochineal, vermilion, 
iron, brafs, {teel, wire, arms, ammunition, drugs, watches, 
{mall looking-glaffes, quickfilver, tartar, opium, alum, 
aloes, ;Englifh and other linen and woollen cloths, muflins, 
calicoes, fuftians, gold wire, filk of all kinds, brocades, 
damafks, velvets, and woollen caps, toys and trinkets of 
all forts, Guinea cowries, combs, paper, and a great variety 

of earthen ware. f 
Fez, a city of Africa, and capital of the province of 
that name, was built, about the end of the eighth century, 
-by Edris, the defcendant of Mahomet and Ali, whole 
father, flying from Medina to avoid the proferiptions of the 
caliph Abdallah, retired to the, extremity of Africa, and 
was proclaimed foyereigi of the Moors. Sidy Edris, fuc- 
ceeding to the crown of his father, founded the city of Fez, 
in 793, and built the mofque in which he is buried, From 
that time the city of Fez has been confidered by the Moors 
asa facred afylum, and an objeét of devotion, In the firlt 
moments of that zeal which every veligious novelty infpires, 
a {till larger mofque was built at Fez, and called ‘* Carubin,” 
becaufe it was founded by the Arabs of Cairoan. This is 
one of the fineft edifices in the whole empire. , Many other 
mofques were fucceflively built at Fez, to which were an- 
nexed, according to the cuitom of the Mahometans,, col- 
leges and hofpitals ; and this city was held in fo high a degree 
of veneration, that when the pilgrimage to Mecca was 
interrupted, in the fourth ceatury of the Hegira, the 
weftern Mahometans, as a fubftitute, repaired to Fez, while 
the ealtern journeyed to Jerufalem. When the Arabs had 
extended themfelves in Afia, Africa, and Europe, they 
brought to Fez the knowledge they had acquired in the 
arts and fciences ; and, to its religious fchools, this capital 
added academies for philofophy, phyfic, and aitronomy. 
Fez, reforted to from almof all Africa, and the object of 
the devout pilgrimages of the Mahometans, foon became the 
rendezvous of the neighbouring provinces. The increafe 
of wealth produced the love of pleafure, and every {pecies 
of luxury; licentioufnefs quickly followed ; and -as its 
‘progrefs in hot countries is always mott rapid, Fez; the 
{chool of {ciences and manners, foon became the fink of 
every vice. ‘The public baths, which health, cleanlinefs, 
and cuftom rendered neceflary, became the receptacles of 
the moft infamous debauchery, The, Mahometans of An- 
dalufia, Grenada, and Cordova, during the revolutions of 
Spain, pafled over to Fez, whither they brought. new 
manners, knowledge, and, perhaps, fome degrees of 
civilization.. They taught the Spanifh method of dreff- 
ing and dyeing red aud yellow goat,and fheep {kins, * thea 
called Cordova leather, now Morocco, from the city of 
that name, where, however, the dye is leaft in perfection. 
At Fez, likewife, ;they, eltablifhed the manufaéture of 
milled, woollen caps, worn by the; Moers and _eattern 
nations. Gauzes, filks, ftuffs, and beautiful fafhes, wrought 
in gold and filver, are manufactured at lez ; and the little 
they do proves how much might be done, if induftry were, 
encouraged,.. Some love of learning ,is fhill preferyed at, 


FEZ 


Fez, where Arabic is better fpoken than in the other parts 
of the empire. The rich Moors fend their children to the 
{chools at Fez, where they gain more inftruétion than they 
could do elfewhere. 


The city ef Fez contains fome tolerably convenient inns 5” 


the ftreets are ill-paved, and fo narrow that in many places 
two horfemen cannot ride abreait. Fez, though in times 
pait it attraéted the attention of travellers, is in no refpeé& 
preferable to the other cities of the empire, except by its 
fituation, {chools, induttry, and fomewhat greater urbanity 5 
yet, though more polifhed than their countrymen, the Moors 
of Fez are vain, {uperltitious, and intolerant. The faints, 
whom they pretend to have buried in that city, furnifh a 
pretext for prohibiting Jews and Chriftians to enter it; and, 
an order from the emperor is neceflary to gain admiffion. 
The local fituation of Fez is fomewhat fingular. It is feated 
at the bottom of a valley, and furrounded by hills in the 

form of a funnel, flattened at the narrow end. The uppe 
part.of the yalley is divided into gardens, planted with high 
trees, orange groves, and orchards. A river, called Ra- 
falema, ani along the valley, waterig it in various) direc- 
tious, turning by its ftreams a number of mills, and fupply- 
ing water in abundance to all the gardens and moft of the 
houfes., On the height of Old Fez is a plain capable of 
great cultivation. Jacob-Ben-Abdallah, of the race of Beni- 
Merins, built, in the 13th century, New Fez, :contigyous to 
the Old, and, by its fituation, keepiag the latter myavwe, 
The high town, which is faiubrioufly fituated, contains: 
fome old palaces, in which the fons of the,emperor liye. 
The new town is inhabited by fome Moorifh, families, but, 
by a greater number of Jews, who trade with Old Fez, not- 
withitanding the contempt with which they are treated by 
the inhabitants; their gains, however, reconcile them to 
this contempt. Fez is about 200. miles) N.N.E, of 
Morocco. Fez is faid to have about 3000 inhabitants. N. 
lat, 33° 50!. W.. long. 5° 20’. ‘Chenier’s Morocco, vol. i.) ; 
TFEZZAN, a country of Africa, fituated to the fouth 
of Tripoli, and 60 journies welt of Cairo, Me. Horneman, 
a late traveller, fent out at the expence o African, 
aflociation, informs us, that the greateft lengt the cul- 
tivated part of this country is about 300 Englith miles from, 
north te fouth, and the greateft width 200 miles from eaft 
to welt; but the mountainous region of Harutfch, to the 
ealt and other deferts to the fouth and weft are reckoned 
within its territory. The borderers on the north are Avabs, 
nominally dependent on Tripoli. , y 
bounded by the Harutfch and line of deferts ; to the fouth 
and fouth-eaft is the country of the Tibboos, to the fouths 
welt that ef the nomadic Tuaricks; on the weft are Arabs. 
The kingdom contains 101 towns, and villagesy, of which, 
Mourzouk is the capital. Che principal towns next in 
order to the imperial refidence are Sockna, Sebba, Huns, 
Wadon to the north, Gatron (or Kattrou) to the fouth,: 
Yerma (or Jerma) to the weft, and Zucla to the eaft., 
The climate is at no feafon temperate or agreeable. . During 
the fummer the heat is intesfe, and when the wind, blows 
from the fouth is fearcely {upportable, even by the natives.; 
The winter might be moderate, were it not for the preva~: 
Tence of a bleak and penetrating north wind during that. 
feafon of the year, and which,chilled and drove to the fire, 
not unly the people of the place, but even myfelf, the native, 
of a northern country. It rains at Fezzan {feldom, and. 
then but little. in quantity. In, January 1799, there were 
fome faint lightnings without thuader. Tempetts of wind, 
are frequent both from the north and fouth. There is no, 
river or even rivulet deferving notice, throughout the ve 
country. ‘The toil is a deep fand covering calcareous rock 
or 


a 


Fezzan, to the ealt, is. 


FEZ : 
er earth, fofmetimes a ftratum of argillaceous fubftance. 
Dates may be termed the natural and ftaple produce of 
Fezzan. In the weltern parts fome fenna is grown, of a 
quality fuperior to that imported from the country of the 
Tibboos. Pot-herbs and garden vegetables are plentiful. 
Wheat and barley are fuited to the foil and climate ; but, 
from inexperience, or want of fkill, and from the indolence 
of the people and oppreffions of government, corn is not 
raifed fuflicient for the inhabitants, and they rely for fubfitt- 
ence on importation from countries bordering on the north. 
Very little attention is beftowed in rearing beafts: horned 
cattle are to be found only in the moft fertile diltriéts, and 
even there few in number; they are employed in drawing 
water from the wells, and flaughtered only in cafes of ex- 
treme neceflity. The ordinary domettic animal is the goat. 
Sheep are bred in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, but 
the general fupply is furnithed by the bordermg Arabs. 
‘The wool is manufactured into abbes, or coarfe woollen 
cloths, the general clothing throughout the country ; with 
the meat the {kins are roafted while frefh, andeaten. The 
horfes are few: alles are the beafts of general ufe, whether 
for burthen, draught, or carriage. Camels are exceflively 
dear, and kept only: by the chief people, or richer merchants. 
All thefe animals are fed with dates, or date kernels. The 
commerce of Fezzan is conliderable, but confifts merely of 
foreign merchandize.. From O@ober to Vebruary Mour- 
zouk is the great market and place of refert for various 
-earavans from Cairo, Bengali, Gadames, Twat, and Sou- 
dan; and for other imallcer troops ef traders, Tibboos, 
Tuaricks, and Arabs. “Phe caravans from the fouth bring 
flayes of both fexes, oftrich feathers, zibette, tiger fkins, 
and gold... From Bornou copper is imported in great quan- 
tities. Cairo lends lilks, melayes, ({triped blue and white 
calicoes,) woollen cloths, glafs, imitations of coral, beads 
for bracelets, and Eaft-India goods. ‘The merchants of 
Bengafi, who ufually join the caravan from Cairo at Au- 
gela, import tobacco, fouff, and fundry wares fabricated in 
‘Turkey. The caravan from Tripoli chiefly deals in paper, 
falfe corals, fire-arms, fabres, knives, cloths called abbes, 
and red worlted caps. . Thole trading from Gadames bring 
nearly the fame articles. The {maller caravans of Tuaricks 
and Arabs import butter, oil, falt, and corn; and thofe 
coming from the more fouthern diftriéts bring fenna, oftrich 
feathers, and camels for the flaughter houte. _Fezzan is 
governed, by a fultan, defeended from the family of the 
Shereefs.. "The tradition is, that the anceftors of the reign- 
ing prince coming from weltern Africa, invaded and con- 
quered Fezzan about 500 yeavs paft. The fultan reigns 
over his dominions with unlimited power; but he ho'ds 
them tributary to the bafhaw of Tripoli. The amount of 
the tribute was formerly 6000 dollars; it is now reduced to 
4000, aud an officer of the bafhaw comes‘annually to Mour- 
zouk to receive this fum, or its value, in gold, fenna, or 
flaves. On his journey she takes travelling merchants under 
his protection. The throne is hereditary in the eldeit 
prince of the royal family, whether nephev? or fon, The 
revenues are produced from a tax on gardens and cultivated 
- Jands, fines and requifitions, with a further income from 
duties on foreign trade; from domains of the clown, falt 
pools, natron lakes, &c. ~The public expenditure confills 
in the’ maintenance of the fultan, his court, and palace. 
The:cadiyand department of juitice, the religious, and the 
reat officers of government, are fupported from the pro- 
Sige ‘of date tree woods, and gardens fet apart for ‘that 
purpofe, The dignity of cadi or judge, who is alfo chief 
of the clergy, is hereditary in a certain family. The po- 
pulation of Fezzan is loofely eftimated at 70,000 or 5,000, 


* 


‘account for the abjeG ftate of the inhabitants. 


FIA 


all of whom, without exception, profefs the Mahometaf# 
religion. The colour or complexion of the people varies ; 
thole of the northern parts have a complexion and features 
fimilar to thofe of the Arabs. In the fouthern diftri@s 
they have mixed with the natives of the great nations 
bordering on that quarter, and bear a refemblance to the 
Tibboos and the Tuaricks. ‘The genuine and indigenous 
race of Vezzaners may be defcribed as a people of but 
ordinary ftature, and their limbs by no means mufcular or 
ftrong ; their colour a deep brown, their hair black and 
fhort, their form of face fuch as in Europe we fhould term 
regular, and their nofe lefs flattened than that of the negro. 
Their mien, wabk, and every gefture, denote a want of 
energy either of mind or body. The tyrannic government, 
the general poverty of the country, and their only food 
confilting of dates, or a kind of farinaceous pap, with no 
meat, and rarely with a little rancid oil or fat, fufficiently.,» 
Through 
out Mourzouk Mr. H. could not find one artificer fkilful in 
any trade or work; indeed there are no other tradefmen but 
fhoemakersand {miths. The latter work every meta! with- 
out diftinétion ; and the fame man who forges fhoes for the 
fultan’s horfe, makes rings for his princefles. The women 
fabricate woollen cloths folely by hand, as the weaver’s 
fhuttle is unknown, The dreis confilts of a fhirt or frock, 
made of coarfe linen or cotton cloth} brought from Cairo, 
and the abbe. The middling clafles wear frocks made in 
Soudan of dyed biue cloth. ‘The richer pgople, and the 
Mamelukes of the fultan, are clothed in the Tripolitan 
habit, over which they wear a Soudan fhirt of variegated 
pattern and colours, and likewife theabbe. The ornaments 
are chiefly confined to the head drefs, and rings on the 
arms and legs. ‘The women are foad of dancing, and are 
wanton in their manners. The men aré much addi&ed to 
drunkennefs. Their beverage is the frefh juice of the date 
tree, called lugibi, or a drink called bufa, prepared likewife 
from dates. ‘The houfes are miferably conitruéted with 
ftones,or bricks of a calcareous earth mixed with clay, and 
dried in the fun. They are low, and the light enters by 
the door only. As to diet, fays Mr. Horneman, I never 
knew a more abitemious eople than thofe of Fezzan. 
Meat indeed is a food they can at no time abitain from, 
when fet before them; but meat is not an article of food 
with the people in general. To indicate a rich man at 
Mourzouk, the ufual expreflion is, * that he eats bread and 
meat every day.” 

FEZZARA,. a town of Egypt, on the W. branch of 
the Nile ; 13 miles S. S.E. of Rofetta. 

FI, a fyllable in French folmifation, with which fome 
mulicians exprefs PX, ma, bb. See SormisaTion. 

FIACONE, in Geography, a town of Genoa, on the 
confines of the Milanefe, between Genoa and Tortona. > 

FIALLSIO, a town of Sweden, in the province of 
Angermannland ; 83 4miles N. N. W. of Hernofand. 

FLIANO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra: nine 
miles S. of Teramo.— Alo, a town of Italy, on the Tiber; 
15 miles N. of Rome. 

FIANONA, a feaport town of Iftria, with a good 
harbour; 36 miles S. E. of Triefte. N. lat. 45° 49. E. 
long. 14° 18'. 

FIANTS, or Fuants, the dung of a badger, fox, and 
other vermin. f 

FIAR, in Rural Economy, a term applied, in the north- 
ern parts of the kingdom, to certain averaged returns of 
the prices of different forts of grain, &c. In Eatt Lo- 
thian, according to the agricultural furvey of that diftri@y 
from time immemorial, it has been the practice of it and 

3B2 fome 


el AR. 


fome others to fix, by public authority, fiar or average prices 
of each kind of grain fold within the county for ready 
money. In it the average is taken only of wheat, barley, 
oats, and peas, as thefe were formerly the ftaple produce 
of the country; but though at prefent a large quantity of 
beans are grown, no fiar prices of them have ever been 
ftruck. In performing the bufinefs, the fheriff of the 
county, who ftrikes the fiars, calls before him, fome time in 
the lait week in February, or firft week in March, anum- 
ber of refpeétable tenants, and other perfons who deal in 
corn; when he requires of them an account of the quantity 
and price of the grain bought or fold within the county, for 
yeady money, from the time that the preceding crop came 
firft into the market, until the dayof the proof. Having 
procured an account of this, he ftrikes a general average 
for each of the four fpecies of corn; he then finds the 
number of bolls that have brought a price above that ave- 
rage, of thefe he likewife takes an average 5 and he pro- 
ceeds in the fame manner with what has been fold below 
the general average. To each of thefe rates he adds two 
and a half per cent., and they then form what are called 
the firft, fecond, and third fiars. ‘Che addition of two 
anda half per cent. to the real prices mult appear a fin- 
gularity to {lrangers, who may not ealily perceive either 
the object or propriety of it. It is explained in the fol- 
lowing ingenious and feemingly juft manner. Upon look- 
ing into the extract from the fecond of the fiars it will be 
found, that from the year 1627 down to 1647, the fiars 
were {truck only once in the year, and as the record is 
filent as to the date for the firft thirteen years, it is im- 
poffible now to fay at what period of the year thefe fiars 
were ftruck; but in the year 1648 the record fhews that fiars 
were {truck twice for that year, namely, at Candlemas and 
Lammas. In the following year, 1649, the fiars were ftruck 
only once; but in the year 1650, and for every year down 
to 1675 inclufive, with the exception of the year 1665, the 
fiars were {truck twice, namely, at Candlemas and Lammas ; 
but in the year 1676 they were again {truck only once, 
mamely, at Candlemas; and this praétice has continued 
uniformly down to the prefent time. 

It is confequently extremely probable, that the two and 
ahalf per cent. was firft cllablithed by being added to the 
Candlemas fiars for the year 1676, and was continued to be 
added to them for every year from that period downwards. 

Upon examining the fiars for the twenty-fix years, during 
which they were ftruck at Candlemas and Lammas, and 
taking the average of beth, which feems to be the fair 
medium price, it will be found that, in point of faé&, the Can- 
dlemas, with the addition of two and a half per cent., is 
fomewhat below the above medium of the double fiars. 
This appears to account in a fatisfactory manner for the 
origin of the two and a half per cent. ; and fhews, that 
they who firft introduced it had paid confiderable attention 
to the fubje&. Itis evident, indeed, that fiars taken at 
Candlemas cannot fhew the average price of grain through 
the year, becaufe, in the early part of the feafon it has 
not reached its full value. Whitfuntide would, perhaps, 
be the moft proper time for finding a juft average, and the 
addition made to the fiars taken at Candlemas may amount 
neily to the fame thing. 

It may, however, be obferved, that there is one ob- 
jection to the manner of ftriking the fiars in this pounty, 
which is deferviug of attention. The firft price taken is the 
true average, the higheft and lowelt are only the averages of 
the higheft and loweft market days, whereas they fhould 
exprefs the average of the beft’ and worft prain. A perfon 
who makes a payment according tg the higheft fiars, may 


in fa&t pay confiderably more than the averdge price of the 
beft grain fold throughout the feafon. he fales of a few 
high market days, in which prices rife much above the 
level of the feafon, threivn into the general mafs, may 
caufe the highelt fiars to be much above the current value of 
the beft grain. It would feem to be a fairer mode to ftrike 
the fiars from the weekly prices in the Haddington markets 
the averages of all the market days would give the general 
average, while the higheft prices on each market day, 
thrown into one mafs, and the loweft into another, would 
furnifh the true average of the beit and of the worlt grain. 
The fiars in this county are, however, faid to be taken with 
greater correétnefs than in moit other parts of Scotland. 

In the more northern’ parts of Scotland, as in Perthfhire, 
they are annually fettled, in the fame manner as in other 
counties, by a jury of traders in grain; a method which 
would feem to be improper, as the perfons examined in rea 
f{pe& to the prices of the grain may all have an intereft pre- 
ponderating in the fame way, being themfelves dealers’ in 
the article of which they fix the price ; whereas, were only 
one-third of that jury corn merchants, another third ac- 
tually farming gentlemen, and the other third farmers, 
who pay one hundred pounds or upwards of yearly rent, 
every clafs of the community would be reprefented in thofe 
meetings, every intereft would be attended to, and every 
objection ftated and contidered ; fo that there would be every 
chance, that the judgment given would reft on the broad 
bafis of the general good of the whole county. The fheriff 
fhould continue,’ as at prefent, to be the chairman of the 
jury, the umpire in cafe of an equality of votes, and have 
the power of judging of any objeCtion that may be brought 
forward againit any of the members, as a dealer in grain, 
which might difqualify him for holding a feat at the meet- 
ing. The time of fettling thefe average prices is feemingly 
capable of being changed for the better, as Candlemas fis 
too early a period ; as but a {mall proportion of the corn is 
by that time brought forward to be fold, and even that fmall 
portion of the crop which is threfhed out, and fo brought, 
is in a green ftate, and confequently difpofed of at an under- 
value. A fair eftimate can, perhaps, hardly be made of 
any crop before the end of March, or perhaps a later pe- 
riod. As frequent decifions in courts of law are given in 
refpect to the prices of grain, many contraéts entered into, 
and much corn and meal fold with a reference to the fiars, 
as well as the rents of land, and the ftipends of the clergy 
in various cafes, received according to them; there can 
hardly be a retrofpe¢tive rule or regulation of equal pub- 
licity, or of equal authority deviled, or more properly 
calculated for directing fuch tranfaGions ; confequently, 
too much care and circumfpeétion cannot be employed in 
the mode of eltablifhing them, as the medium prices of all 
forts of grain, for the ref{pective years to which they may 
have a reference. 

However, in order to afford a better idea of what has 
been the average prices of grain in the firft of the diftriés 
noticed above, for feveral years paft, according to the me+ 
thod of forming them juit deferibed, it may not be im- 
proper to introduce a lilt of fiars, from 1794 to 1804 in- 
clufive. 

Fiars of Grain. 
Crop of 1794. 
rit. 


_Firft ‘ Second. Third. 

fea ertae AC sod. Pie Syl 
Wheat - 1 5 63 p Sy £ 2 3% 
Barley - 1 2 13 Tiga Ue 9 og 84 
Oats 3 TO Aine Mee © 14 10 yo Spay 3 
Peas = ee Tote ate oy of - 


7 Crop 


FIA 
Crop of 1795. 


Firft. Second. Third. 
1S OSCE RE OB ees. 0. 
Wheat - 2 6 9 24 45 Ze OnaAs 
Barley - 3 5 2% r 3 50t Potony 
Oats Sole Tay = 3 O19 5+ O18) 2/5 
Peas et EO) A: o18 9 O 17 OF 
Crop of 1796. 
Wheat - 1 7 23 I 5 108 Tha, us 
Barleye =) te. 5, OF Te 2578 TenOrsOn 
Oats - 016 14 o 14 11 O14 0 
Peas = OnTA Q 013 53 o12 8% 
Crop of 1797 
Wheat - 1 4 Qf I 3 ck ute ea ely] 
Barley .= O19 4% 0 17 ot O Es 5 
Oats <p On Winn O13 o§ ©) PAWS 
Peas Sie ol aD O42) As Ol As 
Crop of 1798 
Wheat. ta 8 Linen 18 12. 6 
Barley - O19 5% o18 6 ©17 gf 
Oats =i 0 1G: +04 o 114. 8 oa 14 of 
Peas - 012 io O12 15 ope au 
Crop of 1799. 
Wheat - 2 3 9 Ze, OF 114 8 
Batley ak pro iA. oS Pama eB BAO ie 2 
Oats Revew Te Tita Ae De Om gee BST Or 
Peas Si) Bit ALS bres pies ie ie ie Do) (Gs 
Crop of 1800. 
Wheat - 3 7 38 eke ian 3 215 3% 
Barley - 212 6 PANT eel rc ae sai 
Oats eee ents yes Nid asaiieits) TLOmiG= 
Peas sie G1 24 Zane a0 116 8f 
Crop of 1801. 
Wheat - 1137 Si 3115.1 an 
Barley - 1 8 5 TING ns «2s PANT: 
Oats - o18 7 ory 4t © 15 11 
Peas =) 0 17 105 © 16 10% 016 of 
Crop of 1802. 
Wheat - 112: 13 1 8 83 1 6 ri 
Batley e-eet ‘o 8s “om 2 oOo 17 12 
Oats - 016 63 Onis 142") TOVIO) “4 
Peas - 016 1 o15 6 Ons, 0 
Crop of 1803. 
‘Wheat - 1 7 5k I 5 11% Lay) yd 
Barley - O19 2 of 10% o16 63 
Oats - o18 6 o 16 11h ong 7 
Peas - O17 10 © 16 10 © 15 rok 
Crop of 1804. 
‘Wheat - 2 6 I} 2 2 4t Totty 
Wanleye) @ 1 T 3% “Bx r rr 6 9 "5 
Oats = sein) gaa! SES ot § Q18 5 
Peas SerOvrgn 12+ o 17 14 0 16 113 


Thefe records of the returns of grain are highly ufeful 
and interefting, in fhewing the different prices of corn in 
different years, fora confiderable period, in the northern 
parts of the kingdom, and afford perhaps the beft views of 
the fubject that can be given, 


TISB 


FIARRA, in Geography, one of the {maller weftern 
iflands of Scotland. N. lat. 57° 4/. W. long. 7° 277/. 

‘ FIARSING, in Ichthyology, a name given by the 

Swedes and Danes to the fish generally called the draco ma- 
rinus and araneus marinus, the fea-dragon, ‘and the fea-fpi- 
der. See Tracuinus Draco. 

FIAT, in Law, is ufed for a fhort order or warrant of 
fome judge, for making out and allowing certain procefles, 
&c. Thu», if a certiorari be taken out in vacation, and 
tefted of the precedent term, the fiat for it muft be figned 
by a judge of the court, fome time before the effoin day of 
the fubfequent term, otherwife it will be irregular. ‘There 
is no need for the judge to figa the writ of certiorari itfelf, 
but only where it is required by ftatute. 1 Salk. 150. 

Friar juflitia, is an order granted on a petition to the 
king, for his warrant to bring a writ of error in parliament, 
in which cafe he writes on the top of the petition fiat ja/- 
titia, and then the writ of error is made out, &c. 

FIATO, Jtal. aterm, in Mufic, equivalent with vo/fz. 
Time, not meafure, put at the end of a {train when there 
are different leading notes to the firft and fecond part of an 
air. Primo fiato, or prima volta, the firft time, Secondo 
fiato, the fecond time; but the words fiato and volta are 
more frequently underftood than exprefled, as 1™* 2% 
mean the fame thing. 

FIATOLA, in Zoology, a name given by the Italian 
fifhermen to the {tromateus. 

FIBER, or filer caflor of Linnzus, the beaver. 
Castor Fiber. 

Fiser, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Pelecanus, which fee. 

FIBRARTA, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a clafs 
of foffile bodies, the greateft part of which have been very 
improperly called by the writers on foffils, fibrofe talcs, 
they being of a very different fubftance and ftru@ure of 
parts from the talcs, and having none of their diftinguifhing 
characters. 

The word is derived from the Latin fibra, a fibre or fila- 
ment, thefe bodies being all compofed of arrangements of 
parallel filaments or fibres. The fibrariz in general are 
foffils compofed of parallel filaments, ufually remaining fo 
diftin& as to preferve in the whole maffes a thread-like tex- 
ture, but fometimes uniting fo as. to form plates or flakes 
refembling thofe of the tales in external figure. They are 
bright, and in fome degree tran{parent, not giving fire with 
fteel, nor fermenting with, or foluble in, acid menftrua. 
Hill’s Hilt. of Foff. p. 88. 

OF this clafs of bodies there are two diftin@ orders, and 
under thefe four genera. To this clafs belong the amiane 
thus, afbeftos, lachnides, and tricheriz. 

FIBRAUREA, in Botany, fromthe golden hue of the 
congeries of woody fibres which compofe the ftem. Loureir, 
Cochinch. 626. Clafsand order, Diecia Hexandria. Nat. 
Ord. Aleni/perma, Juff. 

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. none. Cor. Petals fix, very fmall, 
roundifh, fpreading. Stam. Filaments {carcely any ; anthers 
fix, oblong, two-celled. 

Female, in a feparate plant, Ca/. none. Cor. Petals fix, 
roundifh, concave, fpreading. Pi/?. Germens three, fupe- 
rior, ovate, conne&ted together, and angular, at the baie ; 
ftyle none; ftigmas three, cloven. eric. Berries three, 
ovate, fomewhat comprefled, fmooth, each of one cell. 
Seed folitary, ovate, rugged. 

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx none. Petals fix. Female, Calyx 
none. Petals fix, Stigmas three. Berries three, fingle- 
feeded. 

1, F. tinGorta. Cay Vang ding of the Cochinchinefes 
Tien fien tan of ‘the Chinefe. Found in the ~— of 

j hina 


See 


er 415 
China and Cochinchina. Stem fhrubby, climbing, without 
tendrils, long, woody, branched, as thick as the arm, com- 
pofed of large pliant fibres, of a golden yellow, ranged in 
concentric circles, with perforations between. Leaves al- 
ternate, ovate, acute, entire, {mooth, unequally ribbed, 
veiny. Foot/lalks long, round, {welling at the bafe. Flowers 
white, minute, in long lateral clufters. Berry fmall, yellow, 
not eatable. The flavour of the whole plant is bitter. 
The.roots and lower part of the ftem are efteemed re- 
folvent, deobftruent, and diuretic. The bruifed ftems af- 
ford, by boiling, a yellow dye, which is not very vivid, but 
lafting, and ferves as a batfis for ‘Purmerick and Safflower, 
which, though more beautiful, are not fo durable. 
‘Loureiro, from whom the above account is taken, fup- 
pofes the Zuba fava, Rumph. Amboin. book 7. chap. 20. 
t. 24. to be nearly allied to this plant, as well as the Abuta of 
Aublet. t. 250,251. Jufl. 284. In the latter he feems to 
be right, as far as the natural order is concerned,and in the 
former at leaft equally fo. ‘That they are all one fpecies, as 
he fufpects, is manifeftly not the cafe. Aublet gives his 
Abute, which have downy leaves, as the Pareira Brava of 
the Portuguefe. ‘ 
FIBRE, in Anatomy and Phyfology, is generally under- 
ftood to denote the elementary component parts of the ani- 
mal body: the molt {imple form of organized matter, to 
which the more complicated organs of the frame can be 
reduced by the various methods of examination employed 
by the anatomift. In this fenfe, it is to the phyfiologift 
what the /ine is to the geometrician, that from which all 
other figures are produced. Haller has devoted the firlt 
fection of his great phyfiological work to the confideration 
ef this fubje&. He obferves that all the folid parts of the 
frame are compofed of fibres, and that thefe are refolvable 
into earth, water, oil, iron, and air. The fimple fibre is in- 
vifible, and cannot even be brought under obfervation by 
the affitance of microfcopes: fince the fmalleit animals, 
which are ouly difcernible by very great magnifying powers, 
are themfelves compofed of fuch elementary parts. He 
proceeds to explain that thefe primary qnd_invifible fibres 
unite together to. conftitute vifible fibres aud plates of ani- 
mal fubitance, from the aflemblage and connection of which 
our organs are compofed. Our refpeé for fo great an au- 
thority muft not induce us to repofe any great confidence 
sn fuch flatements as the foregoing: they appear, on the 
very firll examination, to be in great meafure hypothetical. 
The confeffion that thefe fuppofed elementary fibres are 
jnvifible, mut lead us to receive with great caution accounts 
of their phylica: and vital properties. And the obvious 
differences in the compofition and texture of our organs will 
natuyally give-rife. to an inference, that the, elementary con- 
itituents of thefe are probably diffimilar.. We do not {peak 
here of the chemical elements into which parts may be re- 
folved; but of the primary animal fibre refulting from them. 
Without troubling ourfelyes with.defcriptions of an objeG, 
the very exiflence of which is not yet proved, we thall pro, 
eved to explain fhartly the compolition of the bedy,:as far 
asit can be afcertained by our fenfes. In this inveitigation 
we fhall fjud ftru&tures of very different appearance ex- 
hibited in the different organs of our frame ; fo that the ima- 
giuary fibre will not be found to affilt the phyfiologift much, 
whatever benefit the /ine may afford to the relearches of the 
geometrician. ‘The following account is derived from the 
ingenious work of Bichat, entitled « Anatomie Generale.” 
An animal body is an affemblage of various organs, each 
of which, exercifing fome funGtion, concurs in its own man- 
ner in the prefervation of the whole. Thefe organs may 
be regarded as fo many particular machines contained in the 


4 


FIB 


general machine of the individual. - But the latter are made. 
up of. feyeral ftruétures or tiffues of very different natures, 
which form the trae elements of the organs. Chemiftry has 
its fimple bodies, which form compounds by the various 
combinations of which they are fufceptible. In the fame 
way, azatomy has its fimple tiffues, which, when combined 
in numbers of four or more, make up the animal organs. 
They are, 1, the cellular; 2, nervous of thé animal life ; 
3, nervous of the organic life; 4, the arterial; 5, the venous; 
6, that of the exhalants; 7, that of the abforbents and 
their glands ; 8, the offeous; 9, the medullary; 10,.the 
cartilaginous; 11, the fibrous; £2, fibro-cartilaginous ; 
13, mufcular of the animal life; 14, mufcular of the or- 
ganic hfe; 15, the mucous; 16, the ferous; 17, the fy- 
novial ; 18, the glandular; 19, the dermoid; 20, the epi- 
dermoid: 21, the hairy. Such are the organized elements 
of our parts: they poflefs the fame nature in all fituations ; 
as the fimple bodies in chemiftry are the fame, whatever 
combinations they may enter into. The advantage of con- 
fideving the ftruéture of the body under this point of view 
is, that it is not imaginary, but refts on the real foundation 
of obfervation. The lines of demarcation between the. va~ 
rious tiflues are drawn by nature, and not produced by me~ 
taphyfical ab{traCtions. : 

The forms are every where different; here flattened, 
there rounded. The fimple tiflues may be arranged in mem- 
branes, tubes, or fibrous bundles. But thefe differences of 
form are merely acceflory. The nervous tiffue forms a pulp 
in the retina, and cords or threads in the nerves. The . 
fibrous conftitutes fafciculi or bundles in the ligaments, and 
membranes in the aponeurofes. The organization and pro- 
perties are the fources of the effential diftin@tions. 

None of the fimple tiffues are analogous in their organiza- 
tion, that is, made up of common and of proper parts; 
and the former are very differently arranged in each cafe. 
Tn one inftance cellular tiffue, blood-veffels, and nerves, ma 
exift in abundance; while in another one or two of thefe 
may be found very {paringly, or may be ‘entirely deficient. 
Here we have an abundance of capillary veffels; there this 
fyftem can hardly be demonilrated. ~The proper or ‘cha- 
ra¢teriltic parts are decidedly different. Their colour, 
thicknefs, hardnefs, denfity, &c. are all various. Simple ob- 
fervation is fufficient to fhew numerous charaéteriftic attri- 
butes: but further properties are difcoverable by the appli- 
cation of heat, air, water, acids, &c. 

At the fame time that nature beftowed on each fyitem 2 
different organic arrangement, fhe endowed it alfo with dif- 
fereat properties. 
ticular f-{tems.) 


buted over the whole body, and prefent everywhere, concur 
not only in the formation of all the organs, but allo ia that 
of the other fyftems, and conititute a commons and uniform 
bafis toevery organized part: thefe are the cellular, artesial, 


venous, exhalant, abforbent, and nervous fyftems, The 
others, placed in certain determined apparatufes, and foreign 
to the reft of the economy, have a lefs general exiftence, and 
are often almoit ifolated. Such are the offeous, cartilagi- 
nous, fibrous, mufcular fyftems, &c. &e. Bichat ealls the 
former the generating fyftems. All organized parts are 
not neceflarily provided with all the fix. Some haye no” 
arteries 


Fa 


arteries nor veins ; fome no nerves, &c,, but they meet to- 
gether in moft of the organs, and there are always fome 
prefent, although others may be wanting. Thus tendons‘and 
cartilages, which have no blood, poflefs exhalants, abforb- 
ents, &c. The two laft-mentioned fyftems are the mott 
univerially found. Nutrition fuppofes their exiftence: that 
funétion, in fa&t, refulcs from a double motion, of compo- 
fition which brings nutritive matter to the organs, and of 
decompofition which remoyes it. The exhalants are the 
agents in the firft of thefe motions ; the abferbents in the 
Second. Since every organ is nourifhed, and the mechanifm 
of nutrition is uniform, it follows that thefe two fyftems mutt 
belong to allorgans. Thecellular exifts the mott generally 
after thefe. It is fometimes found where there are no 
blood-veffels, and it always exifts where thefe are found. 
The arteries and veins. come the next in order: often there 
are no nerves where thefe penetrate, as in the aponeurofes, 
the fibrous membranes, &c. The nervous is that of all the 
generating fyftems, which can be traced into the fewett or- 
gans. The ferous membranes, the fibrous, fibro-cartila- 
ginous, and bony iyftems, &c. appear to want it. 

_ The generating fyftems, befides entering into the Qruc- 
ture of other organs, alfo belong reciprocally to each other. 
Thus, cellular fubitance.is found in the nerves, arteries, and 
Veins; the latter ramify in the cellular fubitance, &c. 

_ It will be expected, from the preceding obfervations, that 
the generating fyftems, confidered as the common bafis of 
all the organs, ought to,be developed more early than the 
others ; and we find this in the foetus. The nerves, with 
their centre, the. brain; and the arteries and veins, with 
their central organ, the heart ; the cellular tiffue, the ex- 
halants and abforbents all prefent this phenomenon. With 
refpectito the two latter, it is fuflicieutly clear from the 
great activity of abforption and exhalation at this period. 
Thefe general fyftems mult perform the moft important 
part in the office of nutrition. They conftitute the nutri- 
tive parenchyma of every organ: this is the cellular, vafcular, 
and nervous matter, into which the nutritive fubfance of 
the organ is depofited. The latter, different in every inftance, 
conttitutes the differerice of the variousorgans. It is phof- 
phate of lime and gelatine in the bones; gelatine only in 
the cartilages, tendons, &c.; fibrine in the mufcles; albus 
men inother organs. If, therefore, the nutritive parenchy- 
ma of a bone was filled with fibrine, it would conititute a 
mufcle in the form of a bone, and under the oppofite circum- 
ftances, we fhould haye a bone in the form of a mulcle. The 
nutritive fubftances are hitherto for the moft part unknown 
to us: but as the parenchyma is greatly analogous in all 
cafes, if the former were removed, the only differences would 
be in form, volume, arrangement of cellular lamine, and of 
veflels and nerves; without any effential variation in nature 
and compolition. F 
~The mucous mafs of the fetus, in the early periods of 
conception, feems to be merely an affemblage of general 
fyftems. The organs exit only in their nutritive pareachy- 
mas. Asthele grow, and become developed, the nutritive 
matters penetrate them ; and then each organ, hitherto 
_ fimilar in its nature to others, begins to be diftinguithed, and 
to poflefs an ifolated exiltence ; each derives its appro- 
riate fubftance from the blood. 

- The fyftems of the. fecond kind belong only to fome_par- 
ticular apparatufes of the animal economy : thus, the offeous, 
mufcular of animal life, cartilaginous and fibrous are. pecu- 
liarly fet apart for the: locomotive organs: the ferous, mu- 
cous, mufcular of organic life, &c. belong to the digettive, 
refpiratory, and circulating apparatufes, &c, All thefe, 
therefore, are much more Molated, and performa lefs exten- 


wee, 


5B R E. £e 

five part in the animal fabric. ~ Concentrated in peculiar’ or- 
gqns, they are foreign to others, and have an independent 
life ; while the vitality of the primitive f5{temsis blended 
with that of the organs, into the compolition ef which they 
enter. The different parts of thefe fyitems are not con- 
nected together ; and this is exemplified in the bones, mufcles, 
cartilages, glands, &c. : various organs of different nzturesy 
and belunging therefore to other fyitems, are interpoied be- 
tween them. The primitive fyftems, onthe contrary, are every 
where continuous, and uninterrupted. The cellular, arte- 
rial, venous, abforbing, and nervous fyftems, are fo difpofed, 
that, if it were poffible to remove all the organs, which 
they penetrate, and leave them only, there would fill bea - 
whole continuous fabric left behind. If, on the contrary, 
the organs, intermediate to the bones, cartilages, fibro-carti- 
lages, &c, were removed, the various pieces of thefe fyitems’ 
would be immediately ifolated. The particular account of 
the different fyltems wiil be found under their refpective arti- 
cles in the Cyclopedia. 

Fisre, Animal, fibrins mufcular fibre, in Ch 
The mufcle or flefh of animals is compofed of au 
number of cylindrical, foft, nearly inelaftic, femi-traufparent 
fibres; thefe, when examined by the microfcope, are fen 
to be ftill further fubdivided into bundies of parallel ubrils, 
bound together by very fine cellular membrane. The liv- 
ing mufcle is moreover penetrated by arteries, veins, nervons 
fibres, and lymphatics with their contents ; and thus a con= 
fiderable quantity of extraneous matter is mingled with the 
pure £bre of the muicle, fo as to throw a certain degree of 
ambiguity on the chemical analyfis of this latter fubitaice- 
By means, however, of maceration with co'd and hot water, 
and mechanical preflure, much of the foreign matter may be 
got rid of, after which the fibre exhibits the following pro- 

perties. 

Its colour ia greyifh-white, tothe tafte it is infipid, its 
texture is ftringy; it hardens rather than foftens by the 
long-continued aétion of hot water. . When dried flowly ia 
a) warm air, it becomes femi-tranfparent like horn, and very 
brittle. . 

Fibre, prepared as mentioned above, is entirely infoluble 
in water, in moft of the acids it diffolves readily ; with the 
dilute nitric acid it gives out a large portion of azotic gas of 
great purity, but if flronger nitric acid is made-uie of, a 
more complicated aGtion takes place, by which, according > 
to Berthollet, one portion of the fibre is changed ito a kind 
of fuetty fat, which floats on the {urface of the liquor, while 
the reft is converted into oxalic acid. 

Mr., Hatchett’s valuable experiments on this fubitance 
throw great light @n the compolition of mufcular fibre, and- 
point ont a variety of before unnoticed points of refemblance 
between fibre and condenfed albumen. OF thefe, the princ}- 
pal are the following: mufcular fibre (previoufly exhautt- 
ed by long maceration in cold and hot waterof every thing 
foluble in this Avid) was iteeped fora fortnight in nitric acid, 
diluted with three parts of water ; at the end of:that period 
the acid was become yellow, and had dequired . ail the pro-, 
perties of a nitric folution of albumen. The undiffolved re- 
fidue, which confifted of by far the greater) portion.of the 
fibre, being thoroughly penetrated by the acid, was digetted 
in boiling. water, in which it diffolved, and by evaporation, 
afforded agelatinous mafs, which, after being rediflolved in 
water, was precipitated by infufion of tan,,and nitromuriat of 
tin, precifely with the fame phenomena as auy of the common 
folutions of albumen. Tibre, penetrated as above-mentioned 
by nitvic acid, is for the molt part foluble in ammonia, form-, 
ing a liquor of a brownifh orange colour. By digettion with ; 

_ potath the ammonia is given out, and a faponaceous mafsigy 
. produced, 


A 


EAs 


produced, refembling the other albuminous foaps, The re- 
fidue left undiffolved after the action of ammonia confilts 
chiefly of fat, 

If wafhed fibre, however, is treated with Joil/ing nitric 
acid, the folution ftill more refembles that of albumen in the 
fame menftruum, but with this additional circumftance, that, 
on fuperfaturation with ammonia, a copious white precipi- 
tate falls down, confifting of the phofphat and oxalat of 
lime, the former of which pre-exilted in the fibre, while the 
acid of the latter was produced by the action of the nitric 
acid on fome portion of the fibre, and then united with the 
lime which naturally exilts in fibre, in the {tate of carbonat. 
Lime, therefore, is found in mufcular fibre in two ftates 3 as 
a phofphat, which is chieAy feparable by long boiling, and 
in fome other ftatein which it is not foluble in water, but 
remains ready to combine with the oxalic acid as foon as 
formed ; this ftate is probably the carbonat, and the quanti- 
ty of lime thus combined is fuch as to afford 17 grains of 
dry oxalat from 200 grains of dry fibre. 

The proportion, however, of earthy falts contained in 
fibre varies greatly, according to the age of the animal ; for 
it appears from Mr. Hatchett’s experiments, that though 
beef contains both phofphat and carbonat of lime, veal 
gives hardly any indication of the latter, anda much {maller 
proportion of the former. 

The analyfis by fire fhews the following very notable dif- 
ference between gelatine, fibre, and albumen, (the three great 
conftituents of the foft parts of animals, ) in their proportions 
both of carbon and earthy refidue. 

500 grains of ifinglafs, being gelatine in its pureft form, 
diftilled with a ftrong heat in clofe veffels, left 56 grains of 
refidue, of which 54.5 difappeared by fubfequent calcination 
inthe open air, and therefore were carbon, the remainder, 
amounting to 1.5 gr. appeared to be phofphat of foda, with 
a trace of phofphat of lime. 

500 grains of dry albumen, treated in the fame manner, 
gave 63.25 grs. of carbon, and 11.25 grs. of refiduum, con- 
fitting of foda in a femi-cauttic ftate, together with phofphat 
of foda, and-a very {mall portion of phofphat of lime. 

500 grains of mulcle of beef, well wafhed and dried, gave 
82.4 grs. of carbon, and 25.6 of refidue, the greatelt part of 
which was carbonat of lime, mixed with fome cauttic lime 
and a little phofphat: it is to be obferved, however, that 
this is by no means the whole earthy contents of the mufcle, 
as by its previous digeftion in boiling water nearly the whole 
of the phofphat of lime would be diffolved out. 

The general inference from thefe experiments, and from 
others that have been mentioned under the article ALBUMEN 
is, that the principal conitituent of mufcular fibre is a fub- 
ftance which, from its habitudes with the principal chemi- 
calreagents, may be confidered as nearly identical with 
infpiffated albumen. 

A few mifcellaneous circun:ftances concerning mufcular 
fibre may be added. When thoroughly .wafhed and freed 
from all that can be extraGted from it by cold water, it does 
not readily putrefy; but in its natural ftate it foon under- 
goes this change, the texture becoming flabby and loofe, the 
colour pale, and the odour exceffively feetid. The flefh of 
young animals putrefies fooner than that of old ones in fimi- 
-lar_circumftances. Wher immerfed in running water, or 
buried under ground in large mafles, it changes to that fin- 
gular {permaceti-like matter already defcribed in the article 
-Aprrocire. When flowly and thoroughly dried, and kept 
ima dry air, it will remain long without undergoing any 
«change. Alcohol deprives it of colour, hardens its texture, 
and effectually prevents the accefs of putrefa@tion ; and it 
-may be obferved that antiféptics in general are more -eflicas 


Strahan and Prefton, 
Neowclreet Sanare. London; 


EES 


cious in preferving mufcular fibre than any other of the 
foft parts of the body. 

The moft important of the volatile produdts of the! dry 
diftillation of fibre is ammonia, which alfo indicates the pre- 
fence of much azotin the fibre itfelf. An acid alfo is given 
out at the fame time, which is acrid, uncryttallizable, and has 
the peeuliar odour of roafted meat. It was firft defcribed by 
Berthollet as a peculiar acid, and was named by him the 
xoonic 3 the general opinion of chemifts however at prefent 
concerning this fubftance is, that it confilts of acetous acid, 
fouled and rendered empyreumatic by the ation of heat 
on the fubitances from which it is procured. 

Finre, Vegetad/e. Almott ali plants contain a fbrous 
matter, which is diftinguifhed from the other vegetable prin- 
ciples by its comparative infolubility in chemicel menftrua, its 
indeftructibility by fpontaneous decompofition, anda certain 
toughnefs and elatticity occafioned by its minutely fibrous 
texture. In fome plants thefe fibres are remarkably flexible 
and tough, as in the flax, the hemp, the aloe, and the 
inner bark of the lime, the birch, and other trees that fur- 
nifh the materials of Ruffia matting; in the cane and bamboo 
thefe fibres, though {till confiderably flexible and elaftic, 
are inferior to thofe produced by the preceding plants; and 
in the ligneous fibre or wood of the larger trees they exhi- 
bit {till greater denfity and diminifhed flexibility. The chemf& 
cal charaéteriftic of vegetable fibre is, that it prefents on analy- 
fis a greater proportion of carbon and earthy matter than 
any other vegetable fub{tance ; as will be detailed at length 
under the article Woon. 

FIBRILLA, alittle fibre, or capillament. 

FIBRO-CARTILAGE, in Anatomy, a tiffue of the 
animal body, partaking of the charaéters both of ligament and 
cartilage. An ingenious French anatomift diftinguifhed it 
by this name; and he has included, under the expreffion 
fibro-cartilaginous fyftem, all thofe parts of the body which 
exhibit this kind of itru€ture. From the mixed nature of 
their properties, the fibro-cartilaginous organs have been 
partly arranged among the ligaments, and partly among the 
cartilages. ‘They may be conveniently arranged under three 
divifions. 1. The membranous fibro-cartilages; as thofe 
of the ear, nofe, trachea, eye-lide, &c. Thefe are very thin, 
difpofed in an uniform plane, or convoluted in various 
direGtions. 2. Articular fibro-cartilages ; of very variable 
forms, but in general thick ; interpofed between the oppo- 
fite ends of bones, in fome inftances unconneéted by their 
furfaces, and moveable, in others clofely attached, as in the 
vertebre. 3. Fibro-cartilages of tendinous fheaths; con- 
filting of a thick layer covering the bone in fome inftances, 
where the tendon paffes over it. The ftruéture and vital 
properties are not exaétly the fame in all thefe organs. 

The peculiar tiffue of this fy{tem is compofed, as its name: 
indicates, of a fibrous fubftance, with the addition of a true 
cartilage. The former feems to be the bafis of the organ. 
It is very diiltin& in the maffles which connect the bodies of 
the vertebre, but much lefs fo in the membranous fibro-car= 
tilages. The fibres are fometimes parallel, and fometimes 
interwoven. This fibre is exadily of the fame nature, as in 
the fibrous fyftem, compat, hard and ftrong; and hence 
arifes the ftrength of the different organs belonging to this 
fyftem. The folidity of the union which conne&s together 
the bodies of the vertebra, and the difficulty of rupturing 
the fibro-cartilages of the knee, jaw,-or clavicle, fufliciently 
exemplify this. Thefe orgaus bend in every. direétion, 
whereas the true cartilages, if powerfully bent, would break. 
The cartilaginous fubftance is iaterpofed between the fibres, 
and is particularly difcernible in the articular fibro-carti- 
Jages; which owe to it their elafticity, white colour, ea 

the 


te 


FIB 


the inorganic appearance exhibited by a feGtion, Thefe 
are rendered yellow and tranfparent by boiling, and are con- 
verted into jelly, although not quite fo readily as the true 
cartilages. The fibro-cartilages of the organs of fenfe, 
which we have already adverted to in the article Cartt- 
LAGE, are not refolved into gelatine by boiling; they are 
foftened, but remain whitifh. After ie time their fur- 
rounding membrane is detached, and the fubftance itfelf 
breaks in feveral places. After macerating for fome days 
they become red. Deficcation renders them hard and 
brittle, without imparting the yellow colour which tendons 
or aponeurofes receive on fuch treatment. I'he inter-verte- 
bral fabftances have, when dyed, a remarkable tranfparency, 
without any yellow tint. They {well when detached, and 
placed in water. , 

The fibro-cartilages in general have no perichondrium. 
Thofe of the tendinous fheaths are in contact on one fide 
with the bone, and by the other with the fynovial mem- 
brane. ‘The articular ones are covered by the fynovial mem- 
branes of the joints, and thofe of the vertebre are covered 
only by the anteribr and pofterior vertebral ligaments. A 
very diftin® and clofely adhering fibrous tiffue covers thofe 
of the organs of fenfe; and is rendered white by mace- 
ration. » 

The cellular texture is difficultly feen in thefe organs; 
but maceration brings it into view. Very little blood -cir- 
culates through therm in the ordinary ftate; but they be- 
come vafcular when inflamed. No nerves can be traced into 
them. 

This fyftem is diftinguifhed moft particularly by its 
elafticity. The fibro-cartilages of the organs of fenfe and 
of the trachea, when bent, immediately reflore themfelves ; 
and thofe between the vertebra, being compreffed by the 
motions of the bones, refume their former ftate, as foon as 
the compreffing force ceafes to aét. (See Cartitace.) 
They have the power alfo of bending in every direCtion, 
without any rifk of being broken. They poflefs extenf{ibi- 
lity, and contraétility. 

Their vital properties are very obfeurely marked. They 
have no animal fenfibility or contractility in the natural 
ftate ; but the former appears under inflammation. Or- 
ganic fenfibility, and infenfible contractility, exift in thefe 
organs as far as they are neceffary for the purpofes of nu- 
‘trition. This obfcurity of the vital properties renders all 
the vital phenomena very fluw. If the ear of a dog be cut, 
‘and the fides of the incilion brought together, the flcin 
quickly unites; but the cartilage is not agglutinated until 
long after. From the fame caufe we muft explain the rare 
occurrence of difeafe in thefe organs. No parts in the 
body are fo feldom difeafed as the fibro-cartilages of the 
nofe, ear, trachea, &c. Gangrene produces hardly any 
alteration in them, and it is almoft doubtful whether they 
ever fuppurate. 

This fyltem is developed at an early period ; the ends of 
the bones are large in the foetus, and the articular fibro- 
cartilages are dom egoactly confiderable. Thofe of the ten- 
dinous fheaths are not to be diftinguifhed from the cartila- 
ginous epiphyfes which in the foetus form the ends of the 
bones. The gelatinous portion exceeds the fibrous part in the 
foetus ; particularly in the inter-vertebral maffes ; and its pro- 

ortion is here always in an inverfe ratio to the age of the 
fubje&. The niembranous fibro-cartilages are developed 
“very early inthe foetus. 

The parts become ftronger and more denfe as the age 

‘advances; and in the old fubjeét they take a hard form. 
“Hence: the ftiffnefs and inflexibility of the vertebral co- 
“Jump. 


Vor. XIV. 


Strahan and Prefton, 
WNew-ftrect-Square, London, 


EIS 


The fibro-cartilages are much lefs prone to offification 
than the cartilages. This change has never been obferved 
in the membranous ones. Thofe of the vertebrz are almoft 
the only ones in which offific matter is fometimes depofited, 
and this is very rare. Bichat, Anatomie Generale 5 
tom. ili. 

FIBROLITE, in Mineralogy, afubftance firft noticed by 
the count De Bournon, and found by him amongft the matriz 
of Corundum, from India and China. It is of a whitifh, or 
dirty whitifh-grey colour; it occurs in mafles of an indetermi- 
nate form and fibrous texture. The count De Bournon has 
only once feen a fpecimen that had a tendency to a regular 
for’n, which was that of a rhomboidal prifm of about ‘02° 
and 0°. Longitudinal fra@ture fine fibrous, the fibres in 
fome {pecimens interwoven in all direétions ; crefs fracture 
compact, with a vitreous iuftre. Tranflucent at the edges. 
Hardnefs about the fame as quartz, when tried ina diréGtion 
perpendicular to or acrofs the fibres. Gives fparks with 
iteel, and a deep reddith phofphorefcent light when rubbed 
agatn{t an hard body. Not eleétric by fri€tion. Specific gra- 
vity about 3.2, being, like all {ubftances not found ina cryf- 
tallized flate, of different degrees of denfity. Infufible per 
Je by the blow-pipe. Analyfis by Mr. Chenevix of fibro- 


lite from the peninfula of India and China. 
Silica - 38. 38. 
Alumina 58.25 46. 
Tron, a trace. 13. 
Lofs =) 3.75 3. 
109.C0 Co. 


The remarkable cireumftance of the fibrolite from India 
yielding nothing ‘but filica and alumina, and its always oc- 
curring in amorphous maifes of a Sbrous texture, induced 
the dilcoverer to give it the above name. See the interefting 
paper on Corundum, by the Hon. Mr. Greville and the 
count De Bournon, printed in the Phil. Tranf. for 1802. 

FIBROUS System, in Anatomy. This includes a great 
many organs of the body, compofed of the fame elementary 
parts, but differing widely in their forms. This va- 
Tiety,- together with the differences of funétion and, pofi- 
tion, occafions them to be diftinguifhed by the x 2 
tendon, aponeurefis, ligament, &c. 


tas, ort 
mes of 


ea , 
For there is not here 


any general term, like’that of mufcle or nerve in the muf- 
cular or nervous fyftems, to denote the orgavization, what- 


ever the form of the organ may be. There are two leading 
diftinétions of form, under which all the fibrous organs may 
be arranged, viz. the membranous, which, :thin and broad ; 
and that of chords, which is thick and elon a: 

: 


ult Divifion. Fibrous organs of th n form ;— 
including fibrous membranes, fibrous cap tendinous 
fheaths, and aponeurofes. Th fibrous membranes are the 


perioftewm, dura mater, fclerotica, albuginea, and capfiles 
of the kidney, fpleen, &c. Phey generally envelope certain 
orgaus, and enter into their texture. Tbe fibrous capfules 
are cylindrical bags, furrounding certain articulations, par- 
ticularly thofe of the humerus and femur, which they con 


nect very clofely to the feapula and os innominatum. The 
fheaths confine the tendons paffing over bones, where-they 
are refle€ted—wherever, in fhort, they are fubjeét to dif- 
placement from the mu{cular contraétion ; imicht, in 
confequence, tranfmit imperfeétly to the bones the motion 
imparted by the mufcles. They may be arran in two 
divifions; 1. Such ds are common to the tendon feveral 


one tendon only, ortwo, asin the fingers‘and toes. Apo 
neurofes.confilt of large fheets of fibrous texture, belonging 
3C to 


mufcles, as at the wrift and tarfus; 2. Such as belong te 


FIBROUS. 


tothe locomotive organs, and difpofed in fome inftances fo 
asto form coverings of parts; while in others they afford 
points of attachment to mufcles. Hence they are-diftin- 
guifhed into aponeurofes for enveloping, and aponeurofes 
for infertion. The former either furround the mufcles of a 
limb, forming for it a general fheath, as in the thigh and 
fore-arnv: or elfe they inveft and confine fome particular 
mufcles, as that which extends between the two pofterior 
ferrati, that which is placed in front of the foleus, &c. 
The aponeurofes of infertion either form broader or narrower 
furfaces, asat the attachment of the triceps femoris, re€tus 
eruris, gallrocnemius, &c.; or they confilt of feparate 
fibres, giving diftinét attachments to the mufcular fibresy as 
at the origin of the iliacus internus, tibialis anticus, &c., 


({ Fibrous membranes, 
Fibrous capfules, 


peereetinny 


Fibrous fheaths, 


os 

3, In the membranous form, 4 

Ss 

— 4 Aponeurofes, 
6 | 

8 

5 L 

7 Tendons, 


Tn the form of chords, 
Ligaments, 


Although the numerous organs included in this table 
belong to parts of very different ftructures ; although they 
feem difpofed irregularly in the animal economy, without 
mutual conneétion, and apparently ifolated; they are in 
fa&t nearly all continuous. The common centre of this 
fyftem is the periofteum, with which all its parts are clofely 
connected, excepting the albuginea, the coats of the kidney 
and {pleen, and the perichondrium of the larynx. 

Organization of the fibrous [y/em.—T hiss nearly the fame, 
under all the variety of forms which have been jutt parti- 
cularized: and confilts of a peculiar tiflue, with vafcular, 
cellular, and other textures. 

All fibrous organs have for their bafis hard, inelattic, 
and infenfible fibres; incapable of contraction ; fometimes 
parallel to each other, as in the tendons and ligaments, 
fometimes varioufly interwoyen, as in the capfules, mem- 
branes, and fheaths; of a white or grey colour, and great 
powers of refiftance. 

The latter property enables all thefe organs to fuftain 
great efforts; and they are employed in offices which re- 
quire fuch a power. ‘The ligaments firmly hold the articu- 
Jar furfaces in conta&t. ‘The aponeurofes confine the mufeles 
and refift their difplacement. The tendons are placed be- 
tween two powers ; viz. the powerful energy of mufcular 
contraction, and the greater or lefs refifting force, which 
that aétion is defigned to move. The refifting power of the 
tendons is in many inftances fuperior to that of the bones : 
thus, the patella, the olecranon, and the os calcis may be 
broken by mufcular contraétion, The difficulty of pro- 
ducing luxations in the dead fubjeét, and the great force re- 
quired in the former barbarous punifhment, of fixing four 
hories to the four limbs of a crimiual, in order to. tear them 
afunder, fufficiently exemplifythe great ftrength of this tiflue. 
A tendon requires an enormous weight {ufpended from it to 
break it. Yet this refiitance, however great, is fometimes 
overpowered in the living body; and we fee the ftrongeft ten- 
dons, as that of the calf, ruptured by mufcular contraction. 
We cannot help being furprifed, on thefe occafions, that the 


or they form arches, which both give attachment to muf, 
cular fibres, and at the fame time allow the pailage of 
veffels, as at the diaphragm and*calf of the leg. 

2d Divifion. Ji:brous organs in the form of chords ;— 
conftituting tendons and hgaments. The formenare placed 
at either of the attachments, or in the middle of mufcles, 
They are generally fimple, confifting of elongated chords ; 
but in fome cafes they are more complicated, being divided 
into feveral {maller chords. Ligaments tie together the 
articnlar furfaces of bones. They may form either con- 
ftant and regular fafciculi, as at the elbow, knee, &c. or 
irregular ones, as at the pelvis. 

The following table exhibits the fibrous orgass according 
to the preceding arrangement, 


Partial, 
General. 
i Partial, 
f For envelopement, Conesela 


< In a broad furface, 
[ Bee infertion, .In the form of anarchy 
In feparate fibres. 
Simple, 
f Complicated. 
With regular fafciculi, 


With irregular fafcicyli. 


foft tifflue of the mufecles fhould not yield rather than the 
tendons. 

Some anatomifts have fancied that the fibrous and mufcu- 
lar fyftems were analogous, and have affirmed that a tendon 
is formed by the condenfation of the mufcular fibres. This 
notion-is altogether abfurd. The fibrous membranes and 
aponeurofes are expanded, but they refemble mufcular fibres 
in norefpe&t. The chemical compofition, the vital proper- 
tics, and the apparent texture are widely different. Their 
funétions have not the leaft analogy. In faét, there is lefs 
refemblance between the mufcular fibres and the tendon, in 
which they are inferted, than between the latter and the 
bone, to which it is attached. 

What then is the nature of the fibrous tiffue ? This we 
cannot determine, as we cannot recognize in it any very de- 
cided chara€ters. Its properties are rather negative. It 
has not the contraétility of the mufcular, nor the fenfi- 
bility of the nervous tiffue. It is always paflive, and obeys 
the motion impreffed on it, without having any of its own. 

The parts, in which this is found, are very different from 
the fkin, the cellular texture, cartilage, &c. ; and hence the 
referring of all thefe toa common cla{fs of white organs is a 
premature generalization, refting entirely on external ap- 
pearances, and imperfect analytis, in which the texture, 
vital properties, and functions of the organs are difregarded. 

The fibrous tiffue, expofed to maceration at a moderate 
temperature, does not experience any change for fome tima 
Its denfity gradually diminifhes, and its cae foftens, 
but it does not fwell. The fibres may now be drawn afun- 
der, fo as to expofe the connecting celluiar texture. After 
a very long period they are reduced into a foft whitith pulp, 
of homogeneous appearance. Tendons are the fooneit 
acted on ; then aponeurofes of infertion ; afterwards thofe 
of envelopement ; then the fibrous membranes, capfules, and 
fheaths ; and laftly ligaments. 

Any fibrous organ plunged into boiling water, or expofed 


to confiderable heat, curls up, and becomes contracted, like 


moit other animal tiffues: its volume is diminifbed, it be- 
comes 


FIBROUS. 


¢omes more folid, and aequires an elafticity, which it had 
not in the natural ftate, and which it lofes again, whea 
foftened. The force with, which the fibres contract on 
expofure to heat is very confiderable. 

It is fufficient, when bones are boiled for a long time, to 
produce rupture and detachment of the periofteum ; and, 
when the bones, furrounded by their lizameuts, are expofed 
to the aétion of boiling water, to lock the articular furfaces 
fo clofely together, that they cannot be moved, 

The fibrous tiffue foftens in boiling water, becomes yel- 
low and femi-tranfparent, and at lait is partly diffolved. 
Thefe changes take place moft quickly in the tendons, 
then in the aponeurofes, the membranes, the capfules, and 
fibrous fheaths, and laftly in the ligaments. But all liga- 
ments do not refift equally. Thofe which connect the 
f{pinous proceffes of the vertebre, at their roots, do not 
undergo the fame changes, but remain white and cona- 
ceous. 

The evaporation confequent on expofure to the air 
deftroys the whitenefs of the fibrous fyitem ; it contracts, 
becomes yellow and tranfparent, aud is ealily broken. By 
immerfion- in water, in a few days after being dried, the 
whitenefs and foftneis are recovered, and the part regains 
nearly its origisal appearance. This is particularly the 
-eafe with the tendons. Nitrous and fulphuric acids foften 
the fibrous tiffue very quickly, and reduce it into a black- 
ith pulp in the latter, and yellowish one in the former cafe. 
It curls up and centraéts when firft plunged into the acid, 
as it does on expofure to boiling water. 

It refitts putrefa&tion for a confiderable length of time, 
and remains unaltered, when fkin, mufcles, nerves, &c. are 
completely diforganized. But it yields in the end. 

Cellular texture exifts in all fibrous organs; being more 
or lefs abundant, in proportion as the fibres are more or lefs 
approximated. Maceration renders it obvious enough in all 
cafes. As the cellular tiffite itfelf can hardly be perceived, 
no fat can be diftinguifhed in it. But an adipous exndation 
has been noticed, in fome inftances, after fibrous organs, 
carefully cleaned from all furroundmg fubftance, have been 
dried. effels are found in very different ftates in different 
parts of the fibrous fyltem. They are numerous in the 
dura mater and’ periofteum, very few in the aponeurofes, 
and not difcernible at all in the tendons. The former 
organs are the moft liable to inflammation and. fwelling. 
Abforbents have not been detected in the fibrous fyftem nor 
nerves. 

Properties of the fibrous fy/tem.—lts elafticity is very 
trifling ; bat becomes confiderable, when parts are removed 
from the body, and dried. Thus tendons, and {trips of 
aponeurofis, which are infufceptible of vibration in their 
frefh ftate, produce found whem very dry. 

The extenfibility and contractility of thefe organs is not 
‘econfiderable; and it always takes place flowly. The 
Sac is exemphified in hydrocephalus, fwellings of the bones, 
tumefacGtion of the limbs, diftenfion of the abdomen, &c. 
Tf the foree be applied faddenly,, and the -refiftance of the 
fibrous organ be too great, various fymptoms arife.  Pref- 
{ure of the molt painful kiad, and dangerous confequences, 
is produced ow the contained parts, as in inflammatory 
tumefaion of the limbs, inflammation of the. teftis, eye- 
ball, &c. When the power is too great, the organ is tora, 
asin the rupture of the tendo Achillis, of the ligaments 
an luxations, &c. The contractility correfponds in its: kind 
‘and degree to the extenfibility: asno fibrous organ can befud- 
denly extended, fo it cannot recover fuddenly after diftenfion. 
‘Hence, when a tendon or aponeurofis is divided in the living 
Mate, there is fearcely any {eparation of the margins, The 


feparation confequent~on rupture of a tendon arifes from 
mufcular contration, or from the pofition of the limb 
Indeed, if the mufcle be in a itate of aétion, the end of the 
divided tendon attached to the mufcle is drawn away from 
the other a little; but that portion of the tendon which is 
fixed to the bone undergoes :i.o change. When a tendon 
is divided, while the mufcle is relaxed, no feparation enfues. 

he vital properties of thefe organs have been a fubjeét 
of great controverfy among phyfiologifts. Numerous ex- 
periments have been inflituted, and many works publifhed 
on the queftion, Whether er no they poffefs fenfibility. 
Haller and his followers maintain the negative, and their 
publications contain a vaft fiore of experiments. here is 
little doubt that they poffefs feeling, or, what Bichat calls 
animal fenfibility ; although this does not fhew itfelf by the 
ufual phenomena. The different mechanical and chemicak 
flimuli produce no pain, unlefs the organ be inflamed. 
This is the cafe with the tendons, the aponeurofes, the 
fibrous membranes, and the ligaments, when expofed and 
cut in operations, or irritated chemically in living animals. 
But, if thefe parts are fuddenly expofed to violent diftenfion 
or twilting, acute pain is produced. Bichat appeals, for 
the proof of this ftatement, to experiments on living animals. 
And he confiders that this mode of fenfibility is appropri- 
ate to the fun@tions of the organs. They have no concern 
with exterior fources of excitation; but, in performmg 
their offices, they are liable to be drawn, twifted, -and 
ttretched in the motions of the limbs. The fenfation, 
which they tranfmit in thefe cafes, is a warning of the 
danger, by which its further progrefs is prevented. The 
great pain of luxations, and of the extenfion employed for 
their reduction, and of ftrains, feems to confirm the preced- 
ing ftatement. 

Thefe organs poffefs no animal contraGility. They have 
organic fenfibility, and organic infenhble contraGtility in 
common with all other organs. 

The vital powers are more developed in this than in the 
bony and cartilaginous fyftems. The peculiar kind of feel- 
ing, which we have juft explained, is a proof of this. » It 
is mach: more frequently the feat of pain aad inflammation, 
and the pain is much more acute. This is exemplified in 
rheumatifm, which affects the fibrous organs abeut the 
articulations. It feems that this fyftem, hardly in any 
initance, forms pus. 

In the gelatinous fubftance, of which the embryo con- 
fits, the fibrous organs can hardly be diltmguifhed ; and 
they ‘cannot be recognized until feveral other parts are 
formed. The fibres are not perceptible until towards the 
feventh month; and, as they increafe, the ergans be- 
come more hard and refiiting. They poffefs at this time 
a pearly whitenefs. It is only by degrees that they acquire 
the firmnefs which particularly charaéterizes their tiffue. 
The comparative foftnefs of thefe organs in the firft years 
of life wilkexplain many circumftances both of natural phe- 
nomena and difeafe. As the fubject grows up, the fibrous 
fyitem- becomes denfe and hard; and it remains ftationary 
inthe'adult. It is {till more compact in old perfons ; yield- 
ing lefs eafily to putrefa@ion and maceration, Hence the 
ftiffnefs in the articulation at this period. All the parts 
now become yellow. 

The fibrous membranes will be confidered under the 
article Memsrans. The capfules are defcribed in the 
account of the articulations to which they belong, See 
ExTreMITins. 

The fibrous fheaths belonging to one tendon form a 
canal, in which the:tendon runs. There is a channel in the 
bone, completed intoa canal by the fibrous organ, and lined 

3C a internally 


FIBROUS. , 


internally by a clofely adhering fynovial membrane, which 

is refleGed to the retained tendons at the extremities of the 

canal. Thefe theaths are conneted externally to the fur-* 
rounding parts by a loofe cellular texture. They are 

extremely denfe in their texture, and {trong in proportion 

to the efforts which they have to fuftain. The particular 

fheaths will be defcribed in the account of the muicles to 

which they belong. The larger ones of the hand and 

foot, common to feveral mufcles, are defcribed in the article 

Fascia. . 

The aponeurofes of envelopement are confidered under the 
article Fascia. Thofe of infertion, belonging fo effertially 
tothe mufcles, will be treated, as well as the tendons, under 
Muscve. 

The ligaments will be fpoken of in the account of the 
ftru&ture of Joints. This article is drawn entirely from 
the Anatomie Generale of Bichat, vol. iii. 

Fisrous Amethyff, or thick fibrous amethyft. It is 
generally of a dark violet blue colour, fometimes of a pale 
and light one, which borders on grey, from which it pafles 
to blueifh and yellowifh-white. It occurs only maffive and 
in rolled pieces. Internally its luitre is gliftening, fometimes 
fhining, and is vitreous. The principal fracture is thick 
fibrous, and is ftraight and diverging fibrcus ; the fraéture 
in fome inftances is intermediate between thin fibrous and 
{plintery ; the crofs fraéture is generally imperfectly con- 
choidal, approaching to uneven and fplintery. Commonly 
tranflucent, but varies from that to tranfparent. Hard, 
rather more fo than rock cry{tal; gives {parks with fteel. 
Not very difficultly frangible. Specific gravity 2.750. 
According to Karten it is compofed of 


Silica 97-5 
Alumina 00.25 x, 
Tron 09.50 


A trace of Manganefe 


98.25 


Infufible per /e in the ftrongeft heat of a wind furnace, 

but melts upon charcoal when expofed to a ftream of oxygen 
aS: 

: It is found in agate veins, and is generally accompanied 

by common amethyft.. When both kinds occur together the 

fibrous is fuppofed to be the oldeit, as it adheres to the fides 

of the vein. 5 

Its geographic fituations are very numerous ; it is found in 
abundance in various places in Saxony, in the Ea{t Indies, 
Spain, the Uralian mountains, &e. The mott beautiful {peci- 
mens are brought from Catherineburg, in Ruffia. 

The lofs of its colour by heat indicates either that the 
colouring matter is very volatile or very little in quantity ; 
and it has been doubted, by fome philofophers of great re- 
putation, whether this and many other highly coloured 
ttones owe their colours to metallic oxyds, or to fome un- 
known modification or affeétion of light ; and it is well 
known that fluor and other phofphorefcent ftones lofe 
their power of emitting lighi with the lofs of their colour. 

Fisrous Gypfum. SeeGyrsum. 

Fisrous Limeffone. This fub{pecies is ufually divided 
into two kinds: 1. Common fibrous limeftone. 2. Fibrous 
limeftone, ftalactite, kalkfinter of Werner. 

1. Common Fibrous Limefione.—Its colours are white, 
greyifh, or yellowifh-white, and fometimes reddifh-white. 
It oceurs maffive. Luflre gliftening, often fhining, and is 
pearly and chatoyant, particularly when cut and polifned. 
Fracture from coarfely to extremely delicately fibrous. The 
fibres itraight, undulating, or contorted, and are gene- 


rally parallel, fomctimes diverging. Splits eafily in the di- 
reCtion of the fibres. Fragment priftuatic; crofs fracture 
perpendicular to the former. Moderately tranflucent. 
Rather harder than cryftallized carbonate of lime, whieh it 
{cratches. Specific gravity 2.7. The beautiful variety 
calied fattin {par was firft difcovered, in 1798, by Mr. Mawe, 
in {mall veins, lying between pyrites in a calcareo-argilla- 
ceous {chiftus, in the county of Cumberland. 

It is faid, in fome late treatifes on mineralogy, to be found 
in Derbyfhire ; but this miftake has perhaps arifen from the 
circumitance of its having been wrought intoa great variety 
of beautiful ornaments, as necklaces, lockets, rings, &e. 
at the manufactory of Brown and Mawe of Derby and 
Matlock. A variety, but of inferior quality, for the 
above purpofes, has been very lately found at Afhover, in 
Derbythire, in cutting a road to the lime works. through 
the upper bed of toad-ftone, where it was very abundant an 
{mali veins and nodules; and it is a remarkable cireum- 
flance, that all the carbonate of lime found in this toad- 
{tone is fibrous; that of the nodules radiating from a 
centre. It has « confiderable refemblance to fibrous gyp- 
fum, but may be diftinguifhed from it by its great hardnefs, 
and by its’ being generally traverfed by veins of greenifh 
pyrites. It may be diitinguifhed from zeolite by its greater 
{pecific gravity and inferior luftre, and from both thefe and 
fibrous gypfum, by its effervefcing with acid. Sattin {par is 
now very rare, the vein being long fince exhautted. Analyfis 
by Mr. Pepys: 

Lime 50.8 
Carbonic acid 47. 


98 4 


2. Stala®ite, Kalkfinter of Werner.—Its common coleur 
is white, from which it pafles into greyifh, greenifh, and 
yellowifh-white ; from thefe it pafles into the various 
degrees of yellow, brown, green, blue, &c. deriving its 
colour from the mineral fub{tances by which it is accom- 
panied. 

Dr. Kidd, in his mineralogy, fays, that thesgreenifh- 
white ftalagmite of Derby fhire. owes its colour and peculiar 
opacity to oxyd of zinc. It occurs moft cominonly 
maffive, alfo in a variety of external fhapes, but moft often 
ftalaGtitic. Its furface is generally rough and droily, and 
the ftala&tites are frequently terminated either by a fingle ~ 
cryttal, or group of cryltals, fometimes having the appear- 
ance of a cauliflower. Its internal luftre varies from glim- 

mering to glittening, and is generally pearly. Fracture 

itraight, and ftellularly diverging fibrous. Fragments 

moitly indeterminately angular, fcaetitud {plintery and 

wedge-fhaped. It occurs moft commonly in concentrie 

lamellar concretions, which are bent in the dire&tion 

of the external furface. The ftalaétitic and tuberofe 

varieties are often hollow. It is confiderably tranflucent, 

in fome cafes even femi-tranfparent. Its hardnefs, frangibili- 

ty, and {pecific gravity, nearly the fame as cryftallized 

carbonate of lime. j : : 

It is found in all countries where limettone, particularly of 
the older formation, abounds. Its localities are too numerous 
to mention, but in England the moft beautiful {pecimens 
are found in Cumberland, Durham, Yorkfhire, and parti- 
cularly Derbyfhire, where it is wrought into Various orna- 
ments. It is alfo ufed for purpofes where very pure lime is 


_ wanted, as it is free from many impurities that contaminate 


common limettone. : 
The alabaiter of the ancients is faid to be ftalaGtitic ear- 
bonate of lime, brought from Arabia, and ufed for the 
: draperies: 


F LB 


draperies of ftatues. Andit is employed at prefent in. Italy 
for the fame, and other architeftoxic purpofes, under the 
name of Marmo alabaftrino.. The ramified or coralloid va- 
riety, conimonly, though improperly, called Flos ferri, as it 
contains no iron, and on which the count De Bournon has 
ublifhed his obfervations in the 93d vol. of Philofophical 
Fcanfadtions, uncer the name of hard carbonate of lime, 
is brought principally from the iron mines of Stiria, where 
it is found in veins of {parry iron ore. From the numerous 
and contorted branches of waich it is formed, fome have been 
induced to think it rather the predué of {ublimation than 
2queous depofition ; and this idea receives fome confirmation 
from the circumftance of this {pecies of carbonate of lime 
having been found i: ue lavas, Its luftre is very {plendent 
_ and pearly, aiifing from the minute cryitals that cover the 
branches, and are fo inclined to the axes as to reflect the 
Light very abundantly. Thefe cryftals are figured and de- 
{cribed in the paper above mentioned, and in the mineralogy 
ef count De Bournon, lately publithed. Its fracture is 
vitreous, inclining to {mall conchoidal; hardnefs fufficiently 
great to fcratch fluor. Specific gravity 2.912. Although 
chemical analyfis does not- difcover the lea{t difference be- 
tween this and common carbonate of lime, yet the external 
characters differ fo widely, that it is impoflible not to ren- 
der them as different {pecies; in many refpeéts it agrees 
with arragonite, yet in others it differs fo much from it, that 
it is at leaft doubtful whether it ought to be confidered as 
being a variety of this laft fubftance. 

Fiszovs Root, in Vegetable Phyfiology, confitts entirely 

of fibres, without any tuberous or bulbous part, except fuch 
a common bafis, or point of conneétion, as is neceffary to 
hold them together. The fibres, or radicule, are the only 
effertial part of a root, being what immediately abforbs 
nourifhment from the foil. They are produced afrefh every 
year, when vegetation firft awakes from the torpor of winter, 
and it is only before they fhoot forth that plants can be re- 
moved, or kept for fome time out of the ground, in perfec 
fafety. he radical tibres of fuch graffes as grow in loofe 
fand, are ufually very downy, probably to attach them more 
firmly to fo flippery a fupport, or to multiply the furface, 
or points of abforption, in fo meagre a foil. 
_ Graffes and annual plants, in general, have fibrous roots. 
Such have a natural direétion downwards, and penetrate 
with facility through the fofteft parts of the foil, their ex- 
tremities chiefly being elongated, or rather formed, as they 
go. If they w in water, or a perfectly homogeneous 
oil, where the refiftance is every where equal, the fibres 
are quite flraight ; but this being fcarcely ever the cafe in 
ordinary ground, they affume that contorted and divaricated 
fhape we ufually obferve in all roots. 

Some parafitical plants have a peculiar kind of fibrous 
roots, which attach them to the branches or ftems of trees, 
and therefore are bare on one fide. They may abforb moif- 
ture by that fide from the air, perhaps in as great abundance 
as they derive nourifhment on the other from the tree. See 

OOoT. | r . 
_ Fisrowus-rooted Plants, in Agriculture, are all thofe 
which have fine thread-like roots which fpread out laterally 
near the furface of the ground, without ftriking very deeply 

into it. They are diltinguifhed into feveral different forts 

the nature of the roots and the manner im which they 

ow, See Fisrovus Roots and Roor. 

~ -Fisrous Roots, in Gardening, all fuch as confit prin- 

cipally of {mall filaments or fibres. ‘There are great num- 
rs of plants which have roots of this kind, both of the 
wer and other defcriptions. They are likewife diitin- 


eae 


FIB 


guithed into different forts from the nature of the roots: 
when the rocts penetrate downwards in a Gire& man er, 
they are denominated perpendicular ; where they creep uncer 
the furface, horizcatal, and creeping ; when they are rather 
thick, fe/by ; when extremely thin, capillary 5 whe 1 
run all the way undivided, /imple ; when they are div 
fend off {maller roots, branched; and when covered 
very fine fhort fibres on the furface, hairy. See Roor. 

Fisrous Shells, in Natural Hiffary, is a vame which cer- 
tain fofiil fhells have acquired, on account of their break- 
ing abruptly acrofs, and fhewing a fibrous or tranfyer y 
ftriated texture, which occafions their thus breaking fhort, 
and being fo brittle, that very few indeed of the fhells can be 
obtained whole. A very fingular kind of thefé fibrous thells 
abounds in certain beds of the chalk ftrata, moftly in fquare 
{mall fragments; and the flints which interlay the chalk 
beds have often, in thefe cafes, their fragments fet or im- 
bedded in their folid fubftance. Often when thefe flints are 
found among alluvial matter, and broken, the picces of 
fibrous fhells are decompofed and gone, and a fingular nar- 
row and deep cavity, like a {niall mortife-hole, is Ieft 5 a cir- 
cumftance which moft obfervers, in or to the weit of chalk 
diftri@s, cannot fail to havé noticed. In the great allavial 
mafles of Bedfordfhire, at ten or fifteen miles from the edge 
or ending of the chalk ftrata, thefe flints, with fibrous theils 
in them, and fometimes large and nearly perfe& fibrous fhells, 
are found among the flints and other ruins or fpolia (as 
Woodward calls it) of the chalk ftrata, which 1s mixed 
with the clay of the ftrata, fuperior to the chalk, as fhould 
feem from the large Ludus Helmontii and others of its pro- 
duéts, which are found mixed in the greateft coniufion, 
through the fubftance of hills, many miles long, one or two 
wide, and eighty or one hundred feet high, which are there 
found, of thefe diftant alluvial matters, coyering the regu- 
lar fand and other ftrata of the diftri@ ; and wherein frag- 
ments of grey-weathers, the produce of the uppermott faud 
{trata above the chalk, are found, fome of them weighing 
a ton or more, 

Fizsrovs Spar, in Mineralogy, is a variety of calcareous 
fpar, (carbonate of lime,) found in Derbyfhire and elfe- 
where, which is often mamielated on the iurface, owing pro= 
bably to hollows ia the furface of the fiffure or crack which 
it once filled; the fibres or ftria of this {par crofs it trani- 
verfely, and occafion its fudden and ealy fraéture, like the 
fibrous fhell above defcribed. _ Fibrous {par is very common 
inthe fiffures near the top of the firft or upper toaditone, 
as in the entrance cut to Hockley lime-quarry, near Ath- 
over town, a quarter of a mile N.E. of Bonfal church, in 
Longitone-edge mine in Longitone, Weltedge mine im 
Afhover, &c, 

Another kind of fibrous calcareous {par (fulphate of 
lime or gypfum,) is dug at Elvafton, Chelhaiton, ‘Tutbury, 
and other places, in or near Derbyshire ; it lies in thin ftrata, 
the fibres or ftria of which crofs it vertically, and occafon 
nearly a fimilar frafture in that dire€tion to thofe of the 
fpar and fhell above defcribed 

FIBULA, in® Anatomy, the {mall bone of the leg. 

Fisuva, in Natural Hiffory, a name given to a clafs af 
the echinodermata, which have their mouth in the middle of 
the bafe, and the aperture of the anuson one edge. ‘Thefe 
are found principally among the foffil kinds, and feem to 
have had their fhells of the affulated kind, or compofed of 
{mall plates joined tranfverfeley to one another. “Of this 
clafs there are two genera, the cenu/us and di/coides. 

Fisuxa, in Surgery, an inftrument in ufe among the ane 
cients, for the clofing of gaping wounds. 


i 
dor 


Celfus 


wee 
Celfus fpeaks of the fibula, as to be ufed when the 


wound was fo patent as not eafily to admit of being fewed. 
Op. lib. vii. cap. 25. apud fin. 

Authors are fomewhat at a lofs as to the form of the 
ancient fibula. Guido fays there were iron circles, or fe- 
micircles, bent backwards both ways; the hooks whereof, 
being faftened on both fides to the wound, an{wered exaly 
to each other; but as this muit have been an infupport- 
able pain to the patient, this defcription is generally fet 
afide. ; 

Fallopius, Sanétorius, and others, take the werd fibula 
to have fignified, in reality, no more than the fewing up 
of4he wound with a needle and thread, as ufed at this 
day. 

RET Luxation of. See Luxarion. 

FICARIA, in Botany, Pilewort, fo called by Brunfel- 
fius and other old writers, on account of the fig-like tuber- 
cles of the root, which refembling the difeafe called the 
piles, the plant was ingenioufly fuppofed to be a remedy 
for that complaint. The next ftep was to affirm it to be 
fo, as we find in fuch writers, ‘ either applied outwardly, 
or taken internally,”? As it is very acrid, and even cauftic, 
we cannot recommend a trial. 

Hudfon eftablifhed the /icaria as a feparate genus from 
Ranunculus, {ee Fl. Angl. 244, on account of the fmaller 
number of its calyx-leaves, and greater number of its pe- 
tals ; but he has not been followed. Ranunculus is too na- 
tural a genus to admit of fuch a feparation on artificial 
principles alone. 

FICEDULA, in Ornithology, a name given to feveral 

“fpecies of Motacilla, (which fee.) See alio Turpvs ¢ri- 
shas, Muscieara Atricapilla, and Parus Americanus. 

FICHANT, Iicens, a French term ufed in Fortifica- 
tions thus, a flank fichant, ora line of defence fichant, is 
a place, whence the {hots made do not only rafe the oppo- 
fite face to be defended, but alfo enter within it. 

The word isformed of ficher, to flick a thing in. 

FICHE!,’in Heraldry. See Fircuse. 

FICHERUOLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in 
the department of the Lower Po, on the Po; 13 miles 
W.N.W. of Ferrara. 

FICHTELBERG, a mountain of Franconia, which 
extends from the vicinity of Bareuth to Eger in Bohemia. 
Tt is one of the higheft mountains in Germany, and con. 
tains in it many deferts, rocks, bogs, and morafles. It takes 
its name from the great number of pines, with which it is 
covered ; it has alfo many oaks, beech, elm, and other kinds 
of trees. The extent in length is 22 Englifh miles, and 
16 miles in breadth. The fummits have various names : the 
Ochfenhopf being reckoned the higheft. The lake, called 
*« Fichtellee,’’ is a cavity of this mountain, called the See 
ich, and is remarkable merely as the fource of the White 
Mayn. Other parts of this mountain give rife to the Eger, 
which runs to the E., and the Sala and Nab flowing to the 
N. and S. 

FICINUS, Marsixtus, in Biography, a celebrated 
phyfician, divine, and philofopher, was born at Florence 
A. D. 1433. His father being phyfician to Cofmo de Me- 
dicis, the fon was noticed by that liberaliprince ; and on, the 
death of his father, Marfilius obtained the fame honourable 
diftinétion. He ftudied not only medicine and divinity, but 
acquired the knowledge of both vocal and inftrumental mu- 
fic and could perform upon feveral inftruments. He was 
profoundly fiilled in the Latin, Greek, and other learned 
languages. Under the patronage of the houfe of the Medici, 

I 


FPF C 


he might have acquired not only fame, but wealth; more 
efpecially after he had, by taking holy orders, rendered him- 
felt capable of holding the valuable preferments in the 
church, belonging to that illuftrious family. But, a total 
ftranger both to covetoufnefs and ambition, Ficinus was 
content with the appointment of a canonry in the great 
church of St. Laureatius, in his native city, and fome 
{mall eftates in the vicinity, beftewed upon him by his pa- 
tron. Although now an ecclefiaftic, who exercifed the 
duties- of his profeffion, yet he continued to praétife phyfic ; 
the profits from which latter profeflion he devoted to the 
ufe of his nephews and nieces, and other collateral poor 
branches of his family. The cardinal John de Medicis, 
having been raifed to the fovereign pontificate, under the 
name of Leo X. Ficinus received an acquifition to his 
fortune. He was appointed profeffor of philofophy, he 
became exceeding popular, and his leftures were crowded 
with ftudents from every country; many of whom, be- 
coming in their turn celebrated, enhanced {till higher the 
profeffor’s fame. He certainly appears to have poffeffed 
great merit in the didaétic chair, although in his illuftrations. 
he adopted the reveries of judicial aftrology ; but in this he 
was not fingular; it was a mania that feized moft of his 
cotemporaries among the philofophers. He {pent much of 
his time at his country houfe, Corregio, near Florence, at 
which agreeable retreat he was vifited by numerous friends, 
who, like him, could relifh the refined pleafures of ra- 
tional retirement, and the charms of philofophical conver= 
fation. So refpe€ted was he, that Ficinus could number 
among his friends fome of the ableft of mankind, and the 
mott éxalted in rank: doétors, philofophers, bifhops, car- 
dinals, and even princes; the celebrated patron of every 
thing great and good, Lorenzo the magnificent, efteemed 
it an honour to be claffed in the number. The folitude 
that he adopted arefe from motives of inclination and nes 
ceffity. Habitually contemplative, retirement was pleafing ; 
and naturally exceeding delicate, repofe from the buftle and 
cares of public life at times became effential to his exift- 
ence on earth. Senfible of his infirmity, he endeavoured 
to preferve his health by means bordering upon ridiculous 
fuperftition. He would, it has been oblerved, change his 
calotte, or under cap, fix or feven times an hour. “All me- 
thods, however, proved unavailing, fo that he at length fell a 
victim to a weak con‘titution, at theage of fixty-fix, A.D. 
1499. Sweetnefs of temper, moderation in difputation, 
and modefty of manners, were features eminently conf{picu- 
ous in his character; and he was no lefs diltinguifhed by his 
extenfive learning, than his genuine piety, lave that the 
former perhaps was too much tin&tured with the Grecian 
philofophy, and the latter too ftrongly fhaded with’ the 
gloom of fuperftition. 

His works are numerous and diverfified; they contain 
obfervations upon phyfical, metaphyfical, moral, and re- 
ligious fubje&s. Opufcula de Sole & Luna, various tranf= 
lations from the works of Plato, Plotinus, Jamblichus, 
Proclus, and other Platonifts ; and the Platonic fy{ftem thus. 
became fafhionable in Italy, The tranflations are not always 
accurate, and through all a bias is evident in favour of that 
philofophy. He would feign perfuade his readers, the 
writers of that fchool mnft have been believers in divine re- 
velation. His Theologia Platonica was printed at Florence 
in 1482; his Epiftole, in twelve books, at Venice, 1495 3: 
and his whole works were colle€ted and publifhed in two 
volumes, folio, at Bafle, in 1576. Moreri, Grand’ Di&tion- 
naire Hiftorique. 


FICK, in Rural. Economy, a term fignifying to frugal 
wi 


Fic 


with the legs, as a cow in the tie, or a horfe in the fetfers, 
&e. : 

FICKLETOW, in Agriculture, isa term which is fome- 
times applied to the fore-tackle, or carriage which fupports 
the plough-team. 

YICOIDEA, in Botany. See Arzoon, fpecies 2d. 

FICOIDE&, the 87th natural orderin Juffieu’s fyitem, 
or the 5th of his fourteenth clafs. The name is taken from 
‘Ficoides, applied by Tournefort to the Mesembryanthemum 
of Lineeus, which is one of this order. ‘Phe definition of 
this clafs is, Cotyledonstwo. Flowers polypetalous. Stamens 
inferted into the calyx, which is of one leaf, fuperior. or in- 
ferior, divided more or lefs deeply. Corolla nferted into 
the calyx, generally polypetalous, fometimes wanting, rarely 
‘monopetalous, by a concretion, as it were, of feveral petals 
into one. Stamens definite or indefinite in number, often 
diftinét, fometimes united by their filaments. Germen fupe- 
rior, fimple or manifold, or rarely inferior and fimple. 
Styles one or many to each germen, fometimes none; fligma 
entire or divided. #ruit fometimes fimple, fuperior or infe- 
rior, of one or many cells; fometimes, but rarely, manifold, 
fuperior, each pericarp being of one cell. Sometimes, by 
abortion, the fexes become {eparate in different flowers. 

The Ficoidee are thus characterized. Calyx of one leaf, 
inferior or fuperior, definitely divided: Peta/s mottly inde- 
finite, inferted into the upper part cf the calyx ; fometimes 
wanting, in which cafe the calyx is coloured withia. Sta- 
mens more than twelve, often numerous, inferted into the 
fame part; anthers oblong, incumbent. Germen fimple, 
fuperior or inferior ; ftyles feveral; ftiginasas many. Fruit 
either a capfule or berry, with as many cells as there are 
ityles, each containing feveral feeds attached to their inner 
angle. £mbryo incurved, furrounding a farinaceous albu- 
men. Svem herbaceous or fomewhat fhrubby. Leaves op- 
pofite or alternate, generally fucculent, moftly various in 
fhape. The firft fe€tion, which has a fuperior germen, con- 
tains Reaumuria, Nitraria, Sefuvium, dizoon, and Glinus, 
with Orygia of Forfkall; the fecond, with an inferior germen, 
has Mefembryanthemum and Tetragonia. ‘The plants of this 
natural order are alkalefcent, {ecreting of themfelves /oda, or 
foffil alkali, independently of foil or fituation, though they 
naturally grow for the moft part in maritime places. 

FICOIDES. See MesempryanTHEMUM. 

FICORONI, Francisco pi, in Biography, a learned 

and celebrated Roman antiquary, author of an excellent 
treatife on the theatrical mafques of the ancient Ro- 
‘mans, with engravings from ancient gems, cameos, marbles, 
-and bronzes, upon nearly 100 plates well executed, and firlt 
publithed at Rome in 1736, 4to, ‘This work is replete with 
erudition onthe fubjeét, and is at once curious, amufing, 
and initructive. It 1s peculiarly cornected with dancing, 
faltation, comic f{cenes, and the mufical declamation aad 
melody of the ancients. The wide mouth in the form of a 
fhell, fays Ficoroni, fo common in the ancient matfks, ferved 
_to augment the power of the voice, upon the principle of a 
{peaking-trumpet. ‘ Quella bocca a conchiglia, che & 
vede in altre mafchere, ferviva per ingrandire la voce, come 
fuccede nelle trombe a proporzione.””’ See Masaues. 

FICTA, Lat. feigned; as Mufica fetay mnfic tranfpofed 
out of the hexachords to keys that require flats and fharps, 

_ufed in old times to be thus called.. Fa fictum, f2x. 

FICTION. See Fase. 

Fiction ofa perfonin Rhetoric. Sce Prosoreia. 

Frorion of Law, Fidio Juris. Fictions are allowed of 
inlaw, in feveral cafes, but mutt be framed according to the 
_rules of law, not what is imaginable in the conceptions of 
_man; and there ought to be equity and poffibility in every 


FIC 


legal fition, There are many of thefe fiGtions in the civil 
law and by fome civilians it is faid to be an affumption of law 
upon an untruth for atruth, in fomething poflible to be 
done, but not done. (Godolphin and Bartol.) The feifin 
of the conufee in a fine is but a fiétion in our law; it being 
an inverted form of conveyance only, (1 Lill. Abr. 610.) 
And a common recovery is fais juris, a formal 2& or de« 
vice by confent, where a man is defirous to cut off an eftate 
tail, remainders, Kc. (10 Rep. 42.) ‘The proceedings in 
ejectments are alfo grounded on a fiction of law. By fidtiow 
of law, a bond made beyond fea may be pleaded to be made 
in the place where made, viz. in [flington, in the county of 
Middlefex, &c. in order to try the fazie here; witliout 
which it cannot be done. (Co. Litt. 261.) And thus italfo 
is in fome other cafes; but the law onght not to be fatisfied 
with fiGions, where it may be etherwife realiy fatisfied ; and 
fictions in law fhall not be carried further than the reafors 
which introduce them neceflavily require. 1 Lill. Abr. 610. 
2 Hawk, 320. 

FICTITIOUS Pcaintirr, denotes one not in being at 
all, or one who is ignorant of the fuit. The ofence of fuing 
another in the name of fuch a plaintiff, if committed in any 
of the king’s fuperior courts, is left, asa hich contempt, to 
be punifhed at their diferetion. But in courts of a lower 
degree, where the crime is equally pernicious, but the au- 
therity of the judges not equally extenfive, it is direfted by 
ftat. § Eliz. c. 2. to be punifhed by fix months’ imprifon- 
ment, and treble damages to the party injured. 

FICUS, in Botany, an ancient Latin word of uncertain 
derivation. ‘he Fig-tree. Linn. Gen. 555. Am. Acad. 
v. 1.23. Schreb. 746. Vahl, Enum. v. 2.181. Juff. 400. 
Tourn. t.420. Gartn.t.g1. Mart. Mill. Di@.v.2. Clafs 
and order, Diecia Triandria. Linnzeus placed it in Poly 
gamia Triecia, becaufe the Caprificus, or Wild fig as it is 
called, has entirely male blofiums, while the cultivated figs 
have on ene tree more perfe&tly male, on another female, 
flowers. The different ftructure of the partial calyx in the 
two flowers, authorizes its being kept ia Diccia at leatt, 
though Vahl removes it to Triandria Monogynia. Nat. 
Ord. Scabridz, Linn. Urtice, Juff. 

Gen. Ch. Common Receptacle fomewhat globular, 
flefhy, concave, clofed with feveral fcales within the ori« 
fice. Its infide is lined eniirely with numerous florets; the 
uppermoft, or thofe neareft the orifice, being males; the reft, 
more numerous, females; all feparately flalked.—Male, 
Cal. Perianth deeply three-cleft, rarely more, ere&; its feg- 
ments lanceolate, erect, equal. Cor. none. Siam. Fila- 
ments three, briftle-fhaped, the length of the calyx ; anthers 
two-lobed. Pi/?, a deciduous twilted rudiment orly.— 
Female, Ca/. Perianth inferior, in five deep, lanceolate, 
pointed, ftraight, nearly equal fegments. Qzi-._ none. 
Pif!, Germen oval, filling the perianth; ftyle awl-fhaped, 
inflexed, lateral; ftigmas two, pointed,, reflexed, unequal. 
Peric.. nene, except the perianth enlarged and become 
pulpy. Seed one, roundifh, compreffed.— The male florets 
are commoaly abortive in all the figs of one tree, the 
female ones on another. Thofe figs which are entirely 
male, as above-meitioned, are confidered as mott efeetual fo 
impregnation, and for confequently improving the frui 
the female trees. Hence the curious hiltery of Capz 
Sce that article. . 

Eff. Ch. Common receptacle roundith, Aethy, clofed, 
Iined internally with feparated florets. Male, Calys in three 
deep iegments. Corolla none. Female, Calyx in five deep 
fegments. Corolla none. Piflilone. Seed one. 

The {pectes of this moft matural genus are prodigioufly 
more numerous than Linneus had any idea of His, lateft 

edition 


FICUS. 


edition contains but 17. Vahl, whofe lift is the moft com- 
plete of any, has 92. Even this number we have it in our 
power greatly to augment. 

It is neceffary briefly to enumerate all Vahl’s fpecies, in 
order to contraft our new ones with them. We therefore 
take this opportunity of reviewing the whole genus, as there 
is much to corret, not only in what he has done, but in 
what regards the original fpecies of Linnzus, the hiftory of 

_which could not be cleared up, but by an examination of the 
Linnzain Herbarium. Refi 
SeGtion 1. Leaves undivided and entire. 

1. F. religiofa. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1514. (Arealu; Rheede 
Hort, Mal. v. 1. 47.t. 27.) ‘ Leaves ovate or heart-fhaped, 
entire, very long-pointed. Fruit feffile.””-—Native of the 
Taft Indies, where it is treated by the Hindus with fuper- 
ftitious veneration, their god Vifhnu having been fuppofed 
to be born under it. Chriftians civilly call it the Devil’s 
tree. The /eaves are evergreen, fmooth and fhining, of a 
fine green, alternate, on long ftalks, elegantly pendulous. 
fruit the fize of a large pea, dry and taftelefs. This 
tree grows readily in our floves. J 

2. F. populifolia. Vahl. Symb. v. 1.82.t. 22.—*¢ Leates 
neatly cordate, acute. Fruit ftalked, in pairs.’’——Native of 
Arabia, miftaken by Forfkall for the preceding. ruit- 

alks.an inch long. Whole plant very {mooth. 

3. F. Pilafbii—teaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, 
pointed, very fmooth, finely veined. 'ruit folitary, feffile, 
globofe.—Gathered by Dr. Buchanan at Narain hetty in 
Nepal, in Dec. 1802. The Nawars call it Pilafbi. . It is.a 
tree, generally parafitical. Leaves about three inches long, 
on ftalks one-third their length, refembling the leaves of a 
Poplar. J*ruit f{mooth, the fize of a black currant. 

4. F. umbellata. Vahl. Enum. n. 3. ‘ Leaves exa@ly 
heart-fhaped, long-pointed, fmooth. Fruitftalks three to 
five in an umbel.’”’—Found by Thonning in Guinea. Tree 
very tall and {preading. Fruit the fize of a plum. 

5. Fs nympheifolia. Linn. Mant. 305.—** Leaves heart- 
fhaped, roundifh, pointed, f{mooth, glaucous beneath,’”’— 
‘Native of the Eaft Indies. Leaves like thofe of i te 
alba in fize and figure, but very glaucous beneath. //. Linn. 

6. F. cordata, Thunb. Diff. 8. fig. 1.—** Leaves ovate, 
fomewhat heart-fhaped, acute, fmooth, leathery. Stem 
fhrubby, ereét.’’—Cape of Good Hope. Thunb. A fmooth 

forub, of a moderate fize. Jruit feflile about the upper 
part of the branches, the fize of a fmall pea. 

7. ¥. polita. Vahl. Enum, n. 7.—‘* Leaves ovate, in- 
clining to heart-fhaped, pointed, fmooth, even, entire.’’— 
Found in Guinea by Ifert. Zeaves two inches or more in 
length, veiny. Jrwit flalked, fmooth, globofe, the fize of 
a hazel-nut. 

8. F. Chanas. Forfk. Arab. 219.—“ Leaves heart-fhaped, 
rough.’’——Native of mountains in Arabia, where it is called 
Chanas. It refembles F. Sycomorus, n. 85, except in the 
afperity of its leaves, and like that has an eatable fruit. We 
have {pecimens gathered by the late fir George Staunton in 
the ifland of St. Jago, under the name of Sycomorus, which 
appear to be the Chanas. 

9. F. cofata. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 452.—“* Leaves ovate, 
heart-fhaped, avith a deep narrow finus; entire, fmooth, 
acute, green on both fides.’’— Eatt Indies. 

10. F. /evigata. Vahl. Enum. n. g.—‘¢ Leaves heart- 
fhaped, ovate, pointed, veiny, very fmooth. Fruit ftalked, 
globofe, {mooth.””—Weft Indies. eaves three or four 
inches long, very finely veined. Fruit fize of acherry, three- 
lobed at the orifice. Vahl. 

11. F /entiginofa. Vahl. En. n. 10,.—* Leaves ovate- 
sblong, fomewhat heart-fhaped, pointed. Fruit lateral and 


4 


axillary, ftalked, in pairs.”’—-Gathered by Mr. Ryan in the 
ifland of Montferrat. Leaves thin, three or four inches 
long, veiny. Fruit the fize of-a pea, with a minute calyx 
under it. 

12. F. feabra. Forft. Prod. 76.—* Leaves ovate, fome- 
what heart-fhaped, oblique, rough beneath. Fruit top- 


‘fhaped, without a calyx.’?—Found by Forfter at Tanna and 


Namoka. Leaves half a foot long, remotely toothed; 
roughifh above; rough, paler, flightly downy beneath, 
Pahl. 

13. F. citrifolia. Lamarck, Di&. v. 2.494. (Plum. Ic. 
t.131.f.2.)--* Leaves oval, fomewhat heart-fhaped, fharpifh, 
entire; ribbed, fmooth on both fides. Fruit globofe, foli- 
tary, ftalked, axillary.””—Weft Indies. Cultivated in the 
Paris‘ garden. Leaves more heart-fhaped at the bafe than 
Plumier reprefents them. Figs bigger than a walnut, 
green, white within, almoft taftelefs. Lamarck. 

14. F. lucida. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 451.—*¢ Leaves 
ovate, heart-fhaped, entire, {mooth, obtufe, three-ribbed at 
the bafe. ‘Branches ereét.””>—Imported in 1772, from the 
Eaft Indies, by Mr. W. Malcolm. eaves about a foot 
long, nearly elliptical, ftalked, of ‘a fine green, fhining, 
veiny« rs) 

15. F. feandens. Lamarck. Di&. v. 2. 498. (F. ftipula- 
ta; Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 452.) Leaves heart-fhaped, un- 
equal at the bafe, fmooth, reticulated with veins beneath. 
Stipulas acute. Branches thread-fhaped, creeping.—This 
is {uppofed to be a native of the warmer parts of America. 
It is common in thé European ftoves. The ffems creep 
up the walls, and throw out numerous, alternate, fubdivi- 
ded, flender, leafy, downy branches, making an elegant 
evergreen tapeftry. Leaves alternate, on very fhort downy 
ftalks, heart-fhaped, obtufe, entire, unequal at the bafe, dark 
fhining green, {mooth, reticulated with palifh veins beneath. 
Stipulas intrafoliaceous, in pairs, as long or longer than the 
footitalk, brown, membranous, ovate, pointed. It has 
never fruited in England or France, but we have received 
from the ftoves in the royal gardens near Lifbon, by favour 
of Mr. Correa, branches laden with fruit, of a top-fhaped 
form, purple, nearly as big as common figs, but infipid, 
which were pofitively afferted to be produced by the plant 
in queftion. Thefe branches moreover are thick, firm, and 
{traicht, furrowed, bearing leaves ten times as large cs 
thofe above defcribed, quite coriaceous, exaétly ovate or 
elliptical, equal at the bafe, exquifitely reticulated with 
prominent veins beneath, and punétated between them, as 
well as a little hairy. The whole, in fhort, of thefe {peci- 
mens accords with F. pumila, n. 46, hereafter defcribed, 
and nothing but our perfe& confidence in our correfpon- 
dent’s accuracy could induce us to believe there were not 
fome miftake. Lamarck mentions Mr. Correa’s informa 
tion, but had feen no f{pecimens. 

16. F. fipulata. Thunb. Diff. 8.—Leaves heart-fhaped, 
unequal at the bafe, reticulated with hairy veins beneath. 
Sipulas acute. Branches round, decumbent.—Native of 
Japan. Thunb. China. Herb. Linn. The dranches are 
decumbent and creeping, compound, round, minutel 
downy, reddith brown, often fealy with the permanent {li- 
pulas after the leaves are fallen, Leaves much like the 
laft, but the veins at the back are ftronger, more crowdedg 
and more curioufly reticulated, as well as roughifh or hairy. 
Stipalas like the former. Fruit unknown. We are inclined 


“to think, if this be diftin& from the laft, of which there 
is fome queftion, that F. pumila may be this in a perfegh 


flate.—We have other fpecimens of creeping kinds, whicly 
perhaps undergo a fimilar metamorphofis when they fructify, 
and 


~ 


Fl € US. 


and which onght to teach botanifts caution in defining the 
fpecies of this genus. : 

17. EF. fagittata. Vahl. En, n. 16,— Leaves heart- 
fhaped, oblong, acute, rough on both fides. Stem creep- 
ing.’’—Native of Java, where it runs up trees. Herb. Linn. 
Stem creeping, by roots oppolite to each leaf, downy when 
young. Leaves alternate, two or three inches long, heart- 
fhaped, equal at the bale, entire, acute, roughifh to the 
touch, dotted beneath. J vorflalks downy, near half an 
inch long. Stipulas lanceolate. Our deicription will be 
found to differ a little from Vahl’s, but not materially. 

18. FP. pedunculata: Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 450. (F. arbor 
americana, &c. Pluk. Alm. t. 178. f. 4.) “ Leaves ovate- 
oblong, heart-fhaped, acute, fmooth. Fruit glebofe, on 
long twin ftalks.”’—Native of America and the Welt 
Indies. Jacquin firft feut it to Europe from Martinico, 
and it was long kept in the gardens fer I. indica. Leaves 
from three to fix inches leng, and one or twe broad, 
fmooth ; paler and opaque beneath. fruit the fize of 
‘a pea. 

a F wenofa. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3 451. (Tsjakela; 
Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 87. t. 64.)— Leaves ovate, fome- 
what heart-fhaped, acute, fmooth, with imprefled dots 
above. Fruit feffile, cluttered, globofe.””— Native of the 
Katt Indies. The /eaves are a {pan long, two or three 
inches broad, on long ftalks. Frwit the fize of pepper- 
corns. 

29. F. radicalis. Leaves lanceolate, acute, fimooth. 
Fruit in radical clufters.— Gathered by Dr. Buchanan in the 
Eaft Indies, probably in the Myfore country. Stem fhrubby, 
branched, fmooth. Leaves crowded, three or four inches 
long, {carcely one broad, pointed, paler beneath, minutely 
dotted, but notrough tothe touch. /oot/la/ks {carccly an 
inch long. Stipulas longer, lanceolate, deciduous. fruit 
in cluflers from the root. j 

zt. ¥. neriifolia. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, 
{mooth, with parallel veins. Fruit top-fhaped, feffile, 
flightly furrowed.— Gathered in Feb. 1803, at Narain hetty 
in Nepal, by Dr. Buchanan. It is called there Dud Cu/hi. 
Stem arborefcent. Branches furrowed, {mooth. eaves 
yellowifh green, about three inches long, with narrow 
linear points, and numerous parallel, tranfverfe veins. J’aot- 
talks furrowed, hardly an inch long. /ywit folitary or in 
‘pairs, fize ofa hazel-nut, or perhaps larger when ripe. 

22. F. /utea. Vahl. En. n. 19.—‘* Leaves oval-oblong, 
pointed, fomewhat emarginate at the bafe, fmooth. Fruit 
in pairs, globofe, feffile. Calyx four-cleft.”’—Native of 
Guinea. Thonning.—A tall tree. Leaves from four to 
eight inches long, coriaceous, with white ribs, and fine reti- 
culations. Fruit axillary, fcarcely fo big as « cherry, yel- 
low, chefnut-coloured when mpe. 

23. FE. owata. Ibid. n. 20.—* Leaves ovate-oblong. 
‘Fruit feffile, in pairs. Common calyx hood-fhaped, deci- 
‘duous; that of the fruit torn into two parts.”’— Gathered 
by Thonning in Guinea. A tall tree, with fomewhat whorl- 
ed branches, often rooting. Leaves from five to eight 
inches long, rather leathery, with white ribs. Young fruit 
covered with a flefhy veil, cut round at the bafe as the 
fruit fwells, and deciduous. igs the fize of plums, in- 
clining to ovate. § 

24. F. calyptrata. Ibid. n. 21.—* Leaves ovate, rather 
oblong. Fruit in pairs. Common calyx, and that of the 
fruit, hood-like, deciduous.”’——Gathered by Thonning in 
Guinea—A tall {preading tree. Leaves rather pointed, 
fomewhat coriaceous, with white ribs and fine veins, five 
inches lone. Fruit {eflile, globofe, orange-coloured, {maller 

Vou, XLV. 


than a cherry, with a double. eap-likesdeciduous cover- 
ing. 

25. F. Granatum. Fork. Pl. Efcul. 37.—* Leaves ovate, 
entires Fruitftalks terminal, in pairs, horizontally divari- 
cated. Fruit globofe, with acalyx.’’—Native of the ifle of 
Tanna, where it is alfo cultivated for the fake of the fruit, 
which is fweetifh, but watery and rather infipid, larger than 
common figs, red with yellow fpots, and flizhtly downy ; 
internally purple, foft and pulpy. The ree is tall, with an 
angular rugged trunk, and long afcending branches. Leaves 
afpan long, {mooth, dark green above, witha few yellow 
veins ; brighter underneath. ruit on fhort thick flalks, 
from the bofoms of the uppermott leaves. Buds terminal, 
fharp-pointed, clothed with brown hairs. Lorfler. 

26. F. feptica. Burm. Ind. 226. Rumph. Amb. v. 3. 
153.t. 9€. (Handur-alu; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 77. t. 59.) 
— Leaves ovate, pointed. Stem ereé&t. Fruit folitary, axil- 
lary, top-fhaped, on fhort curved ftalks—Native of the 
Kat Indies. <¢ Branches round and fmooth. Leaves 
fix or fevyen inches long, broad-oblong, membranous, very 
{mooth, glaucous beneath, veiny, tipped with a fharp point 
an inch in length. — Stipulas lanceolate. Fvotfalts round, 
tivo inches long, coloured at the top and bettom. Rheede’s 
figure wants the point of the leaf.” Vahl from Juffieu’s 
herbarium. 

27. F.Taab. Forfk. Arab. 219.—“ Leaves in pairs, 
flalked, ovate, entire.’’—Gathered by Forfkall at Zebid in 
Arabia, where it is called Z2ab. The deaves are four inches 
long. No other botanift appears to have feen this fpe- 
cies, 

28. F. Ampelos. Burm. Ind. 226. Lam. Did. v. 2. 496. 
(Folium politorium, Ampelaas; Rumph. Amb. v. 4. 128. 
t. 63. Teregam; Rheede H. Mab. v. 3. 79. t 60 2)— 
sc Leaves ovate, acute, rough. Fruit folitarv, ftalked, 
rough, with an open fealy mouth.’??—Native of Malabar. 
The branches, footjialks and leaves are extremely rough, 
with minute cartilazinous points; the latter are about a 
{pan long, three-ribbed, but the lateral ribs are fhort, and 
run into fine tranfverfe veins, as Rumphius deferibes them. 
His fynonym appears to us more certain than that of Rheede, 
whofe leaves are too fmall, and fruit unlike our fpecimens. 
The latter may poflibly be F. gc/itoria of Loureiro, quoted 
by Vahl under Ampelos, as that is faid to have {mall leaves. 
The fruit ia our’s is likea {mall goofeberry, rough, the 
mouth befet with numerous, prominent, recurved feales. 
Fruitfialks axillary, folitary, recurved, very rough, half an 
inch long.—The leavesare faidto be very ufeful for polifh« 
ing fine cabinet work, or toys, of wood, ivory or coral. 
They are not, however, fo fine a fil as Dutch rufhes, 
LE quifetum hyemale. The Amboyna name, as made into 
Greek by Burmann, only tends to deceive. 

29. F. pyrifolia. Burm. Ind. 226. (Itty-alu; Rheede 
H. Mal. v. 1. 45. t. 26, according to Vahl.)—* Leaves 
ovate, pointed, fringed.”’—Native of Japan. Burm. Eait 
Indies, according to Juffieu’s herbarium. /7ah/. The latter 
deferibes the /eaves as quite smooth, two inches long. 
Fruit globofe, rather bigger than a pea, rough with ele- 
vated points. ruitflalk very thort. It feems not certain 
that Vahl and Burmann mean the fame plant, and the former 
copies the fery fame fynonym of Rheede, after Linnzus, 
for F. benjamina in his next paragraph. 

30. F. denjamina. Linn. Mant. 129. (F. arbor, den- 
fioribus foliis parvis integris Amboinenfis ; Pluk. Phyt. 
t. 243. t.4. Varinga parviflora ; Rumph. Amb. y. 3. 139. 
t.go?) Leaves ovate, pointed, tranfveriely flriated, imooth- 
edged. Fruit axillary, folitary, ftalked, Found in various 

¢D parts 


pw 


FICUS. 


parts of the Eaft Indies. It forms a tall ¢ree, with innu- 
merable, flender, zig-rag, leafy branches, with a rugged 
bark. Leaves an inch or inch and half long, ftalked, 
exa@tly ovate, with an elongated point, entire, very fmooth 
and fhining, diftinguifhed by numerous, tranfverfe, ftraight, 
- parallel veins, which do not reach the edge. The fruit 

is axillary, folitary, on a ftalk a quarter of an inch long, 
bearing two or three fmall round fcales about the middle, 
and feveral more under the fruit, which, in the very early 
flate now before us, is the fize of muftard-feed, fmooth, 
erowned with two or three long projecting {eales from its 
mouth, fo like ftigmas, that if we had not the fan&ion of 
the mot able botanifts, we fhould have great doubt of this 
being a Ficus. 

3t. EF. infrafoliacea. Buch. MSS.— Leaves ovate-oblong, 
taper-pointed, entire, {mooth. Fruit below the leaves, 
fcattered, ftalked, globofe—Gathered by Dr. Buchanan 
in March 1803, by the way fide at Lohiar in Nepal. 
This free has the afpeét of T°. religiofa. Leaves deciduous, 
about three inches long, and above one broad, with feveral 
parallel tranfverfe veins, and innumerable reticulated ones 
between them. :ootfalés an inch or inch and half long, 
fmooth, channelled.  Svipulas downy, deciduous. Fruit 
from about the top of the laft year’s fhoots, globole, 
{mooth, the fize of a goofeberry, on fhortifh thick ftalks, 
moftly ternate. 

32. F. macrophylla. Roxb. and Buch. MSS.—Leaves 
roundifh-ovate, pointed, five-ribbed at the bafe; fmooth 
above; finely downy beneath.-—Native of the Eaft Indies. 
Young branches, flipulas and fovialks downy, as well as 
the back of the eaves, which are eight or ten inches long 
and fix or eight broad, wavy at the edge, paler beneath, 
reticulated with innumerable tranfverfe rectangular veins. 

33. F. benghalenfis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1514. Trew, 
Ehrh. t. 50. (Peralu ; Rheede H. Mal. v. 1. 49. t. 28.)— 
Leaves ovate-oblong, obtufe, fmooth above ; fomewhat 
downy beneath ; ribs radiating from above the bafe. Fruit 
globofe, feffile, crowded.— Frequent in the Eaft: Indies. 
A tall and ttout ¢ree. Leaves coriaceous, rather elliptical, 
four or five inches long, minutely downy beneath, their 
five ribs meeting a Mttle way above the bafe. Fruit gene- 
rally in pairs or crowded, as large as a bullace plum, red, 
downy, encompafled with a broad calyx, of feveral downy 
leaves, at the bafe. Our fpecimen from the Hortus Clif- 
fortianus agrees with one Tent by Dr. Roxburgh from 
Bengal. In both the leaves are decidedly downy beneath, 
though deferibed as fmooth. We have alfo from Dr. Rox- 
burgh what feems a variety, with rather narrower leaves, 
very downy beneath, and fruit no bigger than peas, equally 
downy, generally in pairs, and very abundant. 

34. Fe rubiginofa, Ventenat Jard. de la Malmaifon, t. 114. 
— Leaves elliptical obtufe; fmooth above ; downy and rufty 
beneath. Frait globofé, nearly feflile. Calyx downy, almott 
as long as the fruit.—Native of New Holland. Cultivated in 
the greenhoufe at Kew, where it fruits about midfummer. 
Stem fhrubby, with thick downy braaches. Leaves three or 
four inches long, and two broad, coriaceous, evergreen, tlalk- 
ed, clothed beneath, efpecially when young, with foft, dark, 

rufty, purplifh down, and furnifhed with numerous tran{verfe 
parallel yeins, of which the lowermoft do not grow in a 
radiating manner like the laft fpecies. Fruit axillary, foli- 
tary, the fize of a floe, reddifh, dotted, enveloped, tili 
half grown, in the brown downy calyx. 

35- F. callofa. Willd: Diff. 25. t. 4. Vahl. Enum. 
an. 29.— Leaves oblong, obtufe, narrower at the bale, 
with two callous dots; rough beneath.”’—Native of the 
Eait Indies. Leaves {mooth and thining above, paler be- 


4 


neath. Fruit globofe, umbilicated, the fize of a eherrty: 
Willdenow. ‘ 

36. F. microcarpa. Vahl. En. n. 30.—* Leaves ovate, 
fomewhat oblong, obtufe, fmooth. Branches wand-like. 
Fruit globofe, feffile, in pairs.”,—Found by Thonning in 
Guinea. A rather tall and fpreading tree, its branches 
throwing out roots. eaves three to five inches longy 
ftalked, finely reticulated, pale beneath. Fruit {mall. 

37- FE. parafitica. Willd. Diff. 25. t. 3. Vahl. En. 
n. 31.— Leaves elliptical, bluntifh; reticulated and 
roughifh beneath. Fruit-ftalks in pairs. Fruit globofe, 
umbilicated.’’—Grows inthe Eaft Indies. Branches round, 
fmooth. Leaves fmooth and fhining above, coriaceous, 
molt veiny beneath. Fruit axillary, the fize of a pea. 

38. F. americana. Aubl. Guian. 952. (F. alia, foliis 
lauri, fru€tu minore ; Plum. Ic. 124. t. 132. f.2.)—* Leaves 
ovate-oblong, veiny. Fruit axillary, ftalked, cluftered.”? — 
Native of Jamaica. Leaves fmooth, two inches long. 
Fruit {mail, yellow. 

39. F. racemafa. Linn. Sp. Pl. Igi5. (Atti-alu ; Rheede 
H. Mal. v. 1. 43. t.25.)— Leaves elliptic-ovate, acute, 
dotted on the upper fide. Fruit feflile, top-fhaped, downy,’ 
Vahl. Native of the Eaft Indies, in fandy foil. A tall and 
{fpreading tree. Branches downy inthe upper part. Leaves 
italked, remote, two or three inches long, narrowed at each 
end, efpecially the upper, acute, ftriated, in a manner, 
with ribs, fomewhat veiny, fmooth on both fides, dotted 
on the upper whea examined with a microfcope. Fovt- 
flalks vather downy. Fruit pear-fhaped, feffile, downy. 
Vahi—We know this only by the above authorities, having 
no authentic fpecimen. The fruit is not feffile in Hort. 
Malab. 

40. I. glomerata. Roxb. Corom. vy. 2. 14. t. 123.— 
Leaves elliptic-ovate, acute, not dotted above ; minutely 
granulated beneath. Fruit cluitered, ftalked, top-fhaped, 
downy.—Generally found near villages, and about rivers and 
water-courfes in Bengal, where the foil is rich and moiit. 
Fruit eaten by the natives, but Dr. Roxburgh thought it 
difagreeable ; purplith, the fize of a pidgeon’s egg, grow- 
ing many together on the young branches, each on a fepa- 
rate ftalk. Leaves four or five inches long, {mooth above; 
feeling roughifh underneath. 

4. F. indica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1514 &. Lamarck. Dié&. 
v. 2. 494. Cluf. Exot. 1. (F. cotoneefolia; Vahl. En. 
n. 34. Catu-alu; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 73. t. 57.) — Leaves 
ovato-lanceolate, coriaceous, downy beneath. Fruit feffile. 
Branches taking root at the extremity.”—Native of the 
Fatt Indies, where it has been celebrated from the moft 
remote antiquity, for its property of letting its branches 
droop and take root, fo extending itfelf by that means, 
that a fingle tree forms a curioufly-arched grove. We 
cannot therefore approve of Profeffor Vahl’s innovation, in 
transferring its ancient name to another, which Linneus 
thought a variety, but which is totally diftin@. See our 
n.68.—The /eaves are three or four inches long, pointed. 
Fruit globofe, the fize of a large gooleberry, reddith, fweet, 
but not pleafant-tatted. , 

42. IF. Toka. Forfk. Arab. 219.—** Leaves two-ranked, 
rough, ovate, acute, entire, alternate, ftalked.”?— Found 
by Forfkall in Arabia, where it is called Zo44, which is all 
we knew concerning it. ; 

43. [. pundata. Thunb. Diff. 9.—* Leaves oblong, 
emarginate, fmooth, dotted beneath. Stem zig-zag, throw- 
ing out roots.’’—Native of the Eaft Indies.— Svem parafiti- 
cal, creeping to a great extent, round, rugged, brown, 
hardly fo thick as a goofe-quill, branched ; the ultimate 
divifions very fhort. Leaves obtufe, only from half an iuch 

te 


FICUS. 


to an inch long, fpreading or reflesed, their matgin entire, 
a little refexed. oot/alks very fhort. Jfruit obovate, 
almoit as large as the common F’. Carica. Thunberg.—We 
fufpeét this ought to be placed near fcandens, n. 15, but 
we are unwilling to difturb Vahl’s arrangement. It feems 
by analogy to confirm the report there given of the fruit 
of that fpecies. 

44. F. pertufa. Linon, Suppl. 442; excluding the fyno- 
nym.—Leaves elliptical, pointed, very {mooth. © Fruit 
globofe, umbilicated, ftalked, axillary, in pairs, Calyx in 
two lobes.—Native of Surinam. Whole plant fmooth. 
Leaves two or three inches long and one broad, taper- 
poids with fine tranfverfe veins. Lootftaiks half an inch 
ong. Fruit the fize of a pepper-cora, on a ftalk nearly 
its own length. Ca/yx fmall, in two deep, recurved feg- 
ments. Wahl defcribes the fruit in cluiters an inch long, 
which is altogether unfounded. He alfo copies from the 
Suppl. Plant. an erroneous fynonym of Plumier, t.132. f.2, 
which he had juft before rightly applied to I. americana. 

* 45. F. farmentofa. Buch. MSS.—Leaves ovate-oblong, 
pointes fmooth ebove; downy and glaucous beneath. 

ruit folitary, axillary, ovate, “hairy, on ftalks as long as 
the footftalks. Stem trailing.— Gathered, in May 1802, by 
Dr, Buchanan, in the woods of Upper Nepal, where this 
and others of its genus_are called Boco/bi. —Stem trailing, 
milky, as thick as the thumb, branching out, at the top of 
the tree that fupports it, into many fpreading, alternate, 
downy, leafy fhoots. Leaves about three inches long, 
reflesed at the margin, very veiny, three-ribbed at the bafe ; 
their under fide whitifh, downy, finely reticulated. Fuot-/la/ks 
half an inch or more in length, hairy. LVoqwer-/laths rather 
longer. Young frai! the fize of a hazel-nut, fomewhat 
angular, obtule, very hairy. Calyx very {mall, anda little 
remote, of three hairy leaves. 

46. F. pumila. Linn, Sp. Pl. 1515, but not Syft. Veg. 
ed. 14. 922. (F. fylveflris procumbens, folio fimplici ; 
Kempf. Amen. 803. t. 804.)—Leaves ovate, fmooth ; 
very clofely reticulated beneath. Stem jointed, creeping. 
Fruit ftalked, nearly as long as the leaves. —The only certain 
knowledge we have of this Fig is from Kcempfer, who 
deferibes it as running up walls and rocks in Japan, the 
branches being marked with annular contraétions. Leaves 
ever-green, fcattered, flalked, about two or three inches 
Jong, hard, rigid, exaGly ovate, but pointed; {mooth and 
of a rather fhining green above; paler, opaque, and mott 
beautifully reticulated with prominent veins beneath, fo 
erowded that there is {carcely room for the point of a needle 
between them, Fruit taftelefs, on thick, fhort, recurved, 
axillary, folitary ftalks, the fize and fhape of a walnut with 
its coat on, or elfe pear-fhaped, or turbinate with a taper 
bafe, hardifh, rugged, generally green with a blue bloom, 
{prinkled with white dots. Nothing can much better accord 
with the {pecimens feut us from Portugal than the fruit of F’. 
feandens, n. 15. Thunberg’s defcription is {till more pre- 
cife, as he fays the leaves are obtufe, and branches furrowed. 
We have feen no authentic {pecimens of F. pumila. Lin- 
nus altered the {pecific character, and added a defcription, 
in his Syflema Vegetabilium, from a widely different plant 
in his herbarium, the ereda of Thunberg ; fee n. 59. 

47. I. Cabur. Buch, MSS.—Leaves oblong-ovate, taper- 
pointed, {mooth; very clofely reticulated benedth. Fruit 
flalked, axillary, folitary, globofe, hairy.—Native of woods 
in Nepal, where it is called Calur. Stem fhrubby, three 
or four feet high. Branches downy. Leaves alternate, 
four or five inches long, fomewhat revolute; very {mooth 
above; whitifh and reticulated, like the lafl, beneath. 
Footftalks and _fruisfalks each about half aa iach lengy 


thickifh, hairy. Fruit the fizeof a moderate goolebertys 
globular, painted, bairy, lightly ribbed. 

48. F..reflexas Thunb. Diff. 11 —*‘ Leaves elliptical, 
obtufe, fmooth. Branches recurved. Fruit globole, 
feffile.”’—Native of the Eat Indies. Branches ttriated, 
rugofe, afh-coloured, fmooth. Leaves fomewhat obovate, 
a finger’s length, with parallel rios (or rather veins ?). 
Foot/alks half as long .as the leaves. Fruit fefiile on the 
branches, either {cattered or crowded, {mooth, the fize of 
apea. Thunb. 

49. F. trigona. Linn. Suppl. 441. (F. folio citri obtufo, 
fruétu fanguineo; Plum. Ic. 123. t. 132. f. 1.) —Leaves 
elliptical, {mooth, five-ribbed at the bafe; ribs hairy. Fruit 
globofe, folitary, axillary, flaked; mouth with a trian- 
gular border—Communicated to Linveus from Surinam. 
The branches are flightly hairy about the extremities only. 
Leaves alternate, three or four inches long, on very hairy 
footflalks not an inch in length; both fides are fmooth and 
even; the upper minutely dotted; the under fearcely pers 
ceptibly reticulated with veins, but furnifhed with a itrong 
mid-rib, feveral very ftraight, parallel, tranfverfe ribs, and 
at leaft two radiating ones, on each fide, at the baie, all 
hairy. Fruit the fize of a black currant, on a fhort thick 
hairy flalk, minutely downy, with an oblique varioufly 
divided calyx, externally hairy, beneath it, and a fingular 
triangular elevated border round the mouth, which is clofe#. 
Plumier’s figure feems to agree tolerably well, but there is 
no certainty in his fynonym. 

50. EF. nitida. Thunb. Diff. 10. (F.microcarpa ; Linn. 
Suppl. 442. Itti-arealou ; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 69. t. 55.) 
—Leaves elliptical, bluntly-pointed, fomewhat unequal, 
fmooth, with numerous parailel veins. Fruit feffile, glo- 
bofe, flattened at the top.—Native of the Ealt Iudies. 
Whole plant fmooth. Leaves two or three inches long, 
ufually oblique or inequilateral, near twa inches broad, with 
a fhort bluut poi: t; tranfverfe ribs or veins very flender, ter- 
minating in one uadulating vein within the margi, as in 
many other {pecies. J’rui¢ the fize of a pea, enyeloped, till 
half grown, in a ftrong three-cleft calyx ; its mouth is 
always clofed with fcales folded ever each other—The 
footftalks are {hort and thick. Vahl overlooked the Linnzan 
fynonym, and Lamarck could not aicertain it. 

51. T°. feabriufeula.— Leaves elliptic-rhomboid, unequal, 
acute, roughiih on both fides. Fruit axillary, ftalked, in 
pairs, globofe, rough.—Native of the Ea Indies, where 
the leaves are ufed for polifhing ivory, being a very five file. 
Every part of the plant isrough with moit minute cartilagi- 
nous points, hardly perceptible but by the touch. Leaves 
two or three inches long, of a light green, on talks half an 
inch long. Fruit the fize of red currants, with a tumid, 
flightly ‘perforated, mouth. We have fome doubt whether 
Vahl’s rhomboidalis, hereafter mentioned, n. 86, be different 
from this. 

52. F.comofa. Roxb. Corom. v. 2. 14. t. 125,—Leaves 
elliptical, pomted, {mooth, with numerous tran{verfe veins. 
Truit feffile, in pairs, roundifh, with a triangular mouth — 
Pound by Dr. Roxburgh on the Circar mountains. It is 
called among the Telingas Pootra, or Pudda, Juvy. A 
large tree, with flender, often pendulous, branches. Leaves 
two or three inches long, and half as broad ; their lateral 
veins ftraight and parallel, having numerous reticulations 
between them. J o¢/fa/ks near an inch long, and rather 
flender, very different from thofe of nitida,n. 50. Fruit 
when ripe the fize of a moderate goofeberry, firit purple, 
then orage. 

53. F. rubra. 


Vahl, En. n. 42. (F. pyrifolia; Lam, 


Dist. v. 2.497.  Varluga rubra; Rumph. Amb. vy. 3. 
3 D2 t. S52) 


FIGUS. 


t: 85?)— Leaves oval, fmooth; very minutely reticulated 
beneath. Fruit globofe, nearly feffile.’’—Gathered by 
Commerfon in the Mauritius, from whole {pecimens Lamarck 
deferibed it. Leaves two inches long, one and a Iralf broad, 
ftalked. J7rwvit about the tops of the fmall branches. We 
know this {pecies ouly by the above defcription. 

54. F. ageregata. Vahl. Eu. n. 43. (F. punAata; Lam. 
Di&. v. 2. 495.)—‘* Leaves oval, obtufe, {mooth; dotted 
on the upper fide. Fruit globofe, aggregate, f{effile.’’— 
Gathered by Commerfon in the Mauritius and Madagafcar. 
Leaves about three inches long and half as broad, blunt or 
emarginate, not coriaceous, dark green dotted with white. 
Fruit {mall. Lamarck quotes H. Mal. v. 3. t. 55 as re- 
fembling his plant, which we judge rather to reprefent 
F, nitida. 

55. F. politoria. Lam. Dit. v. 2. 500. Vahl. En. n. 44. 
—Leaves elliptic-oblong, with a blunt point, rough with 
hooked fpines. Truit globofe, flalked, axillary, folitary, rough. 
—Gathered in Madagafcar by Commerfon, one of whofe 
{pecimens is before us. Leaves about two and a half inches 
long, {carcely one broad, obtufe, with a little broad obtufe 
point ; paler beneath, with largely reticulated veins; both 
fides, but efpecially the veins beneath and the edges, are 
tough with minute white, hovked, rigid prickles, as are the 
footitalks, fruitftalks, upper part of the branches, and the 
fruit itfelf, which is rather larger than a black currant, and 
purple. . 

56. F. mollis. Vahl. Symb. p. 1.82. Willd. Diff. 26. t.5. 
—‘ Leaves oblong, downy beneath. Fruit axillary, feffile, 
folitary, downy.”? Vahl.—Native of the Eaft Indies. 
Branches round, downy. Leaves two inches long ; {mooth 
above; veiny beneath, rather foft; obtufe, on downy 
footftalks, fhorter than the leaves. /*ruit very {mall. _ 

57- ¥. verrucofa. Wahl. En.n. 46. (F. feptica; Fortt. 
Prod. 76.)— Leaves oblique, oblong-ovate, pointed. 
Fruitftalks in pairs, with a {mall calyx at the top. Fruit 
warty.””? Forffer. Found in the ifle of Tanna. 

58. F. coriacea. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 453.—‘* Leaves 
oblong, {mooth, coriaceous; attenuated and heart-fhaped 
at the bale; veins funk.”,—Grows in the Ealt Indies. 

59. F. ere@a. ‘Thunb. Diff. 9. (F. pumila; Linn. 
Syit. Veg. ed. 14. 922, but not Sp. Pl. 1515.)—Leaves 
evate-oblong, fharp-pointed, fmoothifh; reticulated be- 
neath. Stem nearly decumbent, with upright branches. 
Fruit top-fhaped, ftalked,° axillary, folitary, fmooth.— 
Found ia Japan. Stem weak, not perfeétly decumbent, 
round, ftriated, {mooth. Branches {cattered or aggregate, 
ere, ftraight, leafy.” Leaves from two to four inches long, 
green, and often minutely briftly, above ; pale, and reticu- 
lated with numerous downy veins, beneath. Foot/lalts half 
dn inch or more in length, rather downy upwards. #ruit- 
fialks rather longer, ereé&t, with a three-leaved calyx at the 
top. Fruit the fize of a hazel-nut, rather tapering at the 
bafe, fweet and eatable. 

60. F. falcata. Thunb. Diff. 8. Wahl. En. n. 49.— 
“Leaves oblong, fickle-fhaped, fmooth. Stem thread-fhaped, 
creeping.””— Native of Java. Leaves obtufe, with one fide 
narrower than the other, about an inch long, very finely 
veined, pale beneath, on very fhort footftalks. Stem and 
branches fender, zig-zag, brown. This feems to be akin to 
r. 15 and 16, next to which Thunberg has placed it, and 
we know not why Vahl, who appears to have feen fpeci- 
mens of the fa/cata at leaft, has removed it to fo great a 
dattance. 

61. F. drupacea. Thunb. Diff. 11.— Leaves obovate, 
pointed, f{mooth. Fruit ovate, rugged, feffile.”?—Native 
of the Ratt Ladies. Branches round, furrowed, fmooth, 


Leaves coriaceous, four inches long, ribbed; green above ; 
afh-coloured beneath, om thick ftalks about half an inch 
long. Fruit towards the ends of the branches, {mooth, as 
big as plums. Thunb. 

62. F. retufa. Linn. Maut. 129.—Leaves oblong, obo- 
vate, very obtufe, quite {mooth ; three-ribbed near the bafe. 
Fruit feffile, globofe, fmooth. Calyx downy.—Native of 
Java. Branches {mooth, angular. Leaves three inches 
long, ftalked ; fhining above; opaque, paler and veiny be~ 
neath; furnifhed with a ftraight lateral rib on each fide, 
which vanifhes about the middle of the leaf, and feveral 
tranfverfe ribs befides. #ruit when young enveloped in 
a calyx which is externally downy; when full grown the 
fize of a currant, fmooth, with broad polifhed f{cales at the 
mouth. 

63. F. prolixa. Forft. Prod. 77. Wahl. En. 52.— 
* Leaves lanceolate-oblong, pointed; dotted beneath. 
Fruit moftly in pairs, globofe, axillary, fmooth, on wavy 
{mooth ftalks.”.—Native of tlie Society Ifles. Branches 
{mooth. Leaves ftalked, three or four inches long, an 
inch or more in breadth, with very fine nerves, fcarcely 
veined, membranous. Fruit the fize of a pea, on very 
fhort ftalks. Vahl. 

64. F. daurifolia. Lam. Di&. v. 2. 495. Wahl. En. 
n. 53. (Ff. virens; Ait. H. Kew. v. 3.451. F. indica 
maxima, folio oblongo, funiculis e fummis ramis demiffis 
radices agentibus fe propagans, fructu minore, {phzrico, 
fanguineo; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 140. t. 223.)—‘ Leaves 
oblong-lanceolate, fmooth, with a few {cattered deprefled 
points above. Fruit feffile, folitary, globofe, axillary.””— 
Native of the Welt Indies. A very lofty ¢ree, according 
tc Sleane, whofe upper branches throw out long roots. 
Pidgeons of all kinds are fond of the fruit, which is the 
fize of a hazel-nut, fcarlet, {weetifh and not unpleafant. 
The /eaves feem to refemble thofe of the Cherry-laurel. 

65. I. grifea. Wahl. Enom. a. 54.—* Smooth. Leaves 
oblong, obtufe, narrowed at the bafe. Fruit feffile, nearly 
folitary.””—Deferibed by Wahl from Juffieu’s herbarium. 
Its native country is unknown. ‘The branches, according 
to him, are grey in the upper part. Leaves ftalked, three 
or four inches long, paler beneath, very fmooth. Foct/lalks 
an inch long. Fruit globofe, grey, twice as big as a pea. 
Stipulas lanceolate, attenuated, {mooth, as long as the nail. 

66. F. pallida. bid. n. 55.—** Leaves oblong, fome- 
what wedge-thaped, fmooth, even, obtufe. Fruit axillary, 
in pairs, on fhort ftalks.””—Gathered by Von Rohr at St. 
Martha, in South America. Branches greyith. Leaves 
membranous, two or three inches long, and one broad, 
bright green, minutely veined, with a yellow rib. Foot- 


fialks flender, {mooth, an inch long. Fruit globular, 


fmooth, the fize of black pepper. Vahl. 

67. F. excel/a. Ibid. n. 56. (Atti meer alou; Rheede 
H. Mal. v. 3. 75. t. 58.)—“ Leaves lanceolate, fomewhat 
elliptical, acute ; narrower on one fide at the bafe. Fruit 
ftalked, globofe.””—Native of the Eaft Indies. Branches 
and /eaves {mooth ; the latter three or four inches long, 
moft veiny beneath, on fhort ftalks. Fruit in pairs, aca 
lary, fmooth and even, the fize of a pea, on italks longer 
than thofe of the leaves. Fahl. 

68. F. Hei (F.indica; Vahl. En. n. 57. F. indica 
@; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1514. Tsjela; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 85. 
t. 63.)—‘ Leaves broad-lanceolate, long-pointed, fmooth. 
Fruit cluttered, globofe, f{mooth, on fhort ftalks.”?—Native 
of the Eait Indies. This, according to Rheede, is a tree 
of vaft dimenfions, about 70 feet high, and 18 in the cir- 
cumference of the trunk, with widely-fpreading branches. 
Leaves ftalked, two or three inches long, with numerous, 

7 pawallel, 


FICUS. 


parallel, tranfverfe, flender ribs; the point fometimes an 
inch long. J ruit copious, the fize of a pea, infipid, the 
foed of bats, on which account the Portuguefe and Dutch 
eall it the Bat-tree. 

69. F. falicifolia. Vahl. Symb. p. 1.82. t. 23. (F. indica; 
Forfk. Fl. Arab. 179.)—‘ Leaves lanceolate, pointed, 
{mooth. Fruit axillary, ftalked, in pairs.”’—-Gathered by 
Forfkall in Arabia, where it is called Thaad. Of the bark, 
dried and twifted, matches for great guns are made. The 
branches, though long and pendulous, do not throw out 
roots. The whole plant is very fmooth. Leaves ftalked, 
from three to five inches long, rounded at the bafe, dotted 
beneath, not above an inch broad. J ruit larger than a 
pea, {mooth. 

qo. F. obliqua. Forft. Prod. 77.— Leaves lanceolate, 
very fmooth, with a cartilaginous edge. T'ruit-italks in 
pairs, very fhort. Calyx as long as the fruit, deciduous.”’ 
forfter. A native of the South Sea Iflands of Namoka 
and Tanna. 


SeGtion 2. Leaves undivided, ferrated, or toothed. 


qi. F. femicordata. Buch. MSS.—Leaves half-heart- 
fhaped, flightly ferrated, rough; rather hairy beneath- 
Fruit on radical fhoots, ftalked, in pairs, downy.—Native 
of woods in Upper and Lower Nepal, where it was found 
by Dr. Buchanan, early in 1822. A large free, with 
downy or hairy branches. Leaves above a foot in length, 
oblong, fharp-pointed, very unequally heart-fhaped at the 
bafe, paler and veiny beneath, on fhort, rough, or downy 
footitalks, the larger lobe croffing the braach, and furnifhed 
with radiating ribs. Stipulas long, narrow, fmooth, deci- 
duous. Flowering branches from the bafe of the trunk, or 
even from the roots under ground, drooping, panicled, 
downy, fometimes leafy towards the extremity. rwit in 
pairs trom each joint of thefe branches, globole, hairy, on 
hairy or downy ftalks, with a pair of downy braéteas ; when 
tipe as large as a common plum.—The natives eat the figs 
raw, as well as fried. 

72. F. auriculata. our. Cochinch. 666.—‘ Leaves 
heart-fhaped, pointed, fomewhat ferrated, downy. Fruit 
auricled, fmooth, in terminal clutters.’’—Cultivated, and 
probably wild alfo, in Cochinchina, where the unripe figs 
are fliced and eaten in falads, inftead of cucumbers, which 
they refemble in flavour. The tree is large, with ample 
leaves. Fruit turbinate, two inches long, red, in denfe, 
upright, terminal clufters, furuifhed at its top, befides the 
aufual orifice, with four diftant holes, furrounded with a 
prominent cartilage, and refembling ears. 

73. F. Forfkalii. Vahl. En. n. 61. (F. morifolia ; Forfk. 
Arab. 179.)— Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, 
rough, ferrated, longer than their footftalks.”?—Native of 
Arabia. Leaves halfa fpanlong. Stipulas linear-lanceolate. 
Fruit eatable, but unpleafant. For/k. 

74. EF. mauritiana. Lam. Di&. v. 2.499. Vahl. En. 
n. 62.— Leaves ovate or heart-fhaped, ferrated ; downy 
and rough beneath. Fruit globofe, fomewhat turbinate, 
dtalked, on naked pendulous branches.”’—Gathered by Com- 
merfon in the Ifle de Bourbon. Branches downy, rather 
hifpid. Leaves {mooth on the upper fide, fix or feven 
inches long, four or five broad, ovate, generally heart- 
fhaped. at the bafe, on foor-/a/és two or three inches in 
length. Fruit larger than a walnut, in pairs. Wahl fays, 
the figure in Hort. Mal. v. 3. t. 61, does not ill accord 
with this plant. See F /ymphytifolia, n. 80. 

95+ F. lateriflora. Vahl. En. n. 63. (F. morifolia ; Lam. 
Di. v. 2. 499.)—“* Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, 
acute, ferrated, {mooth.. Fruit globole, alked, below the 


leaves,’’—Gathered by Commerfon in the Ifle de Bourbon, 
Branches brownith. Leaves refembling thofe of a mulberry - 
tree, ftalked, green on both fides fearcely at all rough, 
about three inches long and two wide. Fruit fmoeth, 
{cattered over the naked part of the branches. _ 

76. F. ulmifolia. Lam. Di&. v. 2. 499. Vabl. En.n, 64. 
—*‘+ Leaves ovate, fparingly toothed, pointed, unequal at 
each end, rough on both fides.’’—Native of Java, and the 
Philippine iflands. Branches round, rough. Leaves two 
or three inches long, ovate-oblong, very rough with little 
tubercles, terminating in a point an inch long, wavy at their 
edges, fometimes three-cleft, or fomewhat pinnatifid. Fruit 
globofe, very rough, rather bizger than a pea, on ftalks half 
the length of the leaf-ftalks. , 

77. ¥. capenfis. Thunb. Diff. 13.—* Leaves ovate, 
acute, ferrated, fmooth. Fruit ftalked, {mooth, turbinate.”? 
—Gathered by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope. 
A very lofty, f{preading, fmooth tree. Leaves a finger’s 
leagth, {preading, deeply toothed, paler and ribbed be- 
neath, on foot-/fa/és an inch long. Srwit {cattered, bigger 
than a hazel-nut. Dhend. 

78.1". groffalarioides. Burm. Ind, 227.—* Leaves ftalked, 
ovate ; entire at the bafe; ferrated at the top; yellowifh 
white beneath.”’—Found by Garcia at Surat. The fruit 
is yellow, refembliag a goofeberry, but poifonous. Such is 
Burmann’s account, who confiders Hort. Mal. v. 3. t. 62. 
as a variety of this, differing only in having fhorter foot- 
fralks. See F. rufefcens, n. 122. 

979. F.oexafperata. Vahl. En. n. 67. (F. fcabra; Wiild. 
Diff. t. 2. Vahl.)—“ Leaves oblong-ovate, very rough, 
pointed, toothed towards the end. Fruit ftalked, glo- 
bofe ”’—Branches rough when young, afterwards fmooth. 
Leaves three inches long, ttalked, three-ribbed, downy 
beneath. fruit in pairs, rough, the fize.of 2 pea; on flalks 
an inch long. 

So. F.d/ymphytifolia. Lam. Dik. v. 2. 498. Vahl. En. 
n. 68.—(Perin-teregam ; Rheede H. Mal. v. 3. 81.t. 61?) 
*¢ Leaves ovate-oblong, acute, minutely toothed ; rough on 
both fides. Fruit hairy, ftalked, fomewhat whorled, in long 
cluiters.’—-Native of Java, and other parts of the Eail 
Indies. Lamarck deferibed it from Sonnerat’s {pecimen, 
and remarks, that the figure in the Hortus Malabaricus 
would be tolerably exact if the leaves were reprefented 
with {mall teeth. The /eaves are nine or ten inches long, 
ftalked, with hairy ribs. /rwit globofe. Wahl defcribes 
the fruit feffile, the fize of a cherry. Rheede’s plant is 
a very large long lived tree, laden with fruit, as well as 
leaves, all the year long. 

81. F. maculata. “Lim. Sp. Pl. rsr5. (F. caftanez 
folio, fructu globofo maculato; Plum, Ic. 122.t. rgt. f. 1.) 
—Léaves oblong, pointed, ferrated. Frut  globofe, 
feffile, in long fpikes.—Native of America. Plumier’s 
figure, whence the above charaéters are taken, is our only 
authority for this fpecies. The fruit is an iach in diameter, 
befprinkled with fpots or warts. Leaves a foot long, regu- 
larly and fharply ferrated, with innumerable ftraight, parallel, 
tranfverle veins. 

82. F. hifpido. Linn. Suppl. 442. Thunb. Diff. 13.— 
Leaves elliptic-oblong, pointed, obfcurely ferrated, rough 
on both fides.. Fruit turbinate, ftalked, axillary, folitary, 
very briftly.— Native of Java. The branches and foot/talés 
are nearly fmooth, the latter aninch or au inch and quarter 
long. Leaves near four inches long, rough with mioute 
points, furnifhed with feveral unequal, curved, brittly, late- 
ral ribs, and reticulated veins ; the edges waved, but fcarce- 
ly ferrated. Frwitfatks full half an inch long, covered, like 
the frwit itfelf, with numerous rigid, thining, tawny oo 

“” 


Ficus. 


Had we not one of Thunbere’s own [pecimens, we fhould 
hardly have recognized the plant by his defeription. 

83. TF. oppofitifolia. Roxb. Corom. v.2. 14. t. 124. (FE. 

emonum; Wehl. En. n. 71. F. feabras; Jacq. H. 
Schoeubr.y. 3. 36. t.31°.— Leaves oppofite, oblong, flichtly 
ferrated ; rough above ; more downy beneath, Fruit ftalked, 
angular, very hairy.—Gathered by Konig and Roxburgh 
in moift rich foil, about the banks of rivulets, in the Ealt 
Indies. It is but a fmall /ree, with hollow jointed, hairy 
branches, which fometimes take root about their extremitics. 
Leaves very unequal in fize, from one to five inches long, 
one or two broad, on thick, fhortifh, hairy ftalks ; the upper 
fide is extremely harfh to the touch; the under hoary, 
and ftrongly ‘reticulated. J¢ruit the fize of a large nut- 
meg, very icaly at the mouth; axillary and folitary on the 
young branches; on the older ones racemofe or cluttered 5 
tawny, hoary, feldom eaten. This fpecies being, as far as 
hitherto difcovered, fingular in its genus for having oppofite 
leaves: we greatly prefer Roxburgh’s name to any other. 
The milky juice is faid to be poifonous, as in feveral more. 

84 F. montana. Burm. Ind. 226.— Leaves oblong, 
with wavy ferratures. Fruit very {mall.”’—Wative of hills 
in Java. Koown by Burmann’s fhort character only. 


Section 3. Leaves angular or finuated. 

85. F. Sycomorus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1513. (FF. Cypria; 
Rauwolf. H. 57. t. 57. Sycomorus; Matth. Valgr. v.14. 
259.)—Leaves oval-heartfhaped, bluntly angular, wavy, 
f{mooth on both fides. Fruit from the main ftem, obovate, 
flalked.—Native of Evypt, from whence we have f{peci- 
mens gathered by Dr. Delile. It is rarely feen in collec- 
tions, and unknown in our gardens. The /eaves and habit 
fo much agree with F. Chanas, n. 8. that we fhould have 
placed them next to each other, had we not for convenience 
followed Vahl’s arrangement ; they differ however from that 
{pecies in being {mooth. The fruit grows, either folitary or 
on branched ftalks, from the main item of the tree, (which 
is of very large dimenfions), and refembles common figs in 
{hepe, but ave {maller, paler, fweet and delicate, but not 
always well ripened. ‘The operations of an infect called 
Cynips Sycomori are fuppofed neceflary to their coming 

“to perfection. (See Carrirication.) The f{pecitic charac- 
ter is very unjuttifiably perverted in the Syftema Vegetabi- 
lium from a fynonym of Plukenet, t. 178. f. 3, which be- 
longs, as Lamarck obferves, to Wibi/eus tiliaceus, a plant 
with downy leaves.— By no lefs ftrange a perverfion, the 
name of Sycamore has become attached to our greater 
Maple, Acer Pfeudoplatanus. 

86. I. rhombeidalis. Vahl. En. v. 74.— Leaves oblong, 
or fomewhat rhomboid, veiny. Fruit ftalked, globofe, 
rather downy.’?—Gathered by Dr. Rottler in the Eat 
Indies. Branches round, thick, fubdivided, {mooth, grey. 
Leaves {cattered, ftalked, pale green, entire, fmooth en both 
fides; fometimes acute, fometimes obtufe, at the fummit ; 
acute at the bafe ; often furnifhed with a prominent angle, 
about the middle, on each fide. Fruié axillary, folitary, 
umbilicated, the fize of a pea. Vahl.—This defeription 
agrees, in many points, with our feabriufeula, n. 51, but 
furely the roughnefs of the leaves, which are ufed as a file, 
could never have been overlooked by Vahl, nor the fruit 
called villofe. 

87. F. reticulata. Thunb. Diff. 12.— Leaves ellipti- 
eal, fomewhat angular, toothed, pointed, fmooth; reticu- 
lated beneath. Fruit globofe, folitary, ftalked.’?— Found in 
the Ealt Indies. Branches ereé&t, {mooth, purple. Leaves 
obovate, tapering at the bafe, three or four inches long, 
{preading, paler underneath, on fhortifh thick fuos/alks, 


Fruit axillary, fmooth, larger than a pea, on a flalk a line in 
length. 

BB. F. Sur. Forfk. Fl. Arab. 180. Vahl. En. n. 76.— 
«« Leaves lanceolate, waved, very fmooth, fomewhat heart- 
fhaped at the bale. Fruit cluftered on the main ftem.’?— 
Native of Arabia, where it is called Sur. This tree re- 
fembles the Sycomorus. The young branches, /tipulas, and 
under fide of the fooifalks, according to Vaht, are hairy. 
Leaves rather coriaceous, broadith-lanceolate, with wavy 
tectly; pale and reticulated at the back. The fruits 
deferibed by Forflall as the fize of a pidgeon’s egg, and 
eatakle. 

89. F. afpera. Forfle. Pl. Efcul. 36.—* Leaves un- 
equally heart fhaped, finuated or toothed, rough on both 
fides. Calyx obfolete, united to the bafe of the turbinate 
fruit.”’—Cultivated in the gardens and fhrubberies of the 
ifle of Tanna, for the fake of its fruit, which is fweet- and 
pleafant, as well as of the leaves, which when boiled afford 
the inhabitants an agreeable difh. Zee four or five fathoms 
high, with jointed leafy branches. Zeavesa {pan long, on 
very fhort ftalks, rough and hairy, one fide narrower than 
the other. J ruit axillary, in pairs, feffile, downy, white ; 
the fize of a common fig. Forjler; who cites H. Mat. 
v, 3. t. 62. as having fome refemblance to this fpecies fee 
rufefcens, nN. TO2- : 

go. F. finuata. Thunb. Diff. 12.—* Leaves elliptical, 
finuated or toothed, pointed, fmooth. Fruit globofe, 
aggreyate, feflile.”—Native of the Eaft Indies. Branches 
erect, {mooth, grey. Leaves obovate, toothed, and fome- 
what angular towards their points, with a reflexed margin : 
entire towards the bafe; pale, ribbed and reticulated be- 
neath, three or four inches long, on ttalks the length of the 
nail. Jruit {cattered or aggregate upon the {mall branches, 
feffile, knotty, fcarcely fo big as pepper. Such is 
Thunberg’s defeription, and yet, in his fpecific charaéter, he 
calls the fruit ftalked. 

gt. F. fubincifa. Buch. MSS.—Leaves oblong, pointed, 
harfh, naked; here and there jagged. Fruit ovate, tuber- 
culated, axillary, italked, folitary—Gathered by Dr. 
Buchanan on the rocks of Upper Nepal, Jan. 28, 1803. A 
tree with very numerous, rigid, crooked branches, leafy at 
the ends only. Leaves two inches or more in length, with 
a taper point almoit an inch long, elliptic-lanceolate, 
moitly entire, but often cut, toothed or wavy in the upper 
part at one or both edges, veiny, rough to the touch, paler 
beneath. aor/la/ks thort. Fruit towards the end of each 
branch, the fize of a nutmeg, pointed, covered with promi- 
nent warts, not hairy, on talks twice as long as thofe of the 
leaf, thickened above the middle, where there is a {mall 
three-leaved involucrum. 

92. F. rofrata. Lam. Dié&. v. 2. 498. Vahl. En. n. 79. 
—Leaves oblong, unequally angular and wavy, with a 
linear obtufe point ; {mooth above. Fruit globofe, fmooth, 
on fhort ftalks—Gathered by Commerfon in Java. Branches 
flender, roughifh with minute points when young. Leaves 
on {hort rough falks, two or three inches long, of a fin- 
gular abrupt and irregular figure, irregularly veiny, reticu- 
lated ; paler and fomewhat harfh beneath ; the point almoft 
an inch long, rather broadeft towards the end. J ruit the 
fize of pepper, axillary, two or three together, on very 
fhort ftalks. The leaves of this {pecies fuggeft fome idea of 
the fith called Chetodon Jongirofiris, figured in Bronflonet’s 
Ichthyologia. 

93. IV. diformis. Lam. Di&. v. 2. 500. Vahl: En. n. 80, 
—* Leaves oblong, acute, rough, of various fhapes ; undi- 
vided ; fomewhat angular ; finuated ; or deeply laciniated.’? 
—Native of the Philippine iflands. We know nothing of 

it 


120) Oh CAA ORES 


it but the above definition of Lamarck, who quotes a 
fynonym of Ray which we would rather apply to F. 
heterophylla, n. gg. if that be different from the prefent, 
which we doubt. Lamarck indeed appears to have had two 
diftinét plants under thefe names, but his heterophylla is not 
that of Linnzus. See rufe/cens, n. 102. 


Seétion 4. Leaves divided. 


94. F. palmata. Vahl. Symb. v. 1. 84. t. 24. Forfk. 

Fl. Arab. 179.—Leaves ovate or lobed, ferrated, acute, 
rough ; heart-{haped at the bafe. Fruit pear-fhaped, {mooth, 
flalked, axillary, folitary.—Native of Arabia. Branches 
fmooth. Leaves from two to four inches long, fharply fer- 
rated throughout, veiny ; paler, with purple veins, beneath ; 
on flender foot/falks, full an inch long. rait the fize of a 
hazel-nut, its {talk fhorter than that of the leaf, with a {mall 
two-leaved involucrum. 

95. F. birta. Vahl. En. n. 82.—* Leaves oblong, un- 
divided or three-lobed, finely ferrated; fomewhat heart- 
fhaped at the bafe ; f{mooth above. Fruit feffile, briflly.’’? — 
Native of China. Leaves diftant, three-lobed towards the 
extremity ; lobes pointed, the lateral ones fmalleft ; ribs 
hairy beneath. Foot/alks hairy, an inch and a half long. 
Fruit axillary, folitary, the lize of a pea. Vahl fawa Java 
fpecimen with fome leaves undivided; and two or three 
fruits together, twice the above fize. 

96. F. truncata. Vchl. Symb. v. 1.83.— Leaves oblong, 
undivided or lobed, entire, rough. Fruit flalked, oblong, 
abrupt.””—Native of the Eaft Indies. Branches angular, 
fmooth. Leaves above two inches long, on fhort rugyed 
foot{talks, either undivided, or with three, fometimes five, 
oblong lobes, the lateral ones bluateft. 2°ruit rough with 
minute points, its top as it were cut off abruptly. 

97- EF. ferrata, Ibid. $3. Forfk. Fl. Arab. 179.—- 
« Leaves oblong, undivided or palmate, rough, with wavy 
teeth. Fruit ftalked, globofe, very rough and hairy.’— 
Gathered by Forfkall in various parts of Arabia, where 
the leaves are ufed to clean and polifh rufty iron. Branches 
and younger /eaves very rough with numerous extremely 
minute points. ruiz the fize of a hazel-nut, on fhort 
ftalks. 

98. F. toxicaria. Linn. Mant. 305. (F. toxica; Thunb. 
Dill. 14. F. Padana; Burm. Ind. 226.) —“ Leaves ovate, 
or heart-fhaped, cut and lobed, fomewhat toothed; white 
beneath. Fruit ftalked, ovate, downy.’’—Found near the 
town of Padano in Sumatra, by Garcin, who reports it to 
be extremely poifonous. The /eaves are a foot long, being 
equal in fize to thofe of F. denghalenfis. Burmann. Fruit 
the fize of aplum. Thunb. 

gg. F. heterophyllz, Linn. Suppl. «42, (F. denticulata ; 
Vahl. Symb. v. 1.83. F. indica fylveflris, indis Z/s, &c ; 
Raii Hitt. y. 3. append. so. n. 12 ?)—Leaves oblong, undi- 
vided, three-lobed and cut, unequally toothed; harfh on 
both fides. Fruit folitary, flalked, globofe, tuberculated, 
roughifh.—Gathered by Konig in the Ealt Indies, where 
it is called Nir dit, water fig, from it’s inhabiting the 
banks of rivulets and other watery places, fo overrun with 
the prickly rattan, Calamus Rotang, as to be hardly accefli- 
ble. The dranches are veddith-brown, Slender, roughifh; 
angular and downy at their ends. eaves on thortifh rough 
ftalks, green aad very rough to the touch, on both fides, 
-with extremely minute cartilaginous points; their fhape re- 
markably various, fome being oblong, undivided, acute, 
partly entire, partly toothed for a confliderable {pace, but 

quite irregularly ; others with a deep wide rounded entire 
inus at one, or oftener both, fides, thus become two or 
three-lobed, and are toothed unequally like the former, 


Veins pale, forming large quadrangular reticulations. The 
length of each leaf is from two to four inches. Fruit the 
fize of a mufqnet-ball, pale, covered with very minute 
rough points, and with feattered flightly prominent warts, 
its mouth obtufe, clofed with broad flat feales. Fruitfalks 
axitlary, thick, fhorter than the footftalks, rough with 
little prickles, and bearing an involucrum of three fmall 
obtufe concave leaves, a little below the fruit. ‘The fyno- 
nyms of Linneus and Vahl are determined by authentic 
{pecimens ; that of Ray we can only guefs at, but his de- 
{cription anfwers exaétly to our plant. He {ays the leaves 
are ufed for polifhing wooden furniture, and that the fruit 
1s mawkifhly fweet, eaten by children and birds only, but 
ufeful for cataplafms when boiled and bruifed- The inner 
bark is given in decoétion for the gonorrhoea, and to throw 
out the meafles. We cannot account for Linnzus’s de- 
{cribing the fruit as fmooth, nor can we anfwer for Vahl 
heterophylla being the fame as our’s, theugh it 1s very pof- 
fible he might happen to fee young fruit only ; but our’s 
even in an early ftate is rough. 

100. F. repens. Roxb. MSS,—Leaves unequally heart- 
thaped, finely toothed throughout, rough on both fides ; un- 
divided; or three or four-lobed. Fruit folitary, ftalked, 
obovate, abrupt, briltly—Communicated by Lord Viicount 
Valentia from the Eaft Indies. Branches flender, downy 
when young. Leaves on fome branches four or five inches 
long and three broad, heart-fhaped, with one fide of the 
bafe much larger than the other, on flender foot/alés two 
inches long ; on other branches unequally heart-fhaped at the 
bafe in a fimilar manner, but much {maller, and deeply 
three-lobed, one lateral lobe ufually divided, their footftalks 
{earcely an inch long, and more downy ; thefe feem to be 
younger leaves than the undivided ones ; all are rough with 
minute points and briftles, paler beneath, minutely but 
fharply soothed throughont, fomewhat pointed. — Fruit 
axillary, the fize of a filberd or bigger, tapering at the 
bafe, lopped attheend. Fruit/a/i fhorter than the foot- 
ftalk, with a {mall three-leaved involucrum about the mid- 
dle, which is clofe to the fruit when very young. This is 
probably nearly related to the following, which we have not 
{een, but the defecriptions of their leaves can fcarcely be 
made to agree. 

101. F. cannabina. Lour. Cochinch. 668.—* Leaves of 
the item haftate, cut; thofe of the branches ovato-lanceo- 
late, lightly ferrated. Stem nearly ereé&t.??—Native of the 
plains of Cochinchina. A /brub fix teet high, branched, with 
a {mcoth tough and fibrous bark, Leaves ftalked, fcatter- 
ed, very rough. Fruit oval-top-fhaped, on long, fimple, fo- 
litary, lateral italks, with a three-cleft rounded involu- 
crum. 

102. F. rufefcens, Vahl. En. n. 89. (F. heterophylla, ; 
Lamarck. Dict. v. 2. 499. Valli-teregam ; Rheede H. Mal. 
Vv. 3.83.t. 62.)—** Leaves ovate-oblong, fomewhat toothed, 
undivided or lobed, rough. Fruit flightly ttalked, hairy 
like the ftalks and branches.’”?—Native of China, and the 
Eaft Indies.  Sonnerat. Leaves green on both fides, 
about five inches long, aad half as broad, on ftalks not 
an inch in length; fome of them undivided, others with 
three or four deep lobes, almoft as in the common fig- 
tree. J*ruit clothed with reddifh hairs or briftles. La- 
marck. Rheedce fays his plant is a climbing flrub fix or 
feven feet high, throwing out long trailing branches in 
every direction. 

103. F. morifolia. Ibid. n, go.—** Leaves in three deep 
divifions, very rough ; their fegments lanceolate, angular, 
and fomewhat pinnatifid.*?—Native of the Eaft Indies, 
Branches Slender, fcarcely rough, a little downy in the 

upper 


1 i eG} 


upper part. Leaves ftalked, alternate, obtufe at the 
bal.>three-ribbed ; veinlefs above; flightly veiny beneath ; 
deftitute of pubefcence, but very rough on both fides 
with minute points, the upper fide appearing under a 
magnifier as if covered with {mall white, membranous 
feales) The fegments are narrow ana tapering. Vahl. 

104. EF. fimpliciffima. our. Cochinch. 667 —‘ Leaves 
palmate. Stem perfectly fimple. Fruit compreffed.””— 
Native of the woods of Cochinchina. A /brub five feet 
high, with a ftraight upright ftem, deftitute of branches. 
Leaves large, ttalked, feattered, rough. Fruit f{mall, ax- 
illary, ieffile, folitary, roundifh, faffron-coloured. Lourei- 
ra. 

105. F. Cariea. Common Fig. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1513. 
Miller Iluftr. t. roo. Trew Ehrh. t. 73, 74, excelleit. 
Ficus and Chameficus ; Ger. em. 1510.)—Leaves pal- 
mate, bluntifh, wavy, or fomewhat~ toothed, rough. 
Fruit top-fhaped, umbilicated, fmooth.—Native of the 
fouth of Europe and fome parts of Afia, where it is alfo 
generally cultivated, but will not bear the fevere win- 
ters of the north of Enrope, nor even our own, without 
proteGtion. Stem branched from the bottom, from fix to 
twenty feet high, with long, twilted, pliant, round, grey- 
ifh branches, rough when young. J.caves deciduous, a 
fpan long, in three or five deep rounded lobes, of which 
the central one is the largeft, the outermoft much the 
fmalleft; they are of a deep green, fcarcely paler, but 
rather more hairy ; beneath, furnifhed with radiating ribs, 
one to each lobe, and many tranfverfe veins. Fruit foli- 
tary, on a fhort thick ftalk, tapering at the bafe, and 
furnifhed with a three-leaved involucrum. Its colour is 
generally purplifh, its pulp foft, fweet and fragrant. 
‘There are numerous varieties of cultivated figs, of which 
the moft hardy is the Common Purple. Others are ei- 
ther more tender, worfe bearers, or lefs defirable in fla- 
vour. Several excellent kinds however are found in the 
fouthern parts of France, Italy, Spain and the Levant. 
In thofe countries figs are ufually brought to table, with 
melons and mulberries, in the beginning of the dinner, as 
well as at breakfaft, and do not in general make a part 
of the defert. 

The F. Carica in its wild ftate is a more humble and 
diftorted fhrub, bearing fruit which comes to no perfee- 
tion as to flavour, bat the parts of fructification are very 
perfect, and the feeds are duly ripened, even in France. 
Such figs as feem to fall off before they arrive at matu- 
rity, are commonly thofe in which the ftamens are moft 
numerous or effective, and which have therefore attained 
their final perfection. TThefe are carefully collected in 
the Levant to impregnate the female bloffoms of the 
cultivated fig, their pollen being probably more perfeét 
than what is produced by the ftamens of fuch indivi- 
duals as have, on the other iiand, more perfect piltils, In 
other words, the plants are incompletely dicecious, like the 
mulberry and many others. This willexplain the myftery 
of Caprification, whether wounding the fruit be ufeful to 
promote its ripening, or whether the perfeétion of the pulpy 
receptacle be owing chiefly to the vigorous growth of the 
female flowers confequent to their impregnation. Though 
both caufes feem to co-operate, we fhould lay moft ftrefs on 
the latter, which the analogy of other fruits confirms. See 
CapriFicaTion. 

All the {pecies of Ficus are either trees or fhrubs, whofe 
fecreted fluids are milky, more or lefs acrid or feetid, how- 
ever fweet and wholefome the fruit of feveral, though not 
of all, may be. ‘The leaves are fimple, ftalked. Stipulas 
lateral, not intrafoliaceous, im pairs, membranous, decidu- 


S. 


ous, generally taper-pointed. Flowers more or lefs poly. 
gamous. z P 

We have in the above fynopfis of the fpecies added four- 
teen to thofe of Wahl, though we have prefumed to reduce 
two of histo one; feen. 99. Poflibly fome of the reft, - 
which he, as well as ourfelves, have been obliged to 
adopt upon truft, may, on a future examination, prove 
not diftin& from each other, while it is probable that nu- 
merous undefcribed {pecies may {till be latent in the wilds of 
Afia and America. S. 

Ficus, in Gardening, a tree of the deciduous fruit kind, 
of which the fpecies cultivated are, the common: fig-tree 
(F. carica) ; the Egyptian fig tree, or fycomore (F. /yco- 
morus) ; the poplar leaved fig-tree (¥F. religinfa) 3 the Ben- 
gal fig-tree (F. Bengafenfis;; and the Indian fig-tree 
(FE: Indica). 

Of the firit {pecies there are feveral varieties, the chief of 
which are the following : 

Brown Ifchia fig. —'his isa fort which has a large fruit, 
fhort, globular, with a pretty large eye, pinched in near the 
footitalk, of a brown or chefout colouron the outiide, and pur- 
ple within ; the grains large, and the pulp {weet and high- 
flavoured ; it often burfts open as it ripens, in the end of 
July, or the beginning of the following menth. This has 
its fruit ripening well on ftandards in warm foils and fitua- 
tions. 

Black Genoa fig —This is a kind which has a long fruit, 
that {wells pretty large at the top, where it is obtufe ; tlie 
lower part is very {lender towards the ftalk ; the fkin' of a 
dark purple colour, almoft black, and has a purple farina 
over it, like that on fome plums; the infide is of a bright 
red, and the flefh very high-flavoured. It ripens early in 
Augutt. 

Small white carly fig. —This is a fort which has a round- 
ifh fruit, a little flatted at the crown, with a very fhort 
foot-{talk ; the fkin thin, and, when fully ripe, of a pale yel- 
lowifh white colour; the infide white, and the flefh fweet, 
but not high-flavoured. It ripens in Auguft, as in the pre- 
ceding kind. 

Large white Genoa fir.-—This isa kind which hasa large 
globular fruit, a little lengthened towards the ftalk ; the 
fkin thin, of a yellowifh colour when fully ripe, and red 
within, It is a good fiuit, but the trees are not good 
bearers in general, 

Black Ifchia jig. —This, which isa fhort fruit, of a mid- 
dling fize, a little flatted at the crown, has the fkin al- 
moft black when ripe, and the infide of a deep red ; the flefh 
very high-flavoured. It bears well, and ripens in Augutt 
in this climate. 

Malta fiy.—This, which has a {mall brown fruit, much 
compreffed at the top, and greatly pinched towards the 
foot-{talk, has the fkin and infide of a pale brown colour ; 
the flefh very fweet, and well-flavoured. When the fruit is 
permitted to hang upon the trees till fhrivelled, it becomes 
a fine {weetmeat, 

Murray, or brown Naples Jig-—This is a kind which 
has a pretty large globular fruit, ofa light brown colour on 
the outfide, with faint marks of a dirty white, the infide 
nearly of the fame colour; the grains'are pretty large, and 
the flefh well-flavoured. It ripens the latter end of Auguft 
in general. 

Green Ifchia fig.—This is a fort which has an oblong 
fruit, almoft globular at the crown ; the fkin is thin, of a 
green colour ; but, when fully ripe, ftained through by the 
pulp toa brownifh caft; the infide purple, the flefh 
high-flavoured. It ripens about the end of Augutt. 

Madonna, Brunfwick, or Hanover fg.—It is a kind 
7 which 


FICUS 


which has: a long pyramidal fruit of a large fize; the fkin 
brown; the flefh of a light brown colour, coarfe, with 
little flavour. It ripens the end of Auguft, and the begin- 
ning of September. 

» Common blue, or purple fig.—This is a fort which. is 
oblong, itisa great bearer. The fruit ripens in Auguft in 
general... : ; 

Long brown Naples fig.—This isa kind which has the 
leaves deeply divided ; the fruit long, fomewhat compreffed 
at the crown ; the foot-ftalks pretty long ; the ficin of a dark 
brown when fully ripe ; the flefh inclining to red ; the graine 
large, and the flefh well-flavoured. It ripens in Septem- 
ber. 

Yellow Ijchia fig. —This isa fort which has a large fruit 
ofa pyramidal form ; the fkin is yellow when ripe, and the 
flefh purple and well flavoured. it is not a good bearer, 
but ripens in September in mott cafes. 

Small brown Ifehia fig.—Thisis a fort which has a {mail 
pyramidal fruit, witha very fhort foot-italk ; the fkin of a 
light brown, the flefh inclining to purple, of a very high 
flavour. It ripens late in September. it is not a good 
bearer. : 

Gentile fig —This fort has a middle-fized globular fruit ; 
the fkin, when ripe, yellow; the flefh alfo inclines to the 
fame colour; the grains large, and the fleth well-flavoured, 
but it ripens very late, and is a bad bearer. 

There are alfo other forts, as the beft early white, black 
Provence, Cyprian, Ford’s feedling, green’ Naples, large 
black, large blue Marfcilles, Milward, {mall black Ifchia, 
white Ifchia, yellow Cefar, 

Thofe which are moft proper fora {mall garden, accord- 
ing to Mr. Forfyth, are; the large white Genoa, early 
white Murray, {mall brown Ifchia, and the black Hchia. 

It isafferted by the fame writer, that in a good feafon 
the btown, or chefnut coloured Ifchia, the black.Genoa, the 
{mall white early, the Murray, or brown Naples, and 
the common blue, or purple fig, will ripen on ftandards. 

The fecond fort is often here called the fycomore-tree, and 
mulberry fig-tree. This, and not the great maple, is the 
right fycomore. 

The fifth fort is often known by the name of banyan-tree, 
and is a native of the Eatt Indies. 

MM. thod of Culture —Vhe firit tort and varieties may be 
readily intcreafed, either by fuckers, layers, or cuttings, but 
the two laft are the beft methods, acegebg to Mr. Forfyth, 
who has had great experience in raifing fruit-trees of this 
kind. : 

The fuckers fhould be taken off from the roots as low 
down as poffible, and, after being trimmed, planted out in 
nurfery-rows, at the diltance of two or three feet from each 
other, with thetops entire, to take their natural growth, 
when intended for {tandards ; but when for walls, efpaliers, 
or dwarfs, in the fituations where they are toremain. In the 
latter cafe, they fhould be cut or headed down to fix or 
siggigprche in the early {pring, to induce lateral fhoots to 
be thrown out near the ground. ; 
~The lay 
fhoots .of the bearing trees, and be laid dow in the 
autumn, or early in the {pring, being proteéted from frott 
during the winter by.tan or fome fort of ‘ftrawy material. 
When-the plants are fufficiently rooted, as in the following 
autumn, they fhould be taken off and planted out in the 
places where they are to remain, as they do not bear tranf- 
planting well, being covered at the roots with dung, tan, 
or litter during the winter. The cuttings fhould be taken 
from the well-ripened, woody fhoots of the former year, 
which, without being fhertened, may be planted out in the 
+ Vou, XIV. ly 


fhould be made from the well-ripened woody 


beginning of the autumn, on beds of loamy earth, ina 
warm, fheltered fituation, to the depth of eight or ten inches, 
proteéiing them with tanners’ bark and litter duting the win- 
ter; the litter being removed as the {pring advances. When 
they have ftricken good root in the following autumn ; they 
fhould be taken up and planted where they are to grow aud 
remain. ; 

Thefe forts of trees are moftly cultivated as ftandards in 
warm climates, but in thisin general againftwalls or as efpa- 
liers ; and only fometimes as ftandards. 

The forts ufually cultivated againit walls are thofe of the 

blue and white kinds, but feveral of the others. fucceed 
well ia this management, where they are duly attended 
to. 
But for efpaliers, and as ftandards, the firft, fecond, 
third,’ ninth, and teuth varieties are probably the moft pro- 
per. 
In their culture as wall-trees, they fhould always be 
placed in fuany fituations, for the purpole ofthe fruit being 
the mott effeGvally ripened, as in that ofa full fouthern ex- 
pofure, but an eait or welt afpe& will anf{wer very well wher 
that cannot be had with convenience. 

Inthe planting them out, where the wallsare of confiderable 
height, fitteen or eighteen feet diftance may be fufficient ; but 
in low walls, twenty or more are not too much {pace. Mr. 
Forfyth advifes from twenty to twenty-four feet, as the moft 
fuitable diftance for planting thefe trees at, in general. 

Where the trees are planted againft fire-wails, they fhould 
not be kept too clofe, be drawn by glaffes, or have the heat 
too great, but have at all times, when the weather is favour- 
able, a good fhare of free air admitted, and if the trees 
are young, care fhould be taken that tleir roots are not ex- 
tended beyond the reach of the covering ; they mult be fre- 
quently watered when they begin to fhew fruit, othenwife it 
will drop off; but oldtrees, whofe roots are extended to a 
great diltance, only require to have their branches now and 
then fprinkled over with water. Where thefe trees are pro- 
perly managed, the firft crop of fruit is. greater than upon 
thofe which are expofed to the opeu air, and ripens fx 
weeks or two moiiths earlier, anda plentiful fecond crop 
may alfo be obtained, which ripens early in September, and 
fometimes-in Auguft ; but the fires fhould not be ufed to 
thefe trees till the beginning of February ; as when they 
are forced too early, the weather isfrequently tao cold to 
admit a fufficient quantity of frefh air to fet the fruit ; but 
the covers fhould be put over the trees a month before, to 
prevent the fhoots from being injured by the froity flate of 
the weather. 

The management of the trees in the commor 
aftcr they have been headed down or shortened in 
ner mention.d above, whether they be on walls or efpaliers, 
i3 that of training them horizontally, fo as to preferve the 
branches inan equal and regular manner on each jide, at the 
diftance of from fix to eight inches from each other, and, for 
the moft. part, keeping their full length without any fhorten- 
ing, that as large a proportion ef youag or bearing wood as 
poffible may be preferved. Some, however, advife their 
not being laid in. fo clofe, confidering a foot or eighteen 
inches as little enough room for them. 

» And ingthe pruping of thefe trees, Mr. Forfyth advifes 
that it fhould never be done inthe autema or winter, butin. 
the early {pring mouths. The belt time, he conceives, to be 
about ehottatnes end of April or beginning of the following 
month, as by this period it may be afcertained what branches 
have been deftroyed by the feverity of the winter. And as 
the ends of thofe branches, the wood of which has not. 
ripened well in the autumn, will te molt injured, they fhould 

} ~ 


2 
5 


bh 0 d 


FICUS. 


be cut into the found wood as near to an eye or bud as 
poflible. ; 

Incafes where the branches have been permitted to run 
up, fo as to leave the bottom ina naked ftate, every other 
branch is advifed to be cut out as near to the ground as it 
can be done, by which the walls or efpaliers will be provided 
with good young wood, care being taken to {top the ends of 
the fhoots in fummer, as about the beginning of June, in 
order to induce fide-fhoots to be thrown out for fruiting the 
following fammer ; by which time plenty of fine wood will 
be provided, and then thre remainder of the old branches may 
be cut out as before, pruning their young fhoots as in the 
preceding cafe, conftantly pinching off the ends of ail 
the ftrongeft fhoots at the top bud, except fuch a: are lead- 
ing ones. ; fap 

But in the fpring prunings, as the fruit is produced near 
the tops, the bearing fhoots fhould never be fhortened, nor 
fhould the fine fhort fide and fore right fhoots be cut off, 
except when decayed ; as they ripen better than the long 
{trong ones, and are not fo apt to be deftroyed by frofts in 
the winter feafon. By this practice, it is contended that 
the trees will be covered with fruit from the tops to the bot- 
toms of the wall, &c., inftead of having a few only at the 
top, asis the cafe in the common method of management 
with thefe trees 

In fummer, as many fhoots are fent off, fome of thofe 
that are irregular and ufelefs may be rubbed off, and the 
others trained in for the forming of future bearing wood. 
The proper period for this is about the beginning of June, 
and in the two following months. 

After the fruit has attained the fize of {mall nutmegs, 
the points of the top buds are recommended by Mr. Porfyth 
to be pinched or cut off with a fhayp knife, fome of his 
powdery material being immediately applied, to prevent the 
oozing out of the milky juice, and the confequent exhaul- 
tion and injury of the trees. ; 

In order to prevent the neceflity of cutting the trees 
down in the above manner, they fhould be covered in 
winter before the approach of froft, which would deftroy 
the ends of the fhoots before the wood was ripened and ren- 
dered hard. 

Where fig-trees are greatly injured in the winter, the beft 
practice is to cut them down as near the ground as pofiible, 
as in the following year, by the above management, they 
may be got into a good bearing fate. b 

The beft mode of proteéting thefe trees is, according to 
Mr. Forfyth, to ** cover them with bentings, or fhort grafs, 
from the pleafure-ground, which he finds anfwers the pur- 
pofe very well; after it is thoroughly dry, it may be putin 
a cock, covering it with ftraw, to prevent the rain from 
penetrating into it, which would caule it to heat and rot ;”’ 
or it may be put into a fhed. If grafs cannot be procured, 
fome dry mofs may be employed. In performing the work, 
“ firft cover the trees with laurel, yew, fir, or fpruce boughs, 
and then tuck in the fhort grafs or mofs among the branches, 
beginning at the top of the tree, tucking in the grafs, &e. 
as you defcend, till you come to the bottom.” Fern, when 
well dried, he fays, makes an excellent covering. The trees 
may be thatched on the outfide with the long leaves of the 
common fern ; and where thefe can be got, there will be no 
occafion for fhort grafs. When it can be procured, which 
it may in moft country places, it will, he fays, be found pre- 
ferable to laurel. 

They may alfo be fheltered in winter by wrapping hay or 
ftraw bands round the branches of the trees; and then open- 
ing the ground, laying in the branches, and covering them 
over with mould about nine inches deep, leaving the ends of 


the fhoots about three inches out of the ground, and covere 
ing the ground over with feme rotten leaves, or old tan, &e. 
to keep out the froft. The roots of the trees may likewife 
be covered in the fame manner. Where the walls are low, 
and the borders broad, all the branches may be brought 
front ways; but when they are high, only the fide branches 
can be brought forward in the above manner. It is the prac= 
tice of fome to cover with reeds and itraw; the latter he 
does not by any means approve of, as it is very apt to har- 
bour rats and mice, on account of fome of the grain being 
left in it at the time of threfhing. 

In puttisg in the grafs, care fhould be taken that no mice, 
&c. have got amongit it ; and during the winter, it fhould 
be feen that no rats or mice get among the branches of the 
trees that are covered againft the walls ; as if they do they 
will infallibly bark the branches, and in that cafe there 
will be a neceflity of heading the trees down in a complete 
manner. 

Thefe animals may be deftroyed by fetting traps near 
the roots of the trees, as foon as they are covered. See 
Garpen Traps. 

Great care, he fays, fhould be taken not to uncover the 
fig trees too foon in the {pring ; and it fhould be done par- 
tially, as there are frequently frofts and cutting winds 
in the months of April and May, which will infallibly 
kill the young fruit as they make their appearance in the 
{pring. 

Thofe branches which have been laid into the ground 
fhould be taken up in the month of April, having the hay 
or {traw-bands taken off, and then nailed to the wall. Some 
fern leaves, or any other light covering, may be ftuck in 
among the branches, to prote¢t them from the drying 
winds and frofls till the fruit comes to the fize of a large 
walnut, or rather till the leaves are fufficiently large to pro- 
tect the fruit. : : 

It is obferved, that the Italians, when they with to for- 
ward the ripeniag of figs, drop in a little {weet oil, from a 
quill, into the eye of the fruit ; but care muft be taken not. 
to hurt the fkin, which will make the fig burlt. This will 
make a difference at leaft of a fortnight in the ripening of 
the fruit. j 

It is _alfo recommended, as foon as the leaves begin to 
fall, to brufhthem off with a broom, but by no means till 
they will come off eafily. If they are forced off before 
they begin to wither and decay, the trees will bleed at the 
foot-ftalks. At the fame time the flalks fhould be cleared” 
of all the fmall late fruit, which, if fuffered to remain dur- 
ing the winter, will rot, and injure the tree, fo as to prevent 
it from bearing the enfuing fammer. If any milk be ob- 
ferved oozing trom the foot-italks, a little of the compofi- 
tion fhould be ufed, which will ftop it, and heal the injured 
part. See Composirion. 

By doing this, the ripening and hardening of the wood 
will be affifted before the winter frofts fet in. 

In ftandard-trees of all forts little pruning is neceffary, 
only jutt to take out the very irregular branches and the 
young fhoots, when too much crowded, and the dead ends 
of the fhoots, as well as any dead wood that there may be 
in them. 

Mr. Forfyth, however, obferves, that as the branches 
of ftandard fig-trees are very liable to be killed in fevere- 
winters, it will be neceffary to lay them alfo in the ground, 
wrapping them up in hay or ftraw-bands, as direéted for 
wall-trees. It will be fometimes impraéticable to lay down 
the middle branches ; they muft, therefore, be well covered 
with hay or ftraw-bands, and the outfide ones laid down, 
going regularly round the tree, and taking particular care 
r not 


FID 


not to hurt them with the fpade, then to mulch them with 
rotten leaves, &c. 

Where Mr. Forfyth has been under the neceffity of cut- 
ting fig-trees down near to the ground, after hard winters, 
he has found, by the ufe of his compofition, that “ in the 
courfe of two years, the new wood has covered over the old 
ftump, and the branche: filled up the former f{pace, bearing 
alfo plenty of fine fruit.” 

“The other fpecies are eafily propagated by cuttings during 
the fummer feafon. When the cuttings are taken from the 
plants, they fhould be laid ina dry fhady place for two or 
three days, that the wounds may be healed over, otherwife 
they are apt to rot 3 after which, they fhould be planted in 
pots filled with fandy light earth, and plunged into amo- 
derate hot-bed, where they fhould be {haded from the fun, 
and two or three times a week gently refrethed with water, 
“if the feafonis warm; but they muft not have too much 
moilture, as it would infallibly deftroy them. When the 
cuttings have taken root fuffictently, they fhould be each 
planted into a feparate fmall pot filled with undunged earth, 
and replunged into the hot-bed, fhading them until they 
have taken Froth root; then they fhould have a large fhare 
of fuee air admitted to them at all times when the weather 
“4s favourable, to prevent their drawing up weak, and to 
give them ftrength before the cold comes on. In autumn 
the pots fhould be removed into the ftove, and be plunged 
into the tan-bed, where they fhould conftantly remaia, and 
be treated in the fame manner as other tender plants from 
the fame countries ; for although two or three of the forts 
may be treated in a hardier manner, yet they will not make 
much progrefs. They may likewife be increafed by layers 
when necellary. 

Thefe are fhrubs in this climate which afford variety in 
“ftove colleGions. 

Ficus, in Conchyliology, a name given by authors to a 
peculiar {pecies of fea-fhell. It is of the genus of the do- 
fium, and has a remarkably depreffed clavicle. ‘See'Con- 
CHOLOGY. 

Ficus, or Ficatio, in Surgery, fiznifies a tubercle, or 
excrefcence, about the anus, or pudenda. The term is faid 
‘tobe derived from $v», fo, produce, or eife from the Hebrew 

hig. 
# FIDARI, in Geography, a river of European Turkey, 
in Livadia, which runs into the fea, eight miles N. of 
Patras. 

FIDD, an iron pin ufed at fea to fplice or faften ropes 

‘together ; it is made tapering and fharp at one end. 
here are alfo fidds of wood, which are much larger 
than the iron ones. : 

The pin alfo in the heel of the topmaft, which bears it 
upon the chefs-tree, is called a fidd. 

Fivp-/ammer, is ufed for a hammer, the handle of which 
is a fidd, or tapering into that form. 

FIDDES, Ricuarn, in Biography, a learned divine, 

-and polemical writer, was born at Hunmanby, in the county 
of York, in the year 1671, and went firft to ftudy at Cam- 


bridge, but afterwards was admitted of Univerfity College, 


in Oxford. Entering into holy orders, he obtained the 
living of Hulfham, in his native county, but the air of the 

lace not agreeing with his health, he was forced, to forego 
all thoughts of refiding on his living; having while there 
Toft the ufe of his fpeech, which he never after perfectly re- 
covered. Hewas appointed chaplain at Hull, but he {pent 
the latter part of his life at Putney, where he died in 1735. 
In 1718 and 1720, he publifhed a Body of Divinity, in 
two volumes, folio ; in confequence of which, the univer- 


‘Gity of Oxford conferred upon him the degree of do¢tor in 


FID 


divinity. In 1721, he publithed two fetters an the foul’s 
immortality, occafioned by the epitaph on the duke ef 
Buckinghamfhire. In 1724, appeared a Life of Cardinal 
Wolfey, in which the free manner he had treated fome opi- 
mons induced a belief, that he was favourably inclined to 
the Catholic tenets. The fame year he publifhed a treatife 
on morality, and healfo wrote fifty-two practical difcourfes. 
His firft publication was a prefatory epiftle concerning fome 
remarks to be made on Homer’s Thad, addrefled to Dean 
Swift, &c. Gen. Biog. Di&. : 

FIDDICHOW, or Vinucrova, in Geograpiy, a town 
of Hinder Pomerania, on the Oder, 22 miles S.W. of Star- 
gard. N. lat. 53° 13’. E. long. 14° 33’. 

FIDDLE, probably from Fides, Latin. This is the 
vulgar name for the violin, which is a modern inftroment, as 
the ufe of the bow cannot be traced in antiquity. The 
earlieft mention which we have found of the fiddle in Eng- 
land, is in the legendary life ef St. Chriftopher, MS. Ver- 
non. Bodl. Lib. (119) written about the year 1200. 

** Chriftofre him ferved longe. 

The king loved the melody of fithele and of fonge.” 

The fiddle, however, did not feem in common ufe in 
fealts, mummeries, and procefiions, for fome hundred years 
afterthis period. It is mentioned by Chaucer, but was-not 
allowed to be a concert inftrument, till the reign of Charles 
II. who, m imitation of Louis XIV., eftablithed a band of 
twenty-four violins, alias fiddles, which gave birth to Tom 
Durfey’s fong of “« Four and’ Twenty Fiddlers all on a'Row,’” 
&c., a humorous production in which there isa mockery of 
every inftrument, and almoft every trade; and which, in 
our own memory, ufed to be performed between the atts, 
or between the play and farce, by fome man of humour at 
benefits. See Viouin, Repec, and Bow. 

FippieSbaped leaf, in Botany, folium panduriforme, 
is oblong, broad at the two extremities and contra&ed in the 
middle, like a fiddle or fome fort of guitar, and not like the 
ancient pandyra or reed-pipe, as the Latinname implies. See 
Lear. 

Fippre Wood. See CirHAREXYLON. 

FIDDLER’s Exnow, in Geography, a bend of Wood 
creek, between the outlet of South bay, and the mouth of 
the creek at the northern end of lake Champiain, oppofite 
to: the mouth of Eaft bay. The mouth of Wood creek lies 
in N. lat. 43°32’. W. long. 73° 15° 12”. 

FIDE-Jussores Afidui. See Assipuus. 

Five-jufor, in the Civil Law, is a furety, or one that 
obliges himfelf in the fame contract with a principal, for the 
greater fecurity of the creditor or itipulator, See Bait 
and CauTionry. 

FIDEI-Commissum, in the Roman Law, the appoint- 
ing of an heir, or bequeathing a legacy to a perfon on this 
condition, that he furrender'the inheritance or legacy to an- 
other perfon, for whom the fame is originally meant; or it 
is an inheritance left in truft with any one, for the ule of 
another. 

Fidei-commiffa were much ufed among the Romans. Ina 
the French law the-thing is become odious; as being, ordi- 
narily, no other than an expedient in favour of perfons to 
whom the laws forbid any thing to be given. In order to 
this, fome trufty friend is chofen to be made legal heir, under 
a tacit agreement to deliver the inheritance to the perfon in- 
capacitated by law. But of later times the fame expedient 
has come in ue with regard to perfons capable of inheriting; 
to whom the teftator, for particular reafons, does not care 
to leave the inheritance dire@ly. n? 

As it happened that the fidei-commiffioners did not al- 
ways faithfully reftore what was truited to them, Auguttue 

3E3 took 


F-LE 


took proper meafures to oblige them thereto ; to this end a 
pretor was ereCted, whofe bufinefs was reltrained to the 
fingle matter of fidei-commiffions. 

Asateftament was null without the inftitution of an heir, 
and it frequently happening that the fidei-commiifioner re- 
_fufed to accept the truft, upon which the teltament fell to 
the ground; to engage fomebody to aecept it from a con- 
fideration of advantage, the Pegafian fenatus confultum de- 
ereed, that the fidei-commiffioner fhould be at liberty to 
retain a fourth of the fidei-commiffion. / 

FIDELES, in Church Hiftory. See Berizvers. 

FIDEN A, or Fipena, in Ancient Geography, a town of 
Italy, upon the Tiber, N. of Romeand S. of Ven. It was 
founded on the territory of the Sabins, by a colony of Alba, 
and feems to have been very powerful before the foundation 
of Rome, as it fultained a war againft it, which lafted from 
the year of Rome 17 to the year 327, when the Fidenates 
were fubdued by the dictator. Emilius Mamercus. 

FIDENTIA, a town of Gallia Cifpadana, fituated 
towards the §.E.; near which the troops of Carbon were 
eut to pieces by thofe of Sylla. 

FIDICUL&, in Antiquity, is often ufed to fignify the 
fame with eguuleus, a kind of punifhment ufed among the 
_ancients. 

Fipicut, in amore proper fenfe, denotes the cords 
wherewith the criminals’ limbs were diftended on the 
equuleus. 

FIDMIN, in Geography, a town of Egypt; five miles 
W, of Fayoum. 

FIDRA, a {mall ifland near the eaft coaft of Scotland, 
at the entrance of the Forth; three miles N,W. of North 

Berwick. N. lat. 56°5'.. W. long. 2° 49/. 

FIDULEA, afmal! ifland in the Grecian 
four miles S.W. of Stamphelia. 

FIEF, the fame with feud er fee ; which fee. 

FIEF p’Havuzerr, a name given by the Normans, and 
adopted by the Mirrour, to that {pecies of tenure denomi- 
nated knight-fervice,. which fee. 

FLEGO, or Fiyooco, in Geography, a fea-port town of 
Japan, on the S. coalt of the ifland of Niphon, with a large 
harbour in the bay of Ofaca; 24 miles $.S.W. of Ofaca, 
and 48 S.W. of Meaco. 

FIELD, in Agriculture, isa portion of land mottly inclofed 
by fome fort of tence, and employed either in tillage or as 
patture. Fields fhonld be -proportioned in fize to the na- 
ture of the hufbandry under which they are chiefly ma- 
naged ; where they are of the arable kind, they may be 
much larger than where they are of the grafs or grazing de- 
feription. (See Inctosine of Land.) For the method of 
finding the contents of a field, fee Area, Cuarn, and 
SURVEYING. 

Fievp-Fallow, aterm frequently made ufe of to fignify a 
eommon field, which is occafionally cultivated under the 
fallow fyftem. See Paruow. 

Vitip-Grafs, any fort of grafs cultivated or grown in 
the field. See Grass. 

Fietp-Hufbandry, thofe forts of hufbandry or cultiva- 
tion which are practifed in the field, whether th: y relate ta 
tillage or grafs.. See Husnanpay. 

Fiexp /Vell, the name of a pit or {mall fort of artificial 
watering-place for cattle ina field. See Dainkine Pond. 

Fieip-Work, that fort of work which relates to the field, 
and which is of very different kinds. 

Fienp-Scabins, the common name of a perennial weed 
often met with in tillage lands. The {tem is upright and 
branching, rifing to the height of a foot or a foot anda 
half. It is fpotted, rough, and hairy, The lower leaves 


Archipelago ; 


4 


FIE 


are oval, and indented about the edges; but thofe on the 
ftalk are divided and pinnated. The flowers are blue, and 
of the compound kind, confifting of a great number of 
{mall ones, each divided into four parts, and having one 
feed under them. The plant has a bitter difagreeable tafte. 

Fievp-de, or Li/Gale, in our Ancient Cuffoms, a kind of 
drinking in the field, by bailiffs of hundreds; for which 
they gathered money of the inhabitants of the hundred to 
which they belonged. But this cuftom has been long fince 
prohibited. : 

Tisup, Campus, in Antiquity, is frequently ufed for a 
public place, or {quare in a tity, &c. . 

Such were the Field of Mars, Campus Martius; and 
Field of Flora, Campus Flore, in Rome; and the Field of 
May, Campus ATaii, among our anceftors, &c. o; 

Tizxp of Afars was denominated froma temple of that 
deity, built therein ; it was the fcene or place of the aflem- 
blics called comitia. ‘Tarquin the Prom as length appro- 
priated it to his own ufe; but after the expulfion of the 
kings, the confuls Brutus and Collatinus reftored it to the 
public ufe again, for aflemblies and ele¢tions. 

Originally it was no more than a meadow on the banks 
of the Tiber, where horfes grazed, and the Roman youth 
were exercifed to war. But it was atterwards erected into 
a maguificent {quare, adorned with ftatues, &c. See Campus 
Mariius. ; 

Fiexp of Flora, was the place where the laws, edifls, and 
conititutions, were publifhed. ; 

Fiserv of May. See Campus Maii. 

Fiery Bafil, in Botany. See Cuinopopium. 

VFierp Bafil, American. See Monarpa. 

Fierp Bafil, Syrian. See Z1z1PHo0RA. rer 

Fierp, Clofe, was anciently a place enclofed, or railed 
in with a barnier, for juts and tournaments to be perform- 
ed in. . 

Yierv, Llyfan. See Exysium. We 

Frey, Ricuarp, in Biography, an able champion of 
the doétrines and difcipline of the church of England, was 
born at Hempftead in Hertfordfhire, inthe year 1561. In 
1577 he was admitted a member of Magdalen college, Ox- 
ford, where he took his degrees with high reputation. His 
great learning and talents pointed him out as adapted to All 
certain ufeful and important places in the church, till at 
length he was chofen divinity reader to the fociety of Lin- 
coln’s Inn. In this fituation his fervices gaiued him many. 
friends among the learned members, one of whom prefented 
him to the valuable living of Burrowclere in Hamplhire, and 
in a fhort time after he was offered the {till more valuable 
rectory of St. Andrews, Holborn, but he chofe to adhere to 
that in the ecuntry, as affording him more ample opportu- 
nities for ftudy, on which his mind was very intent. In 
1598 he took his degree of doctor of divinity, and became 
chap 1 ordinary to queen Elizabeth, and was foon after 
made prebendary of Windfor. On the death of the queen 
he fucceeded to the fame office of chaplain with her fuc- 
cellor James ; and was entrufted with the management of 
foie fpecial commiffions iffued for ecclefiaftical canfes, and 
the exercife of {piritual jurifdition within the diocefe of 
Wiaschetter. In 1604 he obtained a prebendary of Windior, 
and when the king went to Oxford to witnefs the {cholaftic 
exercifes at that univerfity, Dr. Field was fent for to take 
a part in the divinity act; aud the manner in which he per- 
formed his part veflected the higheft degree of credit on his 
learning, and afforded uncommon fatisfaction to the fplendid 
audience. ; 

In 1610 the king beftowed upon him the deanery of 
Gloucelter, but he continued to refide and labour at Burrow- 

‘ vy ae ~ @leres 


 Eeliealy D. 


clere, only going to Gloucefter occafionally to preach when 
his particular duty required him. Sometime, in the winter 
months, he ufuallyfpent at Windfor, and was often felected 
to preach before the king, who exclaimed on firlt hearing 
him, “ This is indeed a /°ie/d for God to dwell in.? The 
monarch held Dr. Field in fo hich efteem that he was anxious 
to promote him to the bifhopric of Salifbury, but his cour- 
tiers prevailed upon him to give it to another. The king, 
however, determined to raife him to the fee of Oxford, which 
was expected to become vacant in a fhort time, but before 
the vacancy occurred, Dr. Field died of an apoplexy, in 
the year 1616, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. His prin- 
cipal work, asa literary man, was entitled ‘Of the Church,’ 
four books, folio. This was publithed in the year 1606, 
andin 1610 the author added a fifth book, with an appendix, 
containing a “ Defence of fuch Paflages of the former 
Books that have been excepted again{t, or wrefted to the 
maintenauce of Romifh Errors.” Dr. Field was univerfally 
refpeéted, and at his death generally lamented. «* He was,” 
fays Wood, ‘* much againit difputing about the high points 
of predeftination and reprebation, nor did he like that men 
fhould be bufy in determining what God’s decrees in heaven 
are. He was one that laboured much to heal the breaches 
of Chriftendom, and was ready to embrace the truth 
wherefoever he found it. His defire, his prayers, his en- 
deavours, were for peace, to make up the breaches of the 
church; not to widen differences, but to compofe them.’ 
Gen. Biog. ’ 

Fiexp, in Heraldry, is the furface or face of the fhield, 
or efcutcheon ; thus called, as containing the atchievements 
anciently acquired in the field of battle. 

The field is the ground whereon the colours, bearings, 
metals, furs, charge, &c. are reprefented. In blazoning 
a coat, we always begin with the field: he bears fable, 
&e. 

. Among the more modern heralds, field is lefs frequently 
ufed than fhield or efcutcheon. 

Fierp of Bartle, in the Military Language. The pof- 
feffion of this, after an engagement, is generally {uppofed 
to denote which party has obtained the vitory; the wortted 
army, for the mutt part, retiring with the view to rally, and 

eventually tomake a frefh ftand at {ome advantageous pofition. 
But it does not always follow that pofleflion of the field re- 
mains, with thofe to whom the greatelt merit attaches: we 
fometimes fee an inferior force repel the attacks of purfuers, 
and following its route, leaving to the difcomfited affailants 
that {cite on which a large portion of them may breathe their 
laft, while the vilorious band, thouch fomewhat diminifhed 
in numbers, effect a fafe retreat. “Retention of the field 
under fuch circumftances denotes the want of power to fol- 
Tow, and, according to the military phrafe, is ‘a ruinous 
victory;”’ ufually to be clafled with thofe fad effects pro- 
duced by fevere conte(ts in an enemy’s country, where the 
latter are conflantly obtaining both fupplies and reinforce- 
ments, from which the invaders are, or thould be, completely 
ent off. We cannot give a ftronger reprefentation of this 
ofition than is afforded by the glorious ltruggle maintained 
i our Spanifh allies, who, though certainly in the firft in- 
ftance by no means competent to repel their invaders, at 
length were roufed toa due fenfe of their fituation, aud 
difplayed, their national character for loyalty, piety, aud 
bravery, in the moit glowing colours. - 
i Aeperions knowledge of the field on which an army is 
about to engage, cannot but become an object of great im- 
jortance, not only. to the commander-in-chief, but to all 
thofe in charge of divifions of the troops under his au- 
thority. An intimate acquaintance with, various minutix, 


fuch as broken ground in-which cavalry cannot a&t ; {wamps 
in which they as well as artillery would be fixed, or at leaft 
be unable to fulfil their intention ; ftrong fituations, fuch as 
uatural lines made by precipices bordered by banks, or 
fringed with underwood ; elevated {pots, on which batteries 
could be placed to advantage, and behind which large 
bodies of cavalry might be concealed; bridges within com- 
mand, by means of which a fafe retreat might be made ; 
and all fuch points, are indifpenfable towards the fuccefsful 
iffue of the day. : 

We do riot mean toaffert that every commander has it in 
his power either to choofe the field on which he will make a 
ftand, or that, when he has chofen it, he muit be thoroughly 
acquainted with all localities ; but it may be permitted us to 
obferve, that no man, whatever rank he may have attained, 
or whatever fervice he may have feen, is competent to be 
placed atthe head of an army, but more efpecially one a&- 
ing upon the defenfive, whofe eye does not molt keenly 
fearch for natural advantages, or who does not, when thofe 
advantages are apparent, profit by them in a fuitable manner. 
We particularize the defenfive, becaufe that fyftem rarely 
fails to afford thofe highly valuable acquirements in regard 


to the feveral {trong politions every country affords, more or 


lefs ; but which may not always be fufficiently afcertained by 
an invading army. Thus, it mult be evident, that during the 
apprehenfion of invafion, our generals, throughout the 
country, had the faireft opportunities for moit accurately 
reconnoitring every defenfible point, whereby they would 
have been enabled to a& with the greateft effet, and to 
choofe their field on almoft every occafion, which could not 
have fallen to the lot of hoftile troops, whofe advance muft 
invariably have been attended with fome uncertainty, and 
all its train of mifchiefs. 

In reviewing the great namber of plans that have at times 
been publithed, wherein the pofitions of the contending 
parties and their feveral movements have been laid down, 
one obvious feature appears common to a very great majority; 
namely, that the party which awaited the attack of its ad- 
verfary, had its flanks, or at leaft one of them, covered by 
woods, rivers, villages, moraffes, or broken ground. The 
great objet appears to have been there, to throw impedi- 
ments in the way of the enemy’s horfe. Hence we fee, 
that. fo foon as any part of che centre gave way, the 
whole were. thrown into copfufion, bearing down the 
feveral lines in fucceffion, and offering opportunities for a 
dreadful difplay of the powers of cavalry. It appears rather 
doubtful how far an equal force fhould fo place itfelf, unlefs 
to defend fome valley, &c. through which alone the enemy 
could penetrate into a country. 

FieLp-Fortijicalion, relates to the formation of fuch 
temporary lines of defence, redoubts, &c. as well as of fuch 
batteries, of various deferipsions, as may be deemed necefe 
fary either for the maiatenance of a pofition, or for driving 
an enemy from that he may occupy. It would be utterly 
impraCicable to afford initruGions Suited to every cafe ; 
there being fuch varieties of locality, as well as of circum- 
{tance, which can only be provided for on the fpot, and 
never could come under any general defeription. Although 
we are apt to confider the {cience of fortification, in all its 
branches, to appertain, rather exclufively, to the corps of 
engineers, yet no general fhould be entruited with the com- 
mand of an army, unlefs pofleffing either an intimate ac- 
quaintance with that {cience, or fuch a ready conception 
of the adyantages and difadvantages of every pofition he 
may aflume, as fhould enable him, as it were by infpiration, 
to adopt orreje& it without hefitation. We fear that this 
excellent quality rarely comes, as Dogberry fays, ‘by na- 

ture,?* 


ture,” and that few nations can boaft.any great lift of fach 
‘éjyeaven-born generals.” Not but that many individuals 
pofiefs this admirable talent ; the misfortune is that its pof- 
feifors too often are placed 12 fituations totally uafuited to 
their genitis; or, if they do ‘enter within the pale of mili- 
tary orders, either Iingerin fubaltern capacities, or eventually 
fall among the too many wictims immolated at the fhrine of 
what we call glory, long before their abilities'could be duly 
‘appreciated | Aes Gp 

Field-fortification is generally divided under two heads; 
the offenfive, and the défenfive : ‘thefoirther of courfe rélates 
pally fieges, ‘and 'the latter to the covering 
of arfries, Or 'p fe as to rendér them flronger, and to 
throw every obltacle in the way of affailaits. The ‘offenfive 
braiich affords the ‘freateft latitude for deliberation, ‘bet 
requires no lefs judgment than the defenfive ; 1 is ufvally 
confided eftirely to the managenient of the engmeérde- 
partment, by whom tlie diftakees, bearings, and extent of 
the feveral batteries are determiied. ‘Thirs, when an amy 
invelts a fortrefs, the engineers, cfpecially if ‘not previoufly 
furnifhed with a correét plan Of its defences, proceed to re- 
connoitre, in the moft exaG manner, the feveral lines ‘of fire 
to which certain fpots would be expofed, ‘and the effets 
likely to be produced ‘by batteries, both of ‘canton and of 
mortars, erected thereon. Two 'pireat objeéts mift always 
be held in view ; ‘namely, to'obtain a Wired? fire, as near as 
may be ‘practicable ‘to the work ‘to be ‘battered, and the 
placing the néceffary batteries ‘In fuich manner, that, while 
the belt effects may be produced, the'cannon and their portion 
-of artillery-men, together with every neccffury apparatus, 
may not be fubjeGed to etifilade. (See Eri LADE.) 

Field-works are rarely conftruted ‘ina durable manner’; 
they are for the mott part formed by the excavation of the 
foil, correfpond in'fzure with the parapet to be formed, 
and, from the refemblance of the ditch, are called trenches. 
The foil thrown up being arranged in a proper manner, and 
fecured by medns of fs/cines (which fee), from falling 
back into the excavation, occafions the fhelter to become 
duplicate in its ratio to the a€tual depth excavated. Thus, 
in digging atrench of four feet in depth, there will be 
formed a covert-way of eight feet in depth, in confequence 
of the height to which the foil is thrown. The lower four 
feet, that is, fo far as the trench reaches, will be folid ; the 
reft, being loofe foil, juft thrown up, will for a while be 
lefs competent to refilt heavy fhot. ‘Thofe parts intended 
for cannon will demand an ample tock of fafcines, for the 
purpofe of keeping the merlons in proper form and duly 
compacted. The places of arms, &c. which are generally 
made at the extremities of parallels, in order that the be- 
fiegers may take advantage of any forties, as well as to 
guard the flanks of the trenches, will ufually require ample 
epaulements for the infuring of fafety to thofe on duty. 
Where mortar batteries are made, they will not require any 
obvious embrafures, though the interior flope of the parapet 
may be made with a much fmaller angle from the horizon 
eppofite each piece, provided the works be fufficiently thick 
to allow fuch adiminution ; otherwife the mortars muft be 


to attacks, pri 


taining a dire@ fire. However, as enfilading batteries ave 
generally neceffary, and as it is always expedient to filence 
thofe which flank the battered angle, it very generally 
occurs that fach a etofs-fire can be obtained as ferves to 
give every neceflary fupport to contiguous lines of approzeh. 
The batteries raifed for the purpofe of breaching any patt 
of the principal, cannot well be too clofe thereto ; provided 
their elevation be fach as not to be commanded from the 
principal. This approximation is, however, ‘the work of 
time, and cannot be attempted until the fire ofthe tenmltons, 
lunettes, ravelines, and generally the counter-guards tbe 
filenced 5 after which the approaches may be carried up to 
the very creft of the glacis, there to make a lodgement, as 
well ‘es in the Covert-way. This being effeéted, at is ufual 
for the befiegeis to ttorm, vnlels owing ‘to weakuefs of the 
gartifon, ‘or the timidity of its commandant, the pkace 
fhould furrender. 

In defenfive field fortification‘a few general rules fhonld 
be well underltoad. 1. Never to occupy a pofition, by 
choice, whereof any important part is commanded by 
places of which the adverfary can'take poffeffion + this applies 
far more ftri@ly to permanent defences; which, im fuch cafe, 
would be of little or no avail. 2. Always'to make the 
weaker poiitts the ‘firlt objects of attention; afterwards 
ftrengthering the Rronger parts, fo as to fecare the others, 
and forming fuch a general conneGtion of the wholeas may, 
fo far as praticable, ‘render the wholly equally formidable. 
3. To avoid all pofitions which are deficient in fupplies, 
efpecially of water; and never, on any account, to extend 
beyond the means of ‘a firm defence; obferving, ‘that how- 
ever much the reverfe may have been praétifed, rather ito 
leave one flank weak, than tohazard any thing in the centre ; 
where, if the enemy fhould facceed in penetrating, ruin’te 
both flanks mutt follow in detail. 

The expert engineer never fails to render fuch mills, 
houfes, churches, &c. as may be within his fcope, fub- 
fervient to the purpofes of defence. Whiere fniall parties 
are to be covered, the interiors of fuch edifices fhould be 
fitted up in the ‘beft manner that may be praéticable for 
enabling the occupants to do execution'among the affailants, 
A trench may be dug within the whole circumference, and 
loop-holes be made for the purpofe of allowing one row of the 
defenders to gall the enemy from nearly a level with the 
exterior ; a pofition not ealily to be overcome, while others 
fire ftanding : every angle in a building becomes more orlefs.a 
flank, and enables the decupants to make a defperate ftruggle. 
When time admits, various flanking walls fhould be thrown 
up, either of mafonry or of thick planks; the laft are beft. 
A good breaft-work, made on a flanking principle around 
any church, or folitary houfe, and efpecially a brick-built 
wind-mill, having many floors or ftories, in each of ‘which 
loop-holes can be cut, or even cannon of {mall calibre -be 
mounted, as in a block-honfe, will enable a handful of men 
to ftand out againft a great fuperiority of force. 

The paflage of aford, a detroit, and a bridge, may all he 
covered, much in the fame manner, by what is ufually called 
a téte de pont (i.e. bridge-head), of which a fketeh is given in 


brought back until they may bear depreffion to a proper jig. 6. Plate I. Tadics : this kind of defence is ufually thrown 


angle for throwing grape, fay about 12° or 15°, without 
endangering the creft of the parapet. ae 
In this {pecies of fortification little or no attention is paid 

to any aneen of the batteries for the purpofe of caufing 
them mutually to become flanks, as muft be done on defenfive 
principles. ‘The befiegers being generally far more nume- 
rous than the befieged, and the greateft attention to the 
prevention of enfilade being imperioufly requifite, induce 
-to paying attention chiefly to one object; namely, the ob- 


up on that fide of the river neareft to the enemy, beyond 
the bridge, and again covered by works on the hither fide, 
to which the defenders can retire, and difpute the paflage, 
when the ¢éte de pont may not be tenable,. 

Lines of defence, drawn merely as a check to cavalry, or 
for the generally covering an inferior army from attacks 
at the pleafure of the enemy, may confift of various kinds 
of works, according to the nature of the ground, the time 
allowed ee conftru€ting them, and the number of men that 

can 


ELE Ts D. 


ean be fpared for their occupation. When only cavalry is to be 
oppofed, nothing more is neceflary than an abbatis, (fg. 7), 
formed by felling large trees, and after lopping off the more 
minute branches, placing them, fide by fide, ina compact 
manner, with their ems inwards; and either ftaking the 
whole down, or fecuring them together with bines, or ropes, 
&c. fo as to prevent them being eafily drawn away by anenter- 
prizing enemy. It is, in general, found beft to make even 
this kind of defence of fuch a form as may afford flanking 
fires; obferving to place a few guns along the curtains, fo as 
to fire, as it were, in barbet over the upper boughs that point 
towards the affailants. 

. Some fituations are naturally fo ftrong as to require 
nothing more thana breatt-work ; fuch, for inflance, as the 
borders of a precipice which cannot be taken by affault, 
and from which a direét fire in every part affords the beft 
means of defeating any party that fhould approach. In 
fuch very ftrong places a itraight line may aniwer, but, in 
mott cafes, flanks fhould be thrown cut, asin fg. S,of which 
the general tendency muft be governed by local circum- 
ftances. Whatever may be their direction or form, it is 
proper that no part of the lines intended to afford mutual 
defence fhould exceed what is termed the point-blank range 
of a mufket ball ; which is generally underftood to be about 
200 or 250 yards, according to the charge of powder. 
When within 1 50 yards, the advantages will be greatly 
augmented. 

fig. 9, reprefents a continued uniform line, compofed of 
fhort curtains, a, a, a, a, with the redans, J, b, 2, b, 6; thefe 
latter muft bear fuch an angle, or be placed at fuch a dif- 
tance from each other, as may allow a perpendicular drawn 
from their faces, at the point of junétion, as at c, to pafs 
jult clear of the faliant angle, d ; if this be not attended to, 
the defenders of one redan will pour their fire into that 
adjoining. And, if the angle be too great, that is to fay, 
more than 100° or 105°, the defences will be weakened in 
every part, on account of the great obliquity neceffary in 
dire&ting the fre, both in the curtain and in the redan ; 
which, in the firing of mufketry, is always attended with 
bad confequences. 

Fig. 10. fhews a lire of the fame kind as that jutt de- 
feribed, with independent redans, e, ¢, e, e, thrown up before 
the curtains, by which they are commanded. ‘Thefe 
fhould be placed at {ufficient diftance in advance, to prevent 
the enemy, in cafe they fhould be able to carry them, from 
affaulting the curtain under cover of the flanks; which 
they might eafily do but ‘or that precaution. The angles 
of the independent redans fhould correfpond with thofe of 
the intermediate ones, which may be about Go, or 65 degrees, 
according to circumftances. 

Fig. 11. fhews avery good mode of making alternately 
fhort flanks in a regular order, fo as to refemble the over- 
lapping of tiles: the ufual defignation is ¢¢en cremaillaire,” 
from the French word cremaiilon, fignifying that kiad of 
pot-hook which can be lengthened at pleafure by means of 
ratchets. The termination of this fort of indented line 
ought to be ftrong ; otherwife it would be fubjeé to affault 
at the point, A, where the addition of the redan, B, adds 
greatly to its fecurity. 

Fig. 12. fhews a line of obtufe angles, called fwallow-tails, 
a, a, which would not afford a fufficient flanking fire; there- 
fore it is expedient to mix them alternately with redans. 
This is an excellent mode for lines not finifhed with re- 
doubts, or with advanced redans. 

Fig. 13. isaline of fwallow-tails, a, a, a, mixed with 
out baitions, 4, 4, b, wherein it will be feen there is great 
ftrength. The addition of a cavalier, c, in each battion, with 


a jleche, d, in front of the {wallow-tail, c, obvioufly renders 
{uch a line truly formidable. 

Fig. 14. exhibits a line of curtains, a, a, flanked with 
baitions, and having redoubts, c, c, in their centres, 
This is alfo attended with great ftrencth, efpecially 
as the latter prevent the enemy from foliowing up any 
advantage. We thall conclude this article with obferving, 
that field-fortification muft ufually be extremely irregular ; 
therefore on lines of any extent it may be expetted to fee 
the whole of the above-mentioned defences intermixed ac- 
cording as the ground may fuit them refpeétively. In 
fome parts, where deep fiffures or craggs may intervene, the 
line will of courfe be broken; there it will be neceflary to 
place batteries on the mo‘ commanding fituations, as well 
as to fcarp, and otherwife add difficulties to the afcent, fo as 
to prevent the enemy from making a pufhin fuch fituations; 
which, when well defended, may be%confidered impregnable. 

In carrying field-works over rifing grounds, {ome parts 
of the detences will fometimes expofe their flank; wher 
this happens, an epaulement mutt be thrown up, of fufficient 
height to obftruct, not only the point-blank, but the- 
ricochet ranges of the enemy’s fhot. 

Circular baitions have been properly exploded ; it being 
evident that the general tendency of their fire was weakened; 
while, at the fame time, that portion moftadvanced towards 
the enemy could not poffibly be flanked by any other works 

We fhall now offer to the confideration of our military 
readers a few practical obfervations derived from a {mall 
work poflefling confiderable merit ; thefe are fele@ted be- 
caufe they furnifh, in concife terms, the very elements of that 
highly important topic now under confideration. 

1. The {pot on which works are to be conftruéted fhould 
determine their figure ; nor fhould any attention be paid to 
pielerving a regular form, which does not occupy the 
ground to advantage. 

2. Every line muft be fo difpofed, that the flope of hills 
all around, even to the very bottom, be open to the {mall 
arms of the garrifon, and every part fhould be difcoverable 
to the diftance of at leaft 500 paces. 

3- Works thrown up for the defence of a defile fhould al- 
ways be within mufket fhot of it; which muft not be more 
than 200 yards. 

4. The beit defence in works that are flanked, or where 
oue fide is defended by the fire of another, is that formed by 
right angles. 

5. A faliant angle fhould never be lefs than 60°, nora 
re-entering angle leis than go°, nor greater than 120°. 

6. The entrance into the work fhould always be in that 
part leaft expofed to attack, and if poffible in a re-entering 
angle, 

7. Endeavour to prefent, if poffible, a longer front to 
the enemy than he can occupy in making the attack, 

8, Avoid all ground commanded by an eminence, either 
in front, flank, or rear. 

g- Never leave your rear fo expofed that an enemy can 
attack fo as to turn it. 

10. Always make the angles of a work in the direGtions 
leaft expofed to attack ; and confequently endeavour to pre- - 
fent a front to the enemy’s batteries, &c. 

tt. The garrifon fhould never be drawn up more than 
two deep; allowing an ordinary pace of two feet for each 
file, and from. fix to. eight paces far each piece of 
ordnance, 

12. Ifa work is fo large as to be defended by a battalion 
or two, a referve fhould be allowed of sbout one-fixth of the 
number. 

13. The fpace within a work fhould always be fuilicient 

tor 


Fal E 


for the men to move and lie down; every foldier will re- 
quire at leaft 18 fquare feet, and every piece of ordnance 
about 216. ‘ 

14. Provided the work be not too extenfive, the more in- 
ward fpace there is the better. 

“15. A parapet, to refift cannon, fhould never be lefs than 
12 feet thick, and for mufket fhot nox lefs than fix feet. 

16. The height of the parapet mutt be regulated by the 
fitnation of the work, and of the adjoining ground ; with 
this confideration, that the height (of its creil) above the 
banquette fhould not exceed 44 feet; if higher, men of 
rather a fhort ftature will not be able to fire over it. 

17. The depth and breadth of the ditch muft be regu- 
lated by the quantity of earth required for the parapet and 
banguette, 

18. A téte de pont, or any work intended to cover the 
embarkation of troops, or the paffage of a river, &c. fhouid, 
if poffible, be made where the line of the river or coaft 
forms a kind of re-entering angle, that the flanks of the 
corps, as well as thofe of the works, may be covered. See 
Field-FORTIFICATION. 

To carry on the work.—The number of workmen mutt 
be proportioned to the time allotted for carrying on the 
work, the quantity of labour, and the number of hands ca- 
pable of being employed at the fame time. "When the 
ditches are broad, the workmen muft be potted in two rows; 
but, if narrow, only in one. In the firlt cafe the earth will 
bethrown by thofe who are on the outward edge of the 
ditch to the fecond row, and by them upon the parapet : 
for which reafon the fecond row, to keep pace with the firft, 
ought to be twice asnumerous. ‘the workmen fhould never 
be placed nearer than two paces, ‘or four feet from each 
other, and two men with fhovels fhould be preceded by one 
with a pick-axe. If -more than ufual expedition be re- 
quired, one more with a wheel-barrow, or bafket, may’ be 
added to fix or eight with fhovels. Another row of workmen 
fhould alfo be placed on the parapet, to {pread the earth 
and beat it down as it is thrown up. In fixing the fafcines, 
three men will fuffice for every 24 feet of the work ; thefe 
fhould be provided with two mallets, one faw, and one hand- 
bill or hatchet. ‘ 

In order to form fome idea of the time in which a field- 
work may be completed, compute the number of cubic feet 
of earth to be excavated, thus; multiply half the fum of 
the breadth of the ditch, at top, by the depth, for the num- 
ber of fquare feet in the profile; this multiplied by the dif- 
tance between the workmen in feet, will fhew the number of 
cubic feet each man has to dig : or being multiplied by the 
length of the ditch (in feet) will give the cubic contents of 
the ditch. Now, one man is fuppofed to be able to move 
216 cubic feet of earth in a day during the fummer ; but 
this is not always the cafe. If a field-work be completed 
in 24 hours, it will be as much as the moft diligent work- 
men are capable of. This time is generally allowed for the 
formation of a weak profile; 48 hours for that of a ftronger, 
witha revetement of fafcines ; and 72 for the ftrongelt. 

The different flopes forthe works mult depend upon the 
nature of the foil, and the materials of which the work is 
compofed. 
fafcined, fhould be one-fixth of its height, and the flope of 
the banquette equal to its height. ‘The flope of the fearp, 
or counterfearp of the ditch, fhould be trom half its height 
to its full height, according to the foil. The fuperior flope 
of the parapet muft depend entirely upon the fituation of 
the work, and that of the furrounding country. The inte- 
rior flope of the parapet is generally lined with fafcines, to 
keep up the earth; but it is not abfolutely neceffary to 


The interior flope of the parapet, though it be - 


L D. 
fafcine the exterior flope, if the foil be tolerably ftiff. The: 


embrafures are commonly made 20 inches wide within, and 
nine feet on the outfide. They muft always be lined with 
fomething to retain the earth; turf is generally preferred, 
as fafcines are fo apt to take fire. The manner in which 
fafcines are made may be feen under that head. 4 
Tt fometimes happens that the foil is fo hard as to render 
it impodible to throw up works by the means of excavation ; 
and where it is a loofe fand, equal difficulty would occur 
regarding its retention, even when kept up by revetements 
of fatcines. In either of thefe cafes, the batteries, &c. muft 
be formed by placing gadions (which fee) in fuch order, and, 
contiguous, as may ferve to give a preper form to the mer- 
lons. The gabions may be either lined with leaves, faeking, 
&c. where the {cil is a running fand, or they maybe rammed 
full of clay, or whatever iff foil may be at hand ; wool, 
cotton, chips of leather, bark, or whatever may Herve to 
confine the fand, may anfwer according to circumftances, ob- 
ferving that, in fome inltances, the whole interior mutt be 
gabioned. It will be evident that on a bad oil, fuchoas 
above deferibed, no ditch could be rendered both efficient 
and permanent; if lined with fafcines, they might prove. 
the deltru€tion of the whole work, fhould the enemy throw 
carcafies or fheils into it. A battery formed of gabions 
may be run up with great celerity, provided) proper mate- 
rials for filling them be at hand, and plenty of labourers at 
command, In very hard, rocky foils, there is great difficulty. 
in fixing gabions, on account of the: impraéticability of 
driving the neceffary ftakes. To. refit mufketry, fand’ 
bags are often found fufficient. Thefe are particularly fer- 
viceable in fituations where the oppofing troops are very 
clofe ; being placed foas to lean towards each other, but 
leaving afmall interval, like a loop-hole, and being again 
crowned with an entire layer of the fame kind ; they offer 
an exccllent fkreen, from behind which the affailants may 
be galied in the mott aes manner. Sand bags, ar: 
ranged along the top of a low wall, add confiderably to the 
means of defence, efpecially where the wall is fo irregular. 
as to offer the means of flanking. : 
Fie.p-Piece, a fpecies of artillery intended for fervice. 
in the field, in contradiftinétion to fuch pieces of ordnance 
@s are appropriated to the defences of fortified places, to 
naval warfare, and to battering in breach.  Field-pieces are 
in general made of brafs, or rather of gun-metal, which con-. 
fifts of from 8 to rolbs. of tin to 100lbs. of: cupper; the 
largeft proportion of tin being ufed for mortars. The’ 
ordnance under defeription is ufually divided into three 
clafles, viz. battalion guns, artillery of the park, and horfe 
artillery. The battalion guns include all light pieces at- 
tached to regiments of the line, which they accompany in, 
all manceuvres, to cover and fupport them. The following 
natures of field ordnance are attached to battalions of 
infantry, by the different powers in Europe : ; 


The French have two — 4-Pounders ser battalion. 
Englifh two 6 do. Yaoy 
Danes tavon ~9) aredas do. * 
Avttrians three’ 6 of ido do. — 
Pruffians two 6 © do. inthe rf lin } 

: ee ea two 3. © do.inthe 2d line 
Havoverians two 3 do. per battalion. 


- The artillery of the park is compofed of every clafs of 
field orduance. It is intended to form batteries of pofition, 
that is to fay, to occupy advantageous fituations, inde-' 
pendent of the movements of the troops, but with the view 
to fupport them, and to produce the greateft effeéts. 
Sometimes the park is divided into the feveral parts of the 
line ; fometimes it is advanced under cover of cavalry, 

which, 


FIELD. 


which, fuddenly retiring, at 2 proper moment, unmafk 
the battery, and furprife the enemy by the fatal dif- 
clofure. 

“The park fhould be fufficiently numerous to afford fup- 
plies in the event of any pieces being taken by the enemy; 
but, on the other hand, it is bad policy to burthen an army 
with too large a train, which not only occupies a great 
lmgth of line, which in fome inftances expofes the whole 
to injury, but demands fo large a ftock of forage for the 
horfes, &c. as to occafion confiderable inconvenience on the 
feore of provifions. ‘The common rule is, to attach to the 
park twice as many field-pieces, of various natures, as there 
may be battalions of infantry in the army. The moft ap- 
proved proportions are thefe: 2 fifths of the whole te be 
12-pounders ; 2-fifths to be 6 pounders, and 1-fifth to be 
g-pounders. Butin different countries it is found neceffary 
to lewer the eftablifhment to the following ftandard; 
viz. only 1-fourth to be 12-pounders; 2-fourths to be 
6-peunders, and 1-fourth to be 3-pounders. For every 109 
pieces of cannon it is fuppofed that four howitzers fhould 
be added; buc we generally fee a much larger proportion 
of the latter; perhaps as far as 18 or 20 to the 109:-the 
French even exceed that proportion, and clais their field- 
pieces into 12, 8, and 4-pounders ; which, as their pound 
weight exceeds our’s confiderably, their ordnance may be 
rated at about 1-fifth heavier than the Britifh. 

Horfe artillery.—In the French fervice this confilts of 
8-pounders, and 6-inch howitzers; a weight of metal re- 
quiring the greateft exertions to move with due rapidity, 
and rather tending to fubjeCt this department to delays, or 


even to capture. With refpe& to the latter point, the 
French feem to entertain fewer fcruples about relinquifhing 
their ordnance than we do; they rarely make exigency fub- 
fervient to honour, but look principally to effects; being 
certain that a few field-pieces may always be fupplied from 


_their park of artillery. 


The Englifh horfe artillery confifts of light 12-pounders, 
light G-pounders, and light Se iich howitzers. It remains 
to be proved how far this feleétian is eligible ; but, in addi- 
tion to the foregoing comment on the French eftablifhment, 
we may perhaps be correct in hazarding an opinion, that, 
except in the difcharge of grape, in which branch the 
howitzers poffefs a decided fuperiority, the French 
§-pounders may be confidered as very nearly on a par with 
our 12-pounders; the former weigh only rocwt. 3qrs. 
while the latter amount toe Scwt. 3.qrs. 4 lbs.; or, upon 
the new feale now chiefly in ufe, to 12ewt. But our 
medium 12-pounders have only a very fmall limber-box, 
jately added, which carries 6 round, and 6 cafe fhot, with a 
proportion of {mall ftores. ‘hey are attended each by 
two waggons, having the ammunition, generally about 
150 rounds, divided equally between them. The light 
6-pounders carry 34 round and 16 cafe-fhot in their hm- 
bers, and for each pair of guns about 260 rounds of forts 
in one waggon. The 5!-inch lrowitzers carry 22 fhells, 
4 cafe-fhot, and 2 carcafles, in their ref{pective limbers, aud 
are attended by two waggons, carrying 24 cafe-fhot, 24 
fhells filled, and 120 empty,. and_4 careafles. The horfe 
artillery pieces have waggons on a peculiar cortiudtion 
which carry as follow: 


For 12-Pounders, light, on the limber— 12round, 4 cafe, 4 fhells oe G3 

—_ do. in one waggon— 52 10 10 —— San 

For 6-Pounders, light, on. the limber— 32 § — total 180. 

= do. in one waggoa— g7 —— 13 —— —— 

Fer st-inch howitzers, on the limber— — Ss 5 —— 113 —— . 

abe ee do. in one waggon— — 10— al and 4 carcaffes total 75- 
For 3-Pounders, heavy, with curricle—. + 6 ——- - 6 —— total 136. 
ie oO. in one cart—1o9 —— 24 —— 


The Britih parks of artillery are compofed of the fol- 
lewing ordnance: medium 12-pounders, 4; Defagulier’s 
6-pounders, 4; and light 54-inch howitzers, 4. hefe 
are called brigades, according to their refpective calibres, 
er natures; each brigade confiiting of 4 or 6 pieces, with 
a referve of about 4th of the whole number, which fhould 
be placed behind the firft line; but if the front be exten- 
five the referve mutt be divided. 

All field-pieces are mounted on carriages, ftanding on one 

air of wheels five feet in height, and when travelling have 
their trails, or rear, (which then precedes the gun itfclf,) 
hooked up to the rear of the dimber, or carriage, on equal 
fized wheels, allotted to the conveyance of the ammunition 
in chefts ; thence called /imber-boxes. 

Frep-Staff, is a ftaff carried by the gunners, in which 
they {crew lighted matches, when they are on command ; 
which is called arming the field-ftafls. See Linsrocx. 

Fieip-Mar/hal, is the denomination of the modern mili- 
tary rank in England, but fuperior to all others ; having 
the chief command of the whole army. 

Fikip Officers. See Orricers. : 

Fiexp of Vifion, in Optics, is that conical fpace indefi- 
nitely extended before us, fo as to include all objects that 
can be feen at one view, or without turning the eyes. The 

vecife limits of this {pace are not eafily afcertained. In 
ooking at a {mall diftance, we have an imperfect glimpfe 
af objects through almodt the exteat of a hemilphere, or at 

Vou, X1Y. 


leaft for above fixty degrees each way from the optic axes; 
but towards the extremity of this {pace obie@s are very 
imperfeCly feen ; and the diameter of the field of diftin®& 
vifion does not fubtend au angle of more than five degrees 
at moft, fo that the diameter of a diftin@ image on the 
retina is lefs than .06 of an inch ; but it is probably much 
lefs. See Vision. 

Fievp-Fare, in Ornithology, the Englith name of a bird of 
the thrufh kind, called by authors Tuanws pilaris, which 
ice. 

It is a bird of paflage, and vilits us in England toward 
the end of autumn in vaft flocks, and leaves us in fpring ; it 
is not certainly known where thefe birds breed. They 
feed on berries, particularly thofe of the holly, and are well 
tafted birds. 

This bird is eafily taken with water bird-lime in the 
following manner? take out a gun, and kill two or three 
field-fares with it ; by that time the gun has been difcharged 
two or three times, the reft of thefe birds will be fo thy, 
that there will be no coming near them ; then tie one or 
two of thofe that were fhot to the upper branches of a 
bufhy tree, in fuch manner, that they may {eem alive and 
fitting there. Then prepare two or three hundred twigs, 
covering them well with the water bird-lime, made warm 
for that purpofe; take a good birchen bough, and in that 
place all the twigs ; tie this falt to the tree, juft underneath 
where the athee iteld-fares are tied, and let this be in a place 

3F whore 


rie 


where they come ina morning to feed, for they always ufe 
ote haunt for feeding fo long as there is any food left there. 
By this means the field-fares will fettle in whole flocks, near 
thofe which they fee tied to the bufh; and two: or three 
dozen may be in this manner taken at a time. 

Frievp-Pare, American. See Turpus Migratorius. 

Fieto-Lark. See Avaupa Arvenfis. 

Fieip-Book, in Surveying, a book ufed for fetting down 
angles, diftances, and other things, remarkable in taking 
furveys. : 

The pages of the ficld-book may be conveniently divided 
into five columns. In the.middle column the angles at the 
feveral ftations taken by the theodolite are to be entered, 
with the diftances from the ftations. The diflances taken 
by the off-fet flaff, on either fide of the {tation line, are to 
be entered into the columns on either fide of the middle 
column, according to their pofition with refpeét to that 
line. The names or characters of the objects, with proper 
remarks, may be entered in the columns on either fide of 
thefe laft mentioned. See SurveyInG. 

Frierp of a Painting, &c. is more ufually called the 
ground thereof. 

FIELDING, Henry, in Biography, a diftinguifhed 
writer, was born in 1707 at Sharpham, near Glaftonbury 
in Somerfetthire. After receiving the rudiments of educa- 
tion at home, he was removed to Eton fchool, where he 
laid in a refpeétable ftock of claffical learning, From Eton 
he went to Leyden, where he ftudied the civil law, but 
foon after his return he commenced writer for the ftage. 
His firft piece was a comedy, entitled « Love in feveral 
Mafks,”? and the fuccefs which he obtained in this inflance 
led him to make numerous efforts in the fame way ; but his 
early comedies are all forgotten: many of them were little 
more than tranflations from the French. 

At the age of about twenty-fix, or twenty-feven, he 
married a young lady of great beauty, and with fome for- 
tune, which, with what he obtained by the death of his 
mother, put him in poffeffion of an eftate of rather more 
than 200/. per annum. With this fortune he affumed the 
flyle of a country gentleman, with a retinue of fervants, 
horfes, and dogs. In three years he had exhaufted his 

roperty, and involved himfelf in confiderable difficulties. 
Fie now refolved to fludy the law, with a view to future 
{upport, and entered himfelf in the ‘Temple. While he was 
keeping the terms required, he fupported himfelf and family 
by his pen. He wrote for the ftage, and publifhed many 
effays which difplayed a fund of good fenfe, and acquaint- 
aiice with mankind. His firft attempt at the humorous and 
fatiric delineation of chara@er, was in the “ Hiftery of 
Jonathan Wild,’ which difplays a familiarity with the 
{cenes of low profligacy, which it is wonderful that a per- 
fon in decent life fhould ever acquire; but his early courfe 
laid the foundation of too much knowledge of this kind. 
In 1742 he publifhed his firft proper novel, entitled «* The 
Hiftory and Adventures of Jofeph Andrews, and his friend 
Mr. Abraham Adams.?? The fcenes introduced in this 
piece are chiefly thofe of low life: the grave Cervantic 


humour is imitated, and the principal chara@er, parfon. 


Adams, is rendéred the Quixote of the piece. His fuec- 
cefs as a novel-writer was not favourable to his profeffional 
puriuits, and he did not attain to any confiderable eminence 
at the bar. He received little emolument from: his legal 
praticé, and his other fupplies were inadequate to the de- 
mands of his family. In the midit of anxious cares and 
broken health, he had the misfortune to lofe his wife. 
this ftroke he was fo far 6verwhelmed as to be unequal to 
allexertion. “At length, the love of liberty ‘and the ‘caufe 


By 


PIE 


of proteftantifm re-animated his fervour, and, in 1745% 
during the rebellion, he wrote and publifhed a periodical 
paper, entitled “ The true Patriot,’? which was followed 
by ‘ The Jacobite Journal.” Thefe efforts in favour of 
the government and conftitution, obtained for him the ap- 
pointment to the office of a: Middlefex magiftrate, in the 
difcharge of the duties of which» he was very exemplary 
and took every method for preventing crimes, aud fer im= 
proving the police. In’1749 he publifhed ‘* A: Charge to 
the Grand Jury,”’ containing an accurate account of the in- 
{titution and particular duties of grand juries. This was 
followed by an «* Enquiry into the Cautes of the late in- 
creafe of Robbers,”? dedicated to the lord chancellor 
Hardwicke ; and by “ A Propofal for the maintenance of 
the Poor:” both thefe pieces were efteemed judicious and 
ufeful performances, and as exhibiting much diligent re- 
fearch into difficult fubje@s. While he was thus employed 
in the ferious avocations of his magifterial office, he found 
leifure to write his ‘Tom Jones,’”? which muft ever be 
regarded as a matter-piece of art, replete with the moft 
ftriking delineation of manners, and exhibiting extraordinary 
flall in managing the intricacies of a plot fo as to wind up 
with the happieft effect. His third novel was eatitled 
“Amelia,” which came out in 1751; after the publication of 
this his conftitution began to give way very rapidly, but 
the powers of his mind were {till in high vigour, and he 
engaged in a new periodical work, entitled « The Covent 
Garden Journal,”? which continued with much fuccels for 
about a year, when the author’s ill-health obliged him to 
fufpend his literary labours. As a lait refource, he was 
advifed to try the climate of Portugal, but the voyage did 
not contribute to his recovery ; he lived long enough to 
defcribe the occurrences which he had witnefled in pafiing 
from London to Lifbon, and died’ OGtober 8th, 1754, in 
the forty-eighth year of his age. Fielding was poffeffed 
of many folid virtues of the heart, and the powers of his 
under{tanding were unquettionable. His novels, though 
liable to objeétions, afford’ many valuable moral leffons. 
His fcenes are often drawn from low life, and difplay too 
much of the vices and crimes of mankind, yet they are 
relieved by a confiderable admixture of nobler matter, and 
contain many affecting pi€tures of moral excellence. His 
fame as a.writer has not declined fince his death. He is» 
{till regarded as much at ‘the head of the department of 
comic romance as Richardfon is at that of the fentimental. 
His fifter, Sarah Fielding, is known for two novels, entitled » 
“David Simple,” and “ The Cry ;”? and for a tranflation > 
of the Memorabilia”? of Xenophon: and his: half- 
brother, fir John Fielding, was long at the head of the 
public office, London. Biog. Brit. 

IIELEWEER, in Geography, an ifland near the W. 
coaft of Norway, about 22 miles long and 4 broad, with a 
town. N. lat. 63°. 391. = 

FIELSIA, a town of Swedifh Lapland;- 45 miles 
SiS.E. of Afela. 

FLEN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak; 5 miles’ 
S.W. of Cafhan. 

FIENVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in 
te department of the Somme ; five miles'S.W. of Dour-s 
ens. 

FIENUS, or Frens, Tuomas, in Biography, a phy- 
ficiah of eminence in the fixteenth century, was born at 
Antwerp, where his father exercifed the fame profeffion, on 
the 28th of March, 1567. He purfued his’ medical and 
mathematical ftudies at Leyden, and afterwards at Bologna, 
which he vifited in 1550. Onhis return to his native country 
his talents-were foon mad¢ known’: in’ 1593 he was invited: 

i - te 


HEE 


¢o Louvaine, in order to fill one of the vacant profefforfhips 
of medicine in that univerfity, in which he took the degree 
of dogtor about the end of that year. He refigned his 
chair after feven years of refidence in that {chool, and went 
to Munich, having been appointed phyfician to Maximilian, 
duke and afterwards eleGor of Bavaria; but he returned to 
his poft at the end of one year. In-41616, he was offered 
the profefforfhip of medicite in the univerfity of Bologna, 
with a falary of a thoufand ducats ; but the archdike Albert 
immediately increafed his falary at Louvaine to the fame 
fum, in order to do away the temptation of leaving that 
city. Accordingly he remained there until his death, which 
6ccurred on the 15th of March, 1631, at the colleze of 
Breughel, of which he had been for a long time prefident. 
Fienus has been ever regarded as an intelligent and able phy- 
fician ; he had few equals among his contemporaries in the 
knowledge of natural hiftory and furgery ; not to mention 
his acquaintance with the Greek, and mathematics. His 
works likewile contributed greatly to advance his reputation; 
they were as follows. 1. “ De cauteriis Libri quinque,” 
Qouvaine, 1598. 2. “ Libri Chirurgici XII., de preci- 
ae Artis Chirurgice controverfiis,’? Francfort, 1602. 
‘his work, which paffed through many editions, treats of 
the principal furgical operations. 3. ‘* De viribus Imagi- 
nationis ‘Tractatus,”? Louvaine, 1608. 4. ‘“ De Cometa 
anni 1618,”” Antwerp, 1619. In this traét he combats the 
opinions of Copernicus refpeing the motion of the earth. 
5. * De vi formatrice feetis Liber, in quo oftenditur ani- 
mam rationalem infundi tertia die,’”’ ibid. 1620. This 
work was attacked by Louis du Gardin, a profeflor of 
Douay, who maintained the better ground in this undeter- 
minable argument. Fienus replied in, 6. “ De formatrice 
feetus adverfus Ludovicum du Gardin, &c.,’? Louvaine, 
1624. His opinion was alfo impugned by Santa Cruz, the 
phyfician of Philip IV.. which produced, 7. “ Pro fua 
de animatione Feetiis tertia die opinione Apologia, adverfus 
Antonium Ponce Santa Cruz, Regis Hifpaniarum Medi- 
eum Cubicularem, &c.,”? Louvaine, 1629. 8. “ Semio- 
tice, five de fignis medicis Traatus,’? Leyden, 1664. 
The father of the preceding, Dr. John Fienus, publifhed a 
treatife at Antwerp in 1582, entitled, « De Flatibus huma- 
num corpus moleftantibus Commentarius novus ac fingula- 
wis,”” which pafied through many editions. Eloy. Dia. 
FIERAS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro- 
vince of Aland; twelve miles N.N.W. of Wardbere. 
FIERT Facias, in Laz, a judicial writ, which lies at all 
times within the year and day, for him that hath recovered 
in an attion of debt and damages ; it is dire€ted to the fhe- 
riff, commanding him to levy the debt and damages on 
him, again{t whom the recovery was had. This {pecies of 
execution is called jeri facias from the words in it which 
command the fheriff, quod fieri faciat de bonis, that he 
eaufe to be made of the coods and chattels of the defendant 
the fum or debt recovered. This lies as well againft privi- 
Jeged perfons, peers, &c., as other common perfons; and 
again{t executors or adminiftrators with regard to the goods 
of the deceafed. The fheriff may not break open any outer 
doors (5 Rep. 92.) to execute this writ; but mult enter 
poceby: and may then break open any inner doors, be- 
Jonging to the defendant, in order to take the goods. 
(Palm. 54.) And he may fell the goods and chattels, even 
an eftate for years, which is a chattel real (8 Rep. 171.) 
of the defendant, till he has raifed enough to fatisfy the 
judgment and cofts: firft paying the landlord of the pre- 
“mifes, upon which the goods are found, the arrears of rent 
then duc, not exceeding one year’s rent in the whole. (Stat. 


@ Ann. c..14.) If part only -of the debt -be levied on a 


FIE 


Seri faciar, the plaintiff may have a capias ad fatisfaciendum 
for the refidue. (1 Roll. Abr. go4. Cro. Eliz. 344.) See 
Execution. 

FIESCO, Joun Lewts, in Biography, count of La- 
vagna, a noble Genoefe, was born in 1525. He became 
pofléffed of a large eftate at the age of eighteen, and, fur- 
rounded with flatterers, began, at their fuggeftions, to af- 
pire after that power and diftinGion in the itate to which 
his birth and opulence feemed to entitle him, but from 
which he was precluded by the fuperior influence of the 
Doria family. (See Doria, Andrew.) Fiefco, who pol- 
feffed all the talents proper to ingratiate himfelf with a 
party, refolved to attempt a révolution in Genoa which 
might raife him to the fiation that Doria now occupied. 
His courteous manners rendered him 2 favourite with the 
people. He obtamed the intereit of the court of France, 
and the concurrence of the Pope, who accommodated him 
with fome galleys. Notwithftanding the preparations that lie 
wasmaking, Doria did not, and would not, fufpeét any thing 
to the prejudice of Fiefeo, though the deftru€tion of him- 
{elf and family formed an effential part of the confpiracy. 
The day fixed for the bloody enterprize was January the 2d, 
1547, and, on the preceding morning, Fiefco prepared a 
galley under the pretext of a cruife againti the corfairs, and 
then paying a vifit to Doria, he requeited permiffion to de- 
part early from the harbour, and took his leave with much 
apparent refpe&t, and every demonftration of affeGion. In 
the evening he affembled his adherents, and having exhorted 
them to join him in an attempt to free their country from 
its oppreflors ; he went to make known kis projeét to his 
wife, who, diftraéted with the idea of the impending dan- 
ger, entreated him, on her knees, to defift from his defperate 
undertaking. He had, however, made up his mind, and 
was immoveable ; rufling fromher apartment, he exclaimed, 
«¢ Madam, yeu fhall never fee me again, cr you fhall fee 
every thing’ in Genoa beneath you.’’ Inthe dead of night 
he fallied forth at the head of 500 armed men, furround- 
ed by his fellow confpirators. “He difpatched parties to all 
quarters, and proceeded himfelf to fecure the dock in which 
the galleys lay. In pafling over a plank, ‘placed between 
two veflels, it gave way and he fell into the water. The 
weight of his armour funk him to the bettom, from whence 
he never rofe, and thus, at the early age of twenty-two, his 
life was facrificed at the fhrine of ambition. The confede~ 
rates had gone too far to recede with fafety ; they determined 
therefore to {trike the defperate blow, but the death of their 
Jeader was fatalto the attempt. Doria efcaped unhurt; the 
fenate recovered its authority, and the family of Fiefco 
paid the penalty of the crimes of their leader by ruin and 
profcription. Mod. Univer. Hift. 

Fiesco, in Geography, a town of Italy, ia the depart- 
ment of the Upper Po; 4 miles E. of Crema. 

FIESOLE, Grovannr pba, in Biography, ag hittorical 
painter, who was born at Fiefoli, in 1387.  His*real name 
was Montorioli ; from his excellence in painting the expref- 
fions of faints and angels, he was alfo called Grovanni Ans 
gelico. He was firlt placed as a difciple with Giottino ; 
He afterwards became a Dominican friar. His firft works 
of confequence were painted at Florence, by order of Cof- 
mo di Medici ; who having built the church and convent of 
St. Mark, commiffioned Fra. Giovanni to paint the Chapter- 
houfe, in which he reprefented, in frefco, on the walls, three 
fubjeGts. ft, The Paffion of Chritt. 2d, All the Saints, 
Founders of Religious Orders, weeping at the foot of the 
Crofs, and on the other St. Mark the Evangedift with the 
Virgin, the three Maries, and Sats Cofimo aud Damian, 
prefert at ‘the Crucifixion. gee thefe, by way of —_ 

Ben 3 ae 


FEF 


he reprefented a tree, at the foot of which was St. Domiui- 
co fupporting the branches, which in their turn upheld 
portraits of all the popes, cardinals, bifhops, faints, and 
doors in theology, whé were of the Dominican order. 
His fame procured him an invitation to Rome from pope 
Nicholas V., who employe@ him to paint his chapel and or- 
nament manuicripts. He became fo warm an admirer of 
Giovanni, that he offered him the archbifhopric of Florence, 
which his humility aud perhaps love of his art, led him to 
decline accepting for himfelf, and the perfon whom he re- 
commended was inftalled in his ftead. He generally painted 
his pictures {maller than life: Vafari fpeaks of them with 
great delight, but they are not of a grand clafs, and are 
often defective. He died in 1445, aged fixty-cight, hav- 
ing been exceedingly induftrious, and leaving behind him an 
immeife number of works, principally at Florence and 
Rome. 

FIESOLI, in Geography, a town of Etruria, the fee of 
a bifhop, fuffragan of Florence, three miles N.E. of Flo- 
rence, This is the antient Fe/u/e, one of the twelve cities 
of Etruria. 

FIFE, a fmall fhrill flute, blown at the fide, like a Ger- 
man flute, It is inalmoft every mufical band, and as the tabor 
and pipe euliven the dance, the fife and drum animate the 
foldier, particularly in the quick flep. The fife has fix 
notes, and furnifhes two otaves from the loweft D in the 
treble, to Dinalt. The Swifs firft brought this inftrument 
into France, after the battle of Marignan, under Francis I. ; 
fince which time it has been admitted into regimental mulic, 
in preference to the common octave flute, being made lefs 
falfe from its having a key which the fife @ dee has not. La- 
borde. 

The fe is an inftrument, particularly intended for the 

ufe of regiments, and forms, in conjunGtion with the drum, 
the only mufic with which many corps are provided. 
This little fhrill tube is ufually about fourteen inches in 
Tength, and of one piece, though fome are made to take to 
pieces ; but fuch are not fuited to military ufe: it may be 
confidered a {mall kind of flute, efpecially if provided, as 
fome are, with a key; but fuch are rare, the generality 
being confined to only fix finger holes, and an embouchure, 
or mouth-hole. The want of a key neceffarily occations a 
difference in the fingering of many notes; but the compafs, 
or extent, is about the fame as that of the German flute ; 
namely, from D below the treble ftaff, to D in alt.; but 
_all beyond B in alt. are more or lefs harfh, and cruelly 
piercing toa fenfible car. Fifes are made of three feveral 
fizes, denominated A, B, andC, refpectively ; A being the 
largeft and deepeft toned, and one minor third below concert 
pitch ; the next fize is made to corref{pond with the B b of 
the mufical f{cale, and is generally uled when playing with 
military bands, ufing what are called B b clarionets. The 
C fifes are thofe at concert-pitch, and are chiefly ufed for 
the ordiuary fervice of thefe inftruments. Such an aflort- 
ment requires fome vehicle or receptacle; accordingly we 
find that where fuch a diverfity is allowed, each fifer is pro- 
vided with a 

Fire-ca/e, which is atin tube, about twenty inches long, 
and three in diameter, having two diaphragms of tin pierced 
for the feveral fifes to pafs through, fo as to be kept fepa- 
rate. There is atin hd which faftens down, and either 
locks or is fixed by a [pring pin. This cafe is generally 
painted to conform with the ornaments on the drums of the 
regiment, and is flung over the fhoulder by means of a cord 
with taflels. Though certainly decorative, we cannot but 
view this appendage as both ufelefs and extravagant. 

Firs-rails, ina Ship, are thofe that are placed on banifters 


FIF 


on each fide of the top of the poop, and fo along with 
hances or falls. They reach down to the quarter-deck, and 
to the ftair of the gangway. 

Fire’s Pafage, in Geography, a channel in Broughton’s 
Archipelago, about eleven miles in length and two in breadth. 
N. lat. so" se’. E. long. 233° 11’. 

FIFENESS, a cape of Scotland, on the E. of the 
county of Fife, with a village of the fame name; a ridge 
of rocks, called the Car rocks, extending a confiderable 
way into the fea, renders the paffage of the cape dangerous 
to feamen. N. lat. 56° 15’. W. long. 2° 30’. 

FIFER, a perfon who plays on the fife: of thefe oneis 
generally appointed to each company of infantry, who, in 
company with the drummer, plays to the corps while march- 
ing for the relief of guard, or when the arms are carried 5 
alfo at the times of beating the reviellez, the aflemblez, the 
retreat, the tattoo, and other regular or incidental duties. 
The mott difagreeable part of the duty of the fifers and 
drummers, contifts in the infliGion of fuch punifhments as 
offenders are fentenced by courts-martial to undergo in pre- 
fence of their companions in arms, occafioning this clafs 
of perfons to be often treated with marked odium, and te 
receive the opprobrious defignation of ‘ Bloody Thumbs.” 
This term is derived from the ftains of blood attaching to 
their hands, in confequence of their occafionally firaightening 
the feveral cords of which a cat-’o-nine-tails is compofedy 
and which in the aét of flagellation are apt to become en- 
tangled, fo as to fall heavily, en mafle, upon the delinquent’s 
fhoulders. We cannot let pafs this opportunity of exprefi- 
ing our conviction, founded on the beft authorities, that 
corperal punifhments are as unneceflary as they are dif- 
graceful ; and that it is not only very praéticable, but has 
in many inftances been found very effectual, to fubftitute 
moderation for feyerity, and an attack on the pride of an 
offender, for one on his flefh. Under the exiiting fyftem 
we can never be led to envy the feelings of the fifers and 
drummers of a regiment ; nor can w. entertain the opivion 
that this clafs of our foldiery will be exempted from thofe 
opprobious epithets, and thofe farcaftic refle&ions, which 
affix aftizma of the moft obnoxious defeription. 

FIFESHIRE, in Geography, is a county of Scotland, 


almoft furrounded by the rivers Forth and Tay, the friths. 


or eftuaries of which nearly form it into a peninfula. The 
former river on the fouth divides it from the Lothians ; and 


the latter feparates it from the fhires of Perth and Angusg . 


on the eait it is bounded by the fhires of Kinrofs and 
Clackma:inan ; and on the weft by the German ocean. The 
length is 60 miles by 18 in breadth, comprifing about 480 
f{quare miles. The rivers by which it is watered, befides 
the two already mentioned, are the Eden and the Leven, 
The Eden has its rife on the borders of Perthhire, between 
the towns of Strathmiglo and Abernethy; and taking a 
courfe of 17 miles due ealt, falls into the fea in the bay of 
St. Andrew’s. Though a tide river, its ftream is compara- 
tively placid, and its fine falmon fifhery is greatly annoyed 
on this account with the notorious enemies of that fifh,. the 
phoce or feals, which is elegantly alluded to by the poet 
Johnitone. ; 


.) 
« Arva inter nemorofque umbras, et pafcua lata - 
Lene fluens, vitreis labitur Eden aquis.’? 


The Leven flows out of Loch Leven, a beautiful lake 
of nearly 12 miles in circumference, partially included in the 
fhires of Fife and Kinrofs, the fertile plain of which forms 
its weft and northern boundary, and to the eaft and north 
it is overlooked by the towering Lomond hills. Thefe and 
other interefting {urrounding objects, particularly the royal 

 refidence 


FIF 


vefidence of the ancient line of Scottifh or Pictifh kings, 
will be noticed in their re{peétive places. This river, after 
ranning 17 miles in an ealterly direétion, falls into the fea 
near the village of Leven. It has frequently been -con- 
founded, by the admirers of Smollet for his beautifi-l ode 
on Leven Water, with a river of the fame name moetie fhire 
of Dumbarton. 

This diftri anciently formed part of the provincia 
invicta Caledonia, which name the Romans had given to 
the country north of the river Tay, previous to their taking 
poffeflion ; for Camden obferves, the T’ay was the utinoit 
northern boundary of the Roman empire in this part of 
Britain. Julius Agricola, the beft of generals under the 
wortt of emperors, Domitian, though he was enabled to 
penetrate further by incurfive inroads, even into the heart 
of the highlands; yet fagacioufly perceiving no benefit 
could arife by conquering a country, naturally uzproduc- 
tive, and thinly peopled, wifely withdrew his army from 
ewhat he termed the Barbarians; and to refift retaliations 
ereéted a chain of forts acrofs thie part of the ifland, and 
eftablifhed the Tay for his hoftile frontier. Some Roman 
remains have been difeovered northward in Perthfhire, but 
many more in thofe parts of ancient Fifefhire, which now 
eontftitute the counties of Clackmannan and Kinrofs. The 
face of this part of the country is agreeably diverified ; to- 
wards the welt, it is mountainous, and a ridge of hills 
extends. north-eaftward nearly the whole of its length, 
dividing the county into two xatural diltriéts;.on each 
fide the country. gradually falling to the refpective friths of 
Forth and Tay. The low lands exhibit a fine fertile 
eountry, the high lands molt extenfive and beautiful prof: 

&s ; and both aretolerably well wooded: The two: conis 
eal hills, called: the Lomonds, ftand’ very confpicuous, and 
are vilible out at fea to a great diflance. The eaftern 
Lomond, the moft regular and beautiful in its fhape, is 
about 1650 feet above the level of the town of Falkland, 
which ftands at its bafe. On the fummit of this hill is a 
{mall lake, which has the appearance of a volcanic crater, 
fimilar to thofe defcribed by Spallanzani in his travels 
through Sicily. The weftern Lomond is lefs regular in its 
form, but has greater elevation; and on the fummit is a 
hieap of loofe ftones, denominated by antiquaries a cairn. 

The natural produtions are numerous and varied. The 
whole of the fouth fide of the county abounds in coal, and 
the pits are numerous. ‘The weftern and midland diftricis 
produce iron ; lead has been difcovered in the eaftera Lo- 
mond, and mines of this ore are profitably worked in the 
parifh of Kemback. Limeitone is abundant,. and of an 
excellent quality ; there are valuable freeitone quarries, and 
plenty of marle. The pebbles, much admired for the high 
polifh they take, have been difcovered in different places ; 
and various kinds of agates, with rubies of a fine water, 
highly valued by lapidaries. 

Agriculture appears to have early occupied the attention 
of the inhabitants of Fifefhire ; and its artificial productions 
evince a fpirit of induftry and improvement, furpaffed in 
few parts of Scotland. ‘The property is pretty equitably 
divided ;, there being few large eftates, and the proprie- 
tors in general refide and cultivate theirown. From this 
kind of equitable diftribution of land, its value is increafed, 
felling from 25 to 30 years purchafe. ‘To entimerate the 
feats of the nobility and gentry is not a part of our plan ; 
‘but thofe of Aberdour, Leflie, Melville, and Ely, are par- 
ticularly deferving notice. In feveral parts of the county 
are the remains of royal feats; at Dumferline, Falkland, 
Kinghorn, and St. Andrew’s. Thefe ruins will foon ceafe 
‘to be interefting ; for in the words of lord Rochetter, ** they 


FIF 


are in the full perfection of decay.”? Almoft furrounded by 
the fea, this county is furnifhed with feveral good harbours ; 
particularly Burntifland, in the frith of Porth, oppofite 
Leith, whichis inferior to none in the ifland. From the 
cireumitance of the towns principally lying upon the 
coaft, king James V!. compared this couuty to “a grey 
mautle with a gold fringe.”” Thefe towns were regarded 
by that monarch with peculiar attention, who, endeavoured 
to. make them fubfervient to his grand and wife defiga of 
raifing Scotland high in the fcale of commercial natious; a 
rank her natural capabilities entitled her to hold. For this 
purpofe he granted the inhabitants divers 
immunities; and by every inducement encouraged them to 
cultivate their local advantages. And thonzh many of 
thofe privileges by the union have been rendered unim- 
portant, yet they remain a ftanding monument of the jult 
difcernment and political fagaeity of the royal grantor, 
The county fends one member to the Britifh fenate. The 
number of royal burghs or parlianient towns, as they are 
ufually called, is:thirteen, wiz. Cupar, thie coutty town, 
St. Amndrew’s, Inverkeithing, Dumferline, Burntifland; 
Kinghorn, Kirkaldy, Dyfart, Pettenweem, Anftruther, 
Kilrenny Eafter, Kilrenny Welter, andCrail. Severabothers, 
formerly privileged with eleCtive franchife, have loft it, from 
having been unable to defray the expenee of reprefentation, 
by fending a commillioner to the Scottifh parliament. 
Among thisnumber may be mentioned, the towns of Auch- 
termuchty, Strathmiglo, Newburgh, Falkland, Kilconqu- 
har, Elie, Earlsferry &c. which, though not very large 
places, deferve notice from their former importance. The 
county 1s divided into fixty-three parochial diftridts, and by 
the enumeration returned to parliament in 1801, the number 
of houfes was 17,065, and inhabitants 93,743, being 196 
upon every fquare mile ; a much greater population than is 
to be found in any other part of Scotland. Inits ecclefiafti- 
cal diftribution it contains one full fyned and four feats of 
prefbytery. The people are varioufly employed. Many in 
the falmoa, herring, and efpecially what is denominated the 
white fifhery, which is very produétive on this part of the 
coaft; others in digging coals, great quantities of which 
are carried coaltwile, and by-the Caledonian carnal, to other 
parts. of Scotland.. The iron mines employ numbers, the 
ore of which fupplies the Calder; Carron, and other iron 
works ;, and ftill more are engaged in manufacturing linen 
and cotton cloths ; with a kind of the latter, under the name 
of green cloth,.the London calico printers have been long 
fupplied from the :markets of Fife. This county anciently 
conitituted an earldom, and the honcur was pofleffed by the 
family: of Macduff; a title conferred on the thane of 
Fife, by Malcolm III. for the fervices the former had 
done that monarch, in rettoring him to the throne, which 
had been previoufly pofleffed by the ufurper Macbeth. 
This title having become extin&, was recently revived in 
the Duffs of Braco, lateral defcendants of the ancient 
family... General Statiftical Account of Scotland. 

FIFTEENTH, Decima guinia, or Quinzieme, an ane 
cient tribute or impofition of. money, laid upon any city, 
borough, or other town, through the realm: not by the 
poll, or upon this or that man, but in general upon the 
whole city or town. 

It is fo called, becaufe-it was fuppofed:to amount to a 
fifteenth part of that which the city had been valued at of 
old; or to a fifteenth part of every man’s perfonal eftate, 
according to areafonable valuation. , 

This was impofed by parliament, and every town through- 
the realm knew what a fifteenth for themfelves amounted to, 
becaufe it was glsoza the fame ; whereas the fubidy, which 

ras- 


aa 
privileges and 


FIF 


was raifed of every particular man’s lands, or goods, mutt 
needs be uncertain. 

The fifteenth feems to have been a rate .anciently laid 
upon every town, according to the land or circuit belong- 
ing to it. Camden mentions many of thefe fifteenths in his 
Britan. viz. p.171. ¢¢ Bath geldabat pro viginti hidis, 
quando fchira geldabat, &c.”” And p.181. Old Sarum 
pro quinguaginta hidis geldabat, &c.” Which rates are 
according to Doomfday. But in after-times the fifteenth 
came to be underflood as impofed euly on goods and chat- 
tels, not on lands. It was firft granted by parliament, 
18 Edw. 1. viz. “ Computus quinte decime regi, an. 18. 
per archiepifcopos, epifcopos, abbates, priores, comites, 
barones, & omnes alios de regno, de omnibus bonis mobili- 
bus conceffa.”? The city of London paid that year for 
the fifteenth 2860/. 135. 8d. and the abbvt of St Edmund’s 
6661. 135. 4d. which was by compolition; and thereupoh 
had all the temporal goods of their diilrict difcharged: of 
the fifteenth. 

In the 8th of Edw. IIL. it was reduced to acertainty, 
when, by virtue of the king’s commiflion, new taxations 
were made of every townfhip, borough, and city, in the 
kingdom, .and recorded in the exchequer ; which rate was, 
at the time, the fifteenth part of the value of every townflup, 
and the whole amounted to about 29,000/.; and, therefore, 
it {till kept up the name ofa fifteenth, when, by the altera- 
tion of the value of money and the increafe of perfonal 
property, things came to be ina very different fituation. 
So that when of later years the commons granted the king 
a fifteenth, every parifh in England immediately knew their 
proportion of it; that is, the fame identical fum that was 
afleffled by the fame aid in the 8th of Edward IITI.; and 
then ratfed it by a rate among themfelves, and returned it 
into the royal exchequer. 

“The way of collecting it was by two affeffors appointed 
in every county by the king, who appointed twelve more 
in every hundred to make a true valuation of every 
man’s perfonal eftate upon which the fifteenth part was 
levied. 

Firreentu, in Mufic, is an interval whofe ratio is 4th, or 


the double oftave or replicate thereof = 12242 + 24 f 


+ 106m; fee table of Concorps. 

Firreenru Stop on an organ, ie a range of pipes, fo 
called becaufe each note therein is tuned a double octave or 
fifteenth above the diapafons, which are reckoned the ftan- 
dard. In accompanying choral parts in a concert, or in 
church-fingine, this flop, the twelfth, the principal, and 
the two diapafon ftops, are generally ufed together. 

Firreentu-Mile creek, in Geography, a river which rifes 
in Pennfylvania, and runs into the Potomack, in Maryland. 
N. lat. 39° go!. W. long. 78° 25! 

FIFTH, in Mufic, is a perfect concord, the next in per- 
fe€tion to the unifon and oétave; in the divifion of the 
monochord its ratio is 3:2, that is, the third part of a 
ftring isa 5th to the o¢tave of the whole ftring. (See 
Monocuorp and Funpamentat Bafe.) The sthis a 
principal found in the triad or common chord. It is made 
adifcord by the 6th; the falfe 5th is a difcord -in itfelf, 
and muft be prepared and refolved. The perfeét 5th is 
feven half notes above the bafe. It is fo perfect a concord 
that nofucceffion of 5ths with the bafe, or any of the other 
parts, can be borne, afcending or defcending together. 
Dr. Pepufch has given all the warrantable means of pre- 
paring and refolving it asa difeord; and for the unwarran- 
table fucceflion of 5ths, fee Padre Sacchi delle quinte 
fucceflive. The 5th of a key, falling to the key-notegn the 
hafe, being regarded as afull cadence or clofe, has given 


RLF 


birth in France to the denomination of dominant, asi€ 
governs or leads to the key-note or tonic of every key. 
Thus, G is regarded as the dominant of C, and .D of G, 
&c.. , 

The fifth, or major Fifth, is one of its moft important ins 
tervals, and the moft perfect or agreeable in its harmony of 
any other interval within the octave ; it is ufually marked V, 
in writings on the theory of mufic, and confiits of feven 
of the half-notes of keyed inftruments, which have 12 founds 
in the oftave. Its ratiois }=3582 + 7:f + 31 m; its com- 
mon logarithm is .8239087,4094, and its binary or Euler’s 
log-= .584962, which is its decimal relation to the o€tave 
(x) of which itis nearly the 31d part: it contains 32.639526 
major commas, is compofed of a major and minor third, and 
is the complement ofa minor fourth to the o€tave: itis equal 
to the fum of a major tone and minor fourth, a femidiapente 
and a medius fernitone, a tritone and major femitone, three 
major tones and alimma, three apotomes and four limmas; 
two major tones, one minor tone, and a major femitone alfo 
compofe it, (fee Quint.) Two circumflances have cony 
curred to render this concord the moft proper to:be ufed 
in the tuning of keyed and fivinged initruments, viz. its 
great perfection, by which much facility is given in tunings 
and it being the only concord which will bear repeating 
12 times in fucceffion (with, or without defcending o€taves) 
and each time produce a note an{wering nearly to the 12 
notes in common ufe, and on the 13th repetition fall very 
nearly on an o€tave of the note firit ftarted from: which 
circumftances occafion this concord, tempered in. different 
degrees, to be almott exclufively ufed in the tuning of inftru- 
ments. Befides the above, various other intervals bear the 
names of fifth, as 


Flat fifth, the femidiapente of the ancients, or falfe fifth 
of fome, being lefs than a tone or major-fifth by the medius 


femi-tone, and confilts of fix half-notes ; its ratio is 2 =] 


nA iy 


311 D+ 6/f + 2710, = eet its common logarithm is 


-847032533979.: its binary log. = .508148, and it is = 
28.35349 major commas. It is the complement of a tri- 
tone, is equalto a minor fourth and a major femitone, a tri- 
tone and minor comma, to the difference between two 
minor thirds and a major comma ; a major, a minor, and two 
major femitones alfo compofe it; and it is the difference 
between two 4ths, and a IIId, whence it may be tuned on " 
an organ. 


Sharp fifth, or diefis defective minor fixth, the fuper- 
fluons fifth of Tartini, confilts of eight half notes ; it exceeds 


: { : Se a 
the true fifth by a minor femitone ; its ratio is te rkg 
2 


2+ 
== 394 © + 8f + 34m; its common logarithm is 


.8061799,7398 ; its binary log. = .643856, and it is = 
35-92564 commas; it is the complement of the flat fourth ; 
it is equal to two major and two minor tones, and is equal 
to the difference of a miner fixth and enharmonic diefis, alfo 
to 2 VIII —2 6ths, 2 V — 2 3ds, 2 VI — 2 aths, or to 
2 III: whence it may be tuned. ‘ 
Comina deficient fifth, or leffer fifth of Holder, and deficient 
fifth of others, is lefs than a true fifth by a major comma, 
3 
as its name imports ; its ratio is eA aes 
++ °39.m 3 its common logarithm is .8293037,7283, and its 
binary log. = .567042: it is = 31.639524 major commas. 
It is equal to one major, two minor, and one major femi« 
tone, 


Fl F 


tone, and to a minor fourth and minor tone’; it is alfo equal 


€o the difference between two 4ths aud a 3d, whence’ it may 
be tuned. 
‘Comma-deficient flat fifth, is an apotome lefs than a true 
MeDN 5 lenges. Bt) S , 
CL ea 3002 + 6f + 26m: 
its common logarithm is .8524275,7167, and its binary log. 
= .490228 ; it is = 27.35340 major commas. It is’ tlie 
complement of three major tones; is equal to two comma- 
déficient minor thirds: to two major tones and two limmas, 
and is alfo the diference between four 4ths, and two Vths, 
whence it may be tuned. 
Comma redundant fifth, or greater fifth of Holder, is a 


: : 7 5 vA EepL OS) 
major comma: larger than a true fifth; its ratio is —— 


243 
25 


=> = 3692 + 7 f + 32m; its common logarithm 


fifth: its ratio is 


is 8185137,0905; and its binary log. = .602881, it is = 
33-639526 major commas, three major tones, and'a major 
femitone, and is the drfference between two Vths and a 3d 
and two 4ths, whence it may be tuned. 

Comma-redundant fharp fifth, or {uperfluous fifth of fome, 


: : * : 35256 
isa femitone medias larger thana true fifth ; its ratio is aes 
405 


: 5) 


= = 405 = + 8 f+ 35m; its common logarithm is 
.8007849,4209; and its binary log. = .661776: it is 


36.92564 major commas, two major thirds, and a major 
comma ; it is the difference between a major fixth anda 
limma; and between two Vths and a IIId and two 4ths, 
by which it can be tuned. 

- Comma-redundant flat fifth, or tritone maximum of Enlex, 
alfo the diminifhed fifth of fome, isa minor femitone lefs 
than a true fifth; its ratio is a = 


76 pye = 3222 + Of + 


28 m, its common logarithm = .8416375,0790, and the 
binary log. .526068: it is = 29.35340 major commas: it 
is equal to two major tones and two major femitones, alfo 
to two 3ds;’ whence it may be tuned. 

Diafchi/ma-defedive fifth, is a diafchifma lefs than a true 
1 4 WwW 
see oe = HOE + 1f + 307m5 
its common logarithm is .8297938,7996, and its binary log. 
= .5654173 it is = 31-548683 major commas: it is equal 
to the difference of four minor tones anda chromatic diefis; 
to the fum of a minor fourth and two limmas, to five limmas 
and two apotomes; to the ditference between feven oftaves 
and eleven fifths, or feven minor fourths and four fifths, 
Whence it may be tuned. It is the refulting fifth, or that 
between the dearing notrs, when eleven fucceflive perfet 
fifths are tuned in an oGiave. 


‘ Double deficient fifth, is two major commas lefs than 

yr - Be ta hey BF , 
a true fifth ; its ratio is ante — 3 = 3365 4 If + 29 
m3 its common logarithm is .8346983,0472, and its binary 
logarithm = .549121: it is = 30.63952 major commas, 
and to a major tone, two minor tones, and alimma; and it 
is the difference between two Viths, two 4ths, ‘and three 
Vths, wherice it may be tuned. 

Double fuperfluous frarp jifth, is an apotome greater than 
atrue fifth, and two major commas greater than a fharp 
4096 ye 
Ee =) = 416 D+ Sf + 36m; 
as Ob OF reser 3 =. 
its common Jogarithmiis .7953$99,rO2T, and its binary log, 


> 


fifth ; its ratio is 


fifth s its ratio is 


FIG 


= .675696: it is = 37.9256} major commas, alfo to four 
apotomes and four limmas, to two major thirds and two major 
commas ; to four major tones; to the difference between 
eight Vths and four VIIIths, or between four Vths and 
four 4ths, from either of which lait, this interval may be 
tuned. 


Minimum fifth of M. Henfling, or extreme diminifhed 
fifth of fome, is exceeded by a true fifth, the quantity of 
two minor femitones and a major comma: its ratio is 
3D ie B0e 
Shen, 22 
is .8647613,0675, and its binary or Euler’s logarithm = 
.4149253, and it is = 25.06728 major commas: it is equal te 
the difference between a XIth and three I1Ids, whence 
this interval may be tuned. 


Firrs-monarchy Men, in Ecclefiaftical Hiffory, the de- 
nomination of wrong-headed and turbulent enthufiafts, 
who fprang up in England during Cromwell’s ufurpation ; 
and whoexpected Chrift’s fudden appearance on earth to efta- 
blifh a new kingdom ; and, aéting under the influence of this 
illufiony they aimed at the fubverfion of all human governe 
ment, and were for turning all things into confufion. 

FIG, in Botany, See Freus. 

Fic, Jndian. » See Cactus. 

Fic, Jnfernal. See ARGEMONE. 

Fic, Pharaoh’s. See Ficus and Musa. 

Fic, Marygold. See MesrmBpRYANTHEMUM. 

Fic tree, Cochineal. See Cactus. 

Fié-wort, the common name of a plant of the weed 
kind, which is frequently met with in paiture lands. The- 
roots are of the oblong knobby kind. The leaves are heart- 
fhaped, cornered, and placed on foot-ftalks. The flowers 
have much refemblance to thofe of crow-foot, but differ in 
having the cup divided into three parts only, the petals being 
about eight in number, and narrower, It is a low plant, 
which runs very much by the roots, choaking up moft 
others which are near it. It has likewife the names of pile- 
wort, leffer centaury, &c. See ScropHULARIA. 

Fic, Petrified, in Natural Hij/icry. Among the nume- 
rous pyritic fubftances of Sheppy iflaad, Mr. Jacob colle&- 
edtwo which he thought to be figs ; which Dr. Parfon 
afterwards referred to a recent fungus, but perhaps with not 
much better reafon. 

Fics, in the Materia Medica. They are moderately 
nourifhing, grateful to the itomach, eafier of digeftion than 
any of the other fweet fruits, and foften the afperities of the 
breaft, &e. and accordingly are ufed in medicine, to make 
gargari{ms againit diforders of the throat and mouth ; and 
asan ingredient in pectoral deco€tions, and in lenitive elec- 
tuaries. They are alfo applied externally to foften, digett, 
and promote maturation. 

Figs are dried either by a furnace, or in the fun, having 
firft dipped them in fealding hot ley, made of the afhes of 
the fig-tree. The Latins call them carice, or jicus paffey 
when thus dried. 

In this condition they are ufed both as medicine and food $ 
being both the wholefomer, and ecafier of digeftion, when 
thus cleared of a quantity of their aqueous and viicid 
parts. 

Fics, in Commerce. The beft figs are the produce of 
Turkey, Italy; Spain, Provence, &c. The iflands of the 
Archipelago yield figs in great abundance ; but they are 
much anferior in goodnefs to thofe of Europe. Yet the 
Greeks in thofe iflands cultivate them with wonderful care 
and attention; asmaking the principal food, and a confider* 
able part of the riches of the country. 

They 


75> + 5f + 24m; its common logarithm 


FIG 


They have two kinds of fig-trees; the firft, called ornos, 
er the wild figetree ; the lecond, the domeflic jig-tree. 

The method of cultivating and ripening thefe figs makes 
a peculiar art, by the ancients called caprification : often 
fpoken of among them in terms of admiration. Some of 
the modern naturalifls have looked on it as a chimera ;. but 
Monf. Tournefort has affured us of the contrary, and given 
us that procefs, as he learnt it upon the fpot. See Capra- 
FICATION. , 

Fics, in Antiguity, were ufed in divination. : See Syco- 
MANTIA. 

Fic, inthe Afanege, isa fort of wart, or fpongy excref- 
eence, on the frufh, and fometimes all over the body of a 
horfe. The figs that appear in the frufh or fole make an 
evacuation of ftinking malignant humours, that are very 
hard to cure. The only effectual -remedy for thefe excref- 
cences is extirpation. 

Fic, Znfed, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by the 
Enelith to the creature called by the French, after Mr. 
Reaumur, the faux puceron, or falfe puceron, from its very 
much refembling the puceron in external appearance, but 
being extremely different from it when nearly exaniined. 
Thefe infegts.are, when at their full growth, of the bignefs 
of the head of a pin of the largeft fize, but there are ufually 
found among them feveral that are fmaller, down to fuch as 
are fearce perceivable to the naked eye. ‘They are found in 
great plenty on the back, or under-fide of the leaves of the 
fix-tree, but they never are feen in clufters like the pu- 
eceron. 

#he body) and breaft of this infeé&t are green, and the 
eafes of the wings are white, and befet with hairs. This 
creature has two antenne or horns, which it can exert at 
pleafure ; but they ufually are lodged under the furrows of 
the wings, and are not to be feen, unlefs the animal be 
turned belly upwards ; the head alfo is bent downwards, 
and the eyes {eem directed to look at objects only placed 
under them. 

It has fix legs, and a fine {mall trunk iffuing from the ex- 
tremity of the head; this is but fhort, and is of a lively 
green ; it is terminated by a fharp point, and has a fine 
brown filament like a hair, which it thrufts out of the body 
of the trunk at pleafure, and which feems a fort of engine 
or organ deftined to convey into the body the juices extra- 
vafated by the wound and fu€tion of the trunk. The crea- 
ture ufually remaine in perfeét quietnefs on the leaf on which 
itis found; but has this peculiarity, in its pofition, that it 
is always found with its head refting upon one of the ribs of 
the leaf, aud its body onthe plain part ; by this means, the 
anterior part of the head is raifed above the furface of the 
plain part of the leaf, and the creature can, by that advan- 
tage, move his trunk about at pleafure, and fix it into differ- 
reut parts of the leaf, while his body is perfectly ftill at the 
tine. 

Thefe creatures throw off their fins many times in their 
growth, the furrows marking the places where their wings 
are, and the protuberances made by their cafes are always 
feen, however young they are examined. 

In the months of May and June thefe infects all become 
winged, and afford a peculiar {pecies of a four-winged fly, 
which is remarkable for hopping ; but as its hinder legs are 
not greatly larger than the reft, it leaps but alittle way at a 
time.. The body of this fly is green, its wings are bordered 
with yellow, and its legs are white ; it hasa trunk of the fame 
nature with that of the creature before its winged ftate, and 
with this it continues to fuck the juices of the leaves of the 
&g-tree asit did before. 

The manaer in which thefe animals propagate their fpe- 


FIG 


cies is not yet known. The pucerons, to which they more 
approach in figure than to any other animals, have always * 
young ones found within them ; but thefe, if examined in 
whatever ftate, never have any fuch appearance, not even fo 
much as eggs being found in them ; it fhould feem that their 
eves are too minute for our infpe&tion, but that they are 
Oviparous, not viviparous animals. Reaumur’s Hitt. vol. vi. 


p- 93. 

Fic-fhell. See Dorium. 

Fre-tree cloth of Otaheite, in the South fea, is a coarfe 
and harfh cloth, of the colour of the darkeft brown paper, 
made of the bark of a tree which refembles the wild fig- 
tree of the Weft Indies. This cloth has the quality of re- 
fifting water ; and the greater part of it is perfumed, and 
worn by the chiefs as a morning drefs. For the method of 
manufacturing and colouring this cloth, fee Aoura. 
Hawkefworth’s Voyage. vol. ii. p. 210, &c. 

Vic-wort Worm, in Natural Hiflory, the name of an in- 
feét which feeds on the leaves of the {crophularia, or fig-wort, 
and which is ufually efteemed a caterpillar, but is one of 
thofe infects called by the French faufe chenilles. 

Vic-eater, in Ornithology, aname given by Albinus and 
Latham to the Moracinia nevia, which fee. 

FIGALO, Cars, in Geography, a capeon the coalt of 
Epire, at the entrance of the gult of Arta. N. lat. 39° 20/. 
E. long. 20° 34/, 

YIGARUOLO, an ifland in the gulf of Venice, near 
the coaft of Iftria. N. lat. 45>10'. E Jong. 13° 43'-—, 
Alfo, a town of Italy, in the department of the Lower Pos 
13 miles N.W. of Ferrara. 

FIGEAC, a town of France, and principal place of a 
diftri€t, in the department of the Lot, feated on the 
Selle ; 46 miles N. E. of Montauban. The place contains 
6452, and the two cantons 23,8co inhabitants, diftributed 
on a territory of 275 kiliometres, in 23 communes. This 
was originally a Benediétine abbey, founded by Pepin, 
A.D. 755, and f{ecularized by Paul III. It was formerly 
a place of fome {trength, but falling into the hands of 
the king, during the religious war, A D. 1612, its cita- 
del and fortifications were demolifhed. WN. lat. 44° 37's 
E. long. 298; , 

FIGER, or Fisyu, a rich and extenfive province of 
Japan, on the W. coaft of Ximo. 

FIGGING, in the Manege, a kind of cant term among 
dealers in horfes for thrufting “a corn” (as they call it) of 
ginger into the fundament of a horfe, or vagina of a mare, 
at the time of their being led out for fhow, for the purpofe 
of producing irritation, and eaufing them to lift up the tail. 
The London dealers, it is faid, are in geueral fo much jn 
the habit of recurring to this artifice, that they permit no 
fervant to fhew a horfe without having previouily figged 
him, under a certain forfeit. ; 

FIGHIG, in Geography, a town of Africa, fituated on 
the fouth fide of the Atlas, in the country of Biledulgerid. 
The women manufacture woollen cloth of exquifite finenefs, 
much valued in Barbary, and fold at a high price. The 
inhabitants carry on a great trade with Fez and Morocco, 
and with the negroes: 240 miles E.S.E. of Mequinez. 
Ni laty 32° 5!) W. long, 1° 5 

FIGHT. See Barrys and EnGaGEmMENT. 

Ficuts, in a Ship, are the watte-cloths which hang 
round about her in a fight, to hinder the men from being 
feen by the enemy. 

Ficuts, Clo/e, denote thofe bulkheads afore or abaft 
the fhip, which are put up for men to ftand fecure behind, 
and fire on the enemy, iw cafe of boarding. See Crosse. 

Fients, 


FIG 
“¥Freurs, Running, at Sea, thofe where the enemy do 
not itand the battle, but are continually ohafed. 

FIGHTING, in the Mihtary Art. Under the head of 
EncaGement we have giver a defcription of the ordinary 
occurrences in both military and naval warfare, and we have 
endeavoured to give a popular idea of thofe fluctuations 
which muft ever be expe€icd to attend every conteft, even 
where the fuperior numbers of one party fhould feem to 
threaten the other with complete deitruGiion, We hall, 
in this place, add, that every circumftance tends to render 
the conclufion of a fight the moft awful and moft decifive. 
The cannonade, which generally ufhers in the confliét, 1s 
xarely very deftruétive, though, as approximation takes 
place, and that cafe or grape-fhot are fub{tituted for round- 
Shot, the carnage is certainly increafed beyond all propor- 
tion. It is neverthelefs curious to obferve, that even in 
thofe late battles in the neighbourhood of Vienna, wherein 
not lefs than 8co pieces of ordnance, and full 250,000 men 
were engaged, for at leaft 30 hours, in which it isafferted the 
Auttrians alone difcharged more than 3,000,000 of mufket 
ammunition, the killed and wounded (fetting the prifoners 
apart) did not amount to 80,000 men. Confequently not 
one in forty of the latter took effet; even if we fuppofe 
the vait trains of artillery attached to both armies to have 
femained inaétive. But when we confider that a very large 
portion, commonly two-thirds of the whole number killed 
and wounded, are ftruck with cannon-fhot of fome defcrip- 
tion, and that of the remainder many are wounded by the 
bayonet only, we muft feel our aftonifhment excited to 
the higheft pitch at the comparative infignificance of muf- 
ketry. Such, however, is the fact. 

Bufh-fighting, which relates to a more defultory and fecret 
mode of oppofttion, is far more deftru@tive. In this, each 
individval aéts independently as a rifle-man; he conceals 
himfelf under banks, behind trees and bufhes, and either 
fires at the enemy, or affails him with the bayonet, or {word 
ia hand, according as circumftances may demand, the great 
art being to deftroy without being feen. To this kind of hof- 
tility all uncivilized nations at firit refort, ufing ‘pears, flings, 
{words, andclubs of various defcriptions,'and particularly ufing 
their bows with great dexterity. In general, regular troops 
are not much employed in bufh-fighting, except in clofe 
countries, where banditti- harbour, and efpecially when po- 
pular infurrections take place. It is a fpecies of fervice 
very trying both to the courage and the conititution, and 
though even performed in the higheft flyle by our gallant 
foldiers, is contidered by them as a moit arduous and hazar- 
dous duty. 

Prize-fighting, however much it may be upheld by 
amateurs, as conducive to the fupport of a certain kind of 
«courage among the lower claffes, cannot be noticed by the 
more enlightened, as teeming with barbarity, and often with 
the moft wanton aéts of cruelty. The man who, merely for 
paftime, or as a fpeculation, can encourage two of his fellow- 
creatures to enter the lifts, and to do all in their power to 
maim, or even to murder each other, muft in his heart be a 
complete ruffian. That every individual fhould, in thefe 
‘days, be able to defend himfelf, will not be denied ; but, 
in admitting thus much, we pafs amoft fevere cenfure on 
the difpofitions of thofe who are too often indifcriminately 
termed peaceable citizens, and who, we are apt to think, if lefs 
induced by a certain kind of emulation, towards which prize- 
fighting greatly contributes, might perform their feveral 
duties in life, and pafs each other in the ftieets without 
either provoking others, or pretending to have received 
infults from others of a more praife-worthy difpofition, 

Vou, XIV. 


FPrG 


Without attempting to enteron their merits in other re- 
{pects, as we referve ourfelves for a full expofition of their 
principles in its proper place, we cannot refrain from re- 
marking that the poffibility, as well as the good policy, of 
refraining from blows, is confpicuoufly proved by that clafs 
of diffenters generally called quakers. 

Ficutine Lfand, in Geography, called by the French 
* Grofe ifle aux Dindes,’? lies about four miles below 
Detroit (which fee); it is valuable for pafture, but has 
very little wood. In the fummer the Indians make it 2 
place of encampment, and fome of them plant a little 
corn. 

FIGHTWITE, Firuwira, in the Saxon times, fignified 
amulé& for making a quarrel, to the difturbance of the 
peace. ‘ Mul&taob commifiam pugnam in perturbationem 
pacis, que in exercitu regis 10 folidorum erat.”? Blount 
and Jacob, in tranfcribiag this paflage, have inferted 120 
fols. 

FIGI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of 
Ximo; ro miles N. E. of Funai. 

FIGIN, a river of Norway, which runs into the North 
fea, 10 miles S. of Stavanger. 

FIGLINA, in Ancient -Geography, a town of Gallia 
Nzrbonnenfis, marked in the Itinerary of Antonine between 
Valence and Vienne.— Alfo, a town of Gaul, belonging to 
the Allobroges, fituated upon the left of the Rhone. 

FIGMAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of the Upper Garonne; 7 miles N. N. W. of 
‘Touloufe. 

FIG-TREE Bay, a bay on the N. E. coaft of the ifland 
of Jamaica. N. lat. 18’ 18’. W. long. 76° 29'.—Allo, a 
bay on the W. coaft of the ifland of St. Chriitopher, near 
Sandy Point. 

FIGUERAS, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, containing 
4640 inhabitants, where the Spaniards, in 1786, began to 
ere€t a fortrefs, which they defigned fhould be impregnable. 
It was to contain quarters for 150 companies of infantry, 
with 502 horfe, apartments for 60 officers, with fuitable ac- 
commodations ; one long range of magazines for provifions, 
and four for powder. The works were made bomb-proof. 
The glacis is for the mot part formed of the rock, and the 
whole is protected by proper baitions. It is faid that 
12,000 men are fufficient to defend thefe works. Never- 
thelefs, the place was taken by the French in 1794 ; three 
leagues from Janquera, and feven from Gerona. The adja- 
cent country is agreeable; the hills are fhaded with ever- 
green woods ; the plains are well cultivated, and divided by 
hedges of aloes and wild pomegranate. The road from hence 
to Gerona is diverfitied with gentle eminences and fruitful 
plains. Two of thefe hills exhibit fome volcanic appearances. 

FIGUERO-pos-Vinuos, a town of Fecugal in the 
province of Eftremadura, fituated near fome lofty moun- 
tains, ona {mall river, which runs into the Zezere; cele- 
brated for its wine : 20 miles north of Thomar. 

FIGURA, in Mufic. See Ficure. 

FIGURAL, or Ficurats numbers, fuch as do or may 
reprefent fome geometrical figure, in relation to which they 
are always confidered ; as triangular, pentagonal, pyramidal, 
&c. numbers. See NumBers. 

FIGURATE, or Ficurarive, that which has a rela- 
tion to figure, or that teaches under fome obfcure refem- 
blance. Thus a figurative ftyle is that which abounds in 
figures. (See Figure and Sryre.) The figurative Ryle, 
F. Bouhours obferves, is neither the moft juft, nor the beit. 
For this reafon Cicero directs us to the ancieuts, who not 
having yet bethought themfelves to ufe figurative expreffions, 

3G but 


FIG 


but keeping to the moft proper and natural way, have almoft 
all wrote well, ** Sunt enim illi veteres, qui nondum ornare 
poterant ea, que dicebant,-omnes prope preclare locuti.’”” 

Long ufe, fay the grammarians, renders that proper in all 
Janguages, which at firft was figurative. The fame thoughts 
appear more lively when exprefied by a figure, than when in 
fimpleterms. The reafonis, that figurative expreflions de- 
note not only the principal matter, but alfo the emotion and 
paffion of the perfon who f{peaks. 

Ficurative isalfo much ufed in fpeaking of the myfte- 
ries and figures of the old law. In this fenfe manna is {aid 
to be figurative of the eucharift. 

Ficurartive is alfo ufed in the Greek grammar for what 
we otherwife call chara“teriftic, viz. a letter that character- 
izes certain tenfes of the Greek verbs ; or that diftinguifhes 
and {pecifies them. 

In the firft conjugation of tke barytonous verbs, the % 
is chara¢teriftic, or figurative of the preter tenfe, and the 
ef the future. 

-Ficurarive, or Figurative counter-point, in Mu/ic, is that 
wherein there is a mixture of difcords along withthe concords. 
See CounTER-POINT and SuPPosITIQN. 

Where the difeords are ufed asa folid and fubftantial part 
of the harmony, the counter-point is properly called the har- 
mony of difcord. 

FIGURE, Ficura, ina general fenfe, denotes the fur- 
face of terminating extremes of a body. ; 

All bodies have fome figure ; whence figurability 1s gene- 
rally ranked among the eflential properties of body or mat- 
ter. A body without figure would be an infinite body. 

The corpufcular vhilofophers account for every thing from 
the figure, bulks, and motions of. the atoms, or primary cor- 

ufcles of bodies. 

’ For the figure of bodies, confidered as objects of fight, 
fee Vision. 

The {choolmen difpute whether or no the quality of 
figurebe the fame with that of form ; and if they differ, what 
it is that conititutes the difference? Boéthius will have 
figure only predicated of inanimate bodies, and form of ani- 
mate. Others extend figure to all-natural things, and form 
to all artificial.ones ;. whence the verfe, 


«“ Formam viventis, picti dic effe figuram.”? 


Others apply figure indifferently to all kinds of bodies, 
but not in all relations. If only the bare circumference, or 
circum{cription, be confidered, they call it figure ; but if the 
circumference be confidered as endowed with colour, they 
then call it form, which fee. 

Ficure of the Earth and Planets.—This fubje& has been 
fo fully treated under Decree and Earrtn, that very little 
remains to be faid in this place. The general {pherical form 
of the earth feems to have been known in ages of the moft 
remote antiquity, but this knowledge was often confned 
only to philofophers and mathematicians ; during the middle 
ages, the dotrine was even difputed, and the fpherical 
figure denied by fome of the fathers of the church; and it 
is only fince the revival of learning in modérn Europe that 
it has been univerfully received and acknowledged by every 
clafs of people. I’. is now nearly 1c0 years, that the firlt 
mathematicians of Europe have directed their particular at- 
tention to the exact determination of the real figure of the 
earth ; an hiftorical account of thefe labours, and’of the 
refult obtained from them has already been given under the 
articles above mentioned. “Since thefe were written, the 
meafurement of the arc of the meridian has been continued 
in our own country, and our continental neighbours have 


FIG 


likewife occafionally publifhed fome additional documetitsy 
relative to their great furvey. Nothing howeyer has oc- 
curred to alter any of the principal refults which we have 
given; every thing feems to confirm the opinion, that 
though the mean figure of the earth approaches very nearly 
to the {pheroid, whofe ellipticity is ,+,, yet that the irregu- 
larities in the denfities of the different mafles are very great, 
fo as to render all the partial meafurements entirely unfatis- 
factory. Europe, in general, appears to be much flatter 
than accords with the general form; other parts of the 
globe muit of courfe be more protuberant ; but obfervations 
are ftill wanting to enable us to pronounce in what manner 
thefe irregularities are diftributed, fo as to compenfate each 
other; nor can we flatter ourfelves this queftion will foon 
be determined, confidering the uncivilized ftate of the great 
portion of the globe, compared with that requifite to con- 
du& the operations neceflary for thefe inveltigations. It 
appears that the projeét, once entertained, of determining 
the exact difference of latitude and longitude by geodetical 
meaiurement, mu{t now be abandoned, or at leaft confined 
to very {mall tra&s of country, as the errots of aftronomi- 
cal obfervation, when well condu&ted with perfeé& inftru- 
ments, are lefs than thofe which arife from the irregularity 
of the earth’s figure. This obfervation, however, only ap 
plies to particular cafes, where extreme accuracy is required 4 
for, in general, the fituation of places, determined by 
national furvey, is always extremely near the truth, and the 
limits of error may almoft always be known. Our Know- 
ledge of the natural hiftory of the earth has not yet been 
very materially improved by the inveftigations which have 
been made relative to its figure. It does not appear that 
the earth has ever been ina ftate of entire fufion or fluidity, 
for then it would probably have taken a more regular 
figure ; yetit approaches much nearer to the figure affigned 
by theory than could have arifen from the crumbling of its 
folid particles, as fome have fuppofed. This intermediate 
{tate feems confiftent with the information derived from our 
chemical knowledge, and other fources of information. 
Though a fatisfactory folution of thefe difficulties is at pre- 
fent beyond our reach, yet feience is advancing towards this 
object with rapid ftrides, and many years will not probably 
elapfe before the myttery is removed, that at prefent ob- 
ftruéts our refearches into the original nature and conforma- 
tion of the earth. 

Ficure of the Planets. See the planets refpeétively. 

Ficures, in Architecture and Sculpture, denote reprefent- 
ations of things made in folid matters ; fuch as ftatues, &c- 
Thus we fay, figures of brafs, of marble, of ftucco, of 
platter, &c. 

But, in this fenfe, too, the term is more ufually applied 
te human reprefentations than to other things. Thus we 
fay, an cquettrian figure, for a man on horfeback. ‘ 

Daviler obferves, that thofe, either reprefented fitting, as 
popes, &c. or kneeling, as on monuments, &Xc. or laid all 
along, as rivers, &c. are more properly called figures than 
ftatues. s ; 

Ficures, in Archite@ure, are faid to be detached, when 
they ftand lingly, in oppofition to thofe compofitions which 
are called groupes. > 

Ficures, in Arithmetic, are the numeral characters; or 
the characters whereby numbers are expreffed, or written. 

Thus the numberof four hundred and fifty is written, or 
exprefled, by three figures, 450. ; ‘ 

The figures in arithmetic are the nine digits; 1, 2, 3, 4) 
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ando. : 

Thefe figures were firft brought into Europe by the Moors 


of. 


FIGURE. 


of Spain, and into England, as Dr. Wallis apprehends, 
about 1130, See Arirumeric and Cuagacter. 

However, from fome ancient dates, fuppofed to confit 
wholly or in part of Arabian figures, fome have concluded, 
that thele figures originally Indian, were known and ufed 
in this country at leatt as early-as the tenth century. The 
weft ancient date difcoyered by Dr. Wallis was that on a 
chimney-piece at Helmdon, in Northamptonfhire, M 133, 
#,¢. 1133. Other dates difcoyered: fince,: are 1090, , at 
Colcheiter, in Effex; 1016, with the Roman M for a 
thoufaad, at Widgel-Hall, near Buntingford, in Hertford- 
fhire; torr on the north front of the parifh-church of 
Rumfey in Hampthire ; and 975 over a gate-way at Wor- 
cefter, Dr, Ward hae urged feveral objeétions again{t the 
antiquity of thefe dates. As no example occurs of the ufe 
of thefe figures in any ancient manufcript, earlier than fome 
copies of Johannes de Sacro Bofco, who died in 1256, he 

“thinks it ftrange, that workmen fhould have made ufe of 
thefe figures fo long before they appear in the writings of 
the learned ; and he alfo difputes the fa&. The Helmdon 
date, aceording to nim, fhould be 1233; the Colchetter 
date 1490; that at Widgel-hall has in it no Arabian figures, 
the i and 6 being I and G, the initial letters of a name ; 
and the date at Worcefler, he fuppofes to confilt of Roman 
numerals, and to be really MXV, Martyn’s Abridg. of 
Phil. Tranf. vol, ix. p. 420, &c. 

Ficure, in Afrology, a defcription, or draught, of the 
flate and difpofition of the heavens, at a.certain hour; con- 
taining the places of the planets and ftars, marked down in 
a figure of twelve triangles, called houfes. 

This is alfo called a hocro/cope and theme. 

Ficure of an Lclipfe, in Aftronomy, denotes a reprefenta- 
tion of the path or orbit of the fun, and the moon, during 
the time of the eclipfe, upon paper; with the number of 

“ digits eclipfed, and the beginning, middle, and end, of 
darknefs. See Ecripse. 

Ficure, or Delineation, of the full moon, fuch as viewed 
through a telefcope with two convex glaffes, is of confider- 
able ule in obfervations of eclipfes, and conjunctions of the 
moon with other luminaries. In this figure of the moon are 
reprefented the maculx, or fpots, of the moon, marked by 
numbers; beginning with the fpots, which ufually enter 
firit within the fhade at the time of the great ecliples, and 
alfo emerge the firft. 

Ficure, in Conics, denotes the reQangle made under the 
Jatus re€tum and tranfyerfum, in the hyperbola and ellip- 
fis. 

Ficure of the Diameter. The reétangle under any dia- 
meter, and its proper parameter, is in the ellipfis and hyper- 
bola, called the figure of that diameter. 

Ficures of Plants, fince botany became a ftudy, have 
come into general ufe to promote a knowledge of the various 
{pecies and genera of the vegetable kingdom. The oldett 
drawings of plants of which we have any knowledge, are in 
a manufcript of Diofcorides, in the Imperial library at 
Vienna, of which we have already given an account. .(See 
Dioscorres.) Thefe are fuppofed to be as ancient as 
the third century of the Chriftian era, and ferve at leatt to 
fhew what was under{ftood concerning the plants of this 
writer at that period. After the invention of printing, 
figures of plants were very foon introduced into botanical 
or medical books, and were at firft cut on wooden blocks, 
and printed in the pages of letter-prefs. Fabius Columna, 
in bis Earpeancs, publifhed at Naples in 1592, gave the 
firft copper plates of plants. We know not exactly how 
Joon the practice began of colouring the figures in books ; 
but from fome copies of Dorftenius and Tragus in our pof- 


feffion, it appears to have been ufual about the middle of 
the 16th century, The above-mentioned drawings at Vienna 
are coloured, but in the rudeft poffible ityle. Engravings 
in botanical books were not coloured till the early part cf 
the 17th century, Befler’s Hortus Ey/fellenfis, publithed 
in 1613, was perhaps one of the earlieft ; but it is always 
difficult to fay whether fuch works were actually publithed 
coloured, or whether, as often happened, they were painted 
fubfequently by fome of their poffeffors. All thefe old 
works were painted by hand, and not printed in cciours. 
This laft method was firlt introduced, we believe, by the 
late profeffor Martyn, in his fplendid Hi/oria Plantarum 
rariorum, publifhed at London in 1728, the drawings of 
which came from no lefs a hand than Van Hiuyfum. But 
the execution of the plates in mezzotinte, and the colour- 
ing, are far inferior to the apparent merit of the drawings. 
The French at prefent excel in this art of printing in 
colours, as may be feen by the exquifite publications of 
Redouté and Ventenat, not to mention others of birds and 

uadrupeds. Bulliard led the way in his Herbier de la 
| ees which is now far excelled by other fimilar works 
in this refpe€t.— Nor are the French lefs eminent at prefent 
in their engraved uncoloured botanical figures. Some ad- 
mirable performances of this kind appeared in the reign of 
Louis XiV. in our days the works of l’Heritier have 
juftly been admired, and are now even excelled. 

In Germany and England the greater part of botanical 
plates are flight engravings, coloured by the hand, though 
fome of Dr. Thornton's figures, and thofe very well exe- 
cuted, are printed in colours. The German figures are 
ufually altogether deficient in pi€turefque beauty, or colour- 
ing, properly fo called, but are expreffive, and tolerably 
cheap, fo as to be ufeful to the f{cience. This however 
can only be faid of their beft works, fome, the fecond-rate, 
though popular, ones, being coloured not much unlike the 
varnifhed Dutch toys feen ata fair. On the ather hand, 
Germany has produced fome exquifitely delicate botanical 
works in colours, as the Plante Lichenofe of Hoffmann, 
and the cryptogamic works of Schrader and others. 

It is much to be wifhed that the public were not burthened 
with repetitions of the fame plant over and over again, at 
leaft by authors who publickly profefs to publifh new ones 
only. In books deftined to exhibit the entire plants of any 
One country, or exclufively the exotic plants of any varti- 
cular garden or gardens, fach a fcheme being avowed, there 
is noimpolition. But till the moft valuable and refpectable 
are fuch as figure only entirely new plants, or at moft what 
are badly or erroneoufly figured before. If this were at- 
tended to, the reprefentations of all known plants might in 
time be acceffible fomewhere or other. However perfect the 
{cience of botanical definition may have become, few 
writers are competent to keep it up to its higheit ftandard, 
who yet may be able to fpeak to the eyes by a picture. Noa 
painting indeed, however excellent, ought to fuperfede, or 
be unaccompanied by, defcriptions and detinitions, which 
alone render botany a fcience ; for who can argue from a 
picture? Language is the current coin of rational beings. 
Neverthelefs, the two modes of initru@tion may advanta- 
geoufly go handin hand, If every known plant were to be 
found delineated in fome work or other, the ftudy of 
botany would be much facilitated, and even fuch an attempt 
as that of Schkuhr of Wittenberg, to furnifh an univerial 
fet of botanical fures in as compendious a form as poffible, 
metits great praife, though it may be doubted whether the 
rude colouring of fuch a work adds any thing to its value, 
though unfortunately too much to its price. It has often 
been remarked that the uncoloured wooden outlines of 
3G2 Brunfeliius, 


FIGURE. 


Brunfelfius, Fuchfius, and a few heré and there in other 
authors, exprefs the plants intended better than many 
finifhed plates. Hence outlines of Plumier and other 
botanifts have been publifhed in imitation, but none come 
near the merit of their prototypes. ‘The truth is, that to 
make one of thofe admirable outlines, requires the flall of 
a firft-rate painter, if not a {park of the genius of a Grecian 
ftatuary. Hence they are likely to remain unrivalled, as 
they have hitherto been. Of exquifite precifion, without 
that fublime degree of art, Leers’s figures of graffes in his 
Ilora Herbornenfis ave matchlefs examples. 

Some perfons have attempted, and even publithed, figures 
made by an impreffion taken from the dried plant with 
printer’s ink on paper. Thefe might be fuppofed likely to 
prove peculiarly accurate, but they generally fail in execution. 
They may indeed give the unnatural {tiff outline of a dried 
fpecimen, but the prominent parts of the furface being 
neceflarily what give the darkett impreffion, they of courfe 
totally miflead the eye, and all but the moft flender and 
expanded fubjeéts produce a mafs of confufion and de- 
formity. 

As we are on the fubje& of figures of plants, we beg 
leave to corre& an error in ouraccount of Dor #na japonica. 
A plate of that fhrub is extant in Thunberg’s Scones P/. 
Japonicarum, dec. 3, a work which however indifferently 
executed, ranks very high for the originality and rarity of 
its contents. S. 

Ficure, in Dancing, denotes the feveral fteps which the 
dancers make in order and cadence; confidered as they 
mark certain figures on the floor. 

Figures, in Fencing, are the divers guards, poftures, 
attitudes, or difpofitions, of the body, arm, or fword. 
See Fencine. 

Ficure, in Fortification, is the plan of any fortified 
place; or the interior polygon, &c. 

When the fide and angles are equal, it is calleda regular ; 
when unequal, an irregular figure. 

Figure, in Geomancy, is applied to the extremes of 
points, lines, or numbers, thrown or caft at random: on 
the combinations or variations whereof the fages of this art 
found their fantaftical divinations. 

Ficure, in Geometry, denotes a furface inclofed, or cir- 
cum{cribed with one or more lines. . 

Such are triangles, fquares, polygons, circles, ellipfes, 

&e. . 
Wolfius defines figure a continuum terminated by a peri- 
meter. In which fenfe figure is applicable both to fuper- 
ficies and folids. Inthe former cafe, the perimeter is of 
lines; in the fecond, of furfaces. 

Figures are either re€tilinear, curvilinear, or mixt, ac- 
cording as the perimeter confifts of right lines, curve liaes, 
or both. 

The fuperficial parts of a figure are called its fides ; the 
loweft fide, its bafe; and the angle oppofite to the bafe, 
the vertex. 

The height of a figure is the diftance of the vertex from 
the bafe. 

Figure, in Grammar, is an expreffion that deviates from 
the eommon and natural rules of grammar ; either for the 
Jake of elegance or brevity. 

The beft grammarians only reckon four figures; the el- 
lipfis, pleonafm, fyllepfis, and hyperbaton. Others add 
two more; viz. antiptofis, and enallage. 

Ficure, in Heraldry, a bearing m a fhield. Of thefe 
figures there is almoft an infinite variety : fome are natural ; 
fuch as the celeftial figures of the fun, moon, ftars, &c. 
and their parts; the effigies of men, women, &c. and their 


parts: animals, as lions, ftags, foxes, boars, &c. and their 
parts; birds, as eagles, fwans, ftorks, pelicans, &c. and 
their parts; fifhes, as dolphins, whales, fturgeons, trouts, 
&c. and their parts; reptiles, and infeéts, as tortoifes, 
ferpents, grafshoppers, &c. and their parts ; vegetables, as 
trees, plants, flowers, herbs, &c. and their parts; and 
ftones, as diamonds, rubies, pebbles, rocks, &c. ‘Thefe 
charges, as well as ordinaries, have divers attributes or epi- 
thets, which exprefs their qualities, pofitions, and difpofi- 
tion. - Thus, the fun is faid to be in his glory, eclipfed, &C. 
the moon in the complement, in crefcent, &c. Animals are 
faid to be rampant, paffive, &c. Birds have alfo their deno- 
minations; fifhes are defcribed to be bauriant, naiant, &c. 
Befides thefe natural figures, there are alfo artificial figures ; 
the principal of which are warlike inftruments, as fwords, 
arrows, battering rams, gauntlets, helmets, fpears, pole- 
axes ; ornaments ufed in royal and religious ceremonies, as. 
crowns, coronets, mitres, wreaths, crofiers ; towers, caltles, 
arches, columns, plummets, battlements, churches, port- 
cullis, borrowed ‘frem architeiure and fortification; and 
fhips, anchors, rudders, pendants, fails, oars, mafts, flags, 
gallies, lighters, &c. derived from navigation; all thefe 
bearings have different epithets deneting their pofition, ftruc- 
ture, &c. 

There are likewife chimetical or imaginary figures ufed 
in heraldry, that are the refult of fancy and caprice; 
fuch as centaurs, hydras, pheenixes, griffons, dragons, &c, 
Porny’s Elem. Herald. p. 132, &c. 172, &c. 

Ficure, in Logic, denotes a certain difpofition of the 
terms of a fyllogifm; particularly of the medium, with re- 
gard to the extremes. 

Hence it follows, that there are as many figures of fyllo- 
gifms, as there are different conneétions of the extremes with 
the medium; fo that, though the fchoolmen ordi- 
narily only reckon three, yet a fourth might be ad- 
mitted. 

In the fir? figure the medium or middle term is the fub- 
je& of the major propoiition, and the predicate of the 
minor. ‘This contains four moods, and applies to the proof 
of all forts of queftions, whether univerfal or particular, 
affirmative or negative. In the /econd figure the middle 
term is the predicate of beth the premiffes, and this con- 
tains four moods, admitting only of negative conclufions. 
The third figure requires that the middle term be the fub- 
ject of both the premiffes, and has fix moods, admitting 
only of particular conclufions. The fpecial rules of thefe 
three figures are the following: in the firft, the major 
propofition muft always be univerfal, and the minor af- 
firmative; in the fecond alfo the major muft be univer- 
fal; and one of the premiffes, together with the conclu- 
fion, muft be negative; in the third figure the minor 
a be affirmative, and the conclufion always parti- 
cular. 

In the fourth figure, called by the Peripatetics the indi- 
reé, and by others the Galenical figure, as varying too 
much from the natural form, the middle term is predicated 
in the major propofition, and fubjeGted in the minor. Some 
logicians will allow this to be nothing elfe but a mere 
inverfion of the firff figure. It has five moods. Watts’s 
Logic, part ili. chap. 2.§ 3. 

Ficure, in the Afanufadures, is applied to the various 
defigns reprefented or wrought on velvets, damafks, taffa- 
ties, fattins, and other ftuffs and cloths. 

The mott ufual figures for fuch defigns are flowers, imi- 
tated from the life; or grotefques, and compartments of 
pure fancy. Reprefentations of men, beatts, birds, and 
landfcapes, have only been introduced fince the tafte for the 

Chinefe 


PIG: U RUE. 


Chinefe ftuffs, particularly thofe called furees, began to pre- 
vail among us. 

It is the woof of the ftuff that forms the figures ; the 
warp only ferves for the ground. In working figured ftuffs, 
there is required a perfon to fhew the workman how far he 
mutt raife the threads of the warp, to reprefent the figure 
of the defign with the woof, which is to be paffed acrofs 
between the threads thus raifed. This fome call reading 
the DESIGN, which fee. 

For the figures on tapeffry, brocade, &c. See TarEstTRY, 
&e. 

For thofe given by the calenders, printers, &c. See Ca- 
LENDER, &c. 

Figure, in Mufic. In general, figure includes all the 
characters ufed in mufic to exprefs founds, their place in the 
{cale, with their duration and equivalent refts: whence 
contrappunto figurato, to diftinguifh it from contrappunto 
femplice, plain counterpoint, which Zarlino defines common 
chords of note againit note, all of the fame leagth, and 
without difcords, Figurative harmony, fometimescalled florid 
‘counterpoint, is that in which the chords are broken into 
melody, and exprefled by figures or notes of different lengths. 
See TIME-TABLE.. 

Ficure, Mute; mute figures, in Italiam mufic, imply 
‘reits, or characters denoting filence. ; 

Figure, Apparent, in Optics, that figure, or fhape, which 
an obje€t appears under when viewed at a diftance, being 
often very different from the true figure ; for a ftraight line 
viewed at a diftance may appear but as a point; a furface 
asaline; and a folid as a furface; and each of thefe of dif- 
ferent magnitudes, and the two laft of different figures, ac- 
cording to their fituation with regard to the eye. Thus an 
arch ae circle may appeara ftraight line; a {quare or ob- 
long, a trapezium, or even a triangle; a circle, an elliphis ; 
angular magnitudes, round ; a {phere, acircle, &c. 

Alfo any fmall light, asa candle feen at.a diftance in the 
dark, will appear magnified, and farther off than really it 
is. Add to this, that if feveral objects are feen at a diftance, 
under angles that are fo fmall as to be infenfible, as well as 
each of the angles fubtended by any one of them, and that 
next to it; then all thefe objeéts will appear not only to be 
contiguous, but to conftitute and feem but one continued 
maguitude, 

Figure, in Painting and Sculpiure, is ufed to fignify the 
form, the contour, or outline of the furface of bodies of 

whatever kind they may be. In conformity with this, we 
fpeak of a drawing, as reprefenting the figure of atree, a 
houfe, a book, a horfe, &c. &c. And in {culpture we 
{peak of figures of brouze, of marble, of ‘plafter, &c. As 
however man is the principal fubje&t on which artitts who 
‘purfue the ftudy of the higher branches of thefe arts are 
‘called to exert their talents, the Auman form is therefore by 
way of pre-eminence called the fgure. 

A picture wherein the reprefentation is given of a great 
number of men, women, or children, is faid to be full of 
figures. Ou the contrary, a land{cape wherein there is only 
the reprefentation of mountains, trees, &c. and not of 
human beings, is faid to be without figures. For further 
‘illuftration fee Human figure. 

Ficure, isalfoapplied to reprefentations, or images of 
things-in prints, &c. 

Some readers chufe to have the figures, efpecially the 
mathematical ones, in wood, for the convenience of having 
‘them immed ately annexed to the matter they refer to: 

- others rather chufe to be at the pains of turning over, and 
having recourfe to another part of the book, that they may 
have as figures more neat and accurate on copper. 


The author of a colle&ion of differtations, printed at 
Paris in 1715, fhews, in the firft diflertation on the Hebrew 
medals, p. 66, that the Jews were allowed to make any kind 
of figures, or images of trees, plants, buildings, flowers, &c. 
but not thofe of animals, or of the fun, moon, and ftars. 

Ficures, Brimjone. See Brimstone. 

Ficures, Cafting of. See Castine. 

Ficure Circumfcribed, and Infcribed. See C1RCUMSCRIB- 
ING, and InscriBED. 

Ficures, Equal. See Equa. 

Ficure, £quilateral. See EQuivaTeERAL. 

Ficures; Plain. See Prain. 

Ficure, Regular, and /rregular. 
IRREGULAR. 

Ficure, Similar. See Simivar. 

Ficure, in Rhetoric, is a phrafe, or turn of f{peech or 
difcourfe, more beautiful and emphatical than what is ufed 
in common or ordinary fpeaking. Accordingly it implies 
fome departure from fimplicity of expreffion ; but at the 
fame time this deviation from what may be reckoned the 
moll fimple form of fpeech, by no means fuppofes any thing 
uncommen or unnatural ; the cafe is fo far otherwife, that, on 
many occafions, figures are the moft natural, and the moft 
common methed of uttering our fentiments. Nor fhould 
it be imagined that every alteration from the common man- 
ner ought to be efteemeda figure, or deferving of that cha- 
raéter. It muft contain fome beauty, or exprefs fome paffion, 
to merit a place among rhetorical figures, and be marked out 
for imitation. 

Figures, by the Greeks called cyxxparx, /chemaia, are the 
enrichments of difcourfe, and we only ufe thera when raifed 
and moved with the confideration of fomething extraordinary. 

The term fgure, as Dr. Ward obferves, feems to have been 
borrowed from the ftage, where the different habits and 
geftures of the aGtors, fuitable to the feveral chara&ters they 
fuftained, were by the Greeks called cynuaiaz, and by the 
Latins figure. Nor is it unufual with us to fay of a perfon, 
both with refpe& to his drefs and aGtions, that he makes a 
very bad, or a very graceful figure. And as language is 
the drefs, asit were, of ourthoughts, in which they appear 
and are reprefented to others; fo any particular manner of 
fpeaking may, in a larger fenfe of the word, be called its 
figure, in which latitude orators fometimes ufe it (fee 
Cic. De Orat. 1. iii. c. 52.) ; but rhetoricians have reftrained 
the fenfe of the word to fuch forms of fpeech, as differ from 
the more common and ordinary ways of expreffion; as the 
theatrical habits of ators, and their deportmert on the ftage, 
are different from their ufual garb and behaviour at other 
times. Or, as the figure_or fhape of one body diitinguifhes it 
from another, fo figures are forms of {peech, having, each 
of them, a caft or turn peculiar to itfelf, which both dif- 
tinguifhes it from the reft, and diftingnifhes it from fimple 
expreflion. Simple expreffion juft makes our ideas known 
to others; but figurative language, more than this, beftows 
a particular drefs upon that idea; a drefs which both makes 
it to be remarked, and adorns it. 

Some have erroneoufly imagined, that figures of {peech 
fhould be clafled among its chief resnements not invented 
till language had advanced to its later period, and mankind 
were brought into a polifhed ftate ; and that, then, they 
were devifed by orators and rhetoricians. Whereas the con- 
trary to this isthe truth. Mankind never employed fo many 
figures of {peech, as when they had hardly any words for 
expreffing their meaning. For, firit, the want of proper 
names for every object, obliged them to ufe one name for 
many 3 and, of courfe, to exprefs themfelves by compari- 
fons, metaphors, allufions, and all thofe fubstituted forms of 


ipeech 


See Recurar and 


FIGURE 


f{peech which render language Ggurative. Next, as the ob- 
jeGts with which they were moit converfant were the fenfi- 
ble, material objeéts around them, names would be given to 
thofe objects long before words were invented for fignifying 
the difpofitions of the mind, or any fort of moral and intel- 
leGtual ideas. Hence, the early language of men being 
entirely made up of words defcriptive of fenfible objects, it 
became, of neceflity, extremely metaphorical. Tor to fignify 
any defire or paffion, or any act or feeling of che mind, they 
had no precile expreflion which was appropriated to that pur- 
pole ; but were under a neceffity of painting the emotion or 
paflion which they felt by: allution to thofe fenfible objects 
which had moft relation toit, and which could render it, in 
fome fort, vifible to others. Other circumltances, alfo, be- 
fides neceflity, contributed to the ufe of thisfizured ftyle at the 
commencement of Janguage. In the infancy of all focieties, 
men are much under the dominion of imagination and paflion ; 
every thing will appear new and ftrange to them ; fear and fur- 
prife will be their prevalent paffions; and their language 
will neceffarily partake of this chara&ter of their minds; they 
will incline to exaggeration and hyperbele ; and they will 
be apt to deferibe every thing with the ftrongeft colours 
and moit vehement expreffions. DBefides, wherever ftrong 
exclamations, tones, and geftures blend themfelves much 
with converfation, the imagination is always more exercifed, 
and a greater effort of fancy or paffion ise» cited, confequent- 
‘ly the fancy kept awake, and rendered more fprightly by 
this mode of utterance, operates upon ftyle and enlivens it 
more. Facts might be eafily cited in confirmation of thefe 
reafonings. 

Figures, in general, may be defcribed to be that lan- 
guage which is prompted either by the imagination or the 


paffions. _ Rhetoricians have commonly divided them ito 

two great claffes ; viz. figures of words, and figures of 

thought. The former are generally called tropes, and con- 
8 g y pes, 


fift in a word’s being employed to fignify fomething that is 
different from its original and primitive meaning ; fo that if 

ou alter the word, you deftroy the figure. Some writers, 
Beare have diftinguifhed between figures and tropes. 
(See Trove.) | Figures of thought fuppofe the words to be 
uled in their proper and literal meaning, and the figure to 
confift in the turn of the thought; as is the cafe in exclama- 
tions, interrogations, apcftrophes, and comparifons : with re- 
fpe&t to which, though you vary the words that are ufed, or 
tranflate them from onelanguageintoanother, you may, never- 
thelefs, itill preferve the fare figure in the thought. Other 
rhetoricians have diftributed figures into the following two 
kinds, differing lefs in fenfe than expreffion from the former ; 
the one of fextences, and maintained in the fenfe itfelf, with- 
out any immediate dependance on any particular words ; the 
other are only in the words themfelves. As to Figures of 
Jentences, fome are principally adapted for reafoning and in- 
{truétion, and others to move the paffions, and hence figures 
have been called the “ language of the paffions,” 

Among the ancients, Demofthenes is moft celebrated for 
expreffing the force and energy of thefe figures, and Ifo- 
crates excelled in the beauties and delicacies of verbal 
figures. 

Cicero lays fo great ftrefs on thefs figures, that he repre- 
fents them as the brighteft parts of oratory ; and makes 
the power and efficacy of the art to depend in a great mea- 
fure on a thorough knowledge and application of them. 

Of the firlt kind, and of thofe that are principally adapted 
ror reaioning, the moft confiderable are fix ; viz. ProLer- 
SIS, OY anticipation; Hyroxo xe, or fubjefion; ANAco1- 
NOSIS, OY communication ; epitrope, or CONCESSION $ para- 
bole, or Sjmitirupe; and Awnrirnesis, or oppafition. 


Thofe of the fecond kind, or fuch as are fitted for moving 
and influencing the paffions, are Epanorruosis, or ears 
redion; PARALEPSIS, or omiffion; PARRHESIA, OV repree 
henfion; APARITHMESIS, or enumeration; ELXXERGASIA, OY 
expofition; Tyroryrosis, or imagery; Aroria, or 
doubt; AvositorEsts, or concealment; erotefis, or Un- 
TERROGATION 3 ecphonefis, or Excramarion 3; Evipyo- 
NEMA, or acclamation; ArosTROPHE, or addre/s; PRo- 
sopopeta, or the fidtion of a perfon. Sve cach under its 
proper head. 

Of Figures of words, fome-are tropes, 1. e. tranfations 
of words from their proper fignitcation, to fome more 1¢~ 
mote and extraordinary one. See Trope. 

Others are figures of words, mare properly fo called, and 
not tropes; being fo inherent in the words, that upea 
changing of the words, or fometimes only their fituation, 
the figure is deftroyed: as in amanles funt amentes, where 
the figure would be loft, if inftead of amestes you fhould 

ut ulti. 

Thus alfo, to lof all relifo of life, isin ofa to Iefe life; 
the Fgure is loft by changing the order of the words; as, 
to Icfe ail ri life of life, is fo lofe life in effec. 

The principal of thefe verbal figures may be arranged 
into three clafies ; {uch as confift in a deficiency of words, 
in a redundancy, cra repetition. To the urit clafs belogz 
the Exgzipsis and Asynperon. Under the fecond divi- 
fion are coinprcherded the PLeonAsmus and POLYSYNDE~ 
ron. The third kind of verbal gures includes thofe by 
which the fame word in found, or fenfe, is repeated ; or one 
of alike found or figni”cation, or both. OF the iirft fort 
in this divifion there are ten, called ANTANACLASIS, PLocr, 
Epizeuxis, Crimax, AnApHoRA, EPISTROPHE, SyM- 
proce, Epanarrrsis, Anapirtosis, and Epanopos. 
To the fecond clafs belong the Paronomasia, the Ho- 
mMo1oproron, the Srnonymra, and Dertvario; the two 
frit of which refpe€t words that are fimilar in found only, 
the third in fenfe, and the laft in both. 

With regard to the proper ufe of figures, we may ob- 
ferve, that they fhould always be accommodated to the fen- 
timents, and rife in proportion to the images defigned to 
be conveyed by them; it is alfo better, in general, to be 
nervous than copious, that the images, by their clofer union, 
may imprefs the mind with greater energy, though in fuch 
ficures as are defigned for ornament or illuftration, a more 
diffufive way of painting is fometimes agreeable. ‘The too 
frequent ule of figures fhould be avoided; and they fhould 
be fo interwoven in a difcourfe as not to render the ftyle 
rough and uneven, fometimes high and at other times low ; 
now dry and jejune, then pompous and florid. In every 
cafe they fhould feem to nfe more from nature than art, to 
offer themfelves rather than to be the effeét of ftudy. Finally, 
it fhould be duly confidered, that neither all the beauties, 
nor even the chief beauties of compofition, depend upon 
tropes and figures. Jor aiurther account of the ufe and 
effects of figures on language, fee Sty. See alfo Me- 
TAPHOR, and each of the articles above noted. Ward’s 
Orat. Le&. 30, 31, 32, 33, 34. _ Blair’s Leét. vol. 7. ii. 

Ficures of Profody comprehend the S¥NALOEPHA, 
Ecruurpsis, Crasts, SYN@RESIS, Diazresis, SYSTOLE, 
and Diastote. See each article. : 

Ficure is ufed, in Theology, for the myfteries reprefented 
or delivered obfcurely to us under certain types or ations 
in the Old Teftament. buitar’, 

Thus, manna is held by fome to be a figure ort 
euchariit ; and the death of Abela figure of the faite 
Chri. , 

Many divines and criti¢s contend, that all the agtions, hif. 

; tories, 


of the 
ering of 


FIL 


fories, ceremonies, &e. of the Old Teftament, are only 
figures, types, and prophecies, of what was to happen under 
the New. The Jews are fuppofed to have had the figures or 
fhadows, whilft we poflefs the fubftance. 

Ficure is alfo applied ina like fenfe to prophane mat- 
ters; as the emblems, enigmas, fables, fymbols, and hiero- 

lyphics of the ancients. 

FIGURED, in Heraldry, is an epithet applied to thofe 
bearings which are depiGted with a human face. 

Ficurep, inthe Manufadures. A figured camlet, ftuff, 
tabby, &c. is that whereon there are divers defigns of 
flowers, figure, branches, &c. imprefied by means of hot 
irons. Figured ribbands firft came into fathion about the 
year 1680, The method of performance was by fucceflively 
applying fteel plates engraven with divers ornaments, as 
flowers, birds, grotefques, &c. 

But one Chandelier, a ribband-maker of Paris, invented a 
much better and readier way of doing it, by a machine not 
unlike the flatter ufed in coining, to flatten the pieces of 
metal, only much fimpler. 

The principal parts thereof were two fteel cylinders, en- 
graven with the fgures intended to be reprefented. Thefe 
cylinders were placed over each other like the rolls of a 
rolling-prefs, having each of them, at one of its extremes, 
a little dented wheel, one of which catching into the other, 
the whole was put in motion by means of a winch or handle 
faftened to the firlt. 

The machine thus prepared, the workman heats the cy- 
linders, and places the ribband in the little place remaining 
between the two, which he contracts yet farther by a {crew 
that preffes the upper part down upon the lower; the turn- 
ing the rolls by the handle, a whole piece of ribband was 
figured in lefs time than a fingle yard could be done in the 
ordinary way. 

Fieurep Velvet. See Vevver.- 

Ficurep, in Mujic, is an adj. inthorough bafe, when the 
harmony of a compofition is expreffed by figures over the 
bafe to denote fuch founds as differ from common chords. 
See Cuorps, THoroucn Ba/e, and AccoMPANIMENT. 

FIJOAGO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland 
of Niphon; 45 milesS.W. of Meaco. 

FIJIXASAKI, or Firosaxs, atown of Japan, in the 
ifland of Niphon; 50 miles N.E. of Achita. 

FILABRES, a ftupendous mountain of Spain, in Gra- 
nada, between Moxacer and Guadix, which is a folid block 
of white marble, without any mixture of {tones or earth, 
about a league in circuit and 2000 feet high; it is flat on 
the fummit, and its front towards the N.W. is about 1090 
feet high, and nearly perpendicular, 

FILAGO, in Botany, from flum, thread, and ago, to 
produce, or have to do with, in allufion to the cotteny web 
connetted with every part ef the plant. Cud-weed—Linn. 
Gen. 450. Schreb. 587. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2387. Mart. 
Mill. Di&. y.2. Jui. 179. (Evax; Gertn.t.165.) Cleats 
and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-neceffaria. Nat. Ord. Covi- 
pofite nucamentacee, Linn. €orymbifere, Jul. 

Gen, Ch. Common calyx of numerous, chaffy, imbricated 
feales, containing feveral perfeé florets in the difk, and nu- 
merous female ones in the circumference, among the {cales 
of thecalyx. Cor. in the perfect florets funnel-fhaped, with 
a four-cleft upright border ; in the female ones, hardly dif- 
eernible, extremely narrow, cloven at the top. Stam. Fila- 
ments in the perfect florets four, capillary, fmall; anther 
cylindrical, four-toothed at the top. Pi/?, Germen moit 
perfest in the female florets, ovate, deprefied, rather large ; 
ityle,thread-fhaped; fligma acute, cloven. Peri, none, ex- 
cept the permanent calyx, Seeds to the female florets only, 


rig. 
obovate, compreffed, {mall, fmooth; down none. Reccpt, 
cylindrical, naked, except the permanent f{cales of the calyx, 
which feparate the feeds. 

EM Ch. Receptacle cylindrical, clothed with the calyx- 
fcales. Seed-down none. Female florets among the calyx- 
feales ;- perfect ones four-cleft, in the dif. 

1. F. pygmea. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1313. Cav. Ic. t. 36. (Gna- 
phalium umbeliatum mininum; Bauh, Hitt. v. 3. p. 1. 162. 
Evax umbellata; Gaertn. v. 2. 393.) Found in the fouth 
of Europe, in wafte fandy ground, particularly in places 
occafionally inundated. The root is annual. Stems either 
entirely wanting, or more or lefs elevated, folitary or nume- 
rous, fimple or branched, at moft three or four inches high. 
Whole plant clothed with a white cottony tenacious web. 
Leaves {cattered, obovate or {patulate, entire, many of them 
furrounding the little heads of flowers ina radiating manner, 
and making an elegant rofaceous appearance. 

Profeffor Willdenow rightly retains this as the only fpecies 
of Filago, the reft being bef referred to Gnraphalium. It 
is alfo the original one. : 

FILAMENT, Firamentum, a word though not of 
claflical authority, yet well fupported by analogy, is techni- 
cally applied to the ufually flender thread-like part which 
fuftains the anther of a flower; fee AntHER=. This part, 
however, is not effential to all {pecies of flowers, though the 
anther itfelf, being the male organ, is fo. But the Jatter in 
fome cafes is immediately affixed to the corolla, receptacle, 
or piltil, on which it is feffile, without any filament. 

The filaments differ in number, from one to feveral huns- 
dreds, in different genera, or even f{pecies of the fame gepus, 
though the latter cafe is rare. They, however, vary in this 
refpect occafionally, in the faine {pecies or individual. ‘They 
differ alfo, but vary lefs, in their infertion, or origin, with 
re{pect to other parts of the flower, proceeding either from 
the receptacle, asin the Poppy; the calyx, as in the Rofe ; 
or the corolla, as in the Jafmine. Their form is ufually 
fimple, each filament bearing ove anther; but in the Orange 
and St. John’s Wort many filaments are united into one, 
and in moft of the Papilionaceous family one filament only 
is feparate, nine others being united from their bafe almoit 
to the fummit. In the natural order of Rutacee, fee Di- 
osmA and Ertostremon, the filaments are more elaborate 
in ftru€ture than ufual, being tuberculated and glandular, 
and jometimes bearing their anthers on a fort of appendage, 
or pedicle. Indeed the extremity of each filament, in many, 
inftances, tapers into a fine flexible point, like an additional 
ftaik, allowing of a free or rotatory motion in the anther ; 
witnefs the Paffion flower, and White Lily. Such flowers 
are faid to have verfatile anthers. Filaments are extremely” 
different in proportion, fome being prominent far beyond 
the verge of the bloffom, expqfing their anthers to the wind 
and weather, while others lie concealed in the bottom or 
tube of a flower, carefully proteG&ted from wet. Some are 
long and capillary; others hort, broad, or thick. 

A very curious circumitance refpecting Slaments is, that 
in fome initances they appear endued with a {pontaneous 
motion, as in Ru/a (Rue) Saxifraga and Parnafia. In 
thefe flowers the frlaments bend in their turn over the ftigma, 
that the anthers may more certainly drop their pollen 
upon it, and {nbfequently retire. In the Barberry bloflom 
the fame thing is accomplifhed by an exquailite irritability in 
the inner fide of each filament atthe bottom, in confequence 
of which it contraéts when touched, {eatteri ig the pollen 
over the ftigma, and after a while, refuming its original po- 
fitiony makes way for others. Some filaments are very fen- 
fible hygrometers, as in the Cock’s-comb, Ce/. fia, contrac- 
ing in dry weather. and fo approaching the ftigma, and re- 

tiring, 


Pit 
tiring for fhelter under tke corolla in wet. 
rion of Plants. 

Vhe word flamenta is alfo ufed for the fronds of the 
genus Conferva, which {ee; thefe being of a fine thread- 
like, or rather capillary, form and fize. Roth contends that, 
to avoid ambiguity, f/a fheuld be ufed in the latter cafe, 
which exprefles the fame thing fill more correétly. This 
is certainly an improvement, though it is fearcely poffible 
that the ambiguity in queltion fhould caufe any confution. S. 

Firament, in Medisine, Anatomy, Natural Hiflory, &c. 
aterm ufed in the fame fenfe with fibre for thofe fine threads 
whereof flefh, nerves, fkins, plants, roots, &c. are come 
pofed. 

“FILANA, in Geography, a river of Benin, which runs 
into the Atlantic ; N. lat. 4°40’ IE. long. 5° 22’. 

FILANDERS, in Falconry, a difeate in hawks, &e. 
confilting of filaments or ttrings of blood coagulated and 
dried, occafioned by a violent rupture of fome vein, by 
which the blood extravafating hardens into the figures 
above-mentioned, to the great annoyance of the reins, hips, 
&e. 

The word is French, //andres, formed from ji/, thread. 

Frvanpers are allo a fort of fine {mall worms which 
greatly incommode the hawk in the gorge, and about the 
heart, liver, and lungs ; but which, on fome occalions, are 
fuppofed to be of fervice, and to feed on the fuperfluities of 
certain parts: See Brack Worm. 

There are four kinds of thefe landers or vermiculi. The 
firft, in the gorge or throat ; the fecond, in the belly; the 
third, in the reins: the fourth are called needles, on ac- 
count of their exceeding finenefs. The fymptoms that dif- 
cover the difeafe are the bird’s gaping frequently, ftraining 
the ff{t or perch with her pounces, croaking in the night, 
ruffling her train, rubbing her eyes, wings, noftrils, &c. 
As the worms are very rettlefs, the bird is frequently endea- 
vouring to caft them up ; and in opening its mouth you will 
readily difcover them: From the throat, &c. they will 
afcend to the larynx, brain, &c. and finally over the whole 
body. 

The ordinary caufe is bad food. ‘The proper remedy, 
they fay, is not by killing them, for fear of impofthumes 
from their corruptions ; but chiefly by ftupefying them, 
that they may be offenfive but feldom. 

This 1s belt effeéted by making the bird fwallow a clove 
of garlic, after which fhe will feel nothing of the filanders 
for forty days. Others ufe rte, worm-feed, aloes, vervain, 
faffron, &c. 

FILANGERI, Gaerano, in Biography, a celebrated 
political writer, was born at Naples on the 18th of Augutt 
1752. His parents intended him for the army, but his own 
genius pointed out to him the fciences as moft adapted to 
his future purfuits. Politics, moral philofophy, and legifla- 
tion engaged his mind, and feemed to abforb all his atten- 
tion. He foon difcovered the defects of the exifting laws by 
which moft of the European nations were governed, In 
1771, he drew up the plan of a treatife on private and pub- 
lic education, which, however, he never completed. In 
1774 he publifhed a fmall work, in which he defended a 
new law againft the arbitrary decifion of a judge, with great 
judgment and the nobleit enthufiafm. After this he deter- 
mined to retire from public life, in order that he might pre- 
pare himfelf for important duties, by diligent and uninter- 
rupted fludy. But in 1777 he entered into the fervice of 
the court, and was appointed a gentleman of the bed-cham- 
ber, and an officer of the marine. ‘Thefe avocations did 
not prevent him from devotiag many of his days, and fre- 
quently whole nights, in philofophical refearch, In 178@ 


See Fecunna- 


ELT EL 
he publifhed the fir part of his work « On Legiflation,’”” 


which was intended to conlilt of feven books ;. but of which 
only four, and a part of the fifth, made their appearance 
during the author’s life. The early parts of this work were 
received with the warmeft approbation ; and the celejyrity of 
the author contizued to increafe; but as he had indulged 
in liberties which were new in Italy, he was open to the 
attack of venal and bigoted writers. His work was op- 
pofed by profeffor Jofeph Grippa, who publifhed a letter 
under the title of Scienza della Legiflatione Vindicata,” 
with obfervations againft Filangeri’s propofal refpeétmg 
feudal and criminal laws. Soon after a decree was iflued 
by which the treatife “ On Legiflation’’ was declared among 
the number of prohibited works, on account of the advice 
given in the fecond book, to abolifh ecclefiattical property, 
and the propofal promifed in the fifth for reforming abufes 
in the power of the church. Filangeri was, however, pro- 
tected by the court, and various diftinguifhed marks of fa- 
vor were conferred upon him. In 1,83 he married an 
Hungarian lady fent to Naples by the emprefs Mary 
Therefa, as governefs to the fecond of the princefles. With 
the permiffion of his fovereign, ke retired from civil and 
military employment, that he might devote his whole time 
to the completion of his work at his country houfe near the 
town de la Cava, a few miles from Naples, where he refided 
till March 1787, when he was appointed to a place in the 
royal college of finance. In this fituation he appeared with 
great advantage asa ftatefman, and many wife and very ufe- 
tul eftablifhments were formed in confequence of hints which 
he fuggefted. Scarcely had he arranged his plans of 
economy and reform, when he was arrefted by the hand of 
death. He died in July 1787, in the 37th year of his age. 
His death was lamented by the monarch, who {fettled a 
penfion on his infant family, to be employed in their educa- 
tion, The demand for his great work on legiflation was fo 
great, that it went rapidly through ten editions in his own 
country, and was tranflated into the German and French 
languages. Gen. Biog. 

FILARIA, in Zoology, a genus of inteftinal worms, 
which have the body round, filiform, equal, and quite 
fmooth ; the mouth dilated, and furnifhed with a roundifh 
concave lip. i 

The genus filaria, as now eftablifhed, unites fome few of 
the Vermes, formerly referred to the genus Afearis, and ac- 
cording to its more extenfive application in the Gmelinian 
edition, fome of the Gordius tribe may be included alfo in 
the fame genus. The vermes, which are truly of the 
filaria genus, feem to beabundant throughout all animated 
nature ; they are net found in man, nor has their prefence 
been hitherto determined in the higher clafs of domeitie aai- 
mals, the horfe excepted ; but there are few of the undo- 
meiticated quadrupeds, and f{carcely any of the bird tribe 
that have been attentively examined, in which they have not 
been difcovered ; they are obferved in the fifh and reptile 
race, and infeéts are infefted with them in inconceivable num-_ 
bers. As thefe are the moft fimple of inteftinal worms, the’ 
different {pecies may not perhaps have hitherto been dii- 
criminated with fuflicient accuracy ; they do not feem to 
afford any very decifive charaéters by which the fpecies 
may be readily diftinguifhed ; and it is no doubt for this 
reafon that fyitematic writers defcribe and clafs them merely 
according to the refpetive animals in which they are « b- 
ferved. Gmelin inferts that highly dangerous creature, the 
hair-worm of the Indies, at the head of this genus, becautfe 
it infefts man: in} this inftance he deviates from the ex- 
ample of Linnzus, who confidered that kind of vermes asa 
{fpecies of gordius, and not without reafon. The two 

genera, 


Ft 


genera, filaria and gordius, are indeed analogous, and cor- 
refpond in every effential particular, except the ftruéture of 
the mouth, and the difference in this refpeét is not exprefled 
with due precilion either by Linnzus or Gmelin; the 
filaria genus have the mouth terminal, and more or lefs per- 
ceptibly dilated, of a fimple form, and furnifhed with a 
rounded lip ; to the Gméelinian character of the gordius we 
fhould add that the mouth confilts only of a dent or incifion, 
and is fo very minute as to be imperceptible to the naked* 
eye. 


Species. 


* Infefting the Mammalia. 


Egvut.. Body tapering behind, tail finely pointed, and in- 
curved. Abildgeard. ; 

Found in the cellular membrane of horfes. 

Leonrs. Inthelion. Redi. 

Marres. Inthe martin. Redi. 

Lerores. Inthe cellular membrane of hares. 

** Infefling Birds. 

Fatconrs. Inthe cellular membrane about the abdomen 
and thighs of hawks. Redi. 

Srricts. In the cellular membrane about the head and 
earsof owls. Pallas. 

Cornicts. In the crop and lungs of crows. Pallas. 

Crconra. In the cellular membrane of the ftork. Redi. 

Garuinz. In the fmaller inteftines of poultry. Goeze. 

The body is capillary, and about two inches long. 

#*k Infefting Infecs in their perfec State. 
Scaraspar. Inthe fearabeus fimetarius. Phil. Tranf, 
Sirenx#. Inthe filpha obfcura. Goeze. 

* Caras. Inthe carabus. Lifter. 


Gryvut. Inthe gryllus. Roefel. 
Monocuut. Inthe monoculusapus. Walch. 


**E® Tnfofling the Larve of Infeds. 


Leriworrerorum. ‘Tail hooked. Schranck. 

Paririonum. In butterflies. Werner. 

Porycutort. White. In papilio polychloros. Werner. 

Urtics. Body yellowith-grey. In papilio urtice. Wer- 
ner. 


Pallas, 


_ Berutz. Body white. In papilio betula. Werner. 
Quercus. Body white. In papilio quercus. Werner. 
Sexincum. Inthe {phinx euphorbie. Roefel. 
Puarzenarum. Inthe phalena. Mannigf. 
Overcus. White. In phalenaquercus. Werner. 
Caz. Chefnut. In phalena caja. Werner. 
Ziczac. Inphalenaziczac. Degeer. 
Nuerae. Inphalena uupta. Goeze. 
Pst. In phalena pi. Roefel. 
Peruionecta. In phalena pellionella.. Goeze. 


- Thefe creatures are found under the fkin of the Jarve, 
fometimes folitary, from four to feven inches loug, and very 
deftructive. aes: : 

-Tunrurepinis. Found in the larve of the tenthredo. 


A&. Stockh. 
‘ ParyGanex, Found in the larve of the phryganea. 
Deveer. ' 

» KFILAWS, among the modern /Egyptians, villages inha- 
bited by the original natives of the country. i 

» FILAZER, Fivacer, Filizxer, an. officer in the court 
ef common pleas, fo called becaufe he files the writs 
whereon he makes out procefs. 
» Of thefe there are nine in the 


feveral divifions and counties 
Vou XIV. 


FIL 
of England. They make out all writs and proceffes upoa 
original wnits, iffuing out of chancery, as well real as perfo- 
nal and mixed, returnable in that court. 


tions where the view is prayed ; and upon replevins and re- 
cordaris, writs of retorno habendo, fecond deliverance, and 
writ of withernam. In real aétions they make out writs of 
grand and petite cape before appearance. 

They-.enter all appearances and fpecial bails upon any pro- 
cefs made by them. They make the firft fcire facias upon 
{pecial bails, writs of hadéas corpus, diftringas nuper viceca- 
mitem vel ballivum, and duces tecum ; and all fuperfedeafes, 
upon fpecial bail or appearance, &c. writs of habeas corpus 
cum caufa upon the fheriff’s return that the defendant is de- 
tained with other ations, and writs of adjournment of a 
term, in cafe of peitilence, war, or public difturbance. 

Till an order of court made 14 Jac. I. which limited the 
filazers to all matters and proceedings before appearance, 
and the prothonotaries to all after, they alfo entered decla- 
rations, imparlances, judgments, and pleas, whereto a fer- 
jeant’s hand was not requifite, and made out writs of execu- 
tion, and divers other judicial writs after appearance. The 
filazers of the common pleas have been officers of that court 
before the ftat. ro Hen. VI. c. 4. in which they are men- 
tioned ; and in the king’s bench, of later times, there have 
been filazers who made out procefs upon original writs ree 
turnable in that court on a@tions in general. 

FILBERT, a common name frequently applied to the 
beft fort of the hazel-nut. It isoften written Jilberd, and fome- 
times /i/bud. 

Fivsert-tree, the name of the tree from which the flbert 
nut is obtained. It isthe low, fhrubby tree ufually planted 
out in gardens, orchards, and other places. See Cory- 
GUIs: 

Thefe trees may be raifed by planting the nuts, by layers, 
by fuckers from the roots, atd by grafting upon bazel 
Jocks ; but the beft methods are thofe of layering, and plant- 
ing the off-fets or fuckers. The layers fhould be laid down 
in the early autumnal feafon, and when they are become fully 
rooted, be taken off, and planted out in rows at the diftance 
of two feet and twelve inches apart, in the rows. After 
they have attained fufficient growth in thefe rows, they may 
be carefully taken up and planted where they are to re- 
main. 

The off-fets or fackers may be taken off with good radi- 
cal fibres, and be immediately planted out. where they are to 
remain. ; 

They anfwer beft where the foil is of the light, mellow, fri- 
able kind, but willfucceed in moft, when well protected from 
cold winds. 

They may be planted in the flandard method, in rows, at 
ten, fifteen, or twenty feet diltance, by twelve feet in the 
lines ; or be trainéd to fingle ftems, to the height of four, 
five, or fix feet, with full branches, {preading heads, and in 
the hedge manner, either in fingle or double rows, ten or 
twelve feet between; but the ftandard mode is moft proba- 
bly the belt, as producing the finett auts. 

Ig Kent they never fuffer thefe trees to sie higher thar 


3 H ux 


Pict. EK. 


fix feet, regularly pruning them in the manner of the goofe- 
berry buth. 

There are two {ub-varieties of this tree, namely, the white- 
fkinned, and the red-{kinned, the former being in general the 
molt efteemed. 

Firserts, Petrified, in Natural Hiffory, and filbert-trees 
alfo, have been defcribed by different authors, as found in 
the {trata of the earth. Mr. John Ray mentions {uch as be- 
ing found under the city of Modena and its neighbourhood, 
at twenty-fix feet beneath its furface ; but Mr. Whitehurtt, 
who quotes this paffage at length, in his Enquiry concern- 
ing the Earth (rit ed. p. 172.) obferves, that thefe are not 
original ftrata, but modern accumulations of alluvial foil, 
which have buried the briars, corn, filberts, &c. in the al- 
terations which the fuperticial parts of the ground about Mo- 
dena have undergone ; and fimilar remarks might, we believe, 
be applied to every other inftance of real filbert-trees or nuts 
being found beneath the furface of the earth, or in accumu- 
lations of calcareous tufa, (fee Nurs ;) and the fame will be 
found to belong to the clafs of recent foffils, mentioned in 
our article Coav. 

FILE, an inftrument ufed for reducing, and for giving 
fhape and {moothnets to a number of articles made of wood 
or metal. 

It is divided into two varieties from the form of their teeth, 
namely, files andrafps. The former are cut upon the furface 
with a fharp-edged chiffel, In the latter, the tooth is raifed 
with a triangular punch. The file is adapted for working 
metals, but the ra{p is more fitted for wood, bone and horn. 
Files again are diitinguifhed by being fingle or double cut. 
The fingle cut file is fimply cut once over, and is employed 
for filing brafs, and the fofter metals. A fecond courfe 
of teeth is cut to form the double cut file, croffing the firlt 
diagonally. This kind is beft fuited to iron and {teel. f 

Files are alfo called by different names, from the various 
degrees of finenefs of their teeth, as fmooth, fecond cut, 
baftard cut, and rough files. 

And again, from their fhape, they are called flat, half. 
yound, fquare, three fquare, round, and fome having two 
round fides. 

The fteel employed for files requiresto be very hard, and 
in confequence undergoes a longer procefs in the converfion : 
jt is faid to be donble converted. 

The very heavy files, fuch as {miths’ rubbers, are made 
of the inferior marks of bliftered fteel: the more delicate 
- kind, fuch as watch-makers’ files, being made of catt fteel. 
The fteel is previoufly drawn at the tilt, into rods of fuit- 
able fize. 

Forging of Files —The flat and the fquare files are made 
wholly with the hammer, and the plain anvil. T'wo work- 
men, one called the maker, and the other ftriker, are re- 
quired in the forging of heavy files ; the {maller being forged 
by one perfon only. 

The anvil is provided with a gate, or groove, for the recep- 
tion of certain boffes, or dies, which are ufed for the purpofe of 
forging the half-round and Sea as files. The half-round 
bofs contains a hollow which isthe fegment of a fphere, much 
lefs than half a cirele. That ufed for the triangular files has a 
gate or hollow, confifting of two fides, terminating in an 
angle at the bottom. 

In forging the half-round file, the fteel is firft drawn out, 
as if intended ‘to make a flat file. It isthen laid in the bofs, 
and hammered, till the underfide becomes round. ‘The tfteel 
for the triangular file is tilted into {quare rods. ‘The part 
to form the file is firft drawn out with the hammer, as if 
intended to form a {quare fie, It is then placed in the hols 


with one of the angles downwards, and by ftriking upon 
the oppofite angle, two fides of the fquare are formed into 
one, and confequently a three-fided figure produced. By 
fucceflively prefenting the different fides to the ation of the 
hammer, the figure is rendered {till more compleat. 

In forming the tangs of moft les, it is neceflary to make 
the fhoulders perfetly {quare and fharp. This is performs 
ed by cutting into the file a little on each fide with a fharp 
fate or aggron, and afterwards drawing out the part fo 
marked off, to form the tang. 

After forging, and previous to being ground and cut, 
the files require to be annealed. This procefs is generally 
performed by piling up a great quantity together, in a fur- 
nace for the purpofe, and heating them red hot ; fuffering 
them afterwards to cool flowly. This method of annealing 
files, or indeed any other articles, in which great hardnefs 
is requifite, is very objeétionable, fince the furface of fteel, 
when heated red hot in the open air, is fo liable to oxyda- 
tion. Two evils refult from this cireumftance, befides the 
lofs by wafte. Firft, the fcaly oxyd is very hard, and dif- 
ficult to remove ; and fecondly the fteel, particularly on the 
furface, is deprived of a portion of its carbon, and there- 
by rendered lefs fufceptible of hardening. 

A fuperior method of annedling is praétifed by fome file 
makers, and fince hardnefs in a file is fo effential a proper- 
ty, the procefs ought to be generally adopted. 

This method confifts in placing the files in an oven or 
trough, having a clofe cover, and filling up the interftices 
with fand. ‘The fire is made to play on every fide of this 
veflel, as gradually, and as uniformly as poffible, till the 
whole mafs becomes heated red hot. The fire is then dif- 
continued, and the whole fuffered to cool, before the cover 
is removed from the trough. Another evil may however 
arife from keeping fteel red hot even in a clofe veflel, for 
too great a length of time. It aflumes a kind of cryttalli- 
zation under which its tenacity is much impaired. Hence, 
it will be proper not to anneal too many at once, and not 
to heat them too hot. Steel, annealed in this way, is per- 
feétly free from that {caly furface acquired in the open air ; 
and if each corticle be perfeétly furrounded with the fand, 
and the cover not removed before the fteel is cold, the fur- 
face will appear of a filvery white colour. 

If the fteel be fufpected to be too kind, from containing 
too little carbon, powdered chareoal may be employed in- 
ftead of fand, or fand mixed with charcoal. In this cafe 
the bles fhould be ftratified alternately with the charcoal, in 
order that the extra-conyerfion may be uniform. 

The next thing is to prepare the files for cutting, by 
making the furface, to contain the teeth, as level as pot- 
fible. This was formerly effeéted by means of files; and 
the procefs is called ftripfng. The fameis {till pra@tifed by 
the Lancafhire file makers, and by others not having conve- 
nience for grinding. The greateft quantity of files, how- 
ever, are ground to prepare them for cutting. The ftone 
employed for the purpofe is of the fandftone kind, the tex- 
ture of which is compact and fharp, but rather rough. They 
are of as great diameter as can be ufed with convenience ; 
and about eight inches broad over the face. When ufed,. 
the furface is kept immerfed in water. The grinder fits in 
fuch a pofition as to lean over the ftone, while its motion is 
direétly from him. Its furface moves at about the fame 
{peed with thofe ufed in grinding cutlery. Since the obje& 
in grinding files is to make the furface as even and flat as 
poffible, and as this cannot be done fo completely upon a 
{mall ftone, the ftones of the file-grinder are laid afide when 
they are reduced to a certain fize, and are employed for 

grinding 


FIER - 


grinding other articles, Though grinding is by far the 
moft expeditious method, it does not give that truth to the 
furface which can be effeéted by filing. If the price of the 
articles would admit, however, it would be well to render the 
furface more even by the file after grinding. If the furface 
be not flat, it is obvious, that when the file is ufed for filing 
2 large furface, thofe teeth in the hollow parts of the file 
will not be brought into aétion. It is from attention to this 
circumftance, and to the care in annealing and hardening, 
that the Lancafhire file-makers have generally excelled. 
' They are, however, confined chiefly to the {mall articles, 
fince the larger files would not pay for the procefs of 
ftriping. : 3 

~ Cutting of Files. —If the vaft number of teeth contained 
ina file, and their requifite uniformity are confidered, a 
taachine capable of effe€ting a bufinefs fo apparently mecha- 
nical, may be confidered a defideratum. 

Though many attempts have been made to accomplifh 
this obje€t by machinery, and feveral varieties of machines 
hhave been conftruéted for the purpofe, no one has yet been 
fufficiently generalin its application, to render the profe- 
cution of fuch an object very defireable. Among thofe 
who have diftinguifhed themfelves in this enquiry, Mr. 
Nicholfon, the publifher of the Philofophical Jourmil, we be- 
lieve, invented the moft likely machine for file cutting, for 
which he took out a patent. We do not know, however, that 
either Mr. Nicholfon’s, or any other machine, is at prefent 
‘ufed for the purpofe. A ble, which is of the fame breadthand 
thicknefsthroughout, ofany form, may be cut bythemachine, 
becaufe the fame magnitude of flroke is required forevery 
tooth ; but if the file be comical, it is obvious that a ma- 
chine, capable of giving all the varieties of ftrokes required 
in cutting even one fide of a fle, would be teo complicated 
to be of any great utility. Again, the chiflel employed for 
cutting a file is frequently liable to {nip, er be otherwife out 
of order. This the workman, in the common way of cut- 
ting, can eafily feel, and immediately ftops to repair it. A 
very great evil would arife from this fource, in cutting with 
the machine ; and this evil would be greater in proportion to 
the number of chiffels which one perfon had to overlook. It 
has alfo been faid, but wecannot affirm the faét, that the teeth 
raifed by machinery are not fo full and fharp as thofe formed 
by hand. Till the above inconveniences can be obviated, 
in all probability the common method will be continued; the 
different apparatus and mode of performance of which we 
will endeavour to defcribe. 

The tools of the file-cutter confift of an anvil _placed 
upon a block of fuch a height, that the man fits to his 
work. He has alfoa piece of lead, or lead alloyed with tin, 
on which he lays the files when one fide is cut. The chiffel 
and hammer are of fuch fize, as the fize and cut of the file 
require. He is alfo provided with a leather ftrap, which 
goes over each end of the file, and paffes round his feet, 
which are introduced into the {trap on each fide, in the fame 
manner as ftirrups are ufed. The file-cutter, therefore, fits 
as if he were on horfeback, holding his chiffel with one 
hand, his hammer in the other, at the fame time he fecures 
the file in its place by the preffure of his feet in the itir- 
rups. A, fig. 1. (Plate XIII. AMi/cellany,) is the block ; B, 
the anvil ; a 4, the file, laid upon the piece of lead; C, C, the 
ftirrups pafling over the ends of the file ; D, the feat on which 
the workman fits. Fig. 2. is the form of one of the chiffels for 
cutting the files. Fig. 3. reprefents the chiffel or punch for 
raifing the tooth of the rafp. Fig. 4. the hammer ufed to 
ftrike the head of the chiffel. Thefe people have found by 
experience that there is an advantage in having the head of 
the hammer hooked inwards. This is eafily accounted for, 


when we obferve that the ftroke will be made pretty near 
the centre of percuffion. Great pains ought to be taken in 
preparing the edge of the chiffel. It is, in the firft place, 


hardened and tempered by heating it gradually till it appears 


of a yellowith brown. It is next ground very true to form 
the edge, which is afterwards finifhed upon a Turkey ftone, 
with oil. It is not required to be very fharp, the bottom 
of the tooth requiring to be rather open, to prevent the file 
from clogging with the fubftance to be filed. ‘The edge is 
alfo required to be very {mooth, in order that it may flip 
eafily upon the furface of the files: this is alfo facilitated 
by flightly greafing the furface. From this advantage, the 
worker, after making one tooth, is enabled, by feeling only,, 
to ferm, at its proper diftance, the fucceeding tooth, by 
fliding the chiffel clofe up againft the back of the preced- 
ing one. All thefe motions are performed with aftonifhing 
rapidity, firft the chiflelandthen the hammer. Weobferved 2 
boy, in cutting three-fided files of five inches long, baf- 
tard cut, make 225 ftrokes, which produced as many teeth, 
in one minute. And the whole file being double-cut, con- 
tained 1350 teeth, or fix times the above quantity. The 
fecond cut file, of the fame fize, contains 2025 teeth, and the 
{mooth file 2700, confequently, the difference in labour be- 
tween the baftard-cut and the fmooth files is about as two 
toone. Larger files, from the greater furface, require a 
much greater ftroke to raife the tooth, and confequently 
fewer ftrokes will be made in the fame time. 

In the double-cut files, the firft fet of teeth, which the 
workmen call up-cutting, are, previous to cutting the fecond 
courte, filed flightly upon the face, in order to allow the chif- 
fel to flide freely. 

The fingle-cut file is more durable than the double-cut, 
and ought to be preferred for all purpofes, excepting for 
iron and fteel. 

The fame method is employed in cutting the rafp. The 
workman is however guided completely by his eye, in regu. 
lating the diftance of the teeth from each other. "Phe rafp 
ought to be cut in fuch a manner that no one of the teeth 
may ftand oppofite to another. This not only allows the 
rafp to cut fafter, but makes the furface, either of wood or 
other fubftance, much fmoother. 

Hardening of Files.—This is the laft and moft important 
part of file-making. Whatever may be the quality of the 
iteel, or however excellent the workmanthip, if it is not 
well hardened, all the labour is loft. 

Three things are ftri@ly to be obferved in hardening ; 
firit, to prepare the file onthe furface, fo as to prevent it 
from being oxydated by the atmofphere, when the file is 
red hot, which effe& would notonly take off the fharpnefsof 
the tooth, but render the whole furface fo rough, that the file 
would, in a little time, become clogged with the fubftance 
ithad to work. Secondly, the heat ought to be very uni- 
formly red throughout, and the water in which it is 
quenched frefh and cold, for the purpofe of giving it the 
proper degree of hardnefs. Lajftly, the manner of immer- 
fion is of great importance, to prevent the files from warping, 
which in long thin files is very difficult. 

The firit object is accomplifhed by laying a fubftance upon 
the surface, which, when it fufes, forms as it were a 
varnifh upon the furface, defending the metal from the ation 
of the oxygen of the air. Formerly, the procefs confifted 
in firft coating the furface of the file with ale grounds, and 
then covering it over with pulverized common falt, (mu- 
riat of foda.) After this coating became dry, the files are 
heated red hot, and hardened; after this, the furface is lightly 
bruthed over with the duft of cokes, when it appears white 
and metallic, asif it had not been heated. This proceis has 

3H2 lately 


FILE, 


lately been'improved, at Jeaft fo far as relates to the econo- 
my of the falt, which, from the quantity ufed, and the in- 
creafe of duty, had become a ferious object. Thofe who 
ufe the improved method are now confuming about one- 
fourth the quantity of falt ufed in the old method. The 
procefs confifts in diffolving the falt in water to faturation, 
which is about three pounds to the gallon, and ftiffening it 
with ale grounds, or with the cheapeft kind of flour, {nch 
as that of beans, to about the confiftence of thick cream. 
The files only require to be dipped into this fubftance, and 
immediately heated and hardened. The grounds, or the 
flour are of no other ufe, than to give the mafs confiftence, 
and by that means, allowing a larger quantity of falt to be 
laid upon the furface. In this method, the falt forms immedi- 
ately a firm coating. As foon as the water is evaporated, 
the whole of it becomes fufed upon the file. Inthe old me- 
thod the dry falt was fo loofely attached to the file, that 
the greateft part of it was rubbed off into the fire, and 
was {ublimed up the chimney, without producing any 
effect. 

The carbonaceous mattet of the ale-grounds is fuppofed 
to have fome effeét, in giving hardnefs to the file, by com- 
Dining with the fteel, and-rendering it more highly carbo- 
nated. It will be found, however, upon experiment, that 
vegetable carbon does not combine with iron, with fuffi- 
cient facility, to produce any effe@, in the fhort {pace of 
time a file is heating, for the purpofe of hardening. Some 
fite makers are in the habit of ufing the coal of burnt 
leather, which donbtlefs produces fome effect ; but the car- 
bon is generally fo ill prepared for the purpofe, and the 
time of its operation fo fhort, as to render the effect very 
little. Animal catbon, when properly prepared and mix- 
ed, with the above hardening compofition, is capable of 
giving hardnefs to the furface even of an iron file. 

The carbonaceous matter may be readily obtained from 
any of the foft parts of animals, or from blood. For this 
purpofe, however, the refufe of fhoe-makers and curriers, 
is the moft convenient. After the volatile parts have been 
diftilled over, from an iron ftill, a brigit fhining coal is left 
behind, which, when reduced to powder, is fit to mix with 
the falt. Let about equal parts, by bulk, of this powder, 
and muriat of foda, be mixed together, and brought to the 
confiftence of cream, by the addition of water. Or mix 
the powdered carbon with a faturated folution of the falt, 
till it become of the above conififtence. Files which are in- 
tended to be very hard, fhould be covered with this compo- 
fition, previous to hardening. All files intended to file iron 
or fteel, particularly faw files, fhould be hardened with this 
compofition in preference to that with the flour or 
grounds, Indeed, we are of opinion, that the carbonaceous 
powder might be ufed, altogether, in point of economy, 
fince the ammonia or hartfhorn, obtained by dittillation, 
would be of fuch value as to render the coal of no expence. 
By means of this method the files made of iron, which in 
itfelf is infufceptible of hardening, acquires a fupericial 
hardnefs, fufficient for any file whatever. Such files may 
at the fame time be bent into any form, and, in confe- 
quence, are particularly ufeful for fculptors and die finkers. 

The next point to be confidered is the belt method of 
heating the file for hardening. For this purpofe a fire, 
fimilar to the common fmiths’ tre, is generally employed. 
The ble is held in a pair of tongs, by the tang, and intro- 
duced into the fire, confifting of very {mall cokes; puth- 
ing it more or lefs into the tre for the purpofe of heating 
it regularly. It mult frequently be withdrawn for the 
purpofe of obferving, that it is not too hot in any part. 
When it is uniformly heated, from the tang to the point, 

i 


of a chetry red colour, it is fit to quench in the water 
At prefent an oven, formed of fire bricks, is ufed for the 
larger files, into which the blalt of the bellows is directed, 
being open at one end, for the purpofe of introducing the 
fles and the fuel. _Near to the top of the oven are 
placed two crofs bars, on which a few files are placed, to 
be partially heating. In the hardening of heavy files, this 
contrivance affords a confiderable faving, in point of time, 
in addition to which they are more uniformly and thoe 
roughly heated. 

After the file is properly heated for the purpofe of hard- 
ening, in order to produce the greateft poffible hardnefs, it 
fhould be cooled as foon as poflible. ‘The moft common, 
method of effecting this is by quenching it in the moldett 
water. Some file makers have been in the habit of putting 
different fubftances in their water, with a view to increafe 
its hardening property. The addition of the fulphuric acid 
to the water was long held a great fecret in the hardening 
of faw fles. After ail, however, it will be found, that 
clear {pring water, free from animal and vegetable matter, 
and as cold as poflible, is the beft calculated for hardening 
files of every: de{cription. : 

In quenching the files in water fome caution muit be ob- 
ferved. All files, except the half round, fhould be immerfed, 
perpendicularly, as flowly as poffible, fo that the upper part 
fhall not cool. This management prevents the. file from 
warping. ‘The half round file muft be quenched in the fame 
fteady manner, but at the fame time it is kept perpendicu- 
lar to the furface of the water, it muft be moved a little ho- 
rizontally, in the dire€tion of the round fide, otherwife it 
will become crooked backwards, 

When the files are hardened, they are brufhed over with 
water and powdered cokes, when the furface becomes per- 
feétly clean and metallic, ‘They ought, alfo, to be wathed 
well, in two or three clean waters, for the purpofe of carry- 
ing off all the falt, which, if remaining, will be liable to ruft 
the file. In addition to this, they fhould be dipped into 
lime water, and rapidly dried before the fire, after being 
oiled, with olive oil, containing a little oil of turpentine, 
while ftill warm, and they are deemed finifhed. 

Fite is alfo a thread of wire whereon writs or other exhi- 
bits in courts or offices are faftened or filed, for the more 
fafe keeping and ready turning to the fame. : 

A ble is a record of the court, and the filing of the procefs 
ofa court makesit arecord of it. 1 Lil. 112. 

Fixe, or Label, in Heraldry, a bearing, fometimes of 
more, and fometimes of fewer points, being the difference or 
diftin@tion of the eldeft fon. 

It is fometimes alfo borne as a charge in a coat armour, 
of which Gwillim gives many inftances; but it is oftener the 
difference or mark of diltin€@tion which the elder brother 
bears in his coat during his father’s life. 

Some diftinguifh fle and /ale/, calling the file the upper 
horizontal line, and the label the points which iflue from 
it. 

Five of three, or morelabels. See Lanev. 

Fire, ina Military Senfe, isarow of men ftanding one be- 
hind another; as a rank, on the other hand, includes any 
number drawn up befide each other: whether, in either re- 
fpect, they be in clofe or gpen order. ‘ 

Or, file is a line or feries of foldiers, placed one befere an- 
other, and thus compofing the depth of a battalion ; and it 
is thus diftincuifhed from the rank, which is a line of 
foldiers, drawu up fide by fide, forming the /ength of the 
battalion. A file is two or three deep ; hence, a battalion 
or regiment drawn up confifts of two or three ranks, and 
of as many files as there are men inarank. Files of cavalry 

are 


. 


FIL 


are generally two deep. A file on horfe-back occupies in 
the ranks about two feet eight inches; a file on foot occu- 
pies in the ranks twenty-two inches. : 

Clof: files in cavalry are at the diftance which was taken 
before difmounting, when cach man’s boot-top touches, 
without preffing, that of his neighbour. : ; 

Loofe tiles, in cavalry movements, are fix inches diftant 
from boot-top to boot-top, being calculated for the gallop 
as well as the walk of a fquadron. 

Open files, in cavalry, are the full breadth of a horfe from 
boot-top to boot-top. Recruits and horfes muft be frequent- 
ly exercifed at this diftance. 

Flank file denotes the extreme file on the right or left of 
-afguadron or troop, battalion or company, &c. Forming 
from file, is when the front file halts, aud the reft ride up at a 
very {mart gallop, taking care to halt in time, and not to 
over-run the ground. Ifthe formation is by doubling round 
the front file, (¢. g. when a formation is made to the rear of 

e march, or tothe right, when marched from the right) 
the files muft double round as clofely and expeditioufly as 
poffible. In all formings from file the leaders of ranks in- 
tantly cover each other, take the ordered front, and halt. 
The files which bind the right and left are called the 
flanks. 

In the covering of files on horfeback, the fame direCtions 
hold good as on foot. Befides, it mult be fcrupuleufly ob- 
ferved, that every man’s horfe ftands exaily ftraight to the 
fame front as that of the man before him. Both iu the horfe 
and foot drill the men fhould be often pra¢tifed in covering. 
The former are thus taught to place their horfes ftraight 
under them. 

Clofe bles of infantry are foldiers ftanding in rank, con- 
tiguous to one another, upon any given depth of line or co- 
lumn. Whenever a regiment marches in front, every man 
fhould feel his next man in whatever way he dreffes; but he 
muft not lean upon him, nor muft he move his arms from 
his body to feel him: fo that arm clofe tiles mean merely 
that foldiers in the ranks fhould lightly touch each other, 
without crowding or prefling. Open files are foldiers ftand- 
ing in rank at given diftances without touching one another. 
‘The formation at open files is only prattifed as a preparatory 
drill for forming at clofe files (which is the order for ation) 
in order that every man may be taught to ftand and move in 
a proper polition, without getting a habit of leaning upon 
hisneighbour. Onthis account every iitelligent officer who 
has the management of recruits, will form them fometimes 
at open files, and march in that order. Soldiers that have 
been regularly drilled fhould likewife be occafionally prac- 
tifed in adyancing by open fles. Double tiles are formed 
by the left files in each rank ftepping to the rear of the 
right files. Jndian files denote a line of men advancing or 
retreating from either of the flanks, from the centre, or from 
any proportion of a line in fucceflion to one another. ‘They 
are fometimes called * goofe-files,” a term vulgarly ufed 
among foldiers, and derived from a flock of geefe, which 
generally follow a leader one by one We fay, clo/e the 
files ; that is, bring the men nearer each other. Douéle the 
files; that is, double the depth of the battalion, and di- 
minifh its breadth or front by one half, The lait or hinder- 
moft perfon is faid to ring up the file. To file, that is, to 
advance to, or from, any given poiat-by files; as to file to 
the front, to file to the rear, to file from the right or left 
flank, or to file from any given company. To file off, is to 
wheel from marching in a f{pacious front, and to march in 

length by files. See Derize. 

Frre-Leader is the foldier placed in the front of any file, 
er the man who is to cover all thofe that fland dire@ly in 


FIL 


the rear of him, and by whom they are to be guided in all 
their movements. TFile-leaders fhould be very careful to 
preferve their proper diftances, from which ever hand they 
are to drefs to, and the followers of each file mui only be 
attentive to cover, and be regulated by their proper file- 
leaders. In file the rear rank invariably dreffes by, and is 
regulated by the front rank. 

Five marching on foot. According to the printed regu- 
lations, all recruits mutt firft face, and then be inftruGted to 
cover each other exactly in file, fo that the head of the maa 
immediately before may conceal the heads of all the others 
in front.. The men fhould move with the lock-flep. The 
front-rank men fhould cover exaCtly, and the rear-rank men 
keep clofe and drefled to the front rank. File-marching may 
be performed to the front, to the rear, and to either flank ; 
in all which cafes the men muft be taught to cover well. 
When recruits are at drill, on the word march, all are to ftep 
off together, gaining at the firlt ftep thirty inches, and fo 
continuing each ftep, without increafing the diftance be- 
twixt each recruit, every man locking or placing his ad- 
vanced foot on the ground, before the {pot whence the man 
who precedes him had taken up his. Marching by ranks 
in front, open files, is when any body of men advance by 
ranks at open order, and drefs to fome given obje@ without 
touching one another. The flank-man of the flank to 
whom the foldiers drefs, muft be a non-commiffioned officer, 
and he muft take care that his head be kept quite ftraight 
to the front, and his body ereé&, and that he advances with- 
out deviating in any the leaft degree to the right or the left. 
In order to execute this effential part of the drill accurately, 
two perfons fhould be prefent, one in the front, and the 
other on the flank, to obferve the drefling. Marching by 
ranks in front, clofe files, is when any number of men ad- 
vance by ranks at clofe order, and drefs to fome given ob- 
je&t, each man lightly touching his next man, without 
crowding or prefling. The march in front at clofe files is 
much more eafy than that at open files, becaufe every man 
feels his next man, which-ever way the rank drefles, and 
into whatever direétion the rank or column moves. 

FILELIO, Francis, in Biography, a diltinguithed 
Italian writer, was born at Tolentino in the year 1398. 
He ttudied at Padua with fo.much fuccefs, that he was in- 
vited to open.a fchool of eloquence at Venice in his 20th 
year. In 1420 he went to Athens, where, under the di- 
rection. of John Chryfoloras, fon of Manuel, he applied 
himfelt fo vigoroufly to the ftudy of the Greek language, 
as to be fent ambaflador to fultan Amurath IL. and alfo 
the emperor Sigifmund. In this latter embafly he received 
an invitation from-Ladiflaus IV. king of Poland, to aflit at 
his nuptials, and-on that eccalion he recited an eration 
at Cracow, in the prefence of the emperor and princes. 
Returning to Conftantinople, he occupied himfelf in literary 
concerns, and in 1427 he revifited Venice on the exprefs in- 
vitation of many of the nobles. From Venice he removed, 
in. 14.28, to Bologna, where he was received with extraordi- 
nary honours, and appointed profeflor of eloquence and 
moral philofophy, -with an ample ftipend. Civil difeord 
obliged him ina few months to quit Bologna, and from 
thence he went to Florence, where he foon colle&ed four 
hundred {cholars, and was admitted to the rank of citizen 
by a public decree. Here his life was fometimes in danger 
from his enemies, among whom he reckoned the chief to be 
Cofmo de Medici. In 1435 he accepted of a profefforhhip 
at Sienna, where he was attacked by the fame affafiia from 
whofe malice he had formerly efcaped at Florence. The 
villain was detected, and punithed with the lofs of a hand, 
‘The reputation of Filelfo was now fo high, that he was 

invited,, 


FIL 


invited, at the fame time, to the performanee of important 
duties by the pope, the Greek emperor, the duke of Milan, 
and the univerfities of Perugia and Bologna. He accepted 
the latter, where he re-opened his {choo} for a few months 
only, when, repairing to the court of the duke of Milan, 
he was retained by him in his fervice, and treated with great 
favour. The death of the duke, in 1447, deprived him 
of a powerful patron, but he was, aftera confiderable inter- 
val, reoeived by the fucceffor to the dukedom, Francis 
Sforza, who affigned him an honourable ftipend. He 
next went to Rome, where he experienced the liberality of 
pope Nicholas V. Proceeding to Capua, he was treated with 
extraordinary regard by Alphonfo king of Naples, who con- 
ferred upon him the honour of knighthood, allowed him the 
privilege of ufing the royal arms, and placed on his head 
the poetical crown of laurel. Upon his return to Milan, 
he learnt that his mother-in-law, the widow of Chryfoloras, 
and her two daughters, were made flaves in the capture of 
Conftantinople by the Turks: at the earneit requelt of 
Filelfo the duke difpatched two meflengers to Conftantino- 
ple, with a letter and an ode addreffed to Mahomet II., who 
reftored the female captives without a ranfom, At the 
fame period Filelfo became reconciled to Cofmo de Medici, 
and ever after remained in friendfhip with that illuitrious 
family. On the eleétion of pope Pius IT. in 1458, he fet- 
tled a penfion on Filelfo, which being paid only one year, 
gave him an occafion to declaim againit the court of Rome 
and the pontiff, a liberty which was punifhed with impri- 
fonment. In 1469 he prefented pope Paul II. with his 
tranflation of the Cyropzdia, for which he received a prefent 
of four hundred ducats. This donation was handfome, 
and perhaps unexpeé¢ted, and he felt it his duty to go to 
Rome and return thanks in perfon. In the courfe of his 
journey he was honourably received and treated at Florence, 
by Peter and Lorenzo de Medici. He continued to refide 
at Milan till 1474, when he obtained leave, on the invitation 
of pope Sixtus 1V., to become profeffor of moral philo- 
fophy at Rome. After this he removed three times to 
Milan, and back again to Rome, tillat length, in the eighty- 
third year of his age, he accepted an invitation from Lorenzo 
de Medici to a Greek profeflorfhip at Florence. In the 
performance of the duties of this office he died, in 1481, a 
very fhort time after his arrival. He left behind many books, 
which confiit of orations, moral difcourfes, poems, and fa- 
miliar epiftles, that afford much curious anecdote relative to 
the times. As aman of letters, he is more to be admired 
for his induftry, and the great compafs of his attainments, 
than for peculiar excellence in any one branch. Neverthe- 
lefs he was a good hiftorian, well filled in claffical learning, 
anda profound grammarian. Moreri. 

FILER wun Son, Fr. in Mufic, implies the condué 
of the voice in finging, in fuch a manneras to be able to pro- 
long, fwell, or run rapid divifions of many bars, without 
taking breath. The French verb fier, literally means to 
ftring, thread, or wire-draw any fubftance: and, applied to 
the voice, it means almoft every perfection of a great finger. 
Millico ufed to fay that the voice, by practice, fhould be ren- 
dered as ductile as wax when worked by the hand till it will 
receive any impreffion. Rouffeau fays there are two ways 
of managing the voice which come under the term filer /es 
fous : the frft is what we have been defcribing ; the fecond, 
that of fuftaining a tone fteadily, and perfectly in tune, 
in along note, while the accompaniments are bufily em- 
ployed. When the Gabrielli was here, during the time 
that the Agujari fung at the Pantheon, after fhe had finifhed 
one of her bravura airs, with long and difficult divifions, 
and fuch high notes as had never been heard in England be- 


FIL 


fore, the Gabrielli faid to a sentleman in our hearing “ mais 
mefiieurs, ce n’elt pas filer les fons ;’? one finger is never 
to praife another. Agujari was however a very great finger 
in a different ityle from that of the Gabrielli; who, when at 
her belt, had very fingular vocal abilities. We have juit 
now recollected that Agujari was forgotten in the alphabeti- 
cal order where fhe ought to have had a niche, for which 
we beg pardon of her manes, and fhall try to deferve it, by 
doing her juftice here. 

Lucretia Acujyari wasatruly wonderful yocal per- 
former. The lower part of her voice was full, round, of an ex- 
cellent quality, and its compals, after fhe quitted its natural re- 
gifler, which it was to be wifhed fhe had never done, beyond 
any one we had then heard. She had two o€taves of fair natural 
voice, from A on the fif=h line in the bafe, to A on the fixth 
line in the treble,and beyond that, in alt, fhe had in early youth 
more then another o€tave; as Sacchini told me (fays Burney) 
he had heard her go up to Bb in altiffimo. Her fhake was open 
and perfe@, her intonation true, her execution marked and ra- 
pid,and her ftyle of finging, inthe natural compafsof her voice, 
grand and majeftic; though the pathetic and tender were 
not what her manner or figure promifed, yet fhe had ex- 
preffions fometimes that were truly touching, and fhe would 
have been as capable of exciting univerfal pleafure, as admi- 
ration, if fhe had been a little lefs violent in the delivery of 
her paflages, and her looks had been more tempered by fe- 
male foftnefs and timidity. She fang hardly any other mu- 
fic while fhe was here than her hufband’s, Signor Colla, 
which, though often good, was not of that eriginal and va- 
ried caft which could fupply the place of every other mafter, 
ancient and modern. 

At this time there was no male finger in England with 
irrefiltible attractions: Rauzzini indeed was here, who more 
frequently pleafed than furprized his audience ; but it was 
during this period that the proprietors of the Pantheon ven- 
tured to engage the Agujari at the enormous falary of 
1oo/.a night, for finging two fengs only! And yet, how- 
ever exorbitant the demand, or imprudent the compliance 
with it may feem, the managers of this moft elegant and 
{uperb building, which would have done honour to Greeee 
at its moft f{plendid period of tafte and magnificence, have, 
fince that period, by going a more economical way to work, 
inyolved the proprietors in difgrace and ruin, Indeed, in 
fubfequent undertakings, previous to the fatal deftruc- 
tion of the building by fire, they have more frequently had 
money to pay than receive ; for, notwith{landing fo much 
was difburfed to the Agvjari, much was likewife cleared, 
and the dividend was more confiderable than it has ever been 
fince that memorable era. The admirable Agujari, as 
Sacchinitold us, was in her youth called “ la Baftardella ;” 
and being lame it was faid, that, as foon as born, fhe had 
been abandoned on a Cunghill by an unnatural mother, where 
a pig was beginning to devour her, when fhe was unexpeét- 
edly difcovered, and humanely protected, adopted, and fo 
well educated in mufic, as to become the wonder of herage 
and country. This admirable finger died at Parma in 
1783. : 

FILEY, in Geography, a {mall fifhing town of England, 
on the E. coaft of the county of York, ina bay on the Ger- 
man fea, to which it gives name ; near it is a ledge of rocks, 
called “ Filey Brigg.’”? In 1801 the inhabitants were 
505. 

FILIAL, fomething belonging to the relatien of a fon, 

Jilius. 

The divines ufually diftingnifh between a fervile anda 

filial fear. The moft abandened have a fervile fear of God, 
7 fueh 


FIL 


fuch as that of a flave to his mafter; but not a filial fear, 
i, e. a fear refulting from love and refpect. 

Fiziar Portion. See Custom of London. 

FILICAIA, Vincenzo pa, in Biography, an elegant 
Italian poet, was born at Florence in 1642. He ftudied 
and took his degrees at the univerfity of Pifa, He married 
at the age of thirty-one: he was fond of retirement, occupying 
himfelf in poetical compofition, and in the duties of domettic 
life. He was tirft brought to publicotice by his fine can- 
zoni compofed on the raifing of the fiege of Vienna. For 
this he received the moft flattering and complimentary letters 
from feveral crowned heads; from the emperor Leopold, 
the king of Poland, the duke of Lorrain, and the queen of 
Sweden. By the latter he was adopted into her own aca- 
demy, and fhe took upon herfelf the charge of maintaining 
jhis children ; at the fame time commanding him to conceal 
her bounty, as being inadequate to the merits of fo great a 
man. He was created a fenator by the grand duke, and 
employed in fome important duties by that prince, which 
he performed with fo much credit, as to gain the efteem of 
the prince, and affeGtion of the people. He died univer- 
fally lamented at Florence, in the year 1707, at the age of 
dixty-five. ‘‘ He was,” fays his biographer, ‘ one of the 
principal ornaments of modern Italian poetry, difplaying, 
as well in his canzoni as his fonnets, great fublimity, ani- 
mation and dignity, and fcarcely furpaffed by any in vigour 
of fentiment and energy of ftyle. He alfo wrote Latin verfe 
with elegance, and fome of his orations and epiftles are in- 
ferted in the “ Profe Fiorentine.’’? He was member of the 
academies of La Crufca, and the Arcadi. His fon Scipio 
“gave a compleat edition of his Italian poems, under the title 
of * Poefie Tofcane di Vincenzo da Filicaia, Senatore Fio- 
rentino,’”? 1707, 4to.’”? Moreri. 

FILICES, in Botany, Ferns, a very diftiné&t and natural 
order of the clafs Cryftogamia of Linneus. The name is 
fuppofed to be derived from fi/um, a thread, in allufion to 
the flender fegments, or rather ftalks, of thefe plants, 
whence alfo they are termed capillary plants, and fome of 
them have the name of Maiden-hair, They ccnftitute the 
fifth natural orderin the firft clafsof the fyftem of Juffieu, 
and the firft order of the twenty-fourth clafs of the Linnean 
artificial fyftem. 

Their herbage is a frond, or leaf bearing fru@iScation, 
per arborefcent, involute when young, the {talk more or 
lefs {ealy ; the root perennial, and generally very long-lived. 
Frudification moft commonly on the back of the leaf ; fome- 
times at the edge; fometimes, (by a transformation, as it 
were, of a leaf or its lobes,) {piked and terminal, or foli- 
tary and axillary. Cap/ules utually of two valves and one 
cell, moftly ftalked, and bound with a contrary elattic ring ; 
fometimes feflile and aggregate ; very rarely of many cells. 
Seeds extremely minute and copious. 

The flowers of ferns are as yet altogether unknown, ex- 
cept what Hedwig has defcribed in Equi/etum ; fee that ar- 
ticle. The fame admirable inveftigator thought he difco- 
vered anthers difperfed about the rib of the ae in fome 
common ferns, and piftils under the cover of their young 
fruit, fee his Theoria Generationis et Fruédificationis Planta- 
rum Cryptogamicarum, 43, &c.t. 5, 6, 73 but others have 
not affented to this theory. Bernhardi has fuggefted an- 
other, equally hypothetical, that impregnation is performed 
onthe upper fide of the leaf, the pollen being fecreted by 
{mall membranous anthers fituated near the margin, and the 
stigmas placed dire@ly over the point of attachment of each 
dot or mafs of capfules. See Sims and Konig’s Annals of 
Botany, v. 1. 107; but this is not better fupported by facts 
than the doétrine of Hedwig. Some have imagined the 


FIL 


ring which embraces the capfule in moft dorfiferous ferns, 
might perform the office of an anther; but fucha theory 
will not account for the impregnation in genera where no 
fuch part is to be found. 

The feeds of ferns, independent of poetic fancies, were 
early known to naturalifts. Gileke points out a paflage in 
Cordus, denying them feeds indeed, but afferting that all 
ferns are propagated by the duit at the back of their 
leaves. Morifon tells us he raifed from feed the Harts-tongue 
and the Ofmund-royal ; fee his Hiftoria, v. 3. 555 and 593. 
Microfcopic obfervers, about the fame time, readily aicer- 
tained the ftruéture of the capfules, and appearance of the 
feeds. Ehrhart obferved the germination of /pidium /pinu- 
lofum ; and, Mr. Lindfay of Jamaica raifed many ferns of 
that ifland from feed, as recorded in the ‘lranfa&tions of the 
Linn. Soe. y. 2.93, carefully attending to, and delineating 
the progrefs of their growth. Mr. Fox of Norwich firit 
taifed a Lycopodium from feed ; fee Tr. of L. Soc. v. 3. 314. 
Similar experiments have been repeated by various other per- 
fons, and in hot-houfes, where the larger kinds of flices 
are cultivated, young feedlings, of a fcaly pellucid appear- 
ance, like an infant Marchautia, may often be feen f{cattered 
over the moitt earth, or rotten bark. Sprengel well obferves, 
in his letters on Cryptogamous plants, tranflated by Mr, 
Konig, and publifhed at London in :807, that the cotyle- 
dons of thefe plants are not always fimple, and this raifes. 
another difficulty refpeCting a natural claffiticatioa by thofe 

arts. See CoryLEepones and DicoTyLEeponEs. 

The poffible increafe of ferns, if we confider the abun- 
dance of their feeds, is beyond computation. A fingle leaf 
will.often bear one hundred millions of feeds. Yet we have 
no reafon to think the countlefs numbers, that turn to no ac- 
count as to propagating the fpecies, afford food for animal- 
cula of any kind, or ferve any other fecondary purpofe. 

Befides the feminal mode of increafe, a few ferns produce 
gemma, or buds, on their ftalks or leaves, as Woodwardia 
radicans ; and {ome take root at their points, as d/plenium 
rhizophyllum. 

To the botanical arrangement of ferns, much attention 
has been paid of late years, and with confiderable fuccefs. 
The fyftematic, writers of the 17th century touched this 
fubje& but flightly. Ray, in bis Methodus Plantarum dif- 
tinguifhes the {piked from the dorfiferous ferns, and propofes 
to divide the latter according to the fituation of the feeds on 
the edge or middle of the leaf, and according to the round 
or linear fhape of the maffes which thofe feeds compofe. He 
then diftinguifhes.them further into larger and {maller, own- 
ing, at the fame time that he was not well fatisfied with fuck 
a principle of arrangement; and finally {ubdivides them inte 
fuch as have fimple leaves, and fuch as have them fimply, 
doubly, or triply pinnate. What concerns the fituation of 
the feeds. or capfules, in this fyitem is excellent, and is juftly 
claimed by Ray as original. It forms, indeed, the baiis of 
the Linnzan arrangement hereafter mentioned. But the 
fhape or ftru€ture of the frond leads to no true generic dif 
tinctions, and yet Ray, lofiug fight of his original principles, 
diftributes ferns aceording to thefe faulty ones, fcarcely ob- 
ferving how inconfiftent they are, and retaining old names, 
without attempting to new-model them, or the genera 
which they had hitherto fo imperfeétly defigned. 

Tournefort, fo ftudious of the genera of plants, at- 
tempted to diftribute ferns according to the forms of their 
fronds, but even this he performed in a mot fuperficial 
and imperfe&t way. His genus Fi/ix indeed is tolerably 
charaéterized, after his principles, as having a pinnate leat, 
and pinnatifid leaflets; his Lonchitis has auricled leaflets; 
and his Zrichomanes “ generally roundifh ones ;”” while his 
Pelypodium 


BAL £C.E.S. 


Polypodium has a fimple pinnatifid leaf. But his Ruta 
muraria is ftrangely defined ¢ with leaves fomewhat re- 
fembling garden rue ;’” his Filicula “ with leaves fomewhat 
refembling thofe of Filix 5’? and his Adiantum with leaves 
known from other plants by their peculiar appearance,”” 
without indicating what that appearance is. Such a loofe 
mode of definition indicates a truly barbarous flate of fcience. 
He paid no attention to the fituation of the fruétification in 
thefe plants. Plumier, a very famous colle&tor and delinea- 
tor of the {pecies of ferns, followed his countryman ‘Tourne- 
fort implicitly in their generic arrangement, if it deferves 
to be fo called, nor were any improvements in this line at- 
tempted till the time of Linneus. 

The fyitem of the learned Swede would of courfe have 
been imperfect, had he not undertaken to characterize all 
the genera, even of his clafs Cryptogamia, as much as pofli- 
ble by their parts of fruétification alone, as far as fuch 
could be deteéted. Unfortunately, however, not only the 
effential organs of impregnation of ferns were then, as they 
{till are, undifcovered, and the acceflory parts of their 
flowers nearly as obfcure ; while the {tructure of the fruit in 
dorfiferous ferns was fo much the fame, in all known to 
Linneus, that it was ufelefs for the purpofes of generic 
diftin@tion. He was therefore obliged to have recourfe to 
other principles, which, in the arrangement of plants with 
evident flowers and varioufly-formed fruits, he had rejected 
as unphilofophical; thefe were deduced from the fituation 
of the fruGtifications, and their aggregate figure, according 
to the fcheme indicated by Ray, but frft carried into exe- 
eution by Linnzus. 

Thus fix genera appear difcriminated in the firft edition 
of his Genera Plantarum. 

Pieris. Fru@tifications difpofed in a line, running along 
the margin of the leaf on its under fide. 

Lonchitis. Fru@tif. in little crefcent-fhaped lines, under 
the finufes of the leaf. 

Adiantum. Frudif. in oval f{pots, collected under the 
reflexed fummits of the leaves. 

Afplenium. Frudtif. in flraight lines, arranged on the 
under fide of the leaf. 

Polypodium. Fruétif. in roundifh {pots, or dots, dif- 
peried over the back of the leaf. 

Acroftichum. Fru@if. accumulated into one mafs, en- 
tirely covering the back of the leaf. 

In the fecond edition of the fame work two other genera 
are added. 

Hemionitis. Fru@if. in lines running into or interfeting 
each other, or branched. 

Trichomanes. Calyx turbinated, folitary, erect, from 
the margin of the leat itfelf. Style briftle-fhaped, termi- 
nating the capfule—This laft definition is incorrect in 
terms, there being no authority for the ufe of the words 
ftyle and capfule in this cafe, and the former being indeed 
merely a column, or elongated receptacle, to whofe lower 
part feveral capfules are indeed attached, but whofe fummit 
we are not warranted, by any analogy, to fuppofe a ftyle, 
however appearances may be in favour of fuch a fuppofi- 
tion. 

In the 5th edition of Gen. Pl. a ninth genus is added, 
while the arrangement of the former isa little altered. 

Blechnum. FErudtif. difpofed in lines, parallel with, and 
near to, the rib of the leaf. 

Nothing new on this tubject occurs in the 6th edition of 
the fame work, the laft to which its author himfelf lent any 
affitance, nor did he leave any thing relative to it in ma- 
nuicript. 

Schreber, in his edition of the Gen. Pl. had added three 


new genera, Marattia of Swarte, Cenopteris of Bergius, 
and Menifcium one of his own. 

It is proper to notice what has been done by fome con- 
temporaries of Linneus towards obtaining fatisfactory 
generic charadters of /ilices. 

Adanfon, in his Familles des Piantes, publifhed at Paris 
in 1763, has noticed the membranous involucrum which 
covers the fruétification of moft ferns; as has Gleditfch in 
his Syftema Plantarurh, publifhed at Berlin in 1764; but 
they. have detected this part in very few genera, and have 
erred in feveral of their remarks concerning it. Thus in 
the common brake, Prerts of Linneus (Zhelypteris of 
Adanfon, Cincinalis of Cleditf{ch) whofe involucrum is 
manifeft to the moft carelefs obferver, the former properly 
defcribes that part as of one valve, in the fhape of a pent- 
houfe, while Gleditfch abfolutely denies its exiftence. 
They both juftly obferve that the involucrum of A/plenium 
Scolopendrium of Linnzus confitts of two valves, but do not 
fay a word of its form in Blechnum, Hemionitis, or Lonchitis. 
«They have totally deranged the Linnzan genera, but being 
ignorant of any true principles, have made every thing 
worfe than they found it; and as to nomenclature, they 
have gone counter to every maxim and all forts of authority. 
Both thefe writers have obferved the elaltic ring, which 
binds together the capfular valves of ferns, but they have 
alike both equally erred, in denying the exiftence of any 
fuch part in Polypodium vulgare.’ It appears that both 
thefe authors, who profes great originality, are not original 
even in this error, for the flightelt infpeétion of this very 
common fern would have prevented it, none having a more 
evident ring ; they therefore could only have adopted it from 
Tournefort, whom they do not quote, but who in his 
figure and defcription has fallen into this unaccountable 
miftake. Scopoli in his Flora Carniolica has made ufe of 
the remarks of Adanfon and Gleditfch, without corre@ting 
the above faulty particulars, which he adopts on their 
authority, though fo very eafy to be afcertained or refuted. 
Haller and moft other writers have made ufe of the Lin- 
nean charaéters, with fome occafional variations of no great 
moment, either with refpeét to nomenclature, or the dif- 
pofition of the fpecies. 

Indeed thofe who were converfant with European ferns, 
or a few well-known exotic ones, only, would fcarcely find 
any neceflity of looking futher than the Linnean generic 
diftinGions. But the writer of the prefent article was in- 
difpenfably led to confider the fubje&t with attention, in 
confequence of the vat colleétion of , unfettled ferns of 
which he. became poffefled in the Linnean herbarium, and 
which were fubfequently much inereafed by the unbounded 
liberality of his friend fir Jofeph Banks. Many of thefe 
could not be reduced to any known genus, and others, 
though by their technical characters poflibly referable to 
fome, were yet fo novel in habit as to require to be kept 
generically feparate. Many of thefe novelties were fent to 
the celebrated Hedwig in 1786, in hopes of his affiftance ; 
but nothing has tranfptred from him refpe&ting any generic 
reformations, though he or his fon have fince publifhed a 
few of the f{pecies. 

The refult of a general review of all the known as well 
as nondefcript ferns that could be got together, was a 
Latin efflay, communicated to the Reyal Academy at 
Turin, and printed in the fifth volume of their Memoires 
in 1793, under the title of Zentamen botanicum de filicum 
generibus dorfiferarum, audore J. £. Smith. In this the in- 
volucrum, or membranous cover of the mafles of capfules, 
was firft brought into ufe for generic diferimination, and 
particularly the dire¢tion in which it opens, whether out-- 

wards, 


PLLt ¢-E'ss 


wards, that is, towards the margin or extremity of the 
frond, or inwards, towards the rib, nerve, or bafe, of the 
frond or its fegment. This eafy principle is found to lead 
to the moft natural and diftinét genera, without any excep- 
tion. It does not overturn ner change one of thofe efta- 
blifhed by Lianzus, but more clearly defines them, while it 
affords means of afcertaining new ones. ‘The part ia quef- 
tion is found in almoft every fern, covering the fruétification 
before the latter comes to maturity. It originates fome- 
times from the margin of the leaf, but more commonly from 
fome nerve or veia, in which lat cafe it is either lateral and 
parallel, or terminal and vertical. The iuvolucrum adheres 
firmly to the frond on one fide, whence its nourfhment 
while growing is derived, and on the other is more or lefs 
clofely preffed to, or funk into a cavity in, its furface, 
withcut being really united with its cuticle, at leaft as far 
as canbe obferved. Not but that even on this fide alfo the 
air is altogether excluded, fo that in whatever mode the 
impregnation of the germens is accomplithed, that operation 
mult go on in fecret under this covering, without any 
external communication, except through the ftalks by 
which the capfules themfelves are attached, as the theory 
of Berrhardi fuppofes ; while Hedwig’s implies an occa- 
fional elevation of the margin of the young involucrum, 
which we can find no reafon to believe. When indeed the 
feed-yeffels and feeds are arrived at maturity, the neighbour- 
ing parts, and efpecially the involucrum, dry up, the latter 
feparating at the edge, and becoming crifped or reflexed, 
to allow of the difcharge of the feeds. : 

Inthe Effay in queftion the Linnzan genera of dorfiferous 
ferns were thus diftinguifhed by characters taken from the 
involucrum, in addition to thofe by which they were pre- 
vioufly known. 

Acrofichum. Ynvolucrum none, except little fcales, or 
hairs, interfperfed among the capfules. 

Polypodium. Tnvol. umbilicated, feparating nearly all 
round.—Such fpecies as have no involucrum were {till 
retained here for further examination, they being then fup- 
pofed very few. tigers : 
_ Afplenium. nvol. originating laterally from a vein, 
and feparating inwards 3—that is, towards the nerve or 
rib. 
 Hemionitis. Invol. in pairs, originating from the vein 
{which runs between the lines of capfules) and each fepa- 
‘yating outwards. 
~ Blechnum. nvol. originating from the furface, con- 
tinued, feparating towards the nerve. 

Pieris. Invol. from the inflexed margin of the frond, 
uninterrupted, feparating on the inner fide. 

Lonchitis. Javol. from the inflexed margin of the frond 
at each finus, in pairs, crefcent-fhaped. 

_ Adiantum. Invol. like f{cales, from the inflexed margin 
ef the frond, diftin&, feparating inwards. 

Trichomanes. Unvol. marginal, urn-fhaped, undivided, 
opening outwards, fhorter than the column bearing the 
saptules. . 

To thefe the following new genera were added. 
Darea, diftinguifhed from /plenium by the involucrum 
foparating outwardly, or towards the margin of the leaf. 

Scolopendrium, diltinguifhed from Hemienitis, by its double 
involucrum feparating inwards, the valves folding over each 
ether. 

Woodwardia, differing from Blechnum in having feparate, 
fhort, or interrupted, vaulted involucrums. j 
_ Lindfea, publithed by Mr. Dryanderia Tr. of Linn. Soc. 
y. 3, differing from Preris in its continued nearly marginal 
involucrum {eparating outwards, 


Ver. XIV. 


Vittaria, having a double involucrum covering its lone 
line of capfules, one valve from the margin, turaed in, the 
other from the furface, feparating outwards; its charaéter 
combining thofe of Pferis and Lind/ca. 

Davallia, having a {mall feale-lke involucrum to each 
rouad mafs ef capfules, terminating a vein or nerve, near the 
margin, or feparating outwards. 

Dickfonia of L? Heritier, having a double involucrum to 
each round mafs of capfules, one from the furface, feparating 
outwards, the other from the inflexed margin of the frond, 
embracing the former, and fepzrating inwards. 

Cyathea, bearing its capfules in f{eattered hemifpherical 
cups opening at the top without any lid. 

LHymenophyllum, having an involucrum of two flattifh 
ftraight valves at the edge of the leaf, opening outwards, 
longer than the column to which the cap{ules are attached. 

Schizea, haying a double uninterrupted involucrum, form. 
ed of the inflexed edges of each linear appendage to the 
fronds, which bears the fru¢tificaticn. 

All thefe genera have, or at leaft were fuppofed to have, 
a ring embracing each capfule; but it has fiace been ob- 
ferved that in fome, as Schizea, there is only an appearance 
of fuch a ring, as will be mentioned hereafte Another 
fe€tion was fubjoined, confifting of three genera unknown 
to Linnzus, whofe capfules are not only decidedly deftitute 
of aring, but remarkably different in appearance and ftruc- 
ture from the former, being feffile, naked, opening by pores. 
Thefe the author termed thecate, as the former are annu- 
late. 

Gleichenia. Capfules with three cells and three valves ; 
partitions originating from the middle of each valve. 

Marattia of Swartz’s Prodromus. Fl. Ind Occ. Cap- 
fules oval, burfting Jongitudinally on their upper fide, with 
feveral cells in each divition. 

Danaea. Capfules of one cell, opening by a pore at their 
fummit, and accumulated together in two parallel rows. 

See in their proper places CyarH#a, Danza, Darga, 
Davactra, and Dicksonia. 

This effay being repristed in Germany, called the atten- 
tion of the learned cryptogamic betanitts of that country 
to the fubje&. Hence various treatifes on the genera and 
{pecies of ferns have appeared in different periodical publi- 
cations, from the pens of Bernhardi, Willdenow, Mohr, and 
others. It was alfo publifhed in Englifh in 1798, in a vo- 
lume of Tra&s by the author. 

Several new obfervations were made, and miftakes corre®- 
ed, by the writers juft named. Mohr obferved that the 
capfule of fome ferns is only corrugated, fo as to refemble 
a ring, but not really furnifhed with one, as in Schi 


ized. 
The fame difcovery was long ago made, but never publifhed, 
by Mr. R. Brown. Quxoclea, hitherto thought deftitute of a 
ring, was proved to have one, and to be a true dorfiferous 
fern. Several new genera were defined, but not in every 
cafe juftly. Thus, the Spheropieris of Bernhardi is precilely 
a Cyathea, he having conceived a wrong idea of the latter 
genus, from fome of the European lefs certain fpecies. His 
Wibelia is a Davallia, and his Ripidium a Schizea. “he 
good genera eftablifhed by this and other writers will be men- 
tioned hereafter. 

At length the whole that had been done was revifed and 
improved by the able Dr.Swartz, profefforof botany at Stock- 
holm, who publifhed, in Schrader’s Journal at Gottingen ia 
1800, the Generaand Speciesof Ferns arranged in fy ematic 
order, which work appearedin a {till more perfe& form, with 
a preface, defcriptions of new or rave {pecies, and feveral 
figures at Kiel in i18c6, under the title of Synopiis Filicum. 
The family of Lycopodium and its allies are {ubjoiued, as 2 

ae diitinge 


FILICES, 


diftin& natural orders a diftin&ion to which we cannot 
affent. 
’ We fhall enumerate the genera of ferns according to Dr. 
Swartz’s work. 
Sedion't. Ferns whofe capfules are furrounded with 
an elaftic ring ; ‘called by him Filices Gyrete. 
* Tnvolucrum none. 


i. eroftichum. Capfules forming an indeterminate {pot 
or aflemblage, over the back of the leaf. : 

2. Menifcium. Schreb. Gen.757. (Polypedium reti- 
culatum ; Linn.) Spots crefcent-fhaped, nearly parallel, be- 
tween the veins of the leaf. : 

3. Hemionitis. Spots linear, forked and reticulated. Dr, 
Swartz feparates from this genus fuch f{pecies as have an 
involucrum, by the name of Diplaxium 

4. Grammitis., Spots linear, ftraight, feattered. 

- 5. YLenitis. Spots linear, longitudinal, continued, foli- 
tary between the rib and margin on each fide, parallel. 

6. Polypodium. Spots roundifh, feattered. 


** Spots veiled with an involucrum. 


7.  Afpidium. Spots roundifh, {cattered, covered with 
an umbilicated, more or lefs circular, involucrum. 

This coniifts of the vaft tribe of Linnzan fpecies of Po/y- 
podium, which differ from the vulgare and a few others in 
having an involucrum, and of which we have already fpoken. 
It is by far the largeft and moit troublefome genus of the 
whole order. 

8. Ajplenium. Spots linear, ftraight, fcattered. Invo- 
lucrum lateral, feparating inwards. 

9. Darea. (Called by Swartz Cenopteris, after 
Bergius:) Spotslinear, nearthe margin. Involucrum late- 
ral, feparating outwards. 

to. Scolopendrium. Spots linear, in pairs, feattered. 
Involucrum of two oppofite fuperficial valves, folding over 
each other. 

«11. Diplazium. (Hemionitis ; Smith.) Spots linear, 
fcattered, in pairs, fimple or branched, at each fide ofa 
-vein. Inyolucrum of two valves, originating from the vein, 
feparating outwards. 

12: Lenchitis. Spots crefcent-fhaped, at the finufes of the 
leaf. Involucrum from the inflexed margin of the leaf, fe- 
parating inwards. 

13. Pteris. Spots linear, continued, marginal. Involu- 
erum from the inflexed margin’ of the leaf, uninterrupted, 
deparating inwards. 

14. Vittaria. Spots linear, continued, longitudinal 
along the difk or near the edge of the leaf. Involucrum 
double, uninterrupted ; one feparating outwards, the other 
inwards. 

15. Onoclea. Spots indeterminate, entirely covering the 
backs of fome leaves. Involucrum from the membranous, 
yevolute margin of the leaf, either continued or interrupted, 
feparating inwards. 

16. Blechium.. Spots linear, longitudinal, continued, 
parallel, one on each fide of the rib, Involuctum fuperficial, 
continued, feparating iawards. 

17. Woodwardia. Spots oblong, diftin&, lying near 
the rib. Jnvolucrums fuperficial, vaulted, feparating in- 
wards. 

The term fuperficial involucrum, involucrum fuperficiarium, 
exprefles one that originates from the furface, not from the 
margin nor rib. 

18. Lindfea. Spots linear, continued, near the margin. 
Involucrum {uperficial; continued, feparating outwards. 

19.! Adiantum, Spots roundifh or linear, diftinG, mar- 


ginal, growing upon the inner fide of the membranous in- 
volucrums, which are formed out of the reflexed edge of the 
leaf, and feparate inwards, 

20.  Cheilanthes, Spots roundifh, diftin&, marginal, each 
covered with a diftiné membranous involucrum, formed of 
the reflexed crenate edge of the leaf, and feparating ine 
wards, 

This genus, eftablifhed by Dr. Swartz, and named from 
XsAoc, the brim or margin, and a3So-, a flower, comprehends: 
12 fpecies in his work, fome of which had previoufly been: 
referred to diantum, others to Pteris, and fome even to 
Polypodium ; which diverfity of opinion among authors af= 
fords a ftrong prefumption of their not agreeing well with 
any known genus, and confequently of the neceflity of 
founding a new one to receive them. Accordingly the 
above charaéter fufficiently diftinguifhes them from Adian- 
tum, the only genus with which they could, in the prefent: 
itate of the [cience, be confounded, by the fruGtification. 
being feated on the leaf itfelf, and not on the feales which 
form the involucrum—Polypadium fragrans, Linn. Mant. 
3075 and a diitinG {pecies fo called by Desfontaines, Fl.. 
Aulant. t. 25753 alfo ddiantum capenfe of Thunberg, arey, 
according to Swartz, {pecies of Cheilantbes. 

21. Davallia, Spots roundifa, feparate, near the mar= 
gin. Involucrum fuperficial, {cale-like, diftin@, terminating 
a vein, and feparating outwards. 

22. Dick/onia. Spots roundifh, feparate, marginal. 
Tnvolucrum double; one fuperficial, feparating outwards, 
the other from the inflexed margin of the frond, feparating” 
inwards. : 

23. Cyathea. Spots roundith, {cattered. Receptacle ofthe: 
capfules central, withia a cup-fhaped involucrum, opening- 
at the top. 

The proper chara&ter of this genus confilts in the inyolu- 
crum going under the infertion of the capfules, either im 
the form of a membranous undivided cup, as in C. arborea 3. 
(Polypodium arboreum; Linn.) and feveral others; or of a 
fimilar cup compofed of numerous feales, as in C. harrida ; 
(Polypodium horridum; Linn.). Whether fome European. 
fpecies, as C. fragilis Fl. Brit., whofe involucrum is a mem- 
brane enfolding the capfules while young, properly Lelong 
to the fame, botanifts are not agreed,’nor have fome who: 
have decided on this fubjeét been furnifhed with proper mae 
terials for the purpofe. 

24. Urichomanes. Spots marginal, prominent. Recepta- 
cle of the capfules briftle-thaped, longer than the undivided, 
pitcher-fhaped, direét involucrum. s 

25. Hymenophyllum. Spots marginal, prominent. Re. 
ceptacle of the capfules briftle-fhaped, fhorter than th 
two-valved, dire& involucrum. : 

SeG@ion 2. Capfules of one cell, deftitute of a diftin& 
ring, opening by alongitudinal fiflure on one fide. —Thefe- 
are called by Swartz Filices /purie gyrate, becaufe they- 
havea wrinkled capfule, imitating the ring in the former 
feétion ; or rimate, alluding to the fiffure by which the faid 
capfule difcharges its feeds. . Te 

26. Schizea. Capfules crowded, feffile, on the backs. 
of feveral appendages to the leaf. Inyolucrum from the- 
inflexed margin of each appendage, uninterrupted. ‘ 

27. Lygodizm. Capfules folitary, feflile, within the 


imbricated two-ranked:{eales, of terminal or Iateral fpiked — 


appendages to the leaf. ’ 

. Phename, derived from Avyes a teuig or wand, alludes to 
the flender flexible habit.. This elegant genus, which. 
comprizes the Ophiogloffum Jcaudens and flexugfum of Lin- 


“nus, has been indicated by feveral writers. Willdenow 


— has 


vid & . 


ae unas. 


: FILICES, 


bas named it Hydroglofum; Cavanilles Ugena; and Mirbel 
Ramondia. None can be more diftin&, ~ : 

28, Mohria. -Capfules feparate, feffile, at the edge ot 
the leaf. Inyolucrums from the inflexed crenate margin. 

A genus founded by Swartz in honour of his able cryp- 
togamic friend Mohr, upon the Polypodium caffrorum Linn. 
by fome referred improperly to O/munda. 

‘29. Anemia. _Captules crowded, feffile, naked, on the 
branches of a compound fpike. 

This genus is feparated by Swartz from the following, 
chiefly becaufe its capfules are feffilé ou a branched recep- 
tacle, not ftalked and fituated on the back of a leaf, neither 
are they fo much divided into two valves: The difference 
is rather difficult to define, but may be founded in nature. 
Both genera are quite deftitute of all involucrum. —The 
prefent confifts of 17 fpecies, amongtt which are O/munda 
phyllitidis, hirta, hirfuta, adiantifolia, bipinnata, verticillata 
and fliculifolia of Linnzus, all fine Welt Indian ferns fizured 
in Plumier. 

30. O/munda. Capfules crowded, ftalked, naked, on 
the metamorphofed leaflets. of the frond. 

31. Todea of Willdenow. Capfules nearly feffile, on the 
tranfyerfe, almoft parallel, veins of the leaf, naked.—The 
only {pecies is T. africana. (Acroflichum barbarum Linn.) 

32. Mertenfia of Willdenow. _ Capfules feffile, in round- 
ifh, fuperficial, fcattered, naked f{pots. 

Confifts of feven fpecies, one of which, AZ. furcata, is 
Acroftichum furcatum Lion- figured in Plumier, t.28. This 
genus is {carcely dikinét from the following. 

33- Gleichenta of Smith. Capfules three or four toge- 
ther, feffile in a little hemifpherical depreffion of the leaf. 

It appears from this charaéter that Swartz confiders as 
feparate capfules, what the author took for cells of one 
capfule, and analogy confirms the opinion of the former. 

34. Angiopieris of Hoffman. Capfules feffile, naked, 

faced in a double feries, in little parallel neighbouring 
Froteall together forming a longitudinal line near,the margin. 

The only fpecies is 4. eveda, a molt elegant large fern, 
found in the South fea and Philippine iflands. 

Sedion 3. Captules deftitute of all traces of a ring. 

* Capfules of many cells. 

35- Maraitia of Swartz. Capfules oval, fcattered, at 
firft clofed, then feparating into two parte, and difclofing 
two rows of eells, opening at-the top. 

36. Danea of Smith. Capfules oblong-linear, tranf- 
vere, parallel, immerfed in the frond, with two rows of 


cells, opening at the top. 
*. 


* Capfules of one cell, with two valves. 


* 37. Botrychium of Swartz. Capfules diftin&, feffile, 
crowded into a clufter, burfting tranfverfely. Separated by 
Swartz from O/munda, and containing our 0. /unaria, &c. 

38. Ophioglofium: Capfules united into a two-ranked, 
fomewhat jointed {pike, burfting tranfverfely. 

The Lycopodinee of Dr. Swartz we coniider as no lefs 
genuine filices than the foregoing. ‘They have an herbace- 
ous, or fhrubby, leafy ftem, with axillary fractifications, and 
may be defined as follows. 

_ Sedion 4. Capfules axillary, naked, of one, two, or 
three cells. - ’ 


39: Lycopodium. Caplfules of one cell. 
This is a large and beautiful genus, comprehended 


amongft Moffes by Dillenius and Linnzus, from which its 
fruit totally differs. Nothing is kaown refpecting the flower 
or-impregnation.. 

©: Tmefipteris of Bernhardi. Capfulea of two cells, 
with a tran{verfe ftructure. 


T. tannenfis, a New Holland plant, is the only: known 
{pecies, 

41. Philotum of Swartz. 
three cells. ! ; 

Confiits of Lycopodium nudum of Linn. and one more 
fpecics. | They have leaves, though {mall ones, analogous 
to thofe of Lycopodium, and the capiules are really axillary. 

Cavanilles, in his Leétures on Botany in Spanifh, publithed 
in 2 vols, 8vo. at Madrid in 1802, has adopted the fame 
principlesof arrangement, candidly acknowledging whencehe 
has derived them, and defcribing many new ferns from the 
Eaft and Weit Indies. Swartz refers to this work, which is 
the more neceflary, as their generic names often differ. 

One of the lateft writers on-the fubje& is Profeffor 
Sprengel of Halle, who in his Letters on the Study of 
Cryptogamous Plants, already mextioned, treats-eopioafly 
of ferns, both phyfiologically and fyftematically: The 
author does not feem to be aware of the perfon to whom he 
is obliged for his leading principles and generic charaGters, 
having apparently never {cen the above-mentioned Effay, 
though he properly mentions “the excellent Swartz,’? 
whofe treatife, as it ftands in Schrader, he might very well: 
take to -be original; neither has the tranflator corrected 
this omiffion, which we are well affured is an accidental, not 
defigned, injuttice. 

Sprengel eftablifhes the following genus upon the Euro- 
pean Cyathee. 

Athyrium. Capfules in fmall, feattered, round fpots, on 
the whole lower furface of the frond. Involucrum fixedon 
one, moitly the inner, fide, and commonly cpening towards 
the margin. 

This definition is not fufficient to give a clear idea ef the 
fuppofed genus, which, as far as concerns the {pecies that 
we haye all along referred to Cyathea, ought to be charac- 
terized as having a lacerated involucrum, enfolding the 
mafs of capfules, and inferted beneath them. The reformers 
of Cyathea have not had accefs to the whole feries of f{pecies 
which appedr to us to conne& thefe with the primary ones. 

But however this may be, we are perfuaded feveral of 
Sprengel’s Athyria belong rather to other genera, from 
whence he has removed them. 

We cannottake leave of Profeflor Sprengel’s work, whick 
is full of excellent compiled matter, without guarding our 
readers again{ft a pofition in his 6th letter, p. 73. “ The 
only charaGter,” fays he, ‘¢ that can be derived from the 
fhape of the fruit, in the claffification of ferns, is the pre- 
fence or want of the annulated ring of the feed-veflels. 
Irom this cherefore they may be divided,” (he ought 
rather to have faid they Aave deen divided), into annulate, 
with a ring, and exannulate, without a ring: but this is an 
artificial, not a natural character; for the genus Onoclea, 
whofe feed-veffels are annulated, approaches very near to 
Ofmunda, whofe capfules are without a ring ; and Poly- 
podium is clofely related to Murattia, Pteris to Angiopteris, 
Afpleniumto Danea.”’ This is fo extraordinary an affertion, 
as to fhake our confidence in the author’s judgment and 
obfervation to the- very foundations. No ferns, no plants 
of one natural order, are more diftin, unlike, and effentially 
different from each other than thefe, infomuch that we 
cannot account for, nor trace, the chain of ideas which 
eaufed them even to be compared. We muft repeat that 
nathing is more natural or abfolute thau the diftinGion be- 
tween annulated and exannulated ferns, nor between either 
of thefe, and fuch as have a wrinkled, or f{purioufly 
annulated, -capfule. The writer of the prefent article 
honettly confeifes that the difcovery of the latter tribe at 


firft made him doubt the folidity of the diftinGtion as far as 
2 iz ferns 


Capfules of three lobes and 


FIL : 


ferns “with, fingle capfules' were concerned ; nor had he 
leifure to refume the fubje&, before Dr. Swartz’s publica- 
tion removed every {crtple, and fet the matter at reft. 
About the thecate (Marattia and Danza) there could never 
be any uncertainty. Their fruit is fo unlike the annulated 
ferns, that to term them exannulaia feemed to imply a fort 
of affinity or relemblance, (independent of the ring,) for 
which there was no foundation; another term was there- 
fore contrived, but it has not been adopted. ‘The author 
is the more ready to refign it, as he has ever. found the 
neceflity of keeping a watchful eye upon the invention of 
new terms, in this and other branches of natural hiltory, 
which are often but a-fubflitute fora deficiency of new 
ideas. 

Thus the German writers are pleafed to call, after Hed- 
wig, the feed-veflel /porengium, though pericarpium is of 
precifely the fame meaning, and has long been eftablifhed. 
Profeflor Swartz rightly ufes cap/fule, which ynoreover ex- 
preffes what fort of feed-veffel is intended. Yet the latter 
prefers gyrus, a new botanical word, to annulus, becaufe, it 
feems, annulus is ufed in fungi; as if there could be any 
ambiguity or confufion! Willdenow and Swartz call the 
involucrum indufium, (a cover,) which we think needlefs, be- 
eaufe the part correétly anf{wers to the Linnzan idea, as well 
as to the true meaning of the word involucrum, and has 
long been fo called. Cavanilles names it tegumentum, and Hed- 
wig perifporangium. So the latter calls the ring /ymplokiam, 
and Palifot Beauvois names it ane//us. ‘There is no end 
to fuch futile and reprehenfible changes. Sori of Swartz 
may be advantagcoufly admitted for the {pots of fructi- 
fication, which cannot always be called punda or dots, 
being fometimes linear, and fometimes broad aud unlimited, 
fo that the terms /ince and macule have been reforted to; 
whereas the word /uri, {pots, comprehends every different 
fhape. 

We have in another place, Introduction to Botany, p. 388, 
put in a proteft againft a corruption of the generic nomea- 
elature of ferns, on which fubje&t we fhall here be very 
brief. Several of the new names are compounded of Preris, 
a feen, and fome other word. Now if thefe are allowed to 
remain, fome fuch diftin@ive fyllables might be prefixed to 
the old genus Preris of Linnaxus, to get rid of the latter ; 
elfe a very found Linnzan law is needlefsly infringed, which 
forbids forming new generic names of already eftablifhed 
enes, combined with another word to give them a new 
meaning. All writers, before they publifh, fhould ftudy 
and obferve thefe matters, that fcience may remain uncor- 
rupted aud unob{cured. 

Fu the above general fynopfis of ferns we have faid 
nothing of Pilularia, L/octes, Maifilea, Salvinia, avd Egui- 

fetum, which have generally been confidered as belonging to 
this natural order, but they ought rather to compofe a new 
one, [tis hinted in the Flora Britannica that the two firft 
Right perbaps be removed to’ Jonoecia in the artificial fyf- 
tem, and if the laft fhould remain among the Slices fpicate, 
fee Equisstum, it can only be on artificial principles. 
Marfilea and Salvinia we have never critically examined, 
but they feem near akin to Pilylaria, and are likewife per- 
haps monoecious. 

Of the Books containing figures of ferns, Plumier’s 
fplendid volume of Outlines is the moft valuable. Petiver 
has copied it on a diminifhed fcale. There are many Eaft 
Indian fpecies in Rheede aid Rumphius; fome from all 
quarters in Piukenet. The younger Hedwig, now alas ! 
uv longer furviving his father, has publifhed feveral coloured 
plates of this tribe ; but no plants lefs require this additional 
Alustration, being all fo much alike in colour, Many Eure- 


FLL 


an ferns are delineated in the Flora Danica, and Engliffa 

otany, and a few in Bulliard’s Herbier de la France. 
Lamarck has given feveral of the new genera, with the old 
ones, in his general plates—Ferns are eafily dried and pre- 
ferved in a herbarium, no other plants being fo little attacked 
by infects. 

Propagation and Culture —OFf the propagation of ferns 
by feed we have already fpeken. Shade and moifture are 
requifite for the fuccefs of the experiment ; and the feed- 
lings are of extremely flow growth. Ferns of cold countries 
are in our gardens hardly perennials, generally requiring a 
moilt and fhady fituation, and flowly increafing by root. 
Thofe of hot climates are many of them beautiful trees, 
and when not tao large, well worthy of culture in our floves, 
Phe Dickfonia arborea from Madeira is fo preferved in a 
few curious colleétions, but does not fuceeed very well. Po/y- 
podium aurcum, Davallia canarienfis, nd Weedwardia radi- 
cans, are cafily kept in a green-houfe, and increafe flowly by 
means of their creeping roots. We have feen growing in 
the ftove of _Mr. Evans at Stepney in 1806, the Todea 
africana, Willd. Rare Ferns, t. 3, in full fru@tification. It 
was faid to have been brought from New South Wales, but 
poffibly that might be a miltake, as we have often detefed 
fuch in the reports of thofe who bring plauts from remote 
countries. It is not however impoffible that this fern may 
grow in New Holland as well as Africa, in which cafe it 
will only afford a frefh inftance of the impropriety of names 
of countries for fpecific appellations. §, 

FILICULA, a little fera, was by Tournefort applied ae 
a generic name to fome of the fmaller kinds of ferns, which 
he fepirated from others merely on accountof their fize. They 
belong to various genera, and have no good natural nor ar- 
tificial charafters. 

FILIGRANE, Firuicrer, or Filagree-work, a kind 
of enrichment on gold or filver, wrought delicately, in 
manner of little threads or grains, or both intermixed. 

The word is compounded of fi/ or filum, thread, and 
granum, grain. In Latin itis called filatim elaboratum opus, 
argentum, aurum: but this is to be underitood as alluding ta 
the lateft Latin writers, for //atim occurs only once in 
Lucretius, who applies it only to woollen thread. In this 
kind of work fine gold and filver wire, often curled o¢ 
twifted in a ferpentine form, and fometimes plaited, were 
wrought through each other, and foldered together fo as to 
form feftoons, flowers, and various ornaments; and they were 
alfo fometimes melted together by the blowpipe into little 
balls, by which means the threads became fo entwilted as to 
have a very beautiful and agreeable effe@. It was formerly 
much more employed than at prefent, in the manufacture of 
fmall articles, which ferved more for fhow than for ufe ; 
fuch as vafes, needle-cafes, cafkets to hold jewels, {mall 
boxes, particularly fhrines, decorations for the images of 
faints, and other church furniture. This art, however, is of 
great antiquity ; and feems to have been brought into 
Europe from the Ea. Among church furniture we meet 
with filligree work of the midale ages. The Turks, Ar- 
menians, and Indians make at prefent fome mafter-pieces ef 
this fort, and with tools that are exceedingly coarfe and 
imperfe&t. Articles of this nature, which are very pretty 
and elegant, are manufa€tured inthe Deccan, and alfo in 
China, where the filligree work is moftly wrought of filver; 
but this is much inferior in delicacy of workmanfhip to that 
of the Malays, defcribed by Marfden, in his « Hiftory of 
Sumatra,” p. 140, &c. In this ifland it is univerlally 
ufed and worn; and the gold{miths who are employed: in it 
are fettled every where along the coaft. The igual 
delicacy of the work is the more extraordinary, as the 


tools 


aE UL 


toals employed in it are very rudely and inartificially 
formed by the goldfinith, from any old iron which he can 
pick up. he gold is melted in an earthen sice pot, in a 
crucible of ordinary clay. Ia general they ufe no bellows, 
but blow the fire with their mouths, through a joint of 
bamboo; and when the quantity of metal to be melted is 
confiderable, three or four perfons fit round their furnace, 
which is an old broken iron pot, and blow together. At 
Padang alone, where the manufacture is more extenfive, 
they have adopted the Chinefe bellows. When they have 
drawn the wire to a fufficient finenefs, much in the Euru- 
pean manner, they flatten it, by beating it on their anvil, 
and then give ita twilt, like that in the whale bone handle 
of apunch ladle, by rubbing it on a block of wood witha 
flat flick. After twifting they agein beat it on the anvil; 
and thus form a leaf or element of a flower in their work, 
which is cut off. The end is again folded and cut off, till 
they have got a fufficient number of leaves, which are all 
Jaid-on fingly. Patterns of the flowers or foliage, in which 
there is not much variety, are prepared on paper, of the fize 
of the gold plate on which the filagree isto be laid. They 
then begin to difpofe on the plate the larger compartments 
of the foliage, for which they ufe plain wire of a larger 
fize, and fl them up with the leaves before mentioned. 
To fix their work they ule a glutinous fubftance, made of a 
red berry called Jooa /ago, ground to a pulp, on arough 
ftone. ‘his pulp they place on a young cocoa-nut, about 
the fize of a wall-nut: the top and bottom being cut off. The 
juice of the cocoa-nut ferves probably to keep the pulp 
moult, which would otherwife {peedily dry and become unfit 
for the work. After the leaves have been all placed in order, 
and fluck on, bit by bit, a folder is prepared of gold filings 
and borax, moiftened with water, which they ftrew ovér 
the plate, and then putting it on the fire for a fhort 
time, the whole becomes united. In executing the open 
work the foliage is laid out ona card, or foft kind of wood, 
and {tuck on with the fago berry: and the work, when 
‘finifhed, being ftrewed over with their folder, is put into the 
fire, when the card or foft wood burning away, the gold 
remains connected. If the piece be large, they folder it at 
feveral times. When the filagree is finifhed, they cleanfe it 
by boiling it in water, with common falt and alum, or fome- 
times lime-juice ; and in order to give it a fine purple 
colour, they boil it in water with brimftone. In making 
little balls, with which their works are fometimes ornament- 
ed, they take a piece of charcoal, and having cut it flat and 
fmooth, they make'a {mall hole in it, which they fill with 
‘old duft, and this, melted in the fire, becomes a little ball. 
hey are very inexpert at finifhing and polifhiag the plain 
parts, hinges, fcrews, and the lixe, being in this as much 
excelled by the European artifts, as thefe fall fhort of them 
in the finenefs and minutenefs of the foliage. The price of 
the workmanfhip depends upon the difficulty or uncommon- 
nefs of the pattern. In fome articles of ufual demand, it 
does not exceed one-third of the value of the gold; but in 
matters of “fancy it is generally equal to it. This art is 
now negle&ted and little efteemed in Europe. Augfburg, 
however, a few years ago, had a female artift, Marra 
Euphros. Reinhard, celebrated for works of this kind, who 
died in 1779. In 1765 fhe ornamented with this work 
fome filver bafons, which were fent to Ruffia for the ufe of 
the church, and which gained her great honour. 

The term has been lately applied to ornamental works, 
formed, as fancy dire€ts, of {trips of paper, differently co- 
Joured, rolled into various figures, aad artfully combined. 

FILING, in Mechanics, is the operation of ufing a fle 
in.cutting away and reducing various fubitanees into any re- 


FUL 


qnired form. The file is chiefly eonfined to the working 
of metal, though it is occafionally applied to wood, ivory, 
bone, &c. ‘The art of filing is an effential to every work- 
man in metal, and it requires great praétice and {kill to pers 
form it well: the -principal difficulty confifts in filing a 
truly plane and even furface to any piece of metal. To do 
this, the work muft be held firmly in a vice, fo that the fur- 
face to be filed be truly horizontal ; the workman then files 
it over with a file, adapted in its cut, or fize of its teeth, 
to the magnitude of his work: in doing this, if it is large, 
he takes one end of the file in each hand, holding it firmly, 
as he moves it backwards and forwards, in a horizontal plane, 
taking care not to lean heavier upon one end of the tle 
than the other. The file only cuts in going forwards ; he 
mult therefore prefs harder upom it, that it may take hold 
of the metal: in drawing it back it is unneceffary to lean on 
the file, becaufe it is not then adapted to aé; it is ufual, 
in fling a piece ef flat work, to begin at one fide, and every 
time the file is drawn back, to move it fideways at the fame 
time about the breadth of the file: the next ftroke pro- 
ceeds ftraight forwards, as before, but ina frefh place, un- 
lefs fome fudden eminence is to be reduced; then tayo or 
more ftrokes fhould be made in one place, or the preflure 
on the file increafed till all is brought to a flat or even furface. 
When the whole of the work has been done over in one di- 
rection, it is then filed in the fame manner at right angles 
thereto, and afterwards diagonally, till it is finifhed, try- 
ing it occafionally by a ftraight edged ruler. Some work- 
men, by long praétice and experience, are able to make the 
work flat by filing in one direétion only, and without any 
trial; fo that if two furfaces of metal thus filed are placed 
one upon the other, they will adhere together for an inftant 
if the upper one be fuddenly lifted up. The height of the 
vice, in which the work is held, isa matter of fome impore- 
ance in filing; if the work is large, it fhould be about 
forty inches above the floor on which the workman ftands ; 
for {mall work it may be higher, becaufe the workman does 
not need to bear fo heavily on the work. In filing articles 
which are to be fitted ftogether, the workman makes ufe of 
beviles, guages, rulers, compafles, &c. to mark out aad try 
the work. Round pins, &c. are held in a hand-vice, and 
fupported on a piece of wood while they are filed, and the 
workman turns them round while he files, in order that they 
may be truly round and have no angles. 

The file-makers in Lancahhire, for cutting the teeth of their 
{mall files, fometimes make ufe of a knife, Ag. 5. Plate XIII. 
Mifcellany, which has abevilededge-; the workman ules it in 
the fame manner as the chiffel, except that no hammer is em- 
ployed. The fineft files ufed by watch-makers have fometimes. 
as many as 35Q teeth periach, which are frequently cut by the 
knife; other watch-makers’ files are cut in the manner above 
deferibed, by the chiffel, fg. 6, which is ftruck on the head 
by afmall hammer: ‘The-{mallett chiffels ufed are nota vait 
deal larger than the figure, and the hammer, jig. 7, is the 
full fize, though the handle in reality. is fomewhat longer ; 
fome of very fine watchmakers’ files are not larger than 
needles, and are called needle-tles. 

FILIPENDULA, in Botany, fo called becaufe the 
knobs of the roots are pendulous on threads from the main 
ftock. ‘Tourn, Init. 293. t. 150, See Spiraea. 

FILEPPOPOLI, Puipirropety, or Filtbe, in Geogra- 
phys a town of European Turkey, in Romania, on the 
Maritz, where it becomes navigable; founded by Philip, ta- 
ther of Alexanderthe Great. Inthe year 250 it was taken 
by the Goths, who are reported to have mailacred 100,000 
perfons. in the fack of this eity ; and in 4360 it was taken 
by Amurath I. emperor of the Turks; 90 miles ate. 


FIL 
ef Adrianople, and 124 W.N.W, of Conftantinople. “This 


town is meanly built, without fortifications, or one good 
ftreet. Its fituation is fo low and moift, that the mud is 
fometimes two feet deep, and ftones, like potts, are fet up 
to facilitate the progrefs of foot-paffengers. Neverthelefs 
it is a place of confiderable fize. N, lat. 42°22'. E. long. 
24 Ad: a ach iB 

FILITZ, a town of Germany, in the principality of 
Culmbach; fix miles S. of. Kirch Lamitz. —, 

FILIUS Anrse Parrem, qg. d. the fon before the fa- 
ther; a denomination applied by botanilts and florifts to 
plants whofe flowers come vut before their leaves. Such 
are the feveral {pecies of colchicum, or meadow-faffron, the 
colt’s foot, butterbur, &c. 

FILIX, in Botany., See Firices and Fern. rr 

FILL, 7», in the Sea Language, is to brace the fails in 
fuch a manner, that the wind entering their cavities from 
behind, dilates them, fo as to advance the fhip in her courfe, 
after the fails had been for fome time fhivering or braced 
back. 

FILLEK, in Geography, a town of Hungary, taken by 
the Turks in 1554, bit foon after recovered. Its fortifs- 
cations are deftroyed ; 40 miles S.E. of Cremnitz. i 

FILLER, a term often provincially ufed to fignify the 
horfe which fupports, and is placed between the fhafis of 
carts or other carriages. It is commonly written thiller. 
See THILLER. 

FILLET, in dnatomy.. See FRanuM. 

The word is French, filet, formed of fi, thread. : 

Fite, or Filet, in Architedure, denotes a little fquare 
member or ornament ufed in divers places and on divers oc- 
cafions, but generally as a fort of corona over a greater 
moulding. 

The fillet is the fame with what the French call reglet, 
bande, and bandelette ; the Italians, /i/fa, or liffella. 

Fitret, in Botany. See Turead. 

Finer, Teniola, in Heraldry, a kind of orle or bordure, 
containing only a third or fourth part of the breadth of the 
common borduree See Borpure. , i . 

It is fuppofed to be withdrawn inwards, and is of a dif- 
ferent colour from the field, 1t runs quite round near the 
edge, as a lace over a cloak. 

Fitxisr is alfo ufed for. an ordinary drawn like the bar 
from the finifter point of the chief acrofsthe fhield, in maa- 
nerof afcarf; though it is fumetimes alfo feen in the fitu- 
ation of a bend, fefle, crofs, &c. 

According to Guillim, the fillet isa fourth part of the 
chief, and is placed in the chief point of the efcutcheon. 

Fittet, in Midwifery, a contrivance for the purpofe of 
extracting the child, in difficult births, when the head is 
too large to pals readily through the pelvis. “The invention 
is probably very ancient, as it is mentioned by Avicenna, 
as well known in his time ; that is, towards the end of the 
tenth century. The fimpleft, and probably the firtt con- 
trivance of the kind, was made by cutting, in a {trong flip 
of cloth, a flit, fufficiently large to embrace, and take into 
jt, the head of the child. This was carried up into the va- 
gina, upon the hand of the accoucheur, and pafled over the 
face of the child, and lodged under the chin, or over the 
hind-head, and preffed clole to the nape of the neck; the 
hand was then withdrawn, and the child extracted by pulling 
down the otherend of the cloth. Butas it was. difficult to 
keep the noofe open, fo as to make it embrace the head of 
the child; this defe& was attempted to be remedied, by 
making a fheath, with a flip of {trong cloth, two feet or 
sore in length, through which a thin piece of whalebone 
was pafled. The noofe being carried ever the head, 


FIL 


and fixed under the chin, or clofe to the nape of the 
neck, the whalebone was then withdrawn, and the child 
extracted by pulling down the two ends of the sheath. 
Various other improvements, or alterations, in the form 
of the: fillet, have been devifed, sil with the. view of fa- 
cilitating the paffing of the noofe over the head of the 
child, or of fixing it when peffed, but w th fo little fuccels, 
that it has long been given up as ulcleis, and the forceps, or 
the dever, (fee thofe articles) are invariably ufed in all the 
cafes for which the fillet was formerly recommended. This 
may be a proper place to mention a kind of net invented by 
Peter Amand,: (fee the article Amann, Picrre,) an accou 
cheur of fome credit, who flourifhed the latter end of the 
17th centary, with which he brought away, or pro- 
pofed bringing away, the head of the child, when it hap« 
pened to be left in the womb feparated from the body 
The accident, which is fae from being of frequent occur- 
rence, can f{earcely ever happen but when the brim of thre 
pelvis, in the woman, is too narrow to fuifer the head of the 
child to pafs entire or unmutilated; confequently, too nar- 
row to admit the hand of the accoucheur, encumbered with 
the net, to pafs intothe uterus. The contrivance, therefore, 
funk as foon almoft as it was invented ; and the crotchet, 
which is much more manageable, is conftantly ufed in thefe. 
unpleafant cafes. See the article CroTcuer. . 

Fitver is alfo ufed among Painters, Gilders, &c. fora 
little rale and reglet of leaf-gold, drawn over certain mould- 
ings; or on the edges of frames, pannel &c. efpecially 
when painted white, by way of enrichment. 

Fitvers, in the Adanege, are the loins of a horfe, which 
begin at the place where the hinder-part of the faddle 
re{ts. : 

FILLING up of Cha/is, in Geology. It was a favourite 
opinion of the late ingenious Mr. Whitehurlt, that moft, 
er all of the rocky vallies in Derbythire, were formerly im- 
menfe and almoit fathomlefs chafins, hiati, or gaping fil 
fures, which were fubfequently filled up with the fragments 
or ruins of the adjoining ftrata, to the level of the prefent ” 
rivers or brooks ; the vale of Matlock-Bath he particularly 
deferibes as fuch a Hlled-up chafm, in the fecond plate of 
his “ Enquiry concerning the Rarth ;?? but which-opinion 
the miners of the diftriét fhortly afterwards proved to be 
unfounded, by driving acrofs, in folid and undilturbed ftrata, 
under the bed of the river, fee Philofophical Magazine, 
vol. xxxi, plate 2. : 

The inftances are doubtlefs numerous, of the filling up 
of chafms or fau/ts with alluvial and extraneous matters > 
indeed it isa common occurrence; but it is to be obferved, 
that fuch are in general guite filled up, and not partially, 
fo as to leave a valley between the fides of the fault; for 
faults ave but rarely vilible on the furface of the ground 
(fee that article); and as rarely, or more fo, do they tras 
verfe the bottoms of vallies, with which they feem to have 
little conne€tion, but to have happened prior to the Exca- 
VATION of Prallies ; fee that article. It is the opinion, 
founded on the experience of molt miners, that the ftrata: 
or meafures under vallies are as regular and undifturbed 
as inany other places, and that faults are fcarcely fo much: 
to be apprehended there, as in fome other fituations: if, 
however, a change of the dip takes place, and a real diflo- 
cation of the meafures on. the two fides of a valley, as 
Mr, Whitehurit fuppofes in his,fection acrofs Matlock-Bath 
vale, above referred to, then a fault may confidently be 
looked for in the valley, the fame as would be expeCted in 
any other fituation, where the fame circumftances occur. 

FILLY, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying a mare, ~ 
or young female of the horfe kind of animals. See Horse, 

Fiuuy 


FIL 


Fitzy Foa/, a termimplying a mare or female foal. See 
Foat. 

FILM, a thick fkin or pellicle. ; } 

In plants it is often ufed for that thin woody fkin which 
feparates the feeds in the pods, and keeps them apart. 

Firm, White, on the eye of a horfe, may be removed by 
lifting up the eye-lid, atter the eye has been wafhed with 
wine, and ftroking it gently with the thumb with wheat- 
flour: common falt and falt of lead, beaten fine, and put 
jnto the eye, are propersto confume a film ;, or the horfe’s 
eye may be wafhed with the fpittle in the morning, fafting, 
having firft put a little {alt into your mouth; but there is 
nothing fo effeétual as fal ammoniac, beaten and put into 
the eye, and repeated every day till the film is gone. 

- FILMER, Epwarp, gent. in Biography, in 1629, col- 
. leé&ted, tranflated, and publithed, «« French Court Ayres, with 
“their ditties, Englifhed, of four and five parts, dedicated 
tothe Queen,”’ folio. . Thefe ayres were chiefly compofed 
by Pierre Guedron, with two by Anthoine Boiflet. There 
~.4s yery little mufical merit difcoverable in thefe fongs : which 
_are, however, highly extolled in feveral copies of verfes pre- 
fixed to the book ; and, among the reft, in one by Ben Jon- 
fon, The editor feems to have taken great pains in tranf- 
Jating the words, “* totidem fyllabis,” in order to accommo- 
date them to the original melodies. 

FILOPONSKAJA, in Geography, a town of. Euro- 
pean Turkey, in Dobruzzic Tartary ; 18 miles S.S.E. of 
Ifmail. 

FILOQUIA, Anrinoguta, or Jerovilia, a town of 
European Turkey, in Livadia, on a river which runs into 
the gulf of Arta. It was anciently called Amphilochia, or 
Argos Amphilochium, and, although once a celebrated town, 
it was ruined by the war between the Venetians and Turks ; 
44 miles.N.N.W. of Lepanto. f 

FILTER, or Firtre, in Chemiffry, &c. a piece of 
woollen cloth, linen, paper, or other matter, fome of 
which are in the form of hollow inverted cones, ufed to 
filtrate or ftrain liquors through. The filtre has the fame 
ufe and effe&t with regard to liquids that the fieve or fearce 
has in dry matters. Filtres are of two forts: the firit are 
fimple pieces of paper or cloth, through which the liquid 
is pafled without farter trouble. The fecond are twiited 
up like a {kain or wick, and firft wetted, then fqueezed, and 
one end put in the veflel that contains the liquor to be fil- 
trated: the other end is to-be out, and hang down below 
the furface of the liquor; by means of this the pureft part 
of the liquor diftils drop by drop out of the vefiel, leaving 
the coarler part belind. The filter or philter a&ts as a 
fiphon, 

. Fivrerisalfo an apparatus ufed to feparate water or other 
fluids from any foreign moiiture it may contain ; this is effea- 
ed ‘by caufing the water to percolate through an infinite 
number of apertures, which ave too minute to allow the 
paflage of any fubitances mixed in the water ; by this means, 
the moft foul water, after paffing through fuch a filter be- 
comes perfectly tvanfparent aud {weet, though at the fame 
time itis not deprived of any of its qualities which depend 
upon matter entering into combination with it ; only fuch as 
depend upon mechavical mixture being arrefted in its pro- 
“grefs through the filter. : f 

~The great utility of filters for domeftic ufe mutt be evident, 
as a fluid fit for culinary purpofes caw be obtained from any 
putrid and muddy water ; on this account the conitruétion 
‘of apparatus, which will at the fame time be cheap and effi- 


‘* eacious, isa defirable object ; and a vatt variety have been 


contrived, many poffefling great advantages. 
JPhe-filter ins mo general ufe is a baton formed af fome 


a 


Lo © 


porous kind of ftone, and fupported over any convenient 
veflel to receive,the filtred fluid. The foul water being 
poured into the bafon, infinuates itfelf by flow degrees 
through the minute pores of the-ftone, and is colleGed, 
drop by drop, iato the receptacle placed beneath. This ap- 
paratus aniwers its purpofe perfectly well for a time, but 
has its defe€is.: the conftant accumulation of the impurities 
in the bafon, in time choaks up the pores: of the fone; this 
may be removed by wathing many times, but the more minute 
particles of matter are, by infenfible degrees, carried down 
into the itone, fill up the pores, and at length no water will 
pafs through. A trifling error is alfe committed in the form 
of the veflel, which is in general a hemifphere ; in this figure 
the preflure of the fluid is greateft in the lowett point, and 
gradually diminifhes in every other part, fo that unlefs, the 
preffure is greater in the centre than it ought to be, fearcely 
any water will pafs through the.other parts. A more eligible 
form would be that of a cylinder, formed either of earthen- 
ware or metal, with a circular plate of the filtering ftone ce- 
mented into it at the middle; by this means, the preffure on all 
parts wall be equal, and it would Have another advantage, that 
when the water began to pafs flowly.through the ftone, by in- 
verting the cylinder, the water, would be filtred ina contrary 
direGtion, and act to remove the matter depofited in the pores 


-of the itone by,the preceding procefs. The ftone proper 


for conltguéting filters, is by no means {earce ; in ondon.a 
very porous limeftone containing innumerable fragments of 
broken hells is employed ; it bears itrong refemblance to- 
the rag-ftone found at Barnack near Stamford, Northamp- 
ton; a grit-{tone, procured at Birchover and Stanton Moor 
near Winiter in Derbyshire, is found to be well adapted for. 
filters, which are carried all over the country. The expence 
of ftone filters, and their liability to be choaked up by long 
ufe, have given rife to many others more fimple ; fand finely. 
wathed, pulverifed glafs, pottery or charcoal, are frequent 
ly employed, being placed in a proper fituation for the wa- 
ter to percolate throuzh them. The latter, from its: well. 
known antifeptic quality, is peculiarly adapted to- correct 
putrid water, at the fame time that it feparates its impurities. 
Mr. John Ifaac Hawkins, Titchseld ftreet, has eftablithed 
a manufacture of charcoal /Iters for the fupply of the me- 
tropolis where the water in eeneral requires fuch preparation. 

Figs. 8 and 9, Plate XIII. Mifcellany, veprefent two con- 
ftruGtiions. The latter isona large feale, and conitruGed ina 
cafk A BCD, divided into two compartments byavertical par- 
tition, EF, which does not reach within two inches of the bot- 
tom of the cafk; the {pace 2 B D B C4 is filled with charcoal, 
at firft a fratum of coarfely powdered charcoal four inches 
deep, and this is covered with another ftratum of four inches, 
in pieces about the fize of walnuts ;. in each divifion of the: 
cafk the charcoal is covered with a perforated’ cover, the 
foul water is poured in on the fide, A BEF, and is forced 
by its preflure down one fide, and up»on the other, through 
the charcoal, in which it depofits its extraneous mixtures, 
and riies in the fide, 1 E F, perfedily tranfparent and {weet : 
it is drawn off for ufe by the cock d; at ¢ is a cover to 
prevent the foul water being accidentally thrown in on the 
wrong fide; the cafk:is of wood, and charred withinfide, to. 
{till farther fweeten the water. 

The filter reprefented in fig. 8, is on a fmaller conftrue- 
tion; here A is the veffel for the foul water, furnished with 
a.cock a; delivering the water in the fpout 4, of a fecond 
veflel B, containing the filter; it is filled with charcoal as 
high as the cover ¢, which prevents the {mall charcoal being 
diiturbed by the entrance of the foul water, which, after 
percolating through the filter, efcapes at.the tube d into the 
inferior refervoir, where it is retained until wanted, when it: 

2 li 


FIL 


is drawn off at the cock g. The caf filter is two feet 
eight inches in height, twenty-two inches diameter at the 
bottom, and fixteen inches at top; if conftantly fupplied 
with foul water it will purify one hundred gallons per 
day ; its inventor ftrongly recommends it for the ufe of 
fhips ; the other filter, which is made of earthenware, anda 
much {maller feale, will do a proportionate quantity ; when 
the charcoal becomes foul it may be taken out and replaced, 
at an inconfiderable expence ; fand, pounded glafs or pot- 
tery, and other fubftances, have at times been recommended. 
Profeflor Parrot conftru€ted a filter with fand ; its form is 
an inverted fiphon, the curve of which is filled with fand 
wafhed exceedingly clean, a conftant {tream of the foul 
water enters at one fide of the fiphon, and pafling down 
through the fand in one leg, rifes through the other, 
efcaping on a level rather lower than it entered. Great {trefs 
is laid by the inventor upon the filtration by afcent, as well 
as defcent, as he fuppofes the more weighty particles will 
fubfide; though from their exceedingly {mall fize, they 
might efcape through the interltices of the fand. It will be 
ealily feen that the fhip filter by Hawkins is the fame in ef- 
fect, though ona better conftruétion. 

Mr. James Peacock took out a patent in 1791 for 
filtration by afcent through any of the above-mentioned 
fubftances; but he does not defcribe any thing material 
which we have not mentioned above. . 

The filter delineated in fig. 10. isa contrivance of Mr. 
Collier, and defcribed in the Philofophical Magazine ; 
A BC is an ordinary cafk divided into three parts by 
three horizontal partitions ; the upper divifion AB aé is 
to contain the refervoir of foul water; the partition ad is 
‘perforated, and allows the water to pafs flowly down into 
the middle divifion filled with broken crockery ware, pre- 
fenting innumerable furfaces upon which the water depofits 
any matters which will fubfide ; the caf is perforated all 
yound to admit air at ad; the water then pafles into the in- 
ferier compartment which contains the filters ; thefe are 
three cylinders, one of which is feen at D ; they ave formed 
of argil and filex baked together in a potter’s kiln. The 
water percolates through this fubftance, and is received into 
a veflel E communicating with the filters, formed of metal, 
and furnifhed with a cock at eto draw off the fair water; F 
is a metal tube placed upon the top of the refervoir E, with 
which it communicates, and in which the water rifes as it 
accumulates in the refervoir ; a cock at f will draw off the 
foul water, and the tube F, being full, or nearly, of the filtered 
water, the preflure will be reverfed, and the impurities 
lodged in the pores of the cylinders removed by the con- 
trary action. 

To the inhabitants of a large city the filtration of the 
water they make ufe of is a matter of confiderable im- 
portance, but the praétice is at prefent confined to appa- 
ratus on a {mall {eale for the ufe of one family only; filters 
ona large feale might be fimply conftructed, and the ex- 
pence of land for their formation would be amply repaid by 
the improvement of the water. The conftruction of the 
fhip filter feems beft adapted for this purpofe, a large tank 
lined with brick-work, and divided into twe by a wall which 
mutt have every other brick of the lower courfe omitted, fo 
as to leave apertures at the bettom of the wall; this tank 
being filled two feet deep with pulverized charcoal would 
form an excellent filter, and feveral of thefe being arranged 
round the fteam engine for pumping the water would alter- 
nately {upply it. The expence of charcoal might be ob- 
viated by ufing the refufe or charm as it is termed, or faw- 
duit might be charred in an iron retort at a fmall charge. 
See Firtearion. 


FIL 


‘Tirtea, or Philter, is alfo a charm, fuppofed to have. 
a virtue of infpiring love. 

The word is derived from Qi%por, which fignifies the 
fame thing, of @irew, amo, I love. 

Tbe Greeks, when their love was without fuccefs, had 
feveral arts to procure the affections of their beloved. The 
Theffalian women were famous for their {kil in this, as well 
as other magical practices. Tlie means whereby it was ef. 
fected were of divers forts; it was fometimes done by po- 
tions, called $.2%,2, which are frequently mentioned in aue 
thors of both languages. Juvenal {peaks thus: 


“‘ Hic magicus affert cantus, hic Theffala vendit 
Philtra, quibus valeant mentem vexare mariti.” 


Their operations are violent and dangerous, and commanly 
deprived fuch as drank them of their reafon. Plutarch and 
Cornelius Nepos report, that Lucullus, the Roman general, 
firit loft his reafon, afterwards his life by one of them. 
Lucretius, the poet, ended his hfe by the fame way; and 
Caius Caligula, as Suetonius reports, was driven into a fit 
of madnefs by a filtre given him by his wife Cafonia, which 
flory is mentioned by the fame poet. Ovid likewife affures 
us, that this was the ufual cffect of fuch potions. 

The ingredients they were made of were of divers forts, 
feveral of which, applied by themfelves, were thought 
effeGtual. 

FILTJA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the 
province of Sudermania; 10 miles S.W. of Stockholm. 

FILTRATION, the att of pafliog any liquor through 
a filtre, called alfo cglature, percolasion, and tranféolation.- 
See Fiutre. 

The end of filtration is of two kinds; the one to free 
fluids from any folid bodies of a feculent nature with which 
they are mixed; and the other to feparate any precipitated 
powder or other folid body from fuperfluous fluid ; and the 
means muft be varied accordingly. Such liquors as are in- 
corporated with particles that adhere to them are rendered 
capable of filtration by coagulating and collecting the hete- 
rogeneous parts. This is effeéted either by boiling or by 
mixing whites-of eggs and boiling them with the turbid li- 
quors. See CLARIFICATION. 

The moit commodious way of filtrating is by whited- 
brown paper, or paper without fize, faftened over the mouth 
or aperture of a funnel; the fmallnefs of the pores of this 
paper admits only the finer parts through, and keeps the 
re{t behind. There are alfo filtrations through fand, pulve- 
rized glafs, &c. Spirits of vitriol, falt, and nitre, are filtrated 
through a quantity of beaten glafs in the bottom of a 
funnel. 

Filtration is alfo performed by a woollen or linen bag, 
called Hippocrates’s fleeve: the choice of thefe muit be 
direéted by the liquor to be filtered. 

Dr. Papin contrived a method by which filtrations 
through cap-paper might be made fuddenly, and with 
great quantities of liquor, by the help of the air-pump. 
Forthis purpofe he made ufe of the following contrivance : 
AA (Plate X1IL. Mifcellany, fig. 11.) is a glafs receiver ; 
B Ba cover fitted to it; CC C is a pipe forming the com- 
munication between the receiver A A and the air-pump ; 
DD a hallow veffel full of little holes; EE E a pipe that 
makes the communication between the veflel D D aud the 
receiver A A ; F TF’ a veffel to contain the liquor te be fil- 
trated, and GG the plate of the pump. When this in- 
ftrument is ufed, the fhallow veflel D D ought to be tied 
about firft with linen cloth, and then with cap-paper, fo 
that no liquor may get inte the holes of the faid yeffel but 
through the cap-paper, and linen cloth ; this mui be wholly 

s placed 


s 


FIL 
3 


‘placed within the liquor to be filtrated : let the air be ex- 
trated by means of the air-pump out of the vefiel A A. 
Then the liquor in the veffel F F muft be drawn through the 
cap-paper, and the linen cloth into the veflel DD, and 
from thence through the pipe E. E E into the veilel AA; 
and this operation muft be quick, on account of the great 

-preflure of the atmofphere that drives the liquor ; belides, 
the fedimeat of the liquor fubfiding at the bottom of the 
veifel F F will not be fo apt to flop the pores of the cap- 
paper as in ordinary filtrations. Birch’s Hifl. of the Royal 
Society, vol. iv. p. 366, &c. 

Filtering ftenes.and fiitering bafens, either natural or 
artificial; for the purpofe of purifying water,, are not 
sunfrequently ufed ia this and in other countries. Rocky 
mountains, beds of fand, gravel, &c. are natural filtres. 
The compofition for making filtering bafons, in order to 
purify water, confifts of equal parts of tobacco-pipe clay, 
and coarfe fea, river, drift, or’ pit-fand. ‘he bafons are 
‘formed and turned on a potter’s wheel ; and they fhould be 
‘about 2 of aniach thick. When the veflels are of the ufual 
degree of drynefs, the whole outfide and infide furface mult 
be fhaved or turned off on a potter’s wheel; and, when 

“perfectly dry, thefe bafons are burnt or baked in a potter’s 
‘Kiln after the ufual manner. Many patents have been 
‘obtaiued by different perfons for filtering machines of their 
‘own invention. See Fitter. 

The fecretion of the divers juices in the body from the 
‘mafs of blood feems to be little elfe but filtration. Pit- 
“cairn, and other late’ authors, hold that the diverfity of 
‘filtration does not depend on the different configurations of 
‘pores, but on their different fizes or diameters. 

Springs alfo feem to be raifed from the ocean by the fame 
‘principle of filtration. , 

_ Firrrarion, in Pharmacy, is chiefly conceraed in tinc- 
tures; as when fome portion is drawn from the ingre- 
‘dients or fulpended in the tin@ture which is not neceflary 
‘to it, but dilturhs and renders the reft unpleafant both to 
“the palate and fight. Befides this, there is a filtration 
which has much tortured the philofophy of fome ages to 
“account for; this isthat performed by the afcent of the finer 

“parts of a liquor up a cord or {kaia of cotton, or fuch like 
“matter, which is contrived to drop over another vetlel and 
eave the groffer behind. - 

After the fame manner it is, without doubt, that the hu- 
‘midity of the earth is drawn up into the fubitance of the 
‘roots of vegetables, which we know confifts of long and 
very minute fibres, fo difpofed as to form a great number 
‘of ‘tubular interilices; thefe a€&t in the nature of this 
fort of filtre, and attra& the juices and moifture appointed 
-for the nutriment and increafe of the plant. 

‘Some fay, that the caufe of this afcent is becaufe the li- 
quor fwells thofe parts of the filter that touch it, by enter- 
‘ing into the pores of the threads which compofe it, whereby 
‘they rife up, touch, and wet thofe next above them; and 
-thefe again the next threads; and fo on to the brim of 
‘the veflel, when the liquor runs over, and defcends in the 
“other part of the filter which hangs down by its own natural 
“gravity. 

* But this account is liable to many objeGtions, efpecially 
as liquors rife after the like manner in glafs tubes much 

“above the furface of the liquor they are immerfed in, where 
“the glafs cannot be imagined thus to {well. 

' Others account for it, by ate every filter as com- 

a of a great number of lors, {mall, folid bodies, which 

ie ‘very clofe together; fo that the air getting in between 

‘them lofes much of its preffure, and cannot’ gravitate fo 

*dtrongly as it doth on the fluid without them; the.coufe- 

‘Vou. XIV. 


FIL 


querice is; that the parts of the water between the threads 
of the filter muft be prefled upwards, and afcend till 
they come forhigh, as, by their weight, to counterbalance 
the general preflure on the other parts of the furface of the 
water. L 

Laftly, the retainers to fir Ifaac Newton’s philofophy 
deduce the phenomenon from the principle of attraction, 
According to them, the caufe of this filtration is, doubt- 
lefs, the tame with that whereby flaids afcend up heaps 
"of afhes, fand, &c. the fame with that whereby water is 
railed in form of vapour, the fap rifes in vegetables, and 
the blood . cirenlates through the capillary arteries, and 
the extremely minute glandular ftrainers. See Ascent of 


fuids. 


FILTRUM, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a ftone 
much ia ufe in the eaftern parts of the world, and fometimes 
with us for the filtrating of water intended for drinking, 
The Japanefe are extremely fond of this ftone, and im- 
pute their uninterrupted health, and particularly their 
being always free from the ftone and gravel, to their 
drinking the water thus cleared of <ll its heterogenzous 
and miichievous particles. The people of this, and many 
other places thereabouts, have a dettled opinion, that 
moit difeafes arife from impurities of water, and are well 
affured, that thefe impurities are all lodged in the ftone-filtre, 
and lett behind by the water in its paflage. 

‘The manner of ufing the ftone is this; they form a fort 
of mortars with very thick bottoms out of the largelt 
pieces of it, and the water is poured into thefe, and the 
fone being of a very lax and fpungy texture, it foon 
makes its way through, and is received into a veffel 
placed underneath for that purpofe. It being-found, 
therefore, an eafy thing for us to have our water filtered 
in the fame manner that the Japanefs have, it remains 
to try whether it will have all thofe falutary efleG@s which 
the people of that part of the world give it; and this 
feems not to be imagined from reafon and analogy. We 
very well know that water is frequently impregnated 
with faline particles, and that it alfo frequently diffolves 
by this means earthy and other matters which it other- 
wife could not do. But we alfo know, that falts diffolved 
in water are not to be feparated by filtration; and it is 
equally certain, that earthy, fparry, or other matter, that 
is fufpended in water when clear, will in like manner pafs 
through the filter with it. 

Upon the whole, we are happy enough to have no occa-: 
fion for filtering ftones, fince our {prings and rivers afford 
us water already pure enough to our hands; and in places 
where this is not the cafe, it is always poflible to fave rain- 
water, which will keep a long time with proper manage- 
ment, and is much purer than all the art in the world can 
make fuch as has once been foul. Valentini Mufeum 
Mufzorum, lib. i. cap. 22. 

The only inftance in which a filtering-ftone can be of real 
ufe, is, when there is no water to be had but that of fome 
muddy river; in this cafe, the mud being a foreign body 
not diffolved in, but only floating among the water, it will 
be left behind in its paffing the clofe ftru€ture in the filtre ; 
but this is always to be as well obtained by letting it ftand 
a while to fubfide.- Ephem. Germ. Cent. iii. p. 76: 

Filtres, however, have been found ufeful to thofe whe 
live near the metropolis, and who are f{upplied with water 
from the Thames, the New River, and the ponds. from 
Hampftead ; and many filtering machines ‘have been con- 
trived for this purpofe. See Firrse and Firtration. 

TILTZ, Anton. in Biography, a performer on the 
violoncello in the Ele&tor Palatine’s -band at Mauheim, ia 

3 K : 1763, 


FIM 


1763, and an elegant eompofer, His pleafing productions 
for various inflruments were foon npticed and admired ;. but 
alas! death ftopped his careersitt the prime of life, before 
his genius and talents were well developed. In 1768 the 
mufical world was robbed of this young artift, ot. whom, 
from the {pecimens he had already given of his abilities, the 
higheft expectations were formed. In Paris and Amiter- 
dam the following compofitions appeared before his deceate, 
fix fymphonies, fix violin trios for the harpfichord, violin, 
and bafe. hele were printed from the Paris copy, by 
Bremner, as were molt of his fymphonies. Nothing. was 
ever fo elegant, and at the fame time {fo eafy, as his harp- 
fichord trios. He left behind him in MS. various concertos 
for the violoncello, the German flute, the hautbois, and the 
clarinet, which were fold tingly in MS. at the mufic shops 
in Leipfic and Hambro’, all much admired when executed 
by great performers. Belides thefe, fome MS. duets and 
folos for the violoncello were long purchafed and performed 
with great applaufe. 

FILUM Agua, the thread or middle of the ftream 
where a river parts two lordfhips. ‘ Et habebunt iftas 
buttas, ufque ad filum aque predic. File du mer, the 
high tide of the fea”? Rot. Parl. 11 Hen. [V. 

FILURINA, in Geography, a town of European 
Turkey, in Macedonia; 28 miles N. of Edefla. 

FIMARELLA, 2a river of Naples, which runs inta the 
gulf of Tarento. N. lat. 39° 36’. E. long. 17° 12’. 

FIMBLE Hemp, in Rural Economy, aterm fometimes 
applied to early ripe hemp, or female hemp. See FEmMBLE 
Hemp. 

FIMBRIA, in Anatomy, the fringed border of the open- 
ing, by which the Fallopian tube communicates with the 
abdominal cavity. This part is named the fimbriated ex- 
tremity of the tube. (See Generation.) There isalfoa 
part in the brain called corpus fimbriatum. See Brain. 

Fimesria, in Surgery, was a term anciently employed 
to fignity the outer tape, or fillet, which was put on to 
fecure the reft of fome bandage, or apparatus. 

FIMBRIATED, a term in Heraldry, signifying that 
an ordinary is edged round with another of a different co- 
lour. 

Thus, he beareth, or, a crofs-pattee gules fimbriated 
fable. 

FIMBRISTYLIS, in Botuny, trom fimbria, a fringe, 
and /iy/us, the ftyle of the flower. Wahl. Enum. v.°2.285. 
Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Cala- 
maria, Linn. Cypercidea, Jul. 

Gen. Ch. Ca/. a fingle fcale to each flower, concave, 
keeled, gradually deciduous, making part of a {pike im- 
bricated every way. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments ufually 
three, rarely only one or two; anthers linear. Pi/?.. Ger- 
men very fmall, fuperior ; ftyle with a half-globular bulb 
at the bafe, which falls off along with it; comprefled and 
gradually dilated upward, fringed or ciliated at each edge 5 
ftigmas two, capillary, {preading, downy. Peric. none. 
Seed one, lenticular, convex at each fide, pointed at the 
bafe, without any furrounding briftles. Receptacle gra- 
dually elongated and becoming naked from the bafe up- 
ward, very clofely pitted, the pits or cells having each a 
membranous border. 

Eff. Ch. Glumes chaffy, imbrieated every way. Corolla 
none. Style cloven, bulbous at the bottom, compreffed, 
fringed at each edge. Seed folitary, without any briftles 
at irs bafe. 

This genus is feparated from Scirpus by Vahl, in con- 
fideration of the great extent of the latter, which has long 


FIM 


rendeved fome fuch divifion defirable. 
as follows. 

Stems feveral, ereét, without joints, leafy in the lower 
part. Leaves channelled, rough-edged upwards. Involu- 
cram like the leaves. Rays of the umbel bearing each one 
fpike, and having a central feffile {pike at their bafe ; fome- 
times each ray bears two fpikes, one of which is feffile, the 
other tlalked ; all the {pikes are gradually elongated as the 
feeds ripen. Keel of the feales green. 

The author juft named ftill feems to confider this as an 
artificial genus, which may perhaps be tenable as a fection 
only of Scirpus. Yet he afferts it to be as diftin& from the 
latter as Pelargonium and Erodium ave from Geranium ; 
three genera as diftin&t, if we be not greatly miftaken, as 
any that agree in natural order throughout the whole vege- 
table kingdom. See Exonium. 

Vahl has 24 fpecies of Fimbrifylis. Among them are, 

F. miliaceum. Spikes globofe. Inyolucrums of about 
two leaves, fhorter than the twice-compound umbels. 
Stem leafy at the bale’? (Scirpus miliaceus ; Linn. Sp. 
Pl. 75. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1. 305. Rottb. Gram. 57. 0. 77. 
t. 5. f. 2. Burm. Ind. 22. t. 9. f. 2.)—Native of the Eaft 
Tudies. Perennial. Stems a foot high. Leaves flaccid, 
{mooth. Umlels more compound than the above account 
of the habit of the genus implies. Spikes {eareely bigger 
than multard-feed, rufty-brown. 

F. dichotomum. ‘ Spikes ovate-oblong. Involucrum 
of about three leaves, longer than the repeatedly compound 
umbel.”” (Scirpus dicl.otomus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 74. Willd. 
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 303. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. £. t. 52. Rottb. 
Gram. 57. t. 13. f. 1.) —Native of the Eaft Indies and fouth 
of Europe, in moift fandy ground. oof annual, fibrous. 

erbage glaucous-green. Stems from fix to twelve inches 
high. Spikes more ovate and acute, as wellas larger, than 
in the former. Stamens from one to three. Rottboll de- 
{cribes the ftyle as rough, but does not reprefent it fo, 
neither is that charaGter, which makes the plant a Limbrij- 
tylis, exhibited by Mr. Bauer in the Vara Greca. 

F. ferrugineum. ‘ Spikes ovate-oblong. Scales fome- 
what downy or hoary in the middle. Involucrum of about 
two leaves, as long as the fimple umbel.’? (Scirpus ferru- 
gineus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 74. Gramen cyperoides majus, 
{picis ex oblongo rotundis compactis ferrugineis ; Sloane 
Jam. v. 1. 118. t. 77. f£. 2.)—Native of falt marfhes in 


He defines its habit 


Jamaica. Stems a foot and half high, glaucous, ribbed, 
comprefled. Umbel fimple or compound, of from three to 
fix rays. Spikes half an inch long, brown and hoary.— 


Vahl is much confufed in his quotation of Sloane, as in 
many other fimilar cafes, his book being carelefsly executed 
in that re{pect. In this inftance he errs by copying Lin- 
nzus without turning to the book quoted. 

F. /padiceum. ‘ Spikes oblong, cylindrical, acute. 
Involucrum rigid, of two leaves, as long as the doubly 
compound umbel.” (Scirpus fpadiceus ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 74. 
Gramen cyperoides majus aquaticum, paniculis plurimis 
junceis {partis, {picis ex oblongo rotundis {padiceis ; Sloane 
Jam. 118. t. 76. f. 2.)—Native of watery places in the 
Welt Indies. Stems two or three feet high, rigid and rufhy. 
Spikes numerous, acute, an inch long, dark fhining brown. 

F. argenteum. ‘ Spikes cylindrical, obtufe, feffile, 
cluftered, in round heads.”?—(Scirpus argenteus ; Rottb. 
Gram. 51. t. 17. £.6. Mulen-pullu ; Rheede H. Mal. v. 12. 
Tol. t. §4.)—Native of moiit places in the Eaft Indies. 
Root apparently annual. Stems numerous, from three to fix 
inches high, glaucous as well as the leaves. Spikes of a 
filvery grey, numerous, in denfe heads. Wahl thinks 

Scirpus 


FIN 


Scirput menander of Rottboll, 50. t. 14. £ 3, is not different 
from this, 

We believe this genus will receive augmentation from 
feveral fpecies hitherto confidered as Scirpi, but not yet 
deferibed. As far as we have obferved, the progreflively 
denudated rachis of the {pikes, from the deciduous glumes, 
is very characteriflic of a Fimbriffylis. 

FIN, in Geography, a {mall river of the county of Mo- 
naghan, Ireland, which rifes in the weft of the county, and 
runs into Lough Erne. 

Fin, Pinna, in Natural Hi/fory, the name ef that part 
of a fith which diftinguifhes it from other aquatic creatures, 
no animal but a fifh having fins and wanting legs. 

The fin is properly a part ftanding out or hanging from 
the body of the fifh, and confifting of a membrane fup- 
pee by feveral rays or oblong bones, which are in fome 

ard and firm, and in others cartilaginous. 

This definition of a fin properly excludes all thofe other 
parts of a fifh which may be prominent from the body, and 
may be of a membranaceous itructure, and even bear the 
appearancé¢ of a fin, though they have none of the rays or 
little bony fubftances within them, and therefore cannot 
ferve the creature in the office of tins in fwimming ; for the 
cartilages or hones which fupport the membranes of the fins 
are what give them their due and neceflary ftrength and 
firmnefs to bear agaiuft the water for the motion of the 
body of the fifh; thofe other membranaceous appendages 
to the bodies of fifhes cannot do this; for wanting the 
fupport of thefe rays, the fimple and foft membrane has no 
mote power of moving the water than the water has of 
moving it. Hence appears the ufe of the bones or rays 
fupporting the fins, and the truth of the definition, that 
nothing is properly a fin which wants them. 

The fins, by their differences, make very obvious diftinc- 
tions among the feveral f{pecies of fifh ; and thefe differences 
are in regard to number, fituation, figure, and propor- 
tion, 

The number of the fins, including the tail, is very dif- 
ferent in different fifh. 1. In fome there is only one fin to 
the whole fifh: this is the cafe in the ophidium lumbrici- 
forme, and inthe murena, 2. The fins are twoin number 
in others, as in the petromyze, and the hke. 3. There 
are many which have three fins, as the conger, the eel, the 
common ophidium, the Greenland whale, the fea-cow, aud 
the like. 4. Many have four fins; of the number of which 
are the dolphin, the phoccena, and the fecond kind of the 
acus Ariltotelis. 5. Several have five fins, as the ammo- 
“dytes or fand-cel, the fword-tifh, the lupus marinus, the 
mola or fun-fifh, and many others. 6. ‘The lump fifh gives 
us an inftance of fix fins; for the feeming firlt fin on the 
back of that fifh is not a real fin, but only a cutaneous 
prominence. 7. Many tifh have feven fins, as the gudgeon, 
the pleuroneétes, the cyprinus, the clupea, the coregones, 
the ofmeri, the falmons, the cobites, the efoces, the cernua 
fluviatilis, the gaiteroftei, the {pari, the labri, the filurus, 
the mugil alatus, the remora, the caprifeus, the hipptrus, 
the pompilus, and the accipenfer. 8. Many fifh alfo have 
eight tins each ; of this number are fome of the pearches, 
the clarea, the cottus, the mugil, the labrax, the fudis, 
the mulli, the ling, the trachurus, the {cyzne, the trachi- 
nus, the uranofcope, and that little ith called the anguella 
by the Venetians. 9. ‘The fcorpena of Rondeletius gives 
us an inftance of the tins being nine in number ; and finally, 
the febmbri and thynni give us inftances of eleven fins in the 
fame fith. 

The differences in fituation are lefs numerous than thefe 

vas to number, bat they are not lefs obvious and effential. 


FIN 

t. They are generally placed both on the back and belly, 
as we fee in moft of the fpecies of fifhes. 2. They are 
fometimes placed only on the back ; this is the cafe in the 
petromyze, the acus lumbriciformis, and fome others. 
3. Some have them, on the contrary, only on the beily ; 
of this kind are the Greenland whale, the fea-cow, and the 
like: and to this it is to be added, that the back and belly 
fins differ greatly in the feveral tifh, in their being placed 
more or lefs backward or forward. 

The differences of fhape or figure in the fins of fifhes are 
alfo very obvious. 1. They are in fome nearly triangular, 
as in the cyprini and falmons, &c. 2. Some few fifh have 
them round. And, 3. Some have them of an oblong fquare 
or parallelogram [quare. 

Finally, the difference in proportion is not to be omitted, 
for they are in fome much fhorter and fmaller than the body, 
as is the cafe in the generality of fifh ; but in others they 
are of an equal length with the body. Of this kind are the 
pectoral fins in fome of the legyrz, and the ventral fins in 
the mugil alatus of Rondeletius and other authors. Artedi, 
Ichthyol. p.4. See Anatomy of Fisues. 

Fin, Fr. Fine, Ital. Finis, Latin, the end of a work, 
or, in Mufic, of acompolition. 

Fins of Fi/b, in Natural Hiftcry, is the name by which 
fome foffil relics have been denominated, owing to their re- 
femblance to that member of the finny tribe, m the prefent 
race: Mr. W. Martin recommendsthe claffing of all thefe 
detached parts of reliquia under temporary {pecies; there 
to remain, until the whole, ora fufficient number of tke 
parts of the fame animal, fhalle found united, to determine 
its place among the permanent {pecies. 

Fin, in Rural Economy, is a term frequently ufed to fig- 
nify a fharp cutting plate of iron, fixed upon the coulter or 
fock of a plough, in order to render its operation or work 
more complete. It is moitly had recourfe to in coarfe, tough, 
peaty forts of land. 

Fix, a common name frequently applied to the trouble- 
fome weed termed re/?-harroc. 

Vina, the balena phyfalus of Linneus. 
LU Ss 

Fins, Whale, ave commonly taken for that part of the 
whale which the populace call cAale-bone ; but whence the 
miftake fhould anife is not eafy to determine. 

Thefe whale-fins, as fome have erroneoufly called them, 
are the moft valuable part of the animal. See /V/ale Fisu- 
Exy, and WHALE-éone. : 

FINAL, that which terminates or comes laft in any thing, 
as a final judgment, final fentence, &c. 

Tinat Cau/fe, is the end for which the thing is done. 
The final caufe is the firft thing in the intention of a p 
who does a thing; and the lait, in the execution. See 
Cause. 

Finat Decree. See Decree. 

Finar Judgment. See JupGMENT. : 

Finay eifers are thofe which clofe words. 

The Hebrews have five final letters, which, when at the 
end of aword, have a different figure from what they hare 
at the beginning or in the middle thereof. Thefe are the 
ba Fe = PO caph, mem, nun, pe, t/ade, which every 
where but at the end of words, are wrote 5, *, 3, SO» 


nn ee 


See Puysa- 


- 

< FINALE, in G: ography, a town of Italy, in the depar 
ment of the Panaro, on an ifland in the river Pauaro ; 
miles N.N.E. of Modena. 

Finace, a fmall marquifate, furrounded by the Ligu- 
rian republic, agreeable, fertile, and populous ; which, alter 
having frequently changed its poffeilors, at length became 

3 K2 fubjee 


FIN 


fubjeGt to the Ligurian republic. Its capital is a fea-port 
town of the fame name, having a good harbour on the coatt 
of the Mediterranean ; 31 miles S.W. of Genoa. N. lat. 
442 10, BE. long. 8° 24". 

Finaxe, Ital. in JZufic, the laft chorns, or movement 
at' the end of an a& of an opera; and in fymphonies, concertos, 
quartettos, or fonatas, the laft movement ts called the fzale. 
The finales of the Italian comic operas are the moft inge- 
nious, varied, pleafing, and mafterly compoftions which dra- 
matic mufic can boaft; particularly thofe of Piccini, Paefiello, 
Cimarofa, and Mozart. Such a varicty of meafure, fuch 
fire, grace, paflion and pailhios, by turns, that the hearer, at 
the end, is unable to fay what movement or paflage he likes 
belt. They are extremely difficult to perform, yet the Ita- 
liana, by dint of ftudy and rehearfal, are no more embar- 
raffed than if, inftead of finging, they were only talking 
and fquabbling the whole time. 

FINALIS Pavsa,in old mufic, two Latin words. 
Corona. 

FINANCES, in'Political Economy, denote the revenues 
of the king and ftate; much the fame with the fifens of the 
Romans. The word is derived from the German, fizaniz, 
feraping, ufury ; though Du-Cange chcofes rather to de- 
duce it from the barbarous Latin, fnancia, preflatio pecu- 
niaria. 

Phe French havea peculiar kind of figures or numeral 
Characters, which they call chiffre de finance. See Cua- 
RACTER. 

Finances, Britifb. See Funp and REVENUE. 

FINBO, in Geography, a mountain of the Lower Enga- 
dine; 8 miles N. of ‘l'rafp. 

FINBY, a town of Sweden, on an ifland in the go- 
vernment of Abo ; 28 miles S.S.E. of Abo. N. lat. 60° 
ql, Me. long.)23° 

FINCASTLE, a poft-town of America, in Virginia, 
and capital of Botetourt county, fituated on the E. fide of 
Catabaw creek, afmall ftream which falls into James river, 
onthe W. fide ef the North mountain. It has about 56 
houfes, a court-houfe and gaol, and contains 426 free inha- 
bitants, and 276 blacks. It lies on the pott road from Rich- 
mond to Kentucky ; 36 miles E. of Lexington. 

FINCH, atownbhip in the county of Stormont, in Up- 
per Canada, W. of Ofnabruck. 

Fincnx, in Ornithology. See Frinciyva. 

Finca-backed, ftreaked on the back with white. 
moitly ufed in refpect to cattle. 

FINCHED, in Rural Economy, a term which is often 
ufed to fignify cattle flreaked on the back or other parts 
with white {ots or {tripes. 

FINCK, Herman, publifhed at Wittemberg, in 1556, 
« Practica Mufica,” in Latin, with exainples of various 
charaéters, proportions, and canons, with opinions of the 
ecclefiaitical modes or tones, anda more pleafing and arti- 
ficial method of finging. his may have been a ufeful 
tra& when publifhed, but it is dry, and little is to be learnt 
init now, of material ufe. 

FINDER, in Optics, a fhort telefcope, generally affixed 
to the tube of a large one, for the purpole of expeditiouf- 
ly finding out any object. This finder does not magnify the 
object more than four, fix, or eight times; but it has a 
large field of view, fo that a great part of the heavens may 
be feen through it at once. In the infide of its tube, and 
exactly at the focus of the eye-glafs, there are two flender 
wires, which crofs each other in the axis of the telefcope. 
The finder is adjufted by means of {crews upon the tube of 
the large telefcope, in fuch a manner, that, when an objeét, 
feen through the finder, appears to be near the croffing of 


See 


43". 


It is 


FIN 

the above-mentioned wires, it is at the fame time vifible 
through the large telefeope ; hence, when the obferver 
wifhes to view a {mall diftant objet, asa ftar, a planet, &c. 
he moves the inftrument to one fide or the other, until, by 
looking through the finder, he brings the object nearly to 
coincide with the croffing of the wires. And when that 
takes place, he immediately looks through the large tele- 
{cope. 

Finpers, in our Old Statutes, are {uppofed to be the fame 
with thofe we now call fearchers, who are employed for the 
difcovery of goods imported or exported without payin 
cuftom. Stat. 18 Edw. III. 14 Ric. II. 17 Ric. If. 
&c. 

Finver, among Sport/men. See Water-Doc. ’ 

FINDHORN, in Geography, a fithing-town of Scot- 
land, on the N. coaft of the county of Murray, at the mouth 
of the river Findhorn, near the firth of Murray, witha to- 
lerable harbour, and a large convenient bay; 9 miles W. 
of Elgin. N. lat. 57° 139'. W. long. 3° 29'. 

FINDING ¢f a Bill of Indicment, in Law. See Ix- 
DICTMENT. 

FINE’, Oronce, in Biography, one of the moft cele- 
brated mathematicians of his time, was fon of a phyfician 
at Briancon, where he was born in the year 1494. His 
father dying while he was very young, he was fent to Paris, 
and, through the intereft of Anthony Silvelter, obtained a 
place in the college of Navarre, where he went through a 
courfe of claffical learning and philofophy. His attention 
to polite literature did not prevent him from applying much 
of his attention to mathematics, which he found moit con- 
genial to his tafte and inclination. Tn thefe fciences he had 
no inftruGtor, and the ftudy of them had fallen into difrepute. 
Regardlefs of the prevailing fafhion of the age, he determined 
to proceed, and by the force of his own genius, and a fe- 
dulous application, he made confiderable progrefs in them. 
Tn 1519, he publifhed an edition of ** John Martin Siliceus’s 
Arithmetic ;’? and afterwards, in 1523, he gave to the pub- 
lic a revifed and improved edition of the ‘* Margareta Philo- 
fophica,’? containing the principles of rational and moral 
philofophy. After this, for he was ftill a ftudent at the 
college of Navarre, he gave private leGtures in the mathema- 
tics, andthen becamea public teacher of them in the col- 
lege of Gervais. In this capacity he obtained fo high a 
reputation, that Francis I. who had founded a new college 
at Paris, and who was defirous of filling the proteflorfhips 
with men of the firft rate abilities, recommended Finé-as the 
moft proper perfon to teach the mathematics. This excel- 
lent mathematician, like many others who flourithed at the 
fame period, was devoted to the art of judicial aftrology, 
and, on one occafion, he fuffered a long and fevere imprilon- 
ment, for preuming to announce predictions that feemed to 
affe€&t the court of France. Finé was likewife a good me- 
chanician, and invented and conftruéed different initruments 
and pieces of mechanifm, which added very much to his ce- 
lebrity as aman of fcience. Notwithfanding his genius,. 
afliduity, and extraordinary talents; and the efteemin whieh 
he was held by an almoft indefinite number of perfons, it 
was his hard lot never to receive an adequate reward for his 
great fervices. Through the whole of life he had to 
ftruggle with the evils of poverty, to the difgrace of many 
who affected to value him yery highly, and who could not 
but be well acquainted with his wants, but who neverthes 
lefs had net the f{pirit nor the virtue to afford him any afiitt- 
ance. He died in the utmoft diftrefs in 1555, leaving be- 
hind him a wife and fix children, involved with debt, and 
deftitute of all means of fupport. Provifion was, however, 
made for their decent maintenance, by thofe who had pre- 


tended 


¥ INE. 


tended to patronize him while living. The works of Fine 
were publifhed together in-three volumes folio, which bear 
the dates of 1532, 1542, and 1546. Bayle. Moreri. 

Fine, that which is pure, and without mixture. The 
term is particularly ufed‘in {peaking of gold or filver. See 
Gorvand Sirver. 

Fine, jinis, or finalis concordia, in Law, denotes a fo- 
lemn amicable agreement or compofition of a fuit (whether 
that fuit be realor fictitious) made between the demandant and 
tenant, with the confent of the judges; and enrolled among 
the records of the court where the fuit was commenced ; 
by which agreement freehold property may be transferred, 
fettled, and limited. (Cruife on Fines.) Sometimes, fays 
Shepherd (Touchft. c. 3.) it is taken for a final agreement 
or conveyance upon record for the fettling and fecuring of 
lands and tenements ;’”’ and accordingly it is defignated by 
fome to be “ an acknowledgment, in the king’s court, of the 
land or other things to be his right that doth complain ;” 
and by others ** a covenant ‘made between parties, and re- 
corded by the juftices ;” and by others ‘a friendly, real, and 
final agreement amongtt parties, concerning any land, rent, 
or other thing, whereof any fuit or writ is hanging between 
theminany court ;” and by others more fully “* an inftru- 
ment of record of an agreement concerning lands, tenements, 
or hereditaments ; duly made by the king’s licence, and ac- 
knowledged by the parties to the fame, upon a writ of co- 
venant, writ of right, or fuch like, before the juftices of 
the Common Pleas, or others thereunto authorized, and en- 
grofled of record in the fame court ; to end all controverfies 
thereof, both between themfelves, which be parties and pri- 
vies to the fame, and all ftrangers not fuing or claiming in 
due time.” 

A fine is fometimes faid to be a feoffment of record (Co. 
Litt. 50.) ; though it might be more eccurately called an 
ackuowledginent of a feoffment on record; by which is to 
be underftood, that it has at leaft the fame force and effect 
with a feofiment, in the conveying and alluring of lands; 
though it is one of thofe methods of transferring efates of 
freehold by the common law, in which livery of feifin is not 
neceflary to be actually gives ; the fuppofition and acknow- 
ledgment thereof ina court of record, however nétitious, 
inducing an equal notoriety. But, more particularly, a fine 
may be defcribed to be an amicable compofition or agree- 
ment of a fuit, either a€tual or fidtitious, by leave of the 
king or his juftices; whereby the lands in queftion become, 

- or are acknowledged to be, the right of one of the parties. 
(Co. Litt. 120.) In its origiital it was founded on an actual 
{uit, commenced at law for recovery of the poflefion of 
land or other hereditaments ; and the pofleffion thus gained 
by fuch compolition was-found to be fo fure and fo effectual, 
that fictitious aCtions were, and continue to be, every day 
commenced, for the fake of obtaining the fame fecurity. 
A fine is fo called becaufe it puts an end, finis, not only to 
the fuit thus commenced, but alfo to all other fuits and con- 
troverfies concerning the fame matter. Accordingly it is 
fo exprefled in an ancient record of parliament, 18 Edw. I, 
Fines, indeed, are of equal anuquity with the firit rudiments 
of the lawitfelf: they are Spoken of by Glanvil and BraGton 
in the reigns of Henry If. and Henry IIT. as things then 
well known and long eitablifhed; and inftances of them 
have ‘been produced even prior to the Norman invafion. 
(Plowd. 369.) So that the flatute of 18 Edw. I. called 
& Modus levandi fines,” did not give them original, but 
only declared and regulated the manner in which they 
Should be levied, or carried on. This is as follows; 

"1. The party, to whom the land is to be conveyed or 
affiired; commences au action or fuit at law, againit the 


other, generally an action of covenant, by fuing out a writ 
or ‘precipe,” called a writ of covenant; the foundation 
of whichis a fuppofed agreement or covenant, that the one 
fhall convey the lands to the other; on the breach of which 
agreement the action is brought. On this writ there is due 
to the king, by ancient prerogative, a ‘ primer fine,” ora 
noble for every five marks of land fued for; that is, one- 
tenth of the annual value. (2 Inft. 511.) The {uit being 
thus commenced, there follows I 

2. The “licentia concordandi,’’? or leave to agree the 
fait. For, as foonas the aGtion is brought, the defendant, 
knowing himfelf to be ia the wrong, is fuppofed to make 
overtures ‘of peace and accommodation to the plaintiff ; who 
accepting them, but having, upon fuing out the writ, given 
pledges to profecute his fuit, which he endangers if he now 
deferts it without licence, he applies to the court for leave 
to make up the matter. This leave is readily granted ; but 
for it there is alfo another fine due to the king, by his pre- 
rogative, which isan ancient revenue of the crown, and is 
called the ‘‘king’s filyer,”? or fometimes the ** poft-fine,’” 
with refpeé& to the  primer-fine,” before-mentioned. And 
this is as much as the primer-fine,”? and half as much 
more, or 10 fhillings for every mark of land; that is, three 
twentieths of the fuppofed annual value. (5 Rep. 39. 
2 Int. srr. Stat. 32 Geo. 11. c. 14.) 

3. Next comes the ‘concord,’ or agreement itfelf, 
after leave ebtained fromthe court; which is ufually an 
acknowledgment from the deforciants (or thofe who keep 
the other out of poffeffion,) that the lands in queftion are 
the right of the complainant. And from this acknowledg- 
ment, or recognition of right, the party levying the fine is 
called the “cognizor,”’ and he to whom it is levied the 
“cognizee.”” ‘Uhis acknowledgment muft be made either 
openly in the court of Common Pleas, or before the lord 
chief juftice of that court ; as alfo before one of the judges 
of that court, or two or more commiflioners in the county, 
empowered by a fpecial authority called a writ of “ dedimus 
poteftatem ;” which judges and commiffioners are bound by 
ftatute 18 Edw. I. ft. 4. to take care that the cognizors 
be of full age, found memory, and out of prifon. If there 
be any feme-covert among the cognizors, fhe is privately 
examined whether the does it willingly and freely, or by com- 
pulfion of her hufband. 

By thefe a&s all the effential parts of a fine are com- 
pleted ; and if the cognizor dies the next moment after the 
fine is acknowledged, provided it be fubfequent to the day 
on which the writ is made returnable (Comb. 71.), {till the 
fine fhall be carried on in all its remaining parts; of which 
the next is 

4. The “ note” of the fine; which is only an abitra&t of 
the writ of covenant and the concord; naming the parties, 
the parcels of land, and theagreement. This muft be enrol- 
led of recordin the proper office, by direGtion of the ftatute 
5, Hen. TV. core 

5- The fifth part is the ‘ frot?” of the fine. or conclufion 
of it; which includes the whole matter, reciting the parties, 
day, year, and place, and before whom it was acknowl deed 
or levied. Of this there are indentures made, or engrofied, 
at the chirographer’s office, and delivered to the cognizor 
and the cognizee; ufually beginning thus, “ hec eft finali 
concordia,” or “ this is the final agreement,”? and then re- 
citing the whole proceeding at length. Thus the fine is 
completely levied at common law. By feveral ftats 
additional folemnities are introduced, in order 
fine more univerfally public, and lefs liable to be 
fraud or covin. And firft, by 27 Edw. I. c. 1. 
of the fine fhall be-openly read in the court of 


9? 


to 


2 


FIN E. 


Pleas, at two fevetal days in one week, and during fuch read- 
ing all pleas fhall ceafe, By 5 Hen. 1V. c, 14. and 23 Eliz. 
c. 3. all the proceedings on fines, either at the time of ac- 
knowledgment, or previous, or fubfequent thereto, hall be 
enrolled of record in the court of Common Pleas. By 
1 Ric. III. c. 7. confirmed and enforced by 4 Hen. VII. 
c. 24. the fine, after engroffment, fhall be openly read and 
proclaimed in court (during which all pleas fhall ceafe) 
fixteen times, viz. four times in the term in which it is 
made, and four times in each of the three fucceeding terms; 
which is reduced to once in each term by 31 Eliz. c. 2; 
and thefe proclamations are endorfed on the back of the 
record. It is alfo enacted by 23 Eliz. c. 3. that the chi- 
rographer of fines fhall every term write out a table of the 
fines levied in each couuty in that term, and fhall affix them 
in {ome open part of the court of Common Pleas all the next 
term; aud fhall alfo deliver the contents of fuch table to 
the fheriff of every county, who fhall at the next aflizes fix 
the fame in fome open place in the court, for the more 
public notoriety of the fine. 

Fines, thus levied, are of four kinds: 1. What is in our 
Jaw French called a fine “ fur cognizance de droit, come 
ceo que il ad de fon done,’”’ or a fine upon acknowledgment 
of the right of the cognizee, as that which he hath of the 
gift of the cognizor. This is the beit and fureft kind of 
fine; for thereby the deforciant, in order to keep his cove- 
nant with the plaintiff, of conveying to him the lands in 
queftion, and at the fame time to avoid the formality of an 
aétual feoffment and livery, acknowledges in court a former 
feoffmeut, or gift in poffeffion, to have been made by him to 
the plaintiff. This fine is therefore faid to be a feoffment 
of record ; the livery thus acknowledged in court being 
equivalent to an actual livery ; fo that this affurance is rather 
a confeffion of a former conveyance than a conveyance now 
originally made; for the deforciant, or cognizor, acknow- 
ledges, ** cognofcit,”’ the right to be in the plaintiff, or cog- 
nizee, as that which he hath ‘de fon done,” of the proper 
gift of himlelf, the cognizor, 2. A fine “ fur cogmzance 
de droit tantum,”? or upon acknowledgment of the right 
merely; not with the circumftance of a preceding gift from 
the cognizor. This is commonly ufed to pafs a reverfionary 
interelt, which is in the cognizor. For of fuch reverfions 
there can be no feoffment, or donation with livery, fuppofed ; 
as the poffeffion during the particular eitate belongs to a 
third perfon, (Moor. 629.) It is thus worded; ¢ that 
the cognizor acknowledges the right to be in the cognizee; 
and grants for himfelf and his heirs, that the reverfion, after 
the particular citate determines, fhall go to the cognizee. 
(Welt. Symb. p. 2. § 95.) 3. A tine “ fur conceflit”’ is, 
where the cognizor, in order to make an end of difputes, 
though he acknowledges no precedent right, yet grants to 
the cognizee an eftate * de novo,” ufually for life or years, 
by way of fuppofed compofition. And this may be done 
referving a rent, or the like ; for it operates as anew grant. 
(Wett. p. 2. § 66.) 4. A fine “fur done, grant, et render’? 
is a double fine, comprehending the fine “ fur cognizance 
de droit come ceo, &e.’’ and the fine “ fur conceffit :?’ and 
may be ufed to create particular limitations of eflate ; 
whereas the tine ‘ fur cognizance de droit come ceo, 
&c.”’ conveys nothing but an abfolute eitate, cither by 
inheritance, or at lealt of freehold. (Salk. 340.) In this 
laft {pecies of fine, the cognizee, after the right is acknow- 
ledged to be in him, grants back again, or renders to the 
cognizor, or perhaps to a ftranger, fome other eftate in the 
premifes. But, in general, the firft fpecies of fine, ‘ fur 
cognizance de droit come, &c.’’ is the moft ufed, as it con- 
veysa clear and abfolute freehold, and gives the cognizee a 


feifia in law, without any actual livery ; and is therefore 
called a ** fine executed,’? whereas the others are but * exes 
cutory.” , 

The force and effe& of a fine principally depend, at this 
day, on the common law ; and the two ftatutes, 4 Hen. VII. 
c. 24. and 32 Hen. VIII. c. 36. The ancient common 
law, with refpeét to this point, is very forcibly declared by 
the tlatute 18 Edw. I.; which ftates that the fine is fo high 
a bar, and of fuch force, that it precludes not only thofe 
which are parties and privies to the fine, and their heirs, 
but all other perfons in the world, who are of full age, out 
of prifen, of found memory, and within the four feas, 
the day of the fine levied ; unlefs they put in their claim on 
the foot of the fine within ayear andaday. But this 
do@rine of barring the right by ‘* non-claim’? was abo- 
lifhed for a time by a {tatute made in 34 Edw. IIL. c. 16. 
which admitted perfons to claim, and falfify a fine, at any 
indefinite diltance (Litt. §441.); whereby, as fir Edward 
Coke obferves, (2 Init. 518.) great contention arofe, and 
few men were fure of their pofleffions, till the parliament, 
held 4 Hen. VII. reformed that mifchief, and excellently 
moderated between the latitude given by the ftatute and the 
rigour of the common law. By that itatute the right of 
all ftrangers whatfoever is bound, unlefs they make claim, 
by way of aétion or lawful entry, not within ove year and 
a day, as by the common law, but within fve years after 
proclamations made ; except feme-coverts, infants, prifoners, 
perfons beyond the fea, and fuch as are not of able mind; 
who have five years allowed to them and their heirs, after 
the death of their hufbands, their attaining full age, reco- 
vering their liberty, returning into England, or being re- 
ftored to their right mind. Henry VII. feems by this 
ftatute to have covertly extended fines fo as to have been a 
bar of eflates-tail, in order to render them more open to 
alienations ; but doubts having arifen whether they could, 
by mere implication, be adjudged a fufficient bar (which are 
exprefsly declared noi to be by the ftatute * de donis’’), 
the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 36. was thereupon made, 
which declares that a fine levied by any perfon of full age, 
to whom or to whofe ancettors lands have been entailed, 
fhall be a perpetual bar to them and their heirs, claiming by 
torce of fuch entail; unlefs the fine be levied by a woman 
after the death of her hufband, of lands which were, by 
the gift of him or his anceftor, afligned in tail to her for 
her jointure (ftat. rc Hen. Vil. c. 0.); or unlefs it be 
of lands entailed by a&t of parliament or letters patent, 
and whereof the reverfion belongs to the crown. 

From the view now given of the common law, regulated 
by thefe ftatutes, it appears that a fine is a folemn conyey= 
ance on -record from the cognizor to the cognizee ; and 
that the perfons bound by a fine are parties, privies, and 
JAtrangers. The parties are either the cognizors of cognizees ; 
and thefe are immediately concluded by the fine, and barred 
of any latent right they might have, though under the 
legal impediment of coverture. And, indeed, as this is 
almoft the only a& that a feme-covert or married woman is 
permitted by law to do, (and that beeaufe fhe is privately 
examined as to her voluntary confent, which removes the 
general fufpicion of compulfion by her hufband), it is there- 
fore the ufual and almoit the only fafe method whereby 
fhe can join in the fale, fettlement, or incumbrance of any 
eltate. Privies to a fine are fuch as are any way related to 
the parties who levy the fine, and claim under them by any 
right of blood, or other right of reprefentation. Such as 
are the heirs-general of the cognizor, the iffue in tail 
fince the ftatute of Henry VIII., the vendee, the de- 
vifee, and all others who muft make title by the perfons 

who 


EI 


who levied the fine. For the a& of the anceftor fhall bind 
the heir, and the a& of the principal his fubftitute, or fuch 
as claim under any conveyance made by him fubfequent 
to the fine fo levied. (3 Rep. 87.) Strangers toa fine 
are all other perfons, except parties and privies. Thefe are 
alfo bound by a fine, unlefs, within five years after proclama- 
tion made, they interpofe their claim, provided they are 
under no legal impediment, and have thena prefent intereft 
in the eftatee The impediments, as we have already men- 
tioned, are coverture, infancy, imprifonment, infanity, and 
abfence beyond fea; and perfons, who are thus incapaci- 
tated to profecute their rights, have five years allowed them 
to put in their claims after {uch impediments are removed. 
Perfons alfo that have not a prefent, but a future intereft 
only, as thofe in remainder or reverfion, have five years al- 
lowed them to claim in, from the time that fuch right ac- 
erues. (Co. Litt. 372.) And if within that time they ne- 
glec& to claim, or (by the ftatute 4 Aun. c. 16.) if they do 
not bring an aétion to try the right within one year after 
making fuch claim, and profecute the fame with effect, all 
perfons whatfoever are barred of whatever right they may 
have, by force of the ftatute of non-claim. But, in order 
to make a fine of aay avail at all, it is neceffary that the 
parties fhould have fome intereft or eftate in the lands to be 
affected by it. Elfe it were poflible that two ftrangers, by 
amere confederacy, might without any rifk defraud the 
owners by levying fines of their lands; for if the attempt 
be difcovered, they can be no fufferers, but muft only remain 
in flatu quo ; whereas, if a texant for life levies a fine, it is 
an abfolute forfeiture of his eftate to the remainder-man or 
reverfioner (Co. Litt. 251.) if claimed in proper time. Itis 

not therefore to be fuppofed that fuch tenants will frequently 
yun fo great a hazard; but if they do, and the claim is not 

duly made within five years after their refpective terms ex- 
pire (2 Lev. 52.), the eftate is for ever barred by it. Yet 
where a ftranger, whole prefumption cannot be thus pu- 
nifhed, officioufly inte:feres in an eftate which in no wife 
belongs to him, his fine is of no effe€t; and may at any 
time be fet afide (unlefs by fuch as are parties or privies 

thereunto (Hob. 334.) by pleading that ‘* partes fiuis nihil 
habuerunt.”” And even if a tenant for years, who hath 
only a chattel intereft, and no freehold in the land, levies a 
fine, it operates nothing, but is liable to be defeated by the 
fame plea. (5 Rep. 123 Hardr. 401.) Wherefore, whena 
leffee for years is difpofed to levy a fine, it is ufual for him 
to make afeoffment firft, to difplace the eftate of the rever- 
fioner (Hardr. 402. 2 Lev. 52.), and create a new free- 
hold by diffeifia. Blackit. Com. Book ii. See Recovery. 

In order to punifh criminally fuch as thus put the eitate 
of another to the hazard as far as in them lies, the flat. 21 
Jac. I. c 26. makes it felony without benefit of clergy to 
acknowledze, or procure to be acknowledged, any fine, re- 
covery, or judyment, &c. in the name of any perfon not privy 
or confenting to the fame. 

Fines may be reverfed for error, fo as the writ of error be 
brought in 20 years, &e. and not afterwards by ftat. ro & 11 
W. IIL. c. 11. which 20 years are te be computed from the 
time of the fine levied, and not from the time the title 
accrued (2 Stra. 1257.) No perfen can bring a writ of 
error, to reverfe a fine, or any judgment, that is‘not iatitled 
to the land, of which the fine was levied. In order to avoid a 
fine there muit be aw actual entry, except where the fine is’ 
levied without proclamations ; for the flatute 4 H. VII. 
¢. 24. does not extend to fuch a fine, and it may be avoided 
at-any time within 20 years, (2 Wilf. 45.) The entry, 
when neceflary, muft be made by the perfon who has a right 


se Oe 


to the lands, or by fome one appointed by him. 
(1 Inft.258 a.) Nething can be affigned for error that 
contradicts the record. (1 Rol. Abr.757.) Fines are not re- 
verlible for rafure, interlineation, mifentry, or any want of 
form, but it is otherwife if of fubftance. (Stat. 23 Eliz. 
c. 3.) Fines may be avoided, where they are obtained by 
fraud, covin, or deceit, though there be no error in the 
procefs. (Cro. Eliz. 471.) 

Fines are generally divided into thofe with, and thofe 
without proclamations ; the former is termed a fine accord- 
ing to the ftatutes 1 R. III. ce. 7. 4H. VII. c. 243 and 
the latter is called a fine of the common law, being levied 
in fuch manner as was ufed before the ftatute 4 H. VII. 
c. 245 and is ftill of the like force by the common law, to 
difcontinue the eflate of the cognizor, if tke fine be 
executed. 

Fines are either fingle or double. Single fine is that by 
which nothing is granted or rendered back again by 
the cognizees to the cognizors, or any of them. Double fine 
contains a grant and render-back, either of fome rent, com- 
mon, or other thing out of the land, or of the land itfelr, 
toall or fome of the recognizors for fome eftate, limiting 
thereby remainders to ftrangers not named in the writ o 
convenant. 

In this kind of fine, called ‘ fur done, grant and ren- 
der,’? both the fines * fur cognizance, &c.”? aud ** fur con- 
ceffit,”’ are formed into one; and it is partly executed and 
partly executory. See Fine above. 

Sometimes alfo a double fine is when the lands lie in feveral 
counties. 

Fines, with regard to their effe@, are divided into exe- 
cuted and executory. Fine executed, is fuch as of its own 
force gives a prefent poffeffion (at leaft in law) to a cog- 
nizee ; fo that he needs no writ of “habere facias feifinam’? 
for execution of the fame: of which fort is a fine “ fur cog- 
nizance de droit come ceo, &c.”’ that is, upon acknowled;- 
ment, that the thing mentioned in the concord is “ jes 
ipfius cognifati, ut illa que idem habet de dono cognitoris.’? 
Welt. § 51. K. 

The reafon is, becaufe the fine paffeth by way of releafe 
of a thing which the cognizee hath already (at leaft by fup- 
polition) by virtue of a former gift to the cognizor, which 
is, in truth, the furett fine of all. See Fine, {upra. 

Fines executory, are {uch as of their own force do not exe- 
cute or give the poffeffion to the cognizee witheut entry or 
action, but require a writ of « habere facias feifinam ;” as a 
fine *¢ fur cognizance de droit tantum,”’ unlefs the party be 
in poffeffion of the lands. This kind of fine is commonly 
made ufe of to pafs a reverfion There is alfo another exe- 
cutory fine called © fur conceffit.”? See Fine, fupra. 

Fines in England are now levied in the court of Common 

leas at Weitminiter, in regard to the folemnity thereof, 
ordained by the ftatute of 18 Ed. I. ftat. 4. before which 
time they were fometimes levied in the county-court, court- 
barons, and in the exchequer, as may be feenin Origines Ju. 
ridiciales, &c. 

Fines are alfo taken by commiffioners in the country, em- 
powered by dedimus potefiatem. 15 Ed. I. itat. de fine 
‘Though by the common law all fines were levied in the court. 
Vines levied befor the juftices in Wales, or in the counties 
palatine of Chefter, Durham, &e. have the fame effea as 
thofe that are levied before the juitices of C. B. 

Fins adnullando levato de tenemento quod fuit de antique 
dominico, a writ dire&ed to the juftices of C. B. for difannul- 
ling a fine levied of lands in ancient demefne to the prejudice 


of thelord, Reg. Orig. 15. 


4. Fines 


FINE, 


Fines for alienation, ave fines formerly paid to the king 
by his tenants in chief, for licence to alienate their lands ; 
according to the ftatute 1 Edw. HI. c. 12. but taken away 
by ftatute 12 Car. I]. cap. 24. 

Fine capiendo.proterris, &c, a writ lying where a perfon 
upon conviction of any offence by jury hath his lands and 
goods taken into tne king’s hands, and his body 1s committed 
to prifon; to be remitted his imprifonment, ,and have his 
lands and goods re-delivered him on obtaining favour for a 
fum..of money. Reg. Orig. 142. j 

Fins farce, isjanjexpreffion in ftat. 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 12. 
denoting that a) perfon is forced to do that which he caa in 
no way avoid, 

Fine levando de tenementis de rege in capite, &c. a writ 
directed to the juftices of the Common Pleas to admit of a 
fine for the fale of land holden of the king in capite. Reg. 
Orig. 167. = Oe 

Vine non capiendo pro pulchre placitando, a writ to inhibit 
officers. of courts to take , fines for fair pleading. Reg. 
Orig. 179. F 

Pine pro redifvifina capienda, Kc. a writ lying: for the ree 
leafe of one imprifoned for a redifleifin, on payment of a 
yeafonable fine. Reg. Orig, 222. 

Fines /e roy, are all fines to the king. Under this 
head are included fines for original writs. Thus, for 
every writ of plea of land, if it be not of right patent, 
which is for the yearly value of five marks, and for all ori- 
ginal writs in debt and trefpafs, where the debt or damage 
is 4o/. a fine is die to the king of 6s. 8d. and more pro- 
en the writ is for greater value. 

Fine alfo, according to Cowel, fignifies a fum of money 
paid as an income for lands or tenements let by leafe, an- 
ciently called gerfuma. 

Fine is alfo uled to denote an amends, pecuniary punifh- 
ment, or recompence, for au offence committed againtt the 
king and his laws, or againft the lord of a manor. In 
which cafe a man is faid, facere jinem de tranfgreffione cum 
vege, &c. 

In all the diverfities of the ufe of the word fine, it hath 
but one fignification ; and that is, a final conclufion, or end 
of differences between parties. In the lait fenfe, where it 
denotes the ending and remiflion of an offence, it is ufed by 
Bracton, who {peaks of a common jine that the country pays 
to the king for falfe judgments or other trefpafles, which 
is to be affeffed by the juitices in eyre before their departure, 
by the oaths ef knights and other good men, upon fuch as 
ought to pay it. There is alfo a common fine in courts leet. 

The diferetionary fines (and difcretionary length of impri- 
fonment) which our courts are enabled to impofe, may feem 
an exception to the general rule, that the punifhment of 
every offence is afcertained by the law. But the general 
nature of the punifhment, viz. by fine or imprifonment, is 
fixed and determinate; though the duration and quantity 
ef each mutt frequently vary, from the aggravations, or al- 
leviations, of the offence, the quality and condition of the 
parties, and innumerable other circumitances. The guan- 
tum, in particular, of pecuniary fines neither cai, nor 
ought to be, afcertained by any invariable law. The value 
of money is flu€tuating; and what would be ruin to one 
man’s fortune may be matter of indifference to another’s. 
Thus the law of the twelve tables at Rome fined every per- 
fon, that ftruck another, twenty-five denarii; and this, in 
the more opulent days of the empire, became a punifhment 
of fo little confideration, that Aulus Gellius tells a ftory 
of one Lucius Neratius, who diverted himfelf by giving a 
blow to any perfon at pleafure, and then tendering the legal 
forfeiture. Qur flatute law has not therefore often afcer- 


6 


portionably wh 


tained the quantity of fines, nor the common law eVers 
merely directing fuch an offence to be punifhed by fine in 
general, without fpecifying the certain fum: and this will 
appear to be fully frfiictent, when we confider that, how- 
ever unlimited the power of the court may feem, it is far 
from being wholly arbitrary; but its diferetion is regulated 
by law. For the bill of rights (ftat..1 W. and M. ft. 2. 
c. 2.) has particularly declared, that exceflive fines ought 
not to be impofed, nor cruel and unufual punifhments in- 
flicéd (which had a retrefpe& to fome unprecedented pro- 
ceedings in the court of king’s bench, in the reign of ng 
James II.); and the fame ftatute farther declares, that al 
grants and promifes of fines and forfeitures of particular 
perfons, before conviCtion, are illecal and void. Now the 
bill of rizlits was.ouly declaratory of the oldiconftitutional 
law; and accordingly we find it exprefsly holden, long be- 
fore (2 Inuit. 48.) that all fuch previous grants are void; 
fince thereby many times undue means, and more violent pro- 
fecution, would be ufed for private lucre, than the quiet 
and juit proceeding of the law would permit. ; 

‘The reafonablenefs of fines in criminal cafes has alfo been 
ufually regulated by the determination of ** Magna Charta’? 
(c. 14.) concerning amercements for mifbehaviour by the 
{uitors in matters of civil right. See AmMERCEMENT. 

Courts of record may fine for an offence committed in 
court in their view, or by confellion of the party recorded 
in court. (1 Lill. Abr. 621.) A man fhall be fined and im. 
prifoned for all contempts done to any court of record, 
againit the commandment of the king’s writ, &c. (9 Rep. Go.) 
See Contempr. Some courts may imprifon, and not fine, 
as the conltables at the petit feflions; fome courts cannot 
fine, or imprifon, but amerce, as the county, hundred, &c. ; 
but fome courts can neither fine, imprifon, nor amerce, as 
ecclefiaftical courts held before the ordinary, archdeacon, &cy 
or their commiffaries, and fuch who proceed according to 
the canon, or civil law. (11 Co. 43, 44.) 

A fine may be mitigated the fame term it was fet, being 
under the power of the court during that time, but not af- 
terwards. (T. Raym. 376.) And fines aflefled in court by 
judgment upon an information, cannot be afterwards miti- 
gated. (Cro. Car. 201.) Ifa fine certain is impofed by fta- 
tute upon any conviction, the court cannot mitigate it ; but 
if the party comes in before conviction, and fubmits to the 
court, they may aflefs a lefs fine; for he is not convicted, 
and perhaps never might. The court of exchequer may — 
mitigate a fine certain, becaufe it isa court of equity, and 
they have a privy-feal for it. (3 Salk. 33.) If an exceffive 
tine is impofed at the feffions, it may be mitigated at the 
king’s bench. (1 Vent. 336.) : 

All flnes belong to the king, becaufe the courts of jaf- 
tice are fupported at his charge ; and wherever the law puts 
the king to any charge for the fupport and protection of 
his people, jt provides money for that purpofe. (Bra&. 129.) 

INE-drawing, or rentering, avery nice way of fewi 
up or rejoining the parts of any cloth, ftuff, or the like, 
torn or rent in the dreffing, wearing, &c. 2 

It is prohibited to fine-draw pieces of foreign manufac- 
ture upon thofe of our own, as has formerly béen practifed. 
See RENTERING. us 

Fine Loch, in Geography, is one of the extenfive inland 
waters of Argylefhire, in Scotland, conneéting with the fea by 
means of the eftuary of the Clyde rivers, and by Kylbrannia 
found on the weft of the ifle of Arran: it has alfo another 
communication with Clyde river by means of the Kyles of 
Bute on the weft of Buteifland. ‘The principal branch of 
Fine Loch extends a few miles to the N.E. of the town of 
Inverary ; from the top of Gilp Loch, which is a branch of 

this 


FIN 


thialoch, the Crinan canal proceeds, for the paffage of thips 
to the weft inte Crinan Loch, and the found of Jura. 
From Eaft Tarbeth Loch, another fhort branch of Fine 
Loch, the Tarbeth canal was, in 1773, propofed by Mr. 
Watt to form another communication with the found of 
Jura, by means of Weft Tarbeth Loch, See Canac. 
Fint-/iller, in the Difillery ; that branch of the art 
which is employed on the diltilling the fpirit from treacle 
or other preparations or recrements of fugar, is called /ine- 
Silling, by way of diftin&ion from mialt-itilling ; and the 
perfon who exercifes this part of the trade is called a fine- 
thiller, ‘ 
- The operation in procuring the {pirit from fugar is the 
fame with that ufed in making the malt {pirit ; a wath of 
the faccharine matter being made with water from 
treacle, &c. and fermented with yeaft. It is ufual to add 
in this cafe, however, a confiderable portion of malt, 
and fometimes powdered jalap, to the fermenting backs. 
The malt accelerates the fermentation, and makes the 
{fpirit come out the cheaper, and the jalap prevents the 
rife of any mufty head on the furface of the fermenting 
liquor, fo as to leave a greater opportunity for the free 
accefs of the air, and thus to fhorten the work, by turn- 
ing the foamy into a hifling fermentation. Shaw’s Leé. 
- 220. 
7 FINECHIOLARO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the 
Mediterranean, near the N.E. coaft of the ifland of Corfi- 
ca; 7 miles N. of Baftia. N. Jat. 42? 58" E. long. 9? 


"i 
> PINEERING. See VENEERING. 

FINERS of Gold and Silver, ave thofe who purify 
and part thofe metals from other coarfer ones by fire and 
acids, -— 

- They are alfo called parters, in our old law-books, and 
fometimes departers. 

_ FINERY, in the /ron-works, is one of the two forges 
at which they hammer the fow or pig iron. See Force. 

Into the finery they firft put the pigs of iron, placiag 
three or four of them together behind the fire, with alittle 
of one end thruft into it ; where. foftening by degrees, they 
ftir and work them with long bars of iron, and expofe at 
different times different parts to the blaft of the bellows, in 
order to refine it as equally as poffible, till the metal runs 
together with around mafs or lump, which they call a ha//- 
bloom. They then take this out, and give it a few ftrokes 
with their fledges ; afterwards they carry it to a great heavy 
hammer, raifed by the motion of a water-wheel ; where, 
applying it dexteroufly to the blows, they prefently beat it 
out into a thick fhort {quare. This they put into the finery 
again, and, heating it red-hot, they work it out under the 
fame hammer till it comes to be in the fhape of a bar in the 
middle, but with two {quare nobs at the ends, which they 
call an ancony. It is then carried into the other forge, called 
the chafery. Phil. Tranf. No. 137, or Abr. vol. it. p. 559. 
See Iron. 

FINESSE, a French term, of late current in Englifh. 
Literally, it is of no farther import than our Englith finene/s ; 
but among us it is chiefly ufed to denote that peculiar delica- 
cy or fubtlety perceived in works of the mind, and the 
niceft and moft fecret and fublime parts of any {cience or 
art. 

It is fometimes ufed to exprefs that kind of {ubtlety made 
ufe of for the purpofes of deception. 
~ FINGAH, in Ornithology. See Lantus Cerulefcens. 

FINGAL, in Biography, the dittinguifhed hero whofe 
exploits and charaCter are fo charmingly pourtrayed in the 
fafcinating poems of Offian, who, notwithitanding what has 


Vout. XIV. 


FIN 


been advanced again{t their exiftence in the Gaelic language, 
from which they were profeffedly tranflated ; was a real 
perfonage, a famous warrior, and renowned prince. The 
controverfy re{peéting the genuinenefs of the originals was 
at one time as long and as ably defended by the partizansoa 
each fide the queftion, as that on the fubje¢t refpeéting 
the authenticity of the Epiftles of Phalaris by the critics of 
the day, under thofe able leaders in centroverly, Boyle and 
Bentley, What was the family name of this fuppofed fiGti- 
tious hero of romance, but really the gallant defender of his 
country from Roman fubjugation, does not appear on the 
face of hiftory; in that early feriod it not wnfrequently 
happened, the real name was funk in the official deficnation, 
or honorial title. He was the fon of Comhal, the grandfoa 
of Truthal, and the great grandfon of Trenmér, all Cale- 
donian princes of great military reputation, during the fe- 
vere ftruggles the Celtic tribes held with the invaders of Bn- 
tain. He was king of Morven, a country to the north of 


the river Tay, fuppofed by fome to have had for its fouthern 


L 


boundary the Caledenian foreft; and by others to have 
extended farther fouthward, into part of the Roman pro- 
vince of Valentia: it doubtlefs, from the beft authorities, 
comprifed the whole of the northern and weftern Highlands, 
inclufive of the Hebrides or Weitern ifles. His principal 
refidence was ‘at Selma, in the vicinity of Glenco, county 
of Moray, fuppofed to be the Cona celebrated by Offian. 
According to the Irifh annals, he was born A.D. 282; but 
the poems of Offian fix the date of his birth a few years 
later. The time of his death is uncertain. 

After the Romans had overrun the country of the Pi&s, 
and given to that part of the ifland to the north of their pro- 
vince, Valentia, the name of Caledonia, as the country next 
to be fubdued, and penetrated part of the Highlands with 
an army under Lollius; they were repulfed and beaten back 
behind the frontier wall, erected at the command of Severus, 
by the fuperior prowefs and valour of the troops under Com- 
hal. On this oceafion, the exploits performed by the fon of 
that prince evinced he was equally qualified by talents, as 
defcent, to be the antagonilt of a Roman emperor, and the 
hero of Offian ; when Severus determined to condué& the 
war in perfon through North Britain, to wipe off the dif- 

race of his defeated legions under Lollius, and revenge the 
hoe atiee infliéted on his troops by the outraged natives ; he 
pafled the two walls for thefe purpofes, with the colleéted 
force of the empire ia Britain ; and entered with a {pirit of 
vengeance, and reiterated menaces of extirpation, the dif 
triét of Caledonia. At that period, the prince denominated 
Fingal was the head of the united Britifh forces in the 
north, the Vind-galt of the combined army, a {tation or 
office fimilar to that of the Pendragon among the weftera 
Britons; which has likewife been confounded with the fa- 
mily names, and confidered .a perfonal appellation. The 
haughty and enraged emperor was met by the undaunt: 
Fingal, whofe troops, well acquainted with the de 
paffes of the couutry, hung upon the invader’s 
rafled the imperial army in its march, fele&eda 
ground, and made at every turn vigorousattacks, and frequent- 
ly drew the enemy into infidious and fatal ambufeades. Thus 
wearied and reduced by the fuperior manctuvering of their 
bold and vigilant opponents, the Romans experienced the 
greateft diftrefs, fo as to be obliged to deitroy their fick and 
wounded, left they fhould fall alive into the hands of what 
they confidered a barbarous enemy. In this expedition 
alone, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, they loft 50,00 
men, and were conitrained to cede to the victors that part of 
the country conquered by Lallius. And when the Romanss 
after being reinforced, again entered the couatry under the 
21, command 


FIN 


command of Caracalla, who was commiffioned to extermi- 
nate the natives, Fingal met the Roman general in that part, 
now the county of Stirling, the latter was defeated on the 
banks of the Carron, the contefted dominions given up, and 
the Romans again obliged to retire to the fouth of the wall. 
Exclufive of thefe contefts, in which, through a protraéted 
warfare, he difplayed a fuperior prowefs, and undaunted in- 
trepidity, he appears to have conduéted alfo naval wars. 
He is ftated to have made frequent voyages to Scandinavia, 
the Orknies, and Ireland, defignated by Offian, as Lock- 
lin, Inniflore, and Ullin. 

“© The chara&er of Fingal,?? Dr. Blair obferves, “ is 
perhaps the moft perfe& that was ever drawn bya poet, for 
we boldly defy all the writers of antiquity to fhew us any 
hero equal to Fingal. Throughout the whole of Offian’s 
works, he is prefented to us in all that variety of lights 
which give the full difplay of a character. In him concur 
almoft all the qualities that can ennoble human nature, that 
can make us admire the hero, or love the man. He is 
not only unconquerable in war, but he maketh his 
people happy by his wifdom in the days of peace. He is 
truly the father of his people.” Whitaker’s Hiftory of 
Manchefter. Offian’s Poems, with notes, &c. 

FINGAMO, in Geography, a town of Japan, on the 
ifland of Niphon ; 45 miles N. of Meaco. 

FINGERS, in Anatomy, the laft divifions of the upper 
extremity. For theirnames, fee Dicitus. The bones and 
joints of the fingers are defcribed in the article Extremi- 
Ties. The ftructure of thefe organs, confifting of three 
bones moveable on each other, renders them particularly 
well fuited for graf{ping, feizing, and holding external ob- 
jeéts ; for all thofe offices which come under the common 
mame of prehenfion. By this arrangement any object of 
moderate fize can be encircled by the fingers. The fize of 
the bones, the firmnefs of the joints, and the ftreagth of the 
mufcles, beftow on them great powers in addition to their 
flexibility. The integuments at their extremities are highly 
organized, and receive a large fupply of veflels and nerves, 
fo as to con{titute them the organs of touch, and the faci- 
lity with which they can be applied to any body, of which 
we are defirous to learn the properties, makes them a very 
eonvenient fituation for that organ. 

Fincers, Amputation of. See AMPUTATION. 

Fincers, Carious. In thefe cafes the furgeen is to endea- 
vour to extraét the exfoliating portions of bone, immediate- 
ly when they become loofe. For this purpofe, he is juftitied 
in making fuch incifions as may enable him to fulfil the ob- 
ject in view. Until the procefs of exfoliation is fufficiently 
advanced, he can do little more than apply fimple dreflings, 
and keep the partin a clean, quiet ftate. 

When the feparation of the dead pieces of bone will cer- 
tainly deftroy the utility of the finger, and convert the part 
into an inconvenient, ttiff appendage to the hand ; or, when 
the patient’s health is feverely impaired by the irritation of 
the difeafe, the termination of which cannot be expeéted 
within a moderate {pace of time ; amputation is proper. It 
isa truth, however, that many fingers are amputated which 
might be preferved, and furgeons ought to confider well, 
before prefuming to remove parts which, when cureable, 
may become of the greateft confequence, in regard to the 
perfection of the hand. The bread of many perfons, it is 
well known, depends on the unmutilated ftate of certain fin- 
ee Thefe remarks are offered, becaufe we have feen 

everal furgeons, who are fond of feizing every opportunity 
of cutting their fellow-creatures, remove fingers, which 
might have been ufefully faved, either by allotting a little 


FIN 


more time to the exfoliation, or by making incifions, and 
cutting out the dead piece of bone. 

Fincers, Diflocations of. See Luxartion, 

Fincers, fra@ures of. See Fracture. 

Fincers, Supernumerary. Children are fometimes born 
with more fingers than are naturel, and fince allowing the 
redundant number to remain would keep up deformity and 
create future inconvenience, the furgeon is called upon to 
amputatethem. The redundant fingers are fometimes with, 
fometimes without, anail; are feldom more numerous than 
one on eaeh hand, are generally fituated juft on the outfide 
of the little fingers, and, as far as our obfervation extends, 
are incapable of motion, in confequence of not being fur= 
nifhed, hke the reft of the fingers, with mufcles, The beft 
plan is to cut off {upernumerary fingers with a fcalpel, at the 
place where they are united to the other part of the hand. 
The operation fhould be performed while the patient is in 
the infant ftate, that is to fay, before the {uperfluous parts 
have acquired much fize, and while the object can be accom- 
plifhed with little pain. The incifions ought to be made 
fo as to form a wound with edges, which can be brought 
into contact with ftvips of adhefive plafter. The hemor- 
hinge will almoft always ceafe, as foon as the dreffings are 
applied, without any ligature. 

Fincer, Goprrey, in Biography, who refided many 
years in England during the latter end of the 17th 
century, and the beginning of the laft, was a good per- 
former on the violin, and a yoluminous compofer for that 
inftrument, and when he quitted England and returned to 
Germany, was, according to Teleman in Matthefon’s 
€brenpforte, chamber mulician to Sophia Charlotte, queen 
of Pruffia, in 1702, and in 1717 chapel mafter to the court 
of Gotha. Finger was nota man of genius; but in fcience 
he was intinitely fuperior to the muficians with whom he had 
to contend. , 

Fincer’s Breadth, a meafure of two barley-corns in 
length, or four laid fide to fide. 

Fincer-seys,in Mufic, or clavier of the Germans, fignify 
the arrangement of fhort levers of different colours, on 
which the fingers aét in performing on organs, piano-fortes, 
and fome other inftruments with fixed tones; the arrange 
ment of thefe within one oftave, from C to C, is fhewn in 
Mufic, Plate 1. ; the learning and recolleétion of which will 
be much facilitated, by confiderirg the fame divided (between 
E and F) into two parts, which Dr. Callcott, in his 
Plain Statement of Earl Stanhope’s Temperament,”’ calls 
a dttone and a tritone, fee thofe articles. It may be proper 
here juft to add, that D is always the middle of the ditone 
or firft divifion, and that G and A are the middle notes of 
the tritone or fecond divifion of the /eptave, or whole oave. 
In Mr. Hawke’s patent piano-fortes and organs, with 17 
ftrings or pipesin each o€tave (fold by Mr. Bill, Rathbone 
Place, and Mr. Elliot, Tottenham Court), the whole cla- 
vier or range of finger-keys is fhifted, by pedals, for occa- 
fioning either the five flat or the five fharp notes of each 
oétave to be brought into play, as may be defired ; without 
altering the pitch of the long keys or natural notes. See 
TEMPERAMENT for an account of this, and various other 
fyftems of mufical intervals. 

Fincer-key Jntervals, is a term fometimes ufed for the 
half-notes, or /emi-tones, between the 13 finger-keys of inftru- 
ments ; thefe, according to the common theory and notation 
ufed by all compofers and copyifts of mufic, are equal 
among themfelves, and conform to the equa! temperament of 
the feale, fee that article, and Philofophical Magazine, 
vol. xxvii. p. 195; but, in ftri€tnefs, thefe finger-key in- 
tervals, both the fimple ones between the next adjoining as 

well 


FINGER. 


well as between the more diflant finger-keys, differ very fen- 
fibly from each other, in moft of the other different fyttems 
of temperament, and even in different parts of the {cale of 
each of inch fyftems themfelves. ‘The number of thefe 
finger-key intervals, which any interval, larger than the en- 
harmonic diefis contains, appears on infpeétion, when it is 
exprefled in the new notation of Mr. Farey, by the number 
of /’s, or lefler fra@tions which it contains ; thus, his expref- 
fion for the fifth 358 © + 7f + 31m, (Phil. Mag. P- 35- 
vol. xxx.) fhews that interval to contain feven halt-notes or 
finger-key intervals, and by which the fituation of its treble 
above any note on the clavier or range of keys on an inftru- 
ment, or of its bafs below any note, confidered as the treble 
of a fifth, can with certainty be found. See Firru. 

Fincer-keyed Viol, a mufical inftrument, noticed under 
our article CLavioxe, which is another name for the fame 
invention; at that time we had not had an opportunity of 
feeing this inftrument, but have now the {fatisfaétion of 
being able to prefent our readers with a drawing and deferip- 
tion of it, having, for that purpofe, obtained the permiffion of 
its inventor, Mr John Ifaac Hawkins, proprietor of the ufeful 
and mechanical mufeum, No. 79, Great Titchfield itreet, 
London, where are many curious mechanical contrivances, the 
mott ftriking of which we fhall occafionally notice. P/a‘e 
XIV. Mifcellany, is devoted to the elucidation of this cu- 
rious piece of mechanifm: a general idea will be given by in- 
{peGting the firft figure, which is a perfpective view of the 
whole initrument, laid open, while the remaining figures ex- 
plain the conftruction of the more minute parts. The inftru- 
ment contains 68 gut ftrings, ftretched ina vertical pofition, 
and arranged in four feries: the firft, A, corre{ponding to the 
double bafs, with 17 large ftrings, 13 of which are covered 
with wire; the longeit face is 38 inches, and the fhortett 
28 inches: the fecond feries of 17 ftrings, B, producing the 
tones of the violoncello, from 28 to 15 inches in length: the 
third, C, is the viola, from 15 inches to feven long, and the 
fourth, the violin, are from {even to three inches long. The 
frame containing the ftrings is of equal height in all parts, 
though the effective lengths of the ftrings are only to be 
reckoned from their refpective bridges, a, 6,c, and d, to the 
‘keys; each ftring is provided with a finger-key, which 
keys are arranged in the fame order as in the organ, &c. 
and each ftring is adjufted to found the proper note for the 
key to which it belongs; the adjuftment is made at the 
upper end of the fring by a ferew. To keep the inftru- 
ment in tune, through all variations of the atmofphere, each 
ftving is ftretched by a helical fpring, attached to the lower 
part of the frame at one end, and to the ftring at the other; 
by this means the tenfion of the ftring is always equal, 
notwith{landing its variations of length from the ftate of 
moifture in the air, as the force of the {pring will not be 
fenfibly changed, by fuch minute alteration of length: thefe 
fprings are feen beneath the keys of the inftrument 
at high, and feveral of the tuning {crews are fhewn feparately 
in fig. 2. The end of the {tring, ¢, or of a wire to which it 
is tied, is hooked upon a pin projeCting from the nut, a, 
ef the fcrew, 5, which is turned round by a {mall 
handle to produce the motion of the nut, and adjuft the 
firing. 

The next parts to be {poken of are the rofined horfe-hair 
bows, which are the moft ingenious parts of this invention; 
they are four in number, being fituated at E F G and H in 
Jig: 1. one to each feries of ftrings. ‘The horfe-hairs are 
arranged within a circular ring of brafs, //, in figs. 3 and 6, 
where the method is fhewn by which an approximation to 
2 circle can be formed from a great number of fimilar and 
equal chords within a larger circle; it isin fa a polygon, 


but with fo many fides as to render its differertce from a 
circle infenfible in its effeéts: the brafs ring containing the 
hairs is {uflaiued by three wheels g, 4, andi, withinit, which 
admit of its rotative motion, and at the fame time allow the 
ftrings to pafs down through the ring at m; and to be as 
near to the hairs as poflible, without touching them: for this 
purpofe each feries of the ftrings is arranged in a circular 
form to correfpond with the curvature of the bows at EF G 
and Hin the principal figure. The circular bows are put 
in motion by a pulley on the axes of the wheel i, anda ftrap 
or band paffing round this, communicates motion from a 
vertical axis, £, in fg. 7, which is common to the whole, and 
is put in motion by a wheel, on the axis of a crank, which 
is turned by the treadle I, and provided with a fly- 
wheel, K, fig.1, to regulate the motion, and continue it, 
while the treadle is afcending : the communication between 
the horizontal axis /, fiz. 7. of thecrank and fly-wheel, andthe 
vertical axis £, giving motion to the bows, is made by two 
conical wheels, mand 7, covered with foft leather, touching 
each other in their circumferences : this is an excellent fub- 
ftitute for toothed wheels, both with refpe& to the freedom 
and ifilence ef the motion, as the toothed wheels, being ne- 
ceffarily conftru¢ied of metal, could not be divefted of an 
unpleafant found, not to be endured in a mufical inftru- 
ment. 

The keys are conftruéted, as fhewn in figs. 3 and 4, moy- 
ing on a fulcrum at 0, and by that means, when preffed 
down by the fingers, the oppofite end elevates one arm of 
the bent lever p; at the fame time the other arm is drawn 
back, and the wire, g, moves one arm of 2 fecond angular 
lever r ; the other arm ends in a hovk, which is engaged 
with the ftring correfponding to the key: from this ar- 
rangement, when the key is forced down, the ftring is drawn 
in contaé with the hairs of the bow fitwated at f, juit 
above the lever r 7, and the fri@ion caufes the itring to vi- 
brate in the fame manner as the violin. 

It is fcarcely neceflary, after this, to fay any thing re- 
{fpecting the aGtion of the inftrument: the performer 
keeps the bows in continual motion by the treadle I, which 
moves with fuch eafe as to be no impediment to the freedom 
of motion requifite for a performer ona keyed inftrument : 
an increafe of preffure on the keys caufes that fulnefs of 
tone which is fo much admired in the violin, and the delicate 
foftnefs, produced by lightly touching the keys, is a prin- 
cipal advantage in this inftrument ; and it is a great recom- 
mendation, that by its affiftance thefe excellencies 6f the 
violin are fecured to &very good performer on keyed inftru- 
ments. The velocity of the bows is another circumftance 
to be attended to at the fame time with the preflure: when 
moved flowly the tones will be foft and delicate; but whea 
the velocity is increafed the tones are full, and adapted for 
grandeur of effect ; the alteration in velocity is eafily made, 
Mr. Hawkins having adapted an ingenious balance weight 
to the treadle, which aés to turn the wheel while the treadle 
is afcending, fo that by this affiftance the wheel can be 
made to revolve exceedingly flow, without danger of pitch- 
ing, or ftopping at the higheft er loweft points of the 
cranks: this ingenious contrivance is equally adapted te 
lathes, or other machines receiving motion from the foot, 
and will be explained under the article Foor WuE=L. 

In this manner the velocity of the bows is completely 
manageable by the greater or lefs prefiure upon the treadle, 
and the performer may eafily make a fudden tranfition from 
quick to flow, by refitting the afcent of the treadle when he 
wifhes to retard it, or prefling the treadle while it is defcend- 
ing to accelerate the motion of the wheel: it is worthy of 
notice that cack bow moves with a different velocity, as is 


3L2 bot 


FIN 


beft adapted to produce the vibration of the ftrings it is 
applied to; this is effected by the different diameters of the 
four pullies on the vertical axis &, ig. 5, which tunes the 
bows; thefe are in fuch proportion, that when the double 
bafs bow revolves at the rate of 25 times fer minute, the 
others make 35, 50, and 75 revolutions in the fame ‘pe- 
riod. 

The inftrument is provided with pedals, one of which, 
when prefled down, brings a picce of rofin in eonta& with 
the hairs of each bow, fo as to caufe no interruption for 
this neceffary operation. Another pedal elevates the bows 
‘all together, and caufes them to aét nearer the bridge than 
when it is not in ufe, producing the effe€t well known to 
performers on the violin when they bow near the bridge ; 
for this purpofe the frame containing the three wheels g, 4, i, 
Jig. 6. of the bow, terminates in a ftem ¢, which flides in a 
focket, and can be elevated or depreffed by the pedal juft 
mentioned. Athird pedal brings a piece of leather lightly 
in contact with the middle of each ftring, which caufes it 
to vibrate in two portions, and found the oétave in a beau- 
tiful tone, fimilar to the mufical, glaffes. 

FINGERIN, in Jchthyology, a name given to the Samlet 
or Salmulus, called alfo Branlin and Salmoneta, which is the 
leaft of the trout kind, and fuppofed by feveral, without 
fufficient reafon,.as Pennant conceives, to be the fry of the 
falmon. It is frequent in the Wye, in the upper part of 
the Severn, and the rivers that run into it, in the north of 
England and in Wales. Thefe fifhes are alfo common in 
the rivers of Scotland, where they are called Pars, ‘Thofe of 
the Wye are there known by the name of Skirlings, or Laf- 
prings. This fifh refembles the trout, but the head is 
narrower, and the mouth lefs than that of the trout; the 
body deeper ; length feldom exceeding fix or feven inches 5 
the pectoral fins have generally one large black fpot, fome- 
times attended by a fingle {mall one; the fpurious or fat fin 
on the back is never tipped with red, nor is the edge of the 
anal fin white ; the {pots on the body are fewer than thofe 
-of the trout, and not fo bright, and it is marked from the 
back to the fides with fix or {even large blueifh bars, whence 
it has been called fingerin or fingery ; the tail is much more 
forked than that of the trout. Some have erroneoufly fup- 

ofed that there are no other but males of this {pecies. 

FINGERING en Keyed Inftruments. This is a fub- 
jet which, to treat amply, requires great knowledge, me- 
ditation, and experience ; anc fo many examples and il- 
luftrations of th+ rules, as an entire volume could hardly con- 
tain, much lefs an article of a diGtionary. We fhall, how- 
ever, give the principal elementary rules for the carriage of 
the hand, and economy of the fingers, in a few keys, which, 
by analogy, may be extended to the reft. Couperin (fee 
Doicurer) was the firft who treated the fubjec&t with in- 
telligence, in the minority of Louis KV. 1717 ; and though 
his compofitions, for which the rules were given, have long 
fince been thrown afide and forgotten, molt of his rules are 
ftill good for mufic of a very different kind. He adviles 
parents to place their children. under an intelligent matter, 
at fix or feven years old, and prefcribes not only the man- 
ner of placing the hands on the keys, but the carriage of 
the perfon. ‘The height of the feat, if allowed to fit at fo 
early an age, fhould be fuch as would place the wrifts on a 
level with the keys; the fingers fhould be curved fo as to 
be all of the fame length, fo as that each fhould cover a 
key. Something fhould be placed under the feet of very 
young {tudents, to prevent them from hanging loofe in the 
air, and to fupport their frames in a juft Salbraes aad 
this fupport fhould be diminifhed in proportion to their 
growth, The diltance at which a perfon of mature age 


FIN 


fhould fit from the inftrument fhould be about nine inehes 
and lefs in proportion to the fhort arms of children. They 
fhould place themfelves in the middle of the keys, in as na- 
tural and eafy a pofture as poflible; the knees not too clofe, 
and the feet even. Great attention muft be paid to the 
countenance of children, that no grimace or appearance of 
difficulty fhould be vifible, and become habitual, which 
would be attended to by ftanders-by more than the mufic 
that is performing, however good and well executed. M. 
Couperin even advifes a glafs to be placed on the defk of 
the young performers in danger of becoming ridiculous, 
that they may corre&t themfelves. Particular care fhould 
be taken to place the hands even, and not let very young 
fubjeéts attempt reaching oGaves too foon, as it flattens 
the left hand, and makes it feem to belong to a different 
perfon from the other. The time or meafure fhould never 
be marked by the head, feet, or the whole perfon, which is 
unbecoming and conftrued into affe€tation, Even in count- 
ing the time it fhould be done in a whifper, or elfe it tends 
to prevent the ear from having any fhare in the performance, 
The fingers fhould be fufpended as near the keys as poffible, 
and all their force fhould come from the upper joints, not 
from the weight of the hand, which would be heavy and 
thumping. Children in their early leffons fhould not be 
fuffered to practife alone; they are too giddy and playful 
to remember the rules, till duly impreffed by care and habit. 
Couperin ufed to take away the key of the inftrument 
during the firft leffons, that they might not undo in his ab- 
fence all that he had tried with great pains to inculcate. 
Shakes, beats, and trills, in all keys, mult be early prac- 
tifed with both hands extremely flow, and quickened by 
degrees ; as mutt be the exercifes for each hand, ealled evo- 
lutions of fingering ; for which fee mufic plate. The weak 
fingers of both hands, that is, the ring finger and the little 
finger, mult be very much exercifed, to make them, if pof- 
fible, equally brilliant with the others. Chords, if the 
hands are well placed on the inftrument, are perhaps the 
beft rules for fingering; for if the notes can be well and 
eafily {truck together, there will be no difficuity in breaking 
them into paflages. The rapidly running up and down 
the keys, whatever number of flats and fharps there may be 
at the clef, depends on the thumb, which, in keys with 
flats, fhould be placed, in general, on C or F, and in moft 
keys with many fharps upon B and E, that is, on a lone 
key, which, if there are more than five fharps, will be E 
and B x. The thumb of each hand, as far as five flats, 
mutt be appropriated to F and C for the fame reafon; but 
neither the thumb nor the little finger, in the rapid afcent 
or defcent of the feale, fhould be ufed for a fhort key, unlefs 
in playing octaves or chords compofed entirely of flats and 
fharps. In practifing quick paflages, the fingers fhould be 
lifted up with a f{pring, and not allowed to hang on the 
keys, till wanted again, unlefs in arpeggioing chords, or 
in paflages of expreflion. In\the firft prattice of a fhake, in 
order to keep the wrift quiet, place the thumb on the 5th, 
4th, or 3d below, and keep the fingers that are unoccupied 
as tranquil as poflible. Couperin was the firft, we believe, 
who made it a rule for his fcholars never to play two notes 
together with the fame finger, unlefs in repeating chords. 
See examples of iteration, Plate N° V. 
N° VIII. Shakes fhould be praétifed with all the fingers. 
Tranfient fhakes, double fhakes, a chain of running fhakes 
turned, a feries of double notes in 3ds, 6ths, and oc- 
taves; in the two latter, the thumb and the little finger 
only can be uted, and nothing but dawnright drudgery 
and perfeverance can acquire thefe modern tricks, fo unna- 


tural to the genius of keyed inftruments. Double fhakes 


san 


FIN 


ean only be gained, if at all, by long and patient practice. 
The experiment, however, fhould be made. 

N° IX. In order to transfer the fingers to different parts 
of the inftrament, upwards or downwards, without quit- 
ting anote which ought to be futtained, the young ftudent 
fhould change the fingers upon the fame note with both hands 
without letting the key rife. ‘There is no harm in letting 
children play their firft leffoss by heart: it fortifies the me- 
tory; occupies the ear more than the eye ; and, indeed, it is 
impoffible for them to find the keys without looking at them, 
till the fingers fall mechanically upon certain paffages and 
chords, as the feet, in walking, move without the owner 
paying the leaft attention to them. 

With refpeé& to reading mufic readily, it muft be acquired 


by playing firft with one hand, and then with the other, ff 


feveral new pages of notes every day, without repeating 
any thing; and when that can be done readily, at fight, with 
each hand feparately, then let the pupil begin playing fim- 
ple ftrains with both hands. This will be practice for the 
eye alone. But in learning to execute difficulties, it mutt 
be done by beginning flow, and repeating quicker and 
quicker a thoufand anda thoufand times ; this is praGtice for 
the finger. Expreffion depends greatly on the fultaining and 
ceflation of found; or, in techuical language, on what the 
Italians term /egato or foffenato, and ftaccato or fciolto, as 
well as on accents, and the different fhades of piano and 
orte. 

In the evolutions of fingering, or fhort exercifes to form 
the hands, it feems a paradox, but it may be truly faid of 
Nos. III. and IV. that, by throwing a finger away, the 
fingers, in fuch pafflages, become inexhauttible. 

In the courfe of thefe exercifes, where the fingers are 
marked, the femicircle, or ftar, includes fuch notes as lie 
under the hand, without any contrivance or change: and 
in other places, where no fingers are marked, fuch are ufed 
as lie over the keys. 

The detached paffages, N° VII. are meant to be feve- 
rally repeated quicker and quicker, till the hand is tired. 

FINGRIGO, in Botany. See Pisonra. 

FINIA, in Geosraphy, a town of Sweden, in the pro- 
vince of Schonen; 20 miles N. W. of Chriftianftadt. 

FINIAL, in Ancient Archite@ure, the flower, fruit, or 
foljage terminating a pediment or pinnacle in the pointed 
ftyle. This repreiented a lily, a trefoil, an acorn, a pome- 
granate, endive, &c. according to the talte of the architea 
or artift. 

FINIANA, or Finawna, in Geography, a town of Spain, 
in the province of Grenada ; feven miles S. of Baga. 

FINICA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, near 
the coaft; 50 miles S. of Satalia.—Alfo, a river of Natolia, 
which runs into the Mediterranean, 14 miles W. N. W. of 
Cape Chelidoni. 

INIMARBOO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra; 96 
miles W. N. W. of Sego. 


FINING. See Rerininc. 
Fisine of Wines. The ufwal method of fining down 


wines, fo as to render them expeditioufly bright, clear, 
and fit for ufe, is this: take an ounce of ifinglafs, beat it 
into thin fhreds with a hammer, and diffolve it by boiling in 
a pint of water; this when cold becomes a iliff jelly. 
Whilk up fome of this jelly into a froth with a little of the 
Wine intended to be fined, then ftir it well among the reit in 
the caik, and bung it down tight ; by this means the wine 
will become bright in eight or ten days, This method, 
however, is found to be belt fuited to the white wines: for 
the red ones, the wine coopers commonly ufe the whites 
ef eggs beat up to a froth, and mixed in the fame manner 


FIN 


with their wines. The method by which thefe vifcous 
bodies act in the operation is this ; they entangle themfelves 
among the flying lee or light feculencies that float in the 
wine, and thus forming a mafs {pecifically heavier than the 
wine, they fink through the body thereof like a net, carry- 
ing down all the foulnefs they meet in the way to the bottom; 
but when the wine is extremely rich, fo that its fpecific gra- 
vity 1s greater than that of the mafs formed by the ingre- 
dients ufed in fining ‘and the dregs or lee ; this mafs then 
rifes upwards, and floats at the furface of the wine, which 
will in this cafe alfo draw off fine. See CLariFicaTION 
and Forcine. 

FINIRE, in Law, was ufed to fine, or pay a fine upon 
compofition and making fatisfaftion. It is the fame with 
nem facere, mentioned in Leg. Hen. I. cap. 53. 

FINISHING, in Archite@ure, &c. is frequently ap- 
plied to the crowning or acroteria over a piece of building, 
placed there to terminate and finith it. 

VFINISTERRA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the 
province of Galicia, near Cape Finifterre. 

FINISTERRE, formerly a portion of Bretagne, in 48° 
25! N. latitude, now the molt wefterly department of 
France, bounded on the N., W., and S., by the fea, and 
on the E. by the departments of the North coafts and 
Morbihan, eftimated at about 50 miles from N. to S. and 
40 to 45 from E. to W., and containing 343 fquare leagues, 
and 474,349 inhabitants. It is divided into five diftrias, 
viz. Breit, having 149,610 inhabitants ; Morlaix, 109,414 5 
Chateaulin, 82,131 3. Quimper, 84,0745 and Quimperié, 
48,620. Its capital is Quimper ; and its other chief towns 
are Breft, Morlaix, Chateaulin, Lefneven, Landerneau, 
Crozon, Briec, Quimperlé, and Bannalec. Its chief rivers 
are the Aulne and Odet. The number of its cantons is 43> 
and that of its communes, 257; its contributions amount 

to 2,453,757 francs, and the expences charged upon it are 
315,198 f. 66c. This department is tolerably fertile, 
producing grain, flax, hemp, fruits, and good paftures, 
with mines of iron and lead. 

FinistTexre, Cape, Calticum Promontorium, called Arta- 
brum by the ancients, and by fome Norium, a cape on the 
N. W. coaft of Spain, in the province of Galicia. It is 
nearly S. or a little wefterly, about five leagues from cape 
Toriano, and {hips may anchor on the E. of a large rock, 
in fix or feven fathoms, where is a great bay that runs far 
inland, Forty-two leagues from Cape Finiflerre, there is 
alarge rock above water, dangerous to navigators. N. lat. 42° 
53' 52”. W.long. 9° 16! 15". 

FINITE, fomething bounded or limited, in contradiftinc- 
tion to infinite. 

The fchoolmen make two kinds of finite; wiz, the one as to 
extenfion, which is applied to things that have not all poflible 
or conceivable extenfion. 

The other as to perfe@ion, applied to things which have 
not the lait perfection. 

To get an idea of a thing finite in point of perfe@ion, 
we firft conceive the thing as having certain perfeCtions ; and 
then conceive fome other perfection which it has not, or 
fome perfection in a farther degree. After the fame manner 
I conceive a room to be finite, by having an idea of exten- 
fion beyond what is contained therein. 

FINITO, Jtal. in Mufic, a canon or fugue is faid to 
be finito, finifhed, when it is not perpetual, but when at 
fome certain place all the feveral parts ftop together on. the 
chord of the key note ; after having followed each other for 
feveral rounds, on fignal being given by the leading part 
holding up his finger. See Canon. Boks 

FINITOR, 


FIN 


YINITOR, in 4fronomy, the horizon ; thus called, be- 
eaufe it finifhes or bounds the fight or prof{pect. 

FINLAND, in Geography, a country of Europe, 
bounded on the north by Lapland, on the eaft by Ruffia, 
on the fouth oy agulf to which it gives name, and on the weft 
by the gulf of Bothnia. This country was formerly divided 
into Ruffian and Swedifh Finland. The former, or Ruffian 
Finland, anciently belonged to the Swedes; but it was 
partly ceded to the Ruffians by the peace of Nyftadt in 
4721, and partly at the treaty of Abo in 1743: its capi- 
tal is Wiburgh, and it now conftitutes the government of 
Wiburgh. (See Wisurca.) The limits of Ruffia and 
Sweden, fettled by the peace of Abo, are formed by the 
river Kymans which flows into the centre of the gulf of 
Finland ; on the fouth bank of which are a wooden houfe, 
a rampart of earth, and a {mall battery. The frontiers 
are defended by Frederick/ham, which fee. This province 
retains moft of its ancient privileges, with fome modifica- 
tions under the new government. The country produces, 
befides palture, wheat, rye, oats, and barley, but not fuffi- 
cient for the inhabitants. Wiburgh retains its own civil and 
criminal courts of juftice ; in penal cafes, not capital, the 
punifhments prefcribed by the provincial judicature are in- 
flied ; but whenever acriminal is condemned to death, the 
Ruffian laws interpofe, reprieve him from the fentence of 
beheading or hanging, &c. enjoined by tle Swedifh order, 
and confign him to the knout and tranfportation to Siberia. 
In the governor’s court bufinefs is tranfacted in the Swedith, 
German, and Ruffian tongues; the peafants ufe only the 
Finnith diale&, but the inhabitants of the towns underftand 
alfo Swedifh, aud many of them German. The Lutheran 
is the eftablifhed religion of the province, but the Greek 
worthip has been lately introduced by the Ruffians, This 
part of Finland is not fo extenfive as Swedith Finland. It 
‘is remarkable, that in both countries the produétions of 
nature are fooner ripe in the parts covered with forefls, 
than on the fea-coalt and iflands. The interval between 
feed-time and harveft is from ro to 12 weeks. "The Finns 
apply principally to the culture of hemp, flax, and tobacco, 
which thrives well in their country. As to trees, thofe 
which bear fruit, fuch as cherry and plum-trees, are almoft 
always deltroyed by the rigour of winter; the mulberry is 
planted and thrives only on the iflands ; the oak is faid not 
to grow beyond 61°, and the afh beyond 62°. The foreits 
of firs furnifh in Finland the principal articles of commerce 
in wood, charcoal, timber, and planks, which are fent to 
Wiburgh, Stockholm, &c. for exportation. The country 
abounds with game, and in the lakes and rivers various kinds 
of fith are plentiful. At the bottom of the morafles they dig 
earth, from which iron is extracted, and they have fome 
mines of lead. ‘The peafants of Finland differ very much 
from the Ruffians in their afpe@ and drefs ; moft of them 
have fair complexions, and many of them red hair, which 
they part at the top and allow to flow at confiderable length 
over their fhoulders ; they alfo fhave their beards; whereas 
the Ruffians have generally dark complexions and hair, 
which they cut fhort, and they alfo fuffer their beards to 
grow. The Finns, by their commerce with foreigners, are 
in general more civilized than thofe Ruffians who do not 
refide in the capital or in their vicinity. The fmalleft 
villages of Finland afford much better accommodations than 
are ufually met with in the largeft towns of Ruffia. In the 
12th century great pains were taken to convert the Finns 
to Chriftianity ; and Henry, who was bifhop of Upfal, in 
1157, fella martyr to his zeal in the accomplifhment of this 
benevolent defign. That prelate founded the firft cathedral 
in Finland at Randameki; but the fee was afterwards 


FIN 


transferred to Abo, not far from the former place. Martin 
Skytte, and Peter Serkilar, were the firft promoters of 
Lutheranifm in this country. The provinces of Swedifh 
Finland are Finland Proper, the ifle of Oeland or Aland, 
Oftrobothuia, Tavaftaland, Nyland, Savolax, and that part 
of the fief of Kymene and Carelia, which Sweden referved 
to itfelf; but the whole of Finland has lately (1809) been 
ceded to Ruffia; in confequence of the unfuccefsful ftrug- 
gles of the Swedes to maintain their independence ; and by 
the treaty of peace concluded between Ruffia and Sweden, 
and figned at Fredericktham, the incorporation of the grand 
duchy of Finland with the Ruffian empire’ was contirmed. 
The town of Torneo, and the river of the fame name, form 
the frontiers. 


Finianp Proper, a province, lately belonging to Sweden, 
fituated on the fouthern part of Finland, confidered in its 
utmoft extent, bounded on the S. by the gulf of Finland, 
and on the weft by that of Bothnia; about 169 miles in 
length and 1co in breadth. The foil is fertile, and the land, 
efpecially in the feuthern parts, produces good corn, hay, 
and hops. It has feveral fine lakes and rivers, which yield 
abundance of fifa, and on part of the coaft is a pearl fifh- 
ery. The inhabitants fubfiit by agriculture, grazing, fifh- 
ing, and the manufaGture of woollen ware. The principal 
articles of their commerce are grain, meal, cattle, butter, 
talc, linen, yarn ftockings, &c. Fiuland is divided into 
north and fouth; the capital of the former is Biorneborg, 
and that of the latter Abo. 

Finranp, Gulf of, that part of the Baltic fea which 
wafhes the coaits of the governments of St. Peterfburg, 
Reval and Wiburgh; it is above 400 verfts in length, and 
from 100 to 120 in breadth. The gulf of Finland is of 
difficult navigation, both on account of the heavy gales of 
wind that are fo frequent here, and the multitude of rocks 
and fhelves with which it abounds. 

FINMARK, called alfo Lapmark, a province of Nor- 
way, bounded on the N. by the northern ocean, on the E. 
by the northern ocean and the territories of Ruffia, on the 
S. by Swedifh Lapland, and on the W. by the northern 
ocean, The coatt of this country is well inhabited, but it has 
neither towns nor villages. The inhabitants fubfitt chiefly by 
fifhing, and their country yields the beft falmon in Norway, 
The he fuch is their latitude, continues above their heri- 
zon in fummer for fome weeks. Finmark has a particular 
governor, regilter, and judge. It is divided into Weft Fiu- 
mark, which includes twelve churches and chapels, ferved 
by five preachers; and Eaft Finmark, in which are nine 
churches and chapels, ferved by three preachers. See Finns, 

FINN, a river of the county of Donegal, Ireland, which 
flows from a lake of the fame name, and, after a courfe of 
feveral miles in an eaftern direction, joins the river Foyle, 
near Strabane. 

FINNERYDIA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland, 
34 miles S.W. of Orebro. 

FINNHAR, a {mall ifland on the weft fide of the gulf 
of Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 58’. E. long. 17°. 

FINNIKIN, in Ornithology, the name of a particular 
{pecies of pigeon, called by. More the Columba in gyruim 
fiectens. It is of the fhape and fize of the common pigeon. 
The crown of its head thas fomething of the refemblance 
of a {nake’s head ; and it is gravel-eyed, and has a tuft of 
feathers on the hinder part of its crown, which runs down 
its neck not unlike a horfe’s main. It is not feather-legged, 
and is in colour always either a black or blue pied. 

They have their name from their fingular manner of 
courting the female, which is always by rifing over her 

6 and 


FIN 


and making three or four turns, flapping the wings, and 
then turning as many times round the other way. 

FINNIS Bay, in Geography, a bay of Scotland, on the 
eaft coaft of the ifland of Harris. N. lat. 57°53’. W. 
long. 6° 55’. 

FINNS, a race of perfons, who are faid to be the abo- 
rigines of Ruflia, and who inhabited the regions of the,Vol- 
gaand the Duna. Thefe people, though they form one 
main ftem of the inhabitants of Ruffia (the Slavonians 
being the otker), have never, in any of their branches, rifen 
into aruling nation; yet as they are the common ftock of moft 
of the northern nations of Europe, they are diftinguithed by 
their antiquity, and by thear wide extent from Scandinavia to 
a great diltance among the Afiatic nations of the north, and 
thence again to the fhores of the Volga and the Cafpian. Al- 
though the Finns have been thus widely difperfed, yet they 
have preferved a general refemblance in bodily frame, in 
national character, in language, and in manners. It is alfo 
remarkable, that the greater number of thofe who belong 
to the Finnifh race, {till dwell only in the north, which 
has ever been their favourite abode, and on which account 
they are called inhabitants of moraffes or fens; and the 
fifhery and chafe have been their chief occupation and trade. 
Which of thefe widely difperfed people has the beft claim to 
be confidered as the parent ftock, it is not eafy to decide. 
The aboriginal name of Finns, known to the Roman hifto- 
rian Tacitus, is not in ufe with any of thefe nations; but 
they call themfelves by a different appellation. None of 
thefe people have ever exhibited a confpicuous figwre on the 
theatre of the world, nor acquired a permanent independ- 
ence ; but they have all, as far back as hiftory can trace 
them, been a prey to their more enterprifing and powerful 
neighbours. Accordingly, they have no chronicles of their 
own ; and their hiftory is only to be found in the annals of 
their conquerors. Of their ancient hiftory nothing certain is 
known, except that they poffeffed the greater part of Scan- 
dinavia and Ruffia in the north, and feparated into feyeral 
tribes, which either lived entirely without any government, 
or, like the Permians and proper Finns, under their own 
kings. All thefe were gradually fubjugated by three nations, 
under the dominion of which they {till remain ; viz. the 
Norwegians, the Ruffians, and the Swedes. The Norwe- 
gians were the firft who fubje€ted a part of the Finnith 
north. Finmark, which is a large province extending even 
to the eaft of Cape Nordtowards Ruffian Lapland, has ever 
been tributary tothem. Yet it appears that, long before 
the commencement of the roth century, the whole tra&, 
from Wardhuys to the White fea, was independent of 
them; and that only the remoter Finns, about the gulf 
of Bothnia and Finland, and on the Dwina, obtained 
their national freedom. 

The inhabitants of Finmark have been amply deferibed 
by Leems (De Laponibus Finmarchiz, Copenhagen, 1767, 
4to.) cited in Pinkerton’s Geography. This race of men, 
he fays, is of {mall fize, generally about four feet, with 
fhort black hair, narrow dark eyes, large heads, and high 
cheek-bones, a wide mouth, aad thick lips, and of a fwar- 
thy complexion, In the fouthern part of Finmark they 
are mingled with Norwegians; but the northern wildernefs 
is wholly their own, They call themfelves “ Same,” their 

h ‘* Same-giel,”” and their country ‘* Same-édna,” be- 

ing probably of the fame race asthe Samoieds. The lan- 
uage has only an affinity with the Finnifh, but not nearly 
fo much as the Danifh has with the German ; and, it fhould 
feem, that they had anciently a different eech, which they 
enriched with large additions from that of their more polifh- 
ed neighbours the Finns. ‘Towards the fhore they build 


FIN 


huts; and on the mountains ufe tents of a flatly conic form, 
and divided into two parts by a kind of paflage ; each part 
having three rude fubdivifions; the two fartheft for the 
mafter, miftrefs, and guefts ; the middle on each fide of the 
fire for the children; and thofe nearett the door for the 
fervants: behind thefe the cattle find a refuge, but the 
cattle are few, the rein deer conftituting their chief wealth, 
The fun abfents himfelf for feven weeks, and yet from ten 
in the forenoon to one in the afternoon, thet vilight will 
enablea perfon to read without a candle; neverthelefs the 
ftars are vifible, and the moon, when apparent, fhines all 
the day. The fun never fets for feven weeks in fummer ; 
but in the night his beams are dull, and he aflumesa ruddy 
hue. Several rivers, particularly the Tana, in eaftern Fin- 
mark, fometimes much fwelled by the melted fnow, fupply 
falmon and other fifh, the chief food of the Laplanders ; 
though at a feftival they have mutton or rein-deer, and 
mead, The men wear conic red caps, lined with fur, and 
a kind of robe of cloth or fkin; the poor fometimes ufe 
that of falmon, which appears like a white fhagreen; the 
head and neck are protected with a fort of cowl, and the veft 
is of -undreft fheep-ikin, withthe woolinwards. The head- 
drefs of the women is narrowed in the middle, widening 
like a bafon at the top: the veft and robe refemble thofe of 
the men. Their amufements are fhooting with the bow at a 
mark, a kind of tennis, and a game refembling draughts. 
They are alfo fond of wreitling, and other exercifes. They 
were formerly addiGed to magic, and were fabled by an- 
cient times to invoke a demon in the fhape of a fly, which 
was called the “ gan-fly,” and commiffioned to {ting their 
enemies. Till recent times they were immerfed in pagan= 
ifm, regarding particular mountains and rocks as gods. 
Their chef god was “ Radien,’? who dwelled in the itarry 
heavens ; in the lower aerial regions were “ Beivi,” or the 
fun, a god, as Grotius has obferved, very unjuf to them ; 
with “* Horangalis,’? or the thunderer, and other divinities. 
On earth were the gods of hunting and fifhing; and the 
goddefs «* Maderakko,”? with her daughter ‘* Sarakka,” a 
kind of Venus, who prepared the body after Radien had 
fent the foul. The ‘ Saivo Olmak,” or gods of the moun- 
tains, were fuppofed to be oracular. The places of facri- 
fice were chiefly holy mountains, near the firth of Waranger, 
and along the Tana, and fome on the bay of Porfanger. 
Their magical fongs and drums are very trivial. For 
the converfion of the Laplanders to Chriitianity, Eric 
Bredal, bifhop of Drontheim, made fome vain attempts 
about the year 1660; but the royal miffion was not found- 
ed till }714; and extended to the Laplanders of Finmark, 
with thofe of Norlandto the fouth, being a confiderable 
portion of the. diocefs of Drontheim. Since that period, 
the miffionaries have been refolute, and induftrious, and fuc- 
cefsful : there being commonly two for Finmark, one for 
the eaft, who prefides over Waranger, Tana, and Laxefiord ; 
the other for the welt, over Porfanger, Hvaifund, and Al- 
ten. 

The Roffians were the people who, next to the Norwe- 
gians, difperfed themfelves among the Northern Finns ; and 
though at firft, on their fettling about the Volkhof, they 
lived on good terms with their neighbours the Tfchudes or 
Finns, and even eleéted a government conjointly with them, 
yet afterwards they, later than the Norwegians, and earlier 
than the Swedes, conquered and fubdued them. At firft 
the Ruffians had merely the region about the gulf of Fin- 
land, er on the Kyrialabotn, and about the Ladoga lake, 
quite up tothe White fea. They afterwards {pread farther 
round in thefe defart countries, and fubjected to themfelves 
a part of Finland. In the fequel they took not ouly the 

whole 


FIN 


whole of Lapmark round Kola, but proceeded to levy a tri- 
bute on the Finns in the prefent Finmark, and on thofe who 
dwelt in Trumfen as far as Malanger. The other Finnifh 
nations in the Eaft, on the Volga, and in Siberia, became 
fubje&ttothem with their gradual extenfion into theferegions, 

~ by the conqueft of the Tartar kingdoms and the difcovery 
of Siberia. ‘The Swedes were the laft who founded a fo- 
vereignty in the Finnifh paits of the North. It was not 
till the middle of the 12th century, about the year 1157, 
that king Erik, the faint, undertook the fubjugation and 
converfion of the proper Finns: 1co years afterwards the 
Swedes entered Tavattland ; towards the end of the 13th 
century they eftablifhed themfelves in Karelia; and about 
the lame time the Laplanders were alfo reduced under their 
authority. Thus the whole of the Finnifh North was par- 
titioned among three fovereigns, and the nation itfelf was re- 
moved from the rank of an independent people. Of the 13 
tribes into which the Finnifh ftock was divided, 12 belong 
cither wholly orin part to the inhabitants of the Ruffian em- 
pire; viz. the Laplanders, the Finns, the Ejfthenians, the 
Livonians, Tfcheremiffes, I'fchuvafches, Mordvines, Voti- 
aks, Permiaks, Siryanes, Vogules, and Kondifh Oftiaks. 
The Madfhares alone, the great mafs of the mixed multi- 
tudes whom we at prefent call Hungarians, are the only 
Vinnifh nation which belongs not to Ruflia, and alfo the only 
one that has preferved its national independence. 

The country which is inhabited by the Finnifh nation 
comprifes the north-eaftern corner of the Bothnic and Fin- 
nifh gulfs, interfperfed throughout with mountairs, rocks, 
morafles, and lakes, between the 6oth and 65th degrees of N. 
latitude ; its circumference being computed at 30,000 verits. 
The greater part of it did belong to the kingdom of Sweden ; 
the {maller fouth-eaftern portion, till of late poflefled by 
Ruffia, contained Ingermanland, Kexholm, and Karelia, 
forming the government of Vyborg or Wiburgh, and part 
of that of St. Peterfburg. In the governmeut of Vyborg, 
the Finns compofe by far the greater part of the inhabitants, 
or more properly they are the people of the country. In 
mott of the circles of the Peterfburg government, they, with 
the Ingrians, are likewife the main bedy of the population : 
and in the government of Tver and Novgorod, they form 
confiderable colonies, which have long been fettled in thefe 
regions. The number of all the Finns living in Ruflia can- 
not be corre@ly afcertained; but they probably exceed 
400,000 perfons. ‘Tooke’s Ruff, Emp. vol. i. 

. FINO, a fmall ifland in the Baltic, near the E. coat of 
Sweden. N. lat. 58°9!. E. long. 16° 42!. 

Vino, Cape, a cape on the coalt of Genoa. N. lat. 44° 79!. 
E. long. 8° 6’. 

FINOCHIO, in Gardening, the name of a plant fome- 
times cultivated as afallad herb. See ANETHUM. 

It is raifed by fowing the well ripened feeds procared 
from Italy, about the end of March in a warm fituation, on 
a bed of light rich earth in’ the drill manner, very thin, co- 
vering them in lightly with the fine mould. The drills 
fhould not be nearer together than about eighteen inches. 
The plants will be up in about a month, when they mutt be 
thinned out to fix or feven inches diftance, and be kept per- 
feG@ly clean trom weeds. When the flalks begin to fwell out 
above the furface of the ground, they fhould be earthed up 
in the manner of cellery, when in the courfe of a fortnight 
they will be ready for ufe, and eat crifp and tender. Suc- 
ceflive crops fhould be fown every three weeks until July. 
The late put in crops being occationlly watered and fhaded 
from the heat of the fun. 

"This plant is not now much cultivated in our kitchen 
gardens. 


FIO 


FINOW, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the 
Upper Mark of Brandenburg 3 32 miles N. E. of Berlin. 

FLNSCALE, in Ichthyology, an Englifh name for the 
river fifth, more ufually called the rudd, the rutilus latior, 
or rubellio fluviatilis of authors. See Cyrrinus ery- 
throphthalmus. 

FINSPANG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft 
Gothland; 15 miles N. W. of Nordkioping. 

FINSTER-AAR-HORN, a high mountainof Switzer- 
land, in the canton of Bern; the elevation of which has been 
found by actual meafurement to be 14,116 Englifh feet. 

Finster Munffer, a town of the Tyrolefe; 12 miles 
N.E. of Trafp. 

FINSTERBACH, a river of Franconia, which runs into 
the Rednitz, 2 miles N. of Roth, 

FINSTERWALDA, a town of Saxony, in the. mar- 
graviate of Meiffen ; 36 miles N. of Drefden. N. lat. 51°37’. 
E. long. 13° 56’. 

FINO, Jta/. in Mufie, implies a feint in preparing for 
fomething that is not“performed, as cadenza-a-jinita implies 
the making a full clofe expected, when, inftead of the bafe 
falling a 5th or railing a 4th, another unexpected bafe and its 
harmony are given, which at prefent is called a difappointed 
cadence, and may be brought about various ways. 

FINTONA, in Geography,a {mall poft town of Ireland, 
in the county of Tyrone, on the road from Omagh to 
Ennifkillen ; 7 miles S. from Omagh, and g4 miles N. W. 
from Dublis. 

FINTRAY, a town of Scotland, in the county of 
Stirling, containing about rooo inhabitants ; 8 miles S. W. 
of Stirling. 

FINVARRA Pornt, a cape of Ireland, in the county 
of Clare, on the fouthern coalt of Galway bay. W. long. 
9° 4. N. lat. 53° 7’. 

FIONDA,a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, in the 
gulf of Satalia; anciently called Pha/elis, near a famous pafs 
into Pamphilia; now the fee of a Greek bifhop, though 
much decayed; 28 miles S. of Satalia. N, lat. 36° 36’. 
E. long. 30° 26!. : 

FIORA, ariver which rifes in the Siennefe, and runs inte 
the fea below Montalto, in the duchy of Cattro. 

FIORAVANTI, Leonarp, in Biography, a phyfician 
of Bologna, in the fixteenth century, who poffeffed a confi- 
derable degree of reputation among his contemporaries, not 
only onaccount of his knowledge in medicine, but alfo of his 
chirurgical dexterity. Neverthelefs he was an arrant empiric, 
in the modern fenfe of the werd, and in the writings which 
he left behind him, he dwells at great length on the excel- 
lence of the fecret remedies which he pofleffed, and is violent 
in his condemnation of blood-letting. He died on the 4th 
of September 1588. The titles of his works, which are in 
Italian, are as follows ; ‘* Del Specchio di Scientia Univer- 
fale,”? Venice, 1564. ‘* Regimento della pefte,”? ibid. 1565. 
“© Capricci Medicinali,” ibid, 1568. ‘* Il Teforo della 
vita humana,” ibid, 1570. ‘* Compendio dei Secreti Natu- 
rali,”” Turin, 1580, Venice, 1581, &c. ‘* Della Fifica, di- 
vifa in Libri Quattro,” Venice, 1582, ‘¢ Cirurgia,”’ ibid. 
1 ae All thefe works have undergone feveral editions.— 

Eloy. 

FIORENTINO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the 
Campagna di Roma; 25 miles N. of Terracina. N. lat. 
41° 42.'E. long. 13° 6'.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Capi- 
tanata ; 7 miles S. of Lucera. 

FIORENZUOLA, a town of Etruria, in a valley ef 
the Apennines, on the {cite of the-ancient Fidentia; 22 
miles N. of Florenee.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Parma. 

4 —<Alfo, 


FIR 


—Alfo, atown of Naples, in Capitanata, anciently called 
Florentinum ; now decayed; 10 miles S. of St. Savaro. 

FIORI, Mario va, in Biography, a painter of flowers, 
whofe real name was Mario Nuzzi. He was born at 
Perona in the kingdom of Naples in 162 3, and ttudied with 
his uncle T’omafo Salini. 
tions of nature, as flowers, fhells, &c. with great beauty. 
A fulnefs and richnefs of touch and colour are given by him 
with great elegance and lightnefs. It was fo much the talte 
of the time to admire his produtions, that he could not 
complete them faft enough for the demand ; and what was 
more to his credit, Domenichini and other artifts of renown 
were not afhamed to paint in conjunction with him. One 
of his moft capital works is in the church of St. Andrea 
della Valle at Rome. It is a wreath of flowers encircling 
the portrait of St. Gaetano, which was painted by Andrea 
Camaffei. At Wilton is a very beautiful painting of his; a 
wreath of flowers round a head of the virgin, by Carlo 
Dolci. He died in 1673, at 70 years of age. 

FIORITO, ral. is a mufical term, implying flowery, 
ornamented; as canto fiorito, florid fong, contrappunto frorito s 
to diftinguifh them trom canto fermo, and coni appunto Jem- 

lice. : 

FIORLITA, in Geography, a {mall ifland of the Medi- 
terranean, at the entrance of the gulf of Tarento. N. lat. 

0° 14', FE. long. 13°. 

FIORONI, Gian. Anprea, in Biography, mactro 
di cappella at the great church or Duomo in Milan, about 
the middle of the laft century. He was an excellent con- 
trappuntift alla Pale&trina, that 16 to fay, in the ttyle of our 
belt old mafters in their fervices and full anthems, which 
confilt of good harmony, ingenious points and contrivances, 
but no melody. Sig. Fioroni is a voluminous compofer 
and publifher of mafles and motets in eight parts, @ due 
ori. So that though this {tyle, and that of the church, are 
abandoned in Italy, on days of fettival, when inflruments 
and fecular fingers are employed, the ancient grave ftyle 
of the 16th century is not wholly loft. 

FIR-Tree, in Botany. See Astes and Pinus. 

Fir-T7ree, the common name of a tree of the evergreen tim- 
ber kind, frequently met with in the more elevated and 
mountainous fituations of the colder climates of the north. 
Ut has, for the moft part, fingle leaves, which are produced 
on’ every fide of the branches. This is a tree which is 
capable of being raifed upon almoft any fort of foil which 
is not very retentive of moi{lure ; and it is both rapid in its 
growth, and hardy in its nature, but not perhaps fo orna- 
mental as fome others of the evergreen kind. 

The ufual method of vaifing thefe trees is by fowing the 
feeds taken from the well ripened cones which they produce. 
‘The mode of extricating the feeds from the cones is, either 
by ‘expofing them to the gentle heat of a fire, or by 
foaking them fora fhort time in warm water, by which they 
readily open and emit the feeds. ‘The former method is the 
beft, when due attention is paid not to expofe them to 
too great a degree of heat. This fhould not however be 
done until the period of fowing or putting them into the 

_ ground. Thebett way is to fow them in a nurfery where 
the land has been well prepared, in order that they may be 
well protected from the ravages of birds at the time of their 
coming up; as they are very apt to deftroy them at 
vhat period, by picking off the hufks of the feeds which 
come up along with the plants. i 

The proper time of putting the feeds into the ground is 
about the end of March, or beginning of the following 
month. They fhould be fown on a bed of light earth, and 
covered to the depth of about half an inch by means of a 

Vou. XIV. 


He imitated the lighter produc-- 


Fi 


garden rake. The plants flould be continued in this be@. 
until the following {pring, being kept perfeétly clean from 
weeds. At that time other beds fhould be put in 2 proper 
{tate of preparation for receiving the young plants; into which 
they fhould be carefully tranfplanted in rows, at the ditancé 
of fix or eight inches from each other, and three or four 
inches apart in the rows. When the feafon happens to be 
very dry afterwards, it may be proper to water the plants 
once ortwice a week according to the heat of the weather : 
and in fome cafes itmay be requifite to cover the beds with 
atsin order to {creen them from the fun arddrying winds, un- 
tilthey have taken good root; after which ro further care is 
neceflary, except that of keeping them free from weeds. 
Vhe plants may continue in thefe beds two years ; at 
the eud of which time they may be removed into other 
{paces of open ground properly prepared for them, being 
placed ont at fuch diftances as may be moit {uitable for 
them. The moft ufual diftances in thefe cafes are four or 
five feet from row to row, and two or three feet apart in the 
rows. 

After they have been planted out, when the weather 
happens to be dry, they fhould ave a good watering to 
fettle the mould to their roots ; and which may be repe 
three or four times, in cafe the feafon continues droughty ; 
with great beneiit in promoting their taking root, and 
fecnring them from the effects of drying winds, 

The plants may remain in thefe fituations for two or 
three years longer, ‘or until they may be wanted; during 
which time the ground fhould be dug between the rows in 
every {pring, and be afterwards kept perfe@ly clean from 
weeds by frequent hoeing, care being taken in the diggings 
not to cet or injure their roots. This is all that is requi- 
fite in their cultivation while they remaia in fuch places. 

When they are to be removed into the fituations where 
they are to remain, great care is necefiary in taking up the 
plants, not to cut off or hnrt the roots, ner to fufferthem to 
centinue any length of time expofed out of the ground, 
before they are replanted. The mot fafe time for per- 
forming the bufinefs of removing this fort of trees for 
finally planting out in moift foils is the beginving of April; 
though in dry lands they may often be planted about 
Michaelmas, with fuecefs. 

Fir trees are frequently yemoved at the height of fix or 
feven feet and fometimes more, but the height of two or 
three feet is much better, and plants of this hei! t zeneraily, 
in the courfe of a few years, furpafs thofe that have greater 
heights when firft fet out. 

The firf, or large fort of plant, muft, at firt planting out, 
be always well fecured by flakes or other meauis, in order to 
prevent their being moved and made loofe by winds, which, 
whenever they occur, are fure of deftroying the trees. The 
finall plants only ftand in need of having the mould firmly 
trodden sin about their roots durin g ‘the time they are 
planting out, ; 

The vatt improvements that have been made by planting 
large mailes of trees) of tle fir kind on the poor, bare, 
bleak, expofed, moory, and heathy fituations in the northern 
parts of Scotland, fuiliciently thew their importance, and 
plainly demonttrate the advantage of {uch undertakings in 
{uch places, where properly managed. And though it may 
be admitted that the Scotch fir ts amongit the mot perifh- 
able and leaft valaable forts of timber wood that can be 
raifed, and confequently fells in general, at the leatt price ; 
yet as the expence of raifing it is very trifling, the returns 
are in all cafes fo abundant as to fully fatisfy thofe who have 
engaged inthe forming of fuch plantations. This has even 
been the cafe when no other cireumftance but the dire@ in- 

3M come 


FIR-TREE. 


come which has arifen from fueh plantations themfelves has 
been taken into the account. But when the collateral ad- 
vantages are confidered likewife, the benefit occafioned by 
them is evidently extremely great. It has been ftated by 
the author of the “ Effays on Rural Affairs’’ that in the 
vicinity of plantations of the fir kind, houfes can be raifed 
at fo little expence, and the roofs are fo much ftraighter, 
and better than the ordinary ones, that fettlers in fuch fitu- 
ations are induced to make their houfes much neater and 
more commodious than in other places; and befides rails, 
and other kinds of materials for dead fences, can be fo 
eafily procured, that the poor people are firft enabled to 
have goed well-fenced gardens, and then commodious in- 
clofures of larger extent ; the branches likewife afford fuel 
to them, which adds greatly to the comforts of their fitua- 
tion. The cutting and manufacturing of the wood into various 
kinds of utenfils furnifh employment for a great many 
perfons ; population is thereby increafed, and with an aug- 
mentatiou of population, its neceffary confequence, the delire 
for land to produce the aeceflaries of life, and of courfe an 
increafe of rent to the proprietor. Thefe new fettlers in the 
defert waftes of Scotland, like thofe in America, cultivate 
and improve the foil in proportion as the trees are removed 
from it. At this moment, it is added, Mr. G Dempfter, who 
will be long refpeted by his countrymen, fees fields on his 
eftate rapidly converting, in this way, into cultivated 
ground, and yielding him ten or twelve fhillings per acre in 
rent, not only without any expence to himfelf, but after 
having derived a confiderable profit from the fale of woods 
of his own planting, which grew upon land that twenty- 
five years ago was not worth to him above two pence the 
acre, and which might have remained in that ftate, perhaps 
for ages to come, had it not been planted at all. It is con- 
tended by the fame writer, that it is by a judicious manage- 
ment of this fort that men of large landed eitates, by a little 
fore-fight, find themfelves enabled to provide both employ- 
ment and fubtiftence, with much profit, to a numerous 
people, who mutt otherwife have either remained in a detti- 
tute condition, or have abandoned a country, which did not 
properly provide for their accommodation. 

It may be remarked likewife that a plantation of Scotch 
firs may be made at much lefs expence than of any other 
fort of trees in thofe northern parts of the kingdom, as the 
young plants can be afforded at a lower price than any 
others. In Aberdeenfhire, where planting is fo general as 
to have become a fort of occupation, fir plants of two years 
growth, above which age no experienced planter will ever 
buy them, fometimes will be fold at the very low rate of 
fourpence the thoufand, which confifts of twelve hundred 
plants; and they formerly feldom exceeded eightpence ; 
onthe average about fixpence, or one halfpenny the hun- 
dred: but they have lately been confiderably higher. 
‘There are men who make a bufinefs of forming plantations, 
who will undertake to complete the whole, enclofing and 
planting, at the diftance of one yard each way, and uphold 
them for five years, that is, fupply any deficiencies that may 
take place, at the rate of from ten to fifteen or thirty fhil- 
lings the Scotch acre, which is nearly equalto one anda 
quarter Englifh, according to the fize of the inclofure, and 
the nature of the fence. In all cafes of this kind, it is fup- 
pofed that the plantations are of the extent of thirty or 
torty acres or upwards ; for where the inclofures are {maller, 
the expence of inclofing is proportionally augmented. The 
charge is thus not only rendered moderate, but the whole of 
the expence that is to be incurred, afcertained before the 
plantation is begun, by which the being involved in unfore- 
Seen difficulties is fully obviated. 


Experience has fully fhewn that there is fearcely any foil 
fo bad, or any expofure fo bleak, that the fir-tree will not 
live in, if the plantation be of fufficient extent, and not upon 
the very f{ummits of high peaked hills. They do not indeed 
bear the fea air very well, where they are much expofed to 
the feverity of its blafts; nor is the wood ever of fo good 
a quality, or the treelong lived, upon foils of the clayey 
kind. It has been found that in the fouthern parts of the 
kingdom, the pineafter bears the fea blaft much better than 
any other of the fir tribe. Thisis a difcovery of great impor 
tance, and which deferves the attention of improvers in the 
way of planting. The {pruce fir will however beara {till more 
expofed fituation than the Scotch fir; and aftera few years 
from the time of planting, it fhoots up with ftill greater luxu- 
riance. This isthe cafe probably only in particular fituations. 
But thecones are not to be had in equal abundance ; and the 
plants being more difficult in the rearing, they are fold at a 
much higher price, ufually about fix fhillings the thoufand, 
fit for being planted out. In a good foil the filver fir alfo 
profpers well, and is a beautiful tree, on account of the depth 
ofits fhade ; but the price of the plants is too great to ad« 
mit of large plantations of it being made with advantage. 
But wherever the fituation is bleak, and much expofed to 
{trong blafts of wind, the plantation muft not only be of 
confiderable extent, if the trees be expected to thrive, but 
they mutt be planted very clofe together, fo that each plant 
may ftand at the diftance of from two to three feet at moft 
from each other. The more expofed the fituation is, the 
clofer they fhould be planted; as it may be obferved that 
until the branches begin to intermix, and give a mutual fup- 
port to each other, the trees never begin to advance with vi- 
gour. Where the plantations are thus thick, there is a 
neceflity for beginning to thin them out at a pretty early pe- 
riod, fo that aitet the tenth to the fifteenth year from the 
time of planting, perfons muft be conftantly employed in 
thinning them: and there are very few fituations, indeed, in 
which the thinnings cannot be difpofed of to advantages, 
or in which fuch forts of plantations cannot be made. 

It has been remarked by an able writer, in the Tranfac- 
tions of the Bath Agricultural Society, that though he does 
not think that the Scotch fir can, in this country, ever 
equal the yellow deal from the Baltic, yet it may be worth 
propagating, as being ufeful in ordinary buildings. The 
drier the foil is on which this fort of timber grows, the 
flower is its progrefs ; but the clofer its pores, the more 
{uperior its quality. When planted in rich land thefe trees 
will fhoot three or four feet in a feafon, and equal, if net 
furpafs, the abele in growth. In his plantations, though. 
chiefly contined to chalky banks, in a north-weft expofure, 
the trees evince, that when once rooted, few obftacles will 
prevent their profitable progrefs. From obferying the mif- 
takes of others in endeavouring to ornament their naked 
downs too fuddenly, he has learnt the neceflity of planting 
firs when only a foot in height, and by opening the ground 
fome time before, inverting the turf at the bottoms of the 
holes, and throwing the mould upon it in hillocks to melio- 
rate, his plantations {ucceeded well: for though the foil is 
fcarcely fix inches in depth, the firs fet in 1766 are now 30 
feet in height, and from two feet fix inches, to two feet, in 
circumference, at four feet from the ground; fome few 
planted at the fame time in a deeper foil, and warmer fitua- 
tion, are now about three feet round. And fpruce firs, 
planted in 1766, likewife in a tolerably good foil, are now 4 
feet in height, and from two feet ten inches and a half, to 
three feet, round, But he has feen plantations that far 
furpaffed either of thefe in growth; they however occupied 
ground which was infinitely more valuable. See Pinus. In 


hard, 


FIR 


hard, fcarce feafone the tops or fhoots of the fir tree have 
been ufeful as a food for cattle, fheep, &c. 

Fir, Mo/s upright. See Lycoropium. 

Fir, Scotch, in Botany. See Pinus. 

Fir-cones, fofil, in Natural Hiflory, are extrancous foffils, 
refemblingz the cones of the fir-tree. Numbers of thefe 
have been defcribed by different authors, who appear evi- 
dently to have confounded recent and peat foffils with thofe 
belonging to, or found lodged in the undi‘turbed ftrata, or to 
have had but flight evidence of the identity of the foffils with 
recent cones. We have been told that a very perfect fir- 
cone was, a few years ago, foundat Afpley in Bedfordfhire, 
not many inches beneath the foil, in a completely filicious 
ftate. The many fables that have been publithed refpeéting 
the petrifying {prings of this place, wonld have in- 
duced the writer to have taken no notice of this, had it not 
been related to him by a gentleman of veracity, and a com- 
petent judge of thefe matters; but finee he has had himfelf the 
a tah of making enquiries on the {pot concerning this 
oflil. 

Tir-cvood, fofil, has generally been that obtained from 
out of peat moiles, in which recent fir-trees have been pres 
ferved during the growth of the peat ; and, as Mr. Parkinfon 
thinks, have undergone a degree of the dituminous FERMEN- 
Tarion (which fee), by which their inflammability has not 
only been preferved, but in {ome inftances heightened. ‘The 
fame gentleman (Organic Remains, i. 400.) figures a fill- 
civus remain, (Plate II. fig. 4 and 5.) which he deferibes as 
apiece of fir, but we think without offering fufficient proof 
of its identity to any of the recent fir tribe. 

FIRABUS, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro. 
vince of Mecran; 45 miles W.S..W. of Kidge. 

FIRAN, a {mall ifland in the Red fea, about 18 miles 
from the coaft of Arabia, celebrated for its fifheries of pearl. 
N. lat. 17°13’. E. long. 41° 30’. 

» FIRANDO, an ifland and kingdom of Japan, with a 
good harbour, in the fea of Corea. N. lat. 33° 35’. E. long. 
130° 40’. 

FIRE. This word has been ufed to expre!s things fome- 
what differing from each other; yet bearing analogy to its 
moft ufual and moft common fignilication, which is that of an 
active natural procefs, attended with the emiffion of heat 
and light, and likewife with the decompolition of certain 
fubftances, which are faid to be burning, or in a /late of com- 
buftion, during the procefs, and are faid to be burnt after the 
termination of the procefs. 

The general ufe of fire, which comes continually under 
our obfervation, fuggefts to our minds the meaning of the 
word perhaps much more readily than the recollection of 
the above itated definition; the latter, however, is at- 
tended with this advantage, namely, that it defines the 
limits of the meaning, whence it prevents its equivocal 
application. 

The various fpeétacles which fire exhibits to our fenfes ; 
its aftonifhing effects, and the innumerable ufes to which it 
may be applied, have, at all times, rendered it an object of 
the utmolt confequence to the human f{pecies. The new- 
born infant generally fixes his eyes to the flame ofa candle, 
orto a common culinary fire, in preference to any other 
object; at a more advanced age the various means of excit- 
ing and of employing tires occupy the thoughts of a very 

reat portion of the human fpecies ; and the indultry of phi- 
ofophers has at all times endeavoured to inveitigate the na- 
ture, and to account for the effects of tire. 

It is not every kind of bodies that are capable of combut- 
tion. "Chofe which are capable of fupplying a fire, or of 
being burnt, are called combu/idtes, and fuch are either 


FIR 


fimple, as hydrogen, fulphur, and phofphorus ; or coim- 
pound, viz. thofe which confift of various tubitances toge- 
ther with a notable proportion of one or more of the above- 
mentioned fimple combuttibles ; fuch as wood, coal, oils, 
&c. Several other bodies are not combuttibles ; thefe, how- 
ever, may, by the aétion of a fire, be rendered red-hot, fo 
as to emit heat and light, but they do not undergo any de- 
compofition ; or if they do undergo any, it is not of that 
kind which a fire produces amongit bodies that are really 
combuttibles. The incombuttible bodies that are rendered 
red-hot, are faid to be ina ftate of ignition, or of incan- 
defcence, and this incandefcence, which emits heat’ and 
light, exifts no longer than the caufe which produces it ; 
for after that it begins to diminilh, and gradually yanithes ; 
whereas the real combuttibles, when once fet on tire, con- 
tinue of themfelves to burn, until the materials are loft. Thus 
a pebble or a brick, by being placed in the middle of a com- 
mon fire, may be eafily rendered red-hot, but as foon as it is 
removed from the fire, its heat and light will gradually di- 
minifh, and will laftly vanifh; the pebble or the brick ‘re- 
maining in the fame tate as it was before the operation. On 
the other hand, a piece or two of wood fet on fire will of 
themfelves continue to burn until their whole fubitance is 
changed into fomething quite different from what it was be- 
fore the combuftion. 

Sometimes a fubflance which is aétually a combuflibie, 
may, when placed in a common fire, be only ignited, and 
aét like an incombuftible body ; that is, without undergo- 
ing any perceptible decompolition. The reafon of this is, 
that the given combuftible requires to be expofed to a very 
high temperature before it will fuffer decompofition ; 
therefore when placed in a lower temperature, yet fufficient to 
render it red-hot, it will then only acquire a {tate of incan- 
defcence. Thusa diamond, which is perfeétly combuttible 
ina very high temperature, may be made repeatedly red-hot 
and cooled, without the leaft alteration of its nature. 

It may alfo happen that a combuftible body may be 
placed in a degree of temperature much higher than that 
which is neceflary for its combuttion; yet the combuttion 
will not take place for want of fome of the circumitances 
upon which that procefs neceflarily depends. Thus a piece 
of charcoal placed ina clofe veflel may be rendered red-hot, 
and may be kept in that (ate for any length of time, with- 
out undergoing the leaft decompofition. The reafon of 
which is, that in a clofe veflel no oxygen gas can come in 
contaét with the ignited charcoal ; and without the pre- 
fence of oxygen, or of fubftances which can yield oxygen, so 
combuftion can take place. See the articles Comsustion 
and Excitation, wherein whatever belongs to the theory 
of combuttion will be found. ; 

From the former of thefe articles it appears, that no fire 
can continue long without a conitant fupply of a combuiti- 
ble fubftance, and of oxygen ; for the whole procefs confilts 
ina decompolition of both thefe fubflances, and the forma- 
tion of new compounds, at the fame time that the latent 
heat, or caloric, and the light, are feparated and are fet at 
liberty. As fire is of great and conjtant ule for economical 
purpofes, no pains have been {pared to determine how the 
greatelt effect may be produced in the fafeit and mott eco- 
nomical manner poffible, relative to all {pecies of fire, from 
the burning of the Jeaft lamp, tothat of the moft powerful 
furnace. ‘The combuttibles, which are ufed for all thefe 
kinds of fire, are colleGtively called fue/, and in all cafes the 
difficulty is to determine which kind of fuel is (according 
to other concurring cireumitances of place, expence, &e.) 
the fitteft for any given purpofe. The full confideration of 
thefe particulars will be found under a variety of articles, 


3M2 fuck 


PORE. 


fuch as Furt, Lawr, Licut, Furnace, &c.; we fhall 
neverthelefs barely meution in this place fome of the lead- 
ing fa€ta, which have been determined in confequence of re- 
peated experiments, and which may, for the prefent, fur- 
nifh the reader with a fufficient idea of the limits withia 
which our powers of employing fires have as yet been con- 
fined. 

Half an ounce of fpermaceti oil, of the beft kind, ina 
proper lamp, which is furnifhed with a wick of a fingle 
thread of cotton, may be made to burn for about twenty 
hours, and it feems that no fmaller or cheaper quantity of 
any other combuttible fubftance isknown, which will main- 
tain a fire for nearly fo long atime. The Chinefe ufe a 
very peculiar mode of continuing a {mall fire. A very light 
flick, about a twentieth of an inch in diameter, and about 
fourteen inches in length, is crufted over with a fine fort of 
faw-duft, wherein perhaps a very {mall quantity of nitre 
may becontained. The faw-dult is probably made to ad- 
here to the ftick by means of weak fize. Ifone of thefe 
flicks fo crufted be lighted at one extremity, it will con- 
tinue to burn, not with a flame, but like tinder, and will 
laft about a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes. The 
Chinefe keep fuch {ticks burning before their idols, or for 
the purpofe of lighting their pipes, even in their boats upon 
-water ; and when one of them is nearly out, another is put 
in its place. The flame of a lamp, furnifhed with fpirit of 
wine, is much more ative than when furnifhed with oil, 
aud it is to be remarked that the flame of fpirit of wine 
gives much more heat, and at the fame time much lefs 
light, than the like flame of oil. The flame of burning hy- 
drogen gas in common air is rot very active, at leaft 
not nearly fo attive as a fimilar iized flame from 
oil; yet it is faid that the flame of hydrogen gas, 
urged by pure oxygen gas, produces the moft active five 
known. For this experiment the two gafes mutt not 
be mixed in a common yeffel, and then Jet out of a {mall 
apeiture in.order to be lighted, and to produce a ftream of 
fire ; for in that cafe the whole quantity of mixed gafes 
would at once explode, and burft the veflel; but the two 
gafes fhould be kept in feparate veffels, as, for inftance, in 
two bladders furnifhed with itop-cocks, and when the ftream 
of hydrogen is burning, then the ftream of oxygen ought 
to be direéted towards it. The gas, which is extricated 
from coal by means of heat, has been found ufeful for light- 
ing apartments in certain circumftances, but the particn- 
lars will be found detailed under the article Frame. Fora 
culinary, or common fire place, feveral fpecies of coal fur- 
mith, ceteris paribus, the mott lafting, and, upon the whole, 
the moft ufeful fre. The fame will do for large furnaces ; 
but for fmall furnaces, wherein a clear fire may be wanted, 
or for drying malt, &c. coke or charred coal is preferred ; 
for the action of charring expels from the coal a good deal 
of grofs vapour, which otherwife renders the fire fmoky, 
efpecially at firft. The greateft heat of an air furnace, eight 
inches in diameter, according to Wedgwood’s eitimation, 
amounts to about 21,877° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, or to 
160° of Wedgwood’s. 

From the above-mentioned ftatements one may be eafily 
led to conceive what degree of credit muft be given to thofe 
idle fkories of perpetual fires, and of lamps having been 
found aétually burning in old tombs, and ftone coffins. The 
improbability, or rather the abfurdity of the accounts, is 
fo very glaring as to render them only fit for novels and low 
poems. \ 

Whatever belongs to fire, fuch as its excitation, its theo- 
ry, its economical ufes, its natural devaitations, &c. ; ob- 
trudes itfelf on our notice under fo many other obvious arti- 


cles, as to fuperfede the neceffity of rendering the prefent 
very prolix; there are, however, two particulars, which 
may with more propriety be expected in the prefent ; and 
therefore we fhall briefly fubjoin them. Thefe area {hort 
hiftory of the principal opimons that have been entertain- 
ed re{peéting the nature of fire, and fome remarks on the 
various fenfes in which the word fire has been ufed. ‘ 

The opinions of the ancient philofophers refpecting fire 
were various and fanciful. Ignorant of the leading faéis 
which.a theory is required to account for, and unafulted 
by experiments or tools, they generally made ufe of words 
which couvey no definite ideas. ‘They called it an active 
fermentation, an inteftine motion, a repulfive agent, and 
fo forth; but no real attempt towards a rational inveltiga- 
tion is to be found in their works. And though fome of 
their aflertions feem to coincide with the more rational mo- 


regular 


was communicated to them. 
the mechanical hypothetis, was believed and maintained by. 
the mott able philofophers of much earlier, and much more 
enlightened times. Bacon, Boyle, and Newton, were of, 
that opinion ; and there feems to have exifted a confider- 
able flruggle between thofe dillinguifhed perfons, and fome 
celebrated chemifts of thofe times, who maintained that fire, 
was a fluid of a peculiar nature. The former afferted that 
the phenomena of fire could be accounted for on the fuppo- 
fition that fire confifted in nothing more than the violent. 
agitation of the parts of the bodies concerned; but as no 
fuch motion could be produced without an adequate caufe, 
they were,confiderably perplexed by it, and, in fact, their 
attempts towards an explanation are very confufed. Boyle 
fays that when a piece of iron becomes hot by hammering, 
“there is nothing to make it fo, except the forcible motion 
of the hammer impreffing a vehement and varioufly deters 
mined agitation on the {mall parts of the iron.’’—It is to, 
be remarked, that the fame Mr. Boyle, on obferving the 
phenomena of the metallic bodies acqsiving additional. 
weight by their calcination, was induced to publifh a trea-, 
tife on the poflibility of rendering fire and flame ponderable. 
Bacon defines heat, (which he confiders as meaning the, 
fame thing as fire) to be ‘* an expanfive undulatory motion, 
in the minute particles of a body, whereby they tend with 
fome rapidity from a centre towards a circumference, and, 
at the fame time a little upwards.’? Newton did not at- 
tempt to affert any thing pofitive concerning it ; but he con-., 
jeGured that grofs bodies and light might be convertible 
into one another; and that great bodies of the fize of oun 
earth, when violently heated, might continue and increafe- 
their heat by the mutual ation and re-aétion of their: 
arts. » : 

The firft of the chemifts who attempted to form chemif- 
try into a regular fyitem, was John Joachim Beccher, but. 
the famous George Erneft Stahal, (who was born in the 
year 1660, and died in. the year 1734,) by following 
Beccher’s plan, continued to raife the edifice, endeavouring 
to colle& the principal faéts then known into a coherent, 
fyftem, by connecting them by means of general principles. 
This intelligent man, amongit other improvements, formed. 
the famous phlogiftic theory of fire (fee the article Com, 

5 BUSTION)», 


EUR SE. 


Busrron), which was almoft univerfally adopted, notwith- 
ftanding its infufliiciency to account for fome of the moft 
eilential phenomena of combultion. This theory continued 
in yogue until towards the clote of the-lait century, when a 
new fyftem of chemiftry, and a new theory of fire was an- 
nounced to the world by the immortal Lavoifier, who un- 
fortunately died in the year 1794. His hypothefis, befides 
the conviction with which its bare enunciation was attend- 
ed, has continually derived additional confirmation from a 
variety of new fats and fubfequent experiments. This 
Lavoifier’s hypothefis will be found particularly defcribed 
under the article CompusTion. 

Since the publication of Lavoifier’s hypothefis, or rather 
eftablifhed theory, an obje€tion, apparently of importance, 
has been made to it by Count Rumford, in confequence of 
fome experiments which he made upon friétion. ‘This gen- 
tleman found, that ia boring a cannon during half an hour, 
the temperature was raifed 70°; and that it fuffered a lofs 
of 837 grains by the duft and {cales tora off, which amount- 
ed to 54th part of the cylinder. He then, calculating upon 
the fuppofition that all the heat fo raifed was given out by 
thofe feales and duit, concludes that they muit have loft 
66,360° of temperature; when at the fame time he found 
that their fpecitic heat was not thereby fenfibly diminithed. 
This obfervation made him doubt the exiltence of the caloric 
propofed by Lavoilier, as a principle /ui generis, &c. and 
prompted him to make certain unwarrantable queries re- 
{petting the nature of fire; but he omitted to notice a very 
material cireumftance ; namely, the compreffion which the 
whole piece of metal fuffered in confequence of the boring ; 
hence Mr. Dalton juftly fays, «¢ the heat excited does not 
arife from the feales merely, elfe how fhould hammering 
make a body red-hot without any lofs of feales? The fact 
is, the whole mafs of metal is more or lefs condenfed by the 
violence ufed in boring, and a rife of temperature of 70’, 
or 100°, is too {mall to produce a fenfible diminution in its 
capacity for heat. Does Count Rumford fuppofe, that if 
in this cafe the quantity of metal operated upon had been 
one pound, and the duit produced the fame as above, that 
the whole quantity of heat evolved would have been the 
fame ?”” 

The word fire has alfo been ufed both figuratively and in- 
correctly. The allegorical expreffions of the fire of the ima- 
gination, the fire of youth, the fire of contention, and fo forth, 
do not fall under the cognizance of natural philofophy ; 
but the fcientific ufe of that word for expreffing heat with- 
out light, or light without heat, or laftly, things which have 
neither heat nor light, is in want of correction. ‘Thus phof- 
phorefcent fubftances, like certain pieces of decayed wood, 
fifh, &c. are frequently faid to be on fire ; whereas they 
are not attended with any degree of heat. Allo the heat of 
fermenting fubftances, and of other kinds of chemical com- 
binations, has eften been called their fre. But the mott fin- 
gular ufe of that word is its being often employed for ex- 
prefling the electric fluid, which in its quiefcent ilate thews 
neither heat nor light. It is true that in a vait number of 
electrical experiments fire is a€tually produced, and every 
eleGtric fpark is capable of fetting tire to certaia inflammable 
‘bodies.. Avery {mall fpark of eletricity, fuch indeed as 


may appear not bigger than a pin’s head, is fufficient to 


inflame, hydrogen gas. But it muft be confidered that the 
effeéts of fire take place only when the electric fluid. is 
obliged to pafs through certain fubftances which in fome 
“meafure obitru& -its free motion. A Leyden phial fully 
charged with electricity, and left infulated, does not _fhew 
the leaft, perceptible mark of light or of heat, more than a 


ot 


fimilar phial not charged with electricity. Let the charged 


phial be difcharged througha fubftance which refitts its paf- 
iage, (and all fubftances obftrué the paflage of the eleétric 
fluid more or lefs,) and the moft aftonifhing effects of fire 
are produced; metallic bodies are fufed, and even difperfed 
into f{moke, combuttible bodies are inflamed, hard bodies 
are broken, &c. If the difcharge be made through the beft 
vacuum which can be effected by means of an air-pump, the 
light and the heat will hardly be perceptible, becaufe that 
vacuum offers a very trifling refiftance to the paflage of the 
eleétric fuid. In fhort it 1s univerfally true that the pro- 
duction of fire, that is the evolution of light and heat, is, if 
not exactly, at leaft nearly proportionate, to the obftraGion 
which a given quantity of cleétric fluid meets with in its 
paflage from one place to another. ‘Therefore, upon thefe 
and other obvious confiderations, which would be ulfelefs to 
mention in this place, inflead of looking upon the eleGrie 
fluid as fire, would it not be more rational to attribute the 
effects of fire, which are obferved in eleétrical experiments, 
to the {core of fri@tion? In, the boring ef holes with hard 
tools, in the driving of nails through wood, in the quick 
paflage of a bullet through the air or through harder fub- 
{tances, and in a great many other fuch like cafes, no one 
hefitates to attribute the produétion of heat to fri€tion or 
preffure ; and if the very rapid movement of the electric fluid 
through bodies, and its immenfe elafticity be confidered, it 
fhould feem that the effects of fire which are obferved in 
electrical experiments, ought likewife to be attributed to 
the above-mentioned caufe of fri€tion or preflure. 

Fire, in Medicine and Surgery, is ufed in the fame fenfe 
with cautery. See Caurery and Caustie. 

Fire alfo gives the denomination to divers difeafes, as, 

Fire, St. Anihony’s. It feems clear that the eryfipelas 
was firft fo called in the fouth of France, and in the 12th 
century, where and when this diforder was exceedingly pre- 
valent, from the fuccefs of the monks of St. Anthony 
(whofe profeffion it was to attend the fick, and who there- 
fore carried the figure of acrutch upon the left fhoulder) in 
curing it. They made great ufe of lard in thefe cures; 
hence their pigs were allowed to range free through the 
neighbouring grounds ; and that they might be diitinguifhed 
from other pigs, bells were hung round theirnecks. Thefe 
circumftances account for the figure of St. Anthony, the 
Egyptian hermit of the 4th century, being reprefented with: 
the pig, the bell, and the letter Tau upon his fhoulders 
Paquot in Molanum, de imaginibus. ; 

Tire, walking, called alfo Will-with-a-wifp, Jack-in-a- 
lantern, ignis fatuus, &c. See lonts faiuus. 

_ Fire, in Dheology, is frequently underftood of the punifh- 
ment of the wicked after death. See Hexx. . 

It is fuppoted the world will perifh at lait by fire. See 
ConFLAGRATION. j 

God has made feveral revelations of himfelf under the ap= 
pearance of fire ; he appeared to Mofes under the form of a4 
fire burning in a bufh; the Holy Ghoft defcended on \the 
apoitles in tongues of fire ; and the camp of the Ifraclites 
was guided and conduéted in the night time by a pillar of fire. 

The Chaldeans had an high veneration for ‘fire, which 
they accounted a divinity ; aad in the province of Babylon 
there was a city confecrated to this ufage,. which was 
called the city of Ur, or of Fire. 

_The Perfians alfo adoved God under the image or repre- 
fentation of fire, becaule it is fire that gives motion to every 
thing in nature, They had temples, which they called 
“« Pyrea,” fire temples fet apart folely for the prefervation 
of the facred fire. . hey are faid to have in that empire 
fires itill fubfifting, which have burat many thoufand years. 
See Fine everlafling, Gases, and Maci. The worhipys 

ot 


ERE. 


of the goddefs Vefta (fee Vesta) and of fire was brought 
into Italy by /Eneas and the other Trojans, who landed 
there; but the Phrygians themfelves had received it from 
the eaftern nations. Tire was held in religious veneration 
among the Gauls; and fimilar fentiments and practice have 
prevailed in feveral countries of America. 

The Hebrews kept up the holy fire inthe temple. This 
holy fire defcended from heaven, firft upon the altar in the 
tabernacle at the confecration of Aaron and his fous to 
the priefthood, Lev. ix. 24. and afterwards it defcended 
anew on the altar in the temple of Solomon, at the confecra- 
tion of that temple, 2 Chron. vii.1. And there it was con- 
{tantly maintained by the prieft day and night, without fuf- 
fering it ever to ge out ; and with this all the facrifices were 
offered that required fire. his fire, according to fome of 
the Jewith writers, was extinguilhed in the days of Manaffeh ; 
bat the more general opinion among them, 1s, that it con- 
tinued till the deftruction of the temple by the Chaldeans ; 
after that it was never more rettored ; but inftead of it they 
had only common fire in the fecond temple. 

The Vetftals were appointed expretsly to keep up the 
facred fire of the Romans. See Visracs. 

Vulcan was worfhipped among the ancients, and particu- 
larly the Egyptians, asthe inventor of fire; and Boerhaave 
has made it highly probable, that the Vulcan of the hea- 
thens was the T'ubal-Cain of the Hebrews, the firft who ap- 

ears to have known the ufe of fire, and to have applied it 
in the fufion of metals and other preparations of chemiftry. 
See PRoMETHEUS. 

Fire, Divination by. See Prromancy. 

Fire, in the Manege. To give the fire to a horfe is to 
apply the firing-iron red-hot to fome preternatural {welling 
in order to difcufs it, which is oftentimes done by clapping 
the firing-iron upon the fkin without piercing through. 
We give the fire to farcy knots, by running a pointed burn- 
ing iron into the ulcers. We hkewife give the fire for 
wrenches of the patterns. See FirinG-iron. 

Fire, inthe Military Language, is f{ometimes applied to 
the fires lighted in an army in the night-time. 

But the term fire or firing is more frequently ufed for the 
difcharge of the fire-arms, or the fhot made on the enemy 
from the artillery, &c. And accordingly it is ufed 
as a word of command to foldiers of all denomizations to 
difcharge their fire-arms, grenades, cannon, &c. The 
fire of the infantry is by a regular difcharge of their 
fire-locks, by platoons, divifions, &c. that of the ca- 
valry with their fufees and piftols; and that of the 
place befieged from their artillery, See Exercise and 
Firine. 

In fortification, the frre of the place denotes the flank, or 
that part of the curtain where the line of defence terminates 
from whence they fire to defend the oppofite face of the 
baition. 

Fire-drms, a term attaching to all weapons, principally 
of an offenfive nature, from which bullets, &c. may be im- 
pelled by the force of gun-powder. Thefe are generally 
divided into two fpecies, the one requiring much labour to 
tranfport, and known by the names of artillery, orduance, 
cannon, great-guu, &c. and again fubdivided into claffes, 
fuch as the mortar, the howitzer, the culverin, the demi- 
culverin, the royal, xc. &c; the other fpecies are made on a 
portable principle, and comprife thote implements com- 
monly called mufkets, carabines, match-locks, arque- 
buffes, blunderbuffes, fulils, together with piltols of van- 
ous fizes and defcriptions ; forming in the whole an ample 
catalogue of inventions fuited to enabling the human race 
not only to defend itfelf again beaits of prey, and to attain 


provifions from among the feveral inhabitants of the earth, 
the air, or the waters, but to deftroy each other whole- 
fale ; as though we were afraid that our increafing population 
fhowld ultimately condemn us either to ftarvation, or to 
refort to the moft horrid means of fupporting exiftence, vix. 
Cannibalifm. 

Intreating of ArtTiiery, we have already explained the 
nature of ordnance in general, and fhewn the proportions 
feverally of the different natures, as the various fizes are 
technically called; therefore, in this place our attention 
will be chiefly dire@ted towards thofe matters relating to 
fire arms in general; by which we mean to be underitood as 
applying that term to thofe leffer weapons popularly called 
“¢ {mall-arms, ’” 

The feveral nations of Europe, among which the arts 
have made fuch rapid progrefs, have long fince banifhed the 
more rude and uncertain mode of igniting the powder in 
the priming pan by mears of a match, which being formed 
of fome fubttance that retains fire, but burns very flowly, 
could merely, by the motion of a {mall lever, aéted upon by 
a finger, be applied thereto. This method is, however, 
very generally retained among the nations of the Eaft; where 
the bark of the prau/s, an indigenous tree every where 
abounding, fupplies the pa/eetah, or match, in very great 
perfection ; merely by caufing the threds {tripped off from 
the leffer branches to be beaten with a heavy iron mall, or 
hammer, in the courfe of its drying, which it dogs in a few 
days: the fibres are then twifted to about the thicknefs of a 
f{wan’s quill, and toany length that may be judged neceffary ; 
the {pare part being allowed to hang down at the fide of the 
lock, or lever. The ufe of matches is net only attended 
with great delay, but, in confequence of the neceflity which 
exifts for blowing the pa/ectah previous to applying it to the 
pan, muft, in many inftances, fubjeét the operator to danger, 
or eventually to accidental contact, between the fparks and 
the firing. 

Match-locks, fuch as are in Hindooftan, which, including 
China and Tartary, may be confidered their head-quarters, 
are not applied to the fhoulder when about to be difcharged; 
but having a long ftock, of a batten-form, are placed under 
the arm. This takes off the recoil; or rather caufes it 
not to be felt ; an objeét of fome importance when it is 
known that thefe pieces are generally charged heavily ; and, 
that on account of the fearcity of lead, malleated iron balls 
are in general ule: thefe, being very rough, require to be 
rammed down very hard, otherwife they would remain in 
the upper part of the bore, and fubjeét the barrel to be 
burtt, as very frequently happens in confequence of the im- 
met {> refiftance the ball makes in its courfe through a long 
barrel, every where prefenting an untinifhed furface. On 
the other hand it is to be remarked, that match-locks 
throw balls to great diftances ; and, owing to the deliberute 
manner in which they may be difcharged, without any tug 
at a (tiff trigger, or the fear of a dick from the butt, are 
found to do immenfe execution ; molt of thofe perfons who 
ufe them are, indeed, as expert as the generality of rifle-men. 
Many of thefe pieces are fo long and heavy, as to require 
moyeable refls : thofe mounted as wall-pieces, and called jin- 
jauls, often throwing a ball near a mile, and weighing from 
fifty to fixty pounds. 

The mufkets in ute among the armies in Europeare far 
more compaét, carrying a larger ball, and in every refpeé& 
better finifhed. Thefe are provided with fpring-locks, 
which impel the flint towards a fteel plate, called the ham- 
mer, by which the {parks are dire@ed into the pan. It is 
to be regretted that the flint ufuglly provided for our mili-’ 
tary are not of a better quality ; foas to infure their ftriking 


FIRE. 


fire with greater certainty. Our fire-locksare indeed far too 
heavy, for which it is affigned as a reafon, that lighter pieces 
would not fend the balls toa fufficient diftance ; but if we 
confider the well afcertained fa&, that not one mufket 
ball in an hundred ftrikes upon an oppofing”line of troops, 
we certainly fhould fet our minds rather more at eafe, on 
the fcore of impetus in a weapon fo very little contributing 
to the fuccefs of the day. It may not be too much to 
affert, that the decreafe of weight, whereby fatigue and 
labour would be greatly leffened, would enable our brave 
foldiers to at with greater promptitude in general, and to 
ufe their bayonets, which are really efficient in their hands, 
with more aétivity and vigonr. 

Englifh firearms of every kind are made to the greateft 
perfection ; their bores being perfeétly fmooth, and the 
locks remarkably neat, ftrong, and active. The fizes of 


the balls are all regulated whem for public fervice ; being 
caft in moulds of particular diameters ; fo that no miftake 
can be made, wnlefs through fhameful negleét, in fupplying 
ammunition to the feveral corps. 
follows : 


The Britifh ftandard is as 


Number of 
Balls to one 


Pound of Lead. 


Diameter of 
each Ball in 
Inches. 


Nature 
of the Piece. 


— 


Wail Pieces - - 63 -89 
Mukkets a pitem, tes 145 68 
Carabines oy see S 20 -60 
Piftols - - - 34 51 
7 Barrel Guns - - 464 46 


In order to preferve a regularity in the fupply of balls for 
pieces not on any regular {cale, or eftablifhment, it is ufual 
to afcertain what ball will ft the bore in a proper manner ; 
fo as to allow of four folds of paper, (i.e. two on each fide,) 
necefflary to wind around the ball when made into a cartridge. 
The’ ball is then tried in a gauge, that is, a bar pierced with 
holes, all declining in fize, in regular order, and numbered 
from one, which fuits a wall-piece, to buck-fhot ; which is 
ordinarily eftimated at about No. 39 or 32. Whatever hole 
the ball may pafs through, but in fo clofe a manner, as to 
ftop in the next {maller hole, gives the defignation of the 
bore on the regifter. But it is more ufual to caft balls in 
moulds, defignated according to the number of balls of that 
fize made from a pound of lead. Therefore mufket balls 
would be called No. 14, and carabine balls No. 20. 

The mention of feven-barrelled-guns leads us to contem- 
plate, with no flight admiration, the perfection to which 
this branch of mechanifm has been brought! This perfec- 
tion has naturally been produced by fucceflive ftages, each 
of which has had numerous candidates, to whom public 
liberality has been the inducement, and proved the reward. 
When we confider that a man provided with a mufket 
having feven barrels, yet but one lock, may difcharge feven 
times in lefs than half a minute, without any intermediate 
operations of priming or loading, we mutt yield our tribute 
ef applaufe to the ingenuity of the inventor, though we 
‘cannot refrain from reflecting on that purpofe to which it 
is devoted. ; 

‘As to piftols, &c. they are made upon various feales, and 
for the particular purpofes of thofe who are to ufe them. 
Thus, what we call horfe-piftols, are intended to occupy the 
tholfters attached to faddles; duelling-piftols, which are 
ufually provided with hair-triggers, that a€t upon the 
flichteft touch, are deftined to the decifion of thofe knotty 
pointe at which honour fo {peedily takes umbrage ; while the 


pocket-piftol, made upon 2 diminutive fcale, may be in- 
tended either for the ufe of the robber, or to repel his pre- 
fumption. Whatever may be the purpofe of fire-arms, 
whether for the military, for fporting, or for general 
defence, nothing can be more improper than leaving them 
loaded in places aceeffible to fervants, ftrangers, and efpe- 
cially to children. We thould fuppofe that the immenfe 
number of accidents that happen, and are publicly notified 
in the daily prints, might operate as a flimulus towards the 
fecuring of firearms, beyond thole ordinary means of ac- 
ceffibility, which place them within the reach of every one 
whofe ill-fated curiofity may induce to handle them. Strange 
to fay ! we fhudder at the detail of one of thofe accidental 
murders which too often occurs, yet negleét to benefit by 
the melancholy leffon, until fome domettic calamity of the 
fame nature may burthen the negligent proprietor with 
fhame, affliftion, and remorfe. 

Vire-arrow is a {mall iron dart furnifhed with fprings 
and bars, together with a match impregnated in powder and 
fulphur, which is wound about its fhaft. It is ufed by 
privateers and pirates to fire the fails of the enemy, and for 
this purpofe is difcharged from a mufket or a {wivel-gun. 
The match being kindled by the explofion, communicates 
the flame to the fail, againft which it is direéted, where the 
arrow is faftened by means of its bars and fprings. As this 
is peculiar to hot climates, particularly the Weit Indies, the 
fails being extremely dry, are inftantly fet on fire, and the 
fire is conveyed to the mafts, rigging, and finally to the 
veffel itfelf. 

Fire-da/l, a compofition of meal-powder, fulphur, falt- 
petre, rofin, pitch, &c. about the bignefs of a handgranade, 
made of an iron fheet, filled and covered over with feveral 
coats of the above mixture, the laft coat being of grained 
powder. ‘hick brown paper made into the form of a fhell 
adapted to the fize of the mortar, and filled with an equal 
quantity of fulphur, pitch, rofin, and meal powder, well 
mixed and put in warm, will anfwer the purpofe as well as 
any thing elfe. This is to be thrown into the enemy’s 
works in the night-time, to difcover where they are; or to 
fire houfes, galleries, or blinds of the befiegers. The balls 
ufed for this intention are prepared with mealed powder; 
falt-petre, fulphur, rofin, fteel or iron filings, fir-tree faw- 
duft boiled in falt-petre ley, and birchwood charcoal, well 
rammed into a fhell, having various holes filled with {mall 
barrels, loaded with mufket-balls, and immerfed in melted 
pitch, rofin, and turpentine oil. They are fometimes armed 
with {pikes or hooks of iron, that they may not roll off, 
but ftick or hang where they are defired to have any effe&t. 
See Batts. 

Fire-bare, in our Old Writers, is ufed for a beacon.- 
“ Quod fine dilatione levari & reparari fac figna & fires 
bares, fuper montes altieres in quohibet hundredo, ita quod 
tota patria per illa figna, quotiefcunque neceffe fuerit, praee- 
munire poteit.”? Ordin. Obfervand. Temp. Edw, IL. 

Frre-barrels. See Barres, and Fire-/bip. 

Fire-dlaf, a difeafe or accident to which the hop plant 
is much expofed. It chiefly occurs towards: the later 
periods of the growth of the creps. It is fuppofed by moft 
hop-planters to depend upon the particular ftate of the air 
or weather at the time ; but it is more probable that it may 
be caufed by lightning, as it takes place very fuddenly at 
thofe feafons when it moftly prevails, and generally affects 
the moft forward and luxuriant binds. See Hops. 

Fire, don. M. Mahudel has a differtation on the origin 
of bon-fires, wherein he endeavours to make it appear that 
they were unknown to the ancients, and confequently muft 
be a modern invention. 

He 


HIRE, 


- He does not deny that the ancients had rejoicings on oc- 
cation of the conclufion of a peace oralliance, or the news 
of a victory’s being cbtained againft their enemies, on the 
birth-day, proclamation, or marriage of their prince; as 
alfo when they recovered from a dangerous ficknefs ; but, 
according to him, the fire on all thefe occafions ferved only 
to burn the victims or the inceufe; and as thefe facrifices 
were moftly offered in the night-time, the illuminations 
were only intended to give light to perform the ceremonies. 
Hitt. Acad. Inferip. tom. ii. p. 330, feq. 

Firet-dote, aterm fienifying a quantity of wood bound 
up for fuel, which, by the common law, the tenants may, 
for neceflary firing, take out of the lands that have been 
granted to them. 5: 

Fiee-clay, is that particular kind of clay which is proper 
for making bricks or veflels intended to ftand a high degree 
of heat. The third coal fhale or feries of argillaceous coal 
meafures, between the third and fourth grit reck, reckoning 
from the mill-ftone grit upwards, which traverfes Derby thire 
and part of Yorkfhire, and produces crow-/tone and foffil 
reeds in great abundance, contains a very excellent fire-clay, 
which is dug at Heaze-nether-end, Wheatcroft, Birkin 
Lane, and other places. The fiffures of the fourth or lower 
limeftone of this diftriG fometimes produce alluvial mafles 
of fire-clay, of good quality, as at Miik-hill gate, near 
Water-houfe, Staffordfhire, and near Newhaven-houile, 


Derby thire. 


It is found that clay, more or lefs fit for fire-bricks, is 


found immediately beneath almoft every feam of coals, and 
where it is not foft in the form of clay, the clunch and other 
indurated fubftances compofing the immediate floor of coals, 
will generally fall by expofure to the weather, into a brick 
clay or earth. See Froor. 

Fire-cocks. Churchwardens in London, and within the 
bills of mortality, are to fix fire-cocks at proper diftances 
in ftreets, and written marks near them, and to keep in 
every houfe thus marked an inftrument or key for opening 
the plug, anda large engine and hand-engine for extinguifh- 
ing fire, under the penalty of 10/. The turn-cock whole 
water fhall come firlt into a main-pipe at a fire, fhall have 
10s. the firft engine that is brought fhall entitle to 30s. the 
fecond to 20s. and the third to ros. 6 Ann, cap. 31. 
12 Geo. III. cap. 73. To prevent-fires, it is required that 
workmen in the city of London, &c. build all front and 
rear walls of brick or ftone; and that the front walls be 
18 inches above the gutter, and coped with ftone, tile, or 
brick ; and party-walls between houfe and honfe, thiofe 
belonging to houfes, the expence of building which is more 


than 120/. to be of the thicknefs of 1 foot nine inches, or * 


24 bricks in the loweft ftory ; and of 2 bricks, or i foot 
53 inches. from thence to the garret floor ; and from the 
garret upwards 1} brick, or 13 inches, and to be carried 
up to the full height of 18 inches above the adjoining 
gutters 5 and it 1s alfo required, that no timbers, except the 
girders, binding and trimming joints, and the templets 
under the fame, fhall be. laid into fuch party-walls ; and that 
there fhall be 5 inches of folid brick-work left at or between 
the ends of all lentils, wall-plates, and bond timbers. See 
Buitpine, and ftat. 7 Anne, c.17. 11 Geo. I. c.. 28. 
33 Geo. Il. cap. 30. and 4 Geo. III. cap. 14. And on 
the breaking out of any fire, all the conftables and beadles 
fhall repair to the place with. their ftaves, and be afliiting in 
putting: ont the fame, and caufing people to work, &e. 
No aétion fhall be had againft any perfon in whofe houfe or 
chamher a fire fhall begm, 6 Anne, 10 Anne, c.14. But 
if fuch fire happens through negligence of any fervant, fuch 
fervant fhali forfeit 100/. to be diilributed among the fufler- 


ers; or, in default’ of payment, fhall be committed to fome 
work-houfe, and there kept to hard labour for eighteen 
months. See Arson. Der . 

All the laws relating to the prevention, &c. of fire, are 
reduced into one ftatute, and former ftatutes repealed, by 
12 Geo. III. cap. 73. 

Fire-damp, in Natural Hiffory. See Damp. 

Tire-cater. We have a great number of mountebanks 
who have procured the attention and wonder of the publi¢ 
by eating of fire, walking on fire, wafhing their hands in 
melted lead, and the like tricks. . : 

The mott celebrated of thefe was our countryman Rich- 
ardfon, much talked of abroad. His fecret, as related in 
the Journals des Scavans of the year 1680, confifted in a 
pure fpirit of fulphur, wherewith he rabbed his hands and 
the parts that were to touch the fire, which burning and 
cauteriling the epidermis, hardened and enabled the {kin 
to refift the fire. } : 

Indeed this is no new thing; Amb. Paré affures us he 
had tried on himfelf, that after wafhing the hands in urine, 
and with unguentum aureum, one may fafely wafh them 
in melted lead. 

He adds alfo, that by wafhing his hands in the juice 
of onions, lte could bear a hot fhovel on them ae it 
melted lard. 

Tire; LkeGrical. See Evecrriciry. 

Fixe-engine, is a machine for extinguifhing accidental 
fires by means of a ftream of jet of water. The common 
{quirting fire-engine confifts of a liftiug pump placed ina 
circular or cylindric veffel of water, and wrought by two 
levers that act always together. During the ttroke, the 
quantity of water raifed by the pifton of the pamp fpouts 
with force through a pipe joined to the pump-barrel, and 
made capable of any degree of elevation by means of a 
yielding leather pipe, or by a ball and focket turning every 
way, {crewed onthe top of the pump. The veffel con- 
taining the water is covered with a itrainer, which pre- 
vents the dirt and filth poured into it with the water from 
choaking the pump-work. Between the ftrokes of this 
engine the ftream is difcontinued for want of an air-veflel. 
However, in fome cafes, engines of this conftruGtion have 
their ufe, becaufe the ftream, though interrupted, is much 
{marter than when the engine is made to throw water ina 
continued ftream. The beft engine of this latter kind is 
that of Mr. Newfham, formerly an engine-maker in Lon- 
don. A peripetive view of the whole engine, ready for 
working, is reprefented in Plate IIl. Hydraulics, &e. fig. 4. 
‘This engine confilts of a ciftem A B, about three times as 
long as itis broad, made of thick oaken planks, the joints 
of which are hned with fheet-copper, and eafily moveable 
by means of a pole and crofs bar C in the fore part of the 
eogine, which is fo contrived as to flide back under the 
cover of the ciltern, and on four folid wheels, two of which 
are feen at D and E. ‘The hind axle-tree, to which the 
wheel. E and its oppofite are fixed, are faftened acrofs under 
the bottom of the ciftern; but the fore axle-tree, bearing 
the wheel D, &c. is put on a itrong pin or bolt, ftrongly 
faftened in a horizontal {ftuation in the middle of the front 
of the bottom of the ciftern, by which contrivance the two 
fore wheels and the axle tree have a circular motion round 
the bolt, fo that the engine may ftand_as firm on rough or 
floping ground as if it was level. Upon. the ground next 
to the hind part of the engine may be feen a leathern pipe 
F, one end of which may be ferewed on and.off upon oc= 
cafion toa brafs cock at the lower end of the ciftern: the 
other end is immerfed in the water, fupplied by a pond, 
fire-plug, &c. and the pipe becomes a fucking pipe for fur; 


nifhing 


FI RE. 


aifhing the pumps of the engine by its working, without 
pouring water into the ciftern. T'o the hind part of the 
ciftern is faftened a wooden trough G, witha copper grate 
for keeping out ftones, fand, and dirt, through which the 
citern is fupplied with water when the fucking pipe cannot 
beufed. The fore part of the ciltern is alfofeparated from 
the refit of its cavity by another copper grate, through 
which water may be poured into the ciftern. Thofe that 
work the pumps of this engine move the handles vifible at 
the long fides, up and down, and are affited by others who 
ftand on two fufpended treddles, throwing their weight 
alternately on each of them, and keeping themfelves fteady 
by taking inold of two round horizontal rails, H, I, framed 
into four vertical ftLands, which reach to the bottom of the 
ciltern, and are well fecured to its fides. Over the hind 
trough there is an iron haadle or key K, ferving to open or 
fhut a cock placed under it on the bottom of the ciftern, 
the ufe of which we fhall explain in the fequel of tiis ar- 
ticle. L is an inverted pyramidal box or cafe which pre- 
ferves the pumps and air veflels from damage, and alfo fup- 
ports a wooden frame M, on which ftands a man, who, by 
railing or depreffiug, and turning about the ipout N, direéts 
the ftream of water as occafion requires. This {pout is made 
af two pieces of brafs pipe, each of which has an elbow 5 
the lower is ferewed over the upper end T (fee fig. 5.) 
of the pipe that goes through the air-veflel, and the upper 
part {crews on to the lower by a ferew of feveral threads, 
fo truly turned as to be water-tight in every fituation. ‘I'he 
conic form of the fpouting-pipe ferves for wire-drawing the 
water in its paflage through it, which occafions a fri@ion 
that produces fuch a velocity of the jet as to render it ca 

pable of breaking windows, &c. whilft the valves and lea- 
thern pipes of the engines have fufficient water-way to fup- 
ply the jet in its greateft velocity. Leather pipes of con- 
fiderable length may be {crewed at one end of the nofel of 
the engine, and furnifhed at the other end with a wooden 
or brafs pipe for guiding the water into the inner apart- 
ments of houfes, &c. Between the pyramidal box L, and 
the fore-end of the engine, there is a {trong iron bar O, 
lying in an horizontal pofition over the middle of the cif- 
tern, and playing in brafles fupported by two wooden 
ftands; one of which, P, is placed between the two fore- 
flands of the upper rails, and the other is hid in the in- 
clofure over the hind part. Upon proper fquares of this 
bar are fitted, one near each end, two itrong crofs bars, 
which take hold of the long wooden cylindrical handles, by 
means of which the engine is worked; and the treddles by 
which they are aflifted are fulpended at each end by chains 
ig the form of a watch chain, and receive their motion 
jointly with the handles that are on the fame fide, by means 
of two circular feétors of iron fattened together, and fixed 
upon proper fquares of the middle horizontal bar ; the two 
fore ones may be feen at Q; the two hind ones reprefented 
ona large feale in fiz. 6. difler from the former only in 
thicknefs; for the fore fe€tors are made to carry only one 
chain each, faftened by one end to their upper part, and 
by the lower end to the treddles; whereas the fole of the 
two hind fetors is wide enough to carry two chains each ; 
one fet faftened like thofe of the fore ones for the motion 
of the treddles: and the other two chains are faftened by 
their lower ends to the lower part of thefe feGors, and by 
their upper ends to the top of the pitlon bars, in order to 
give them motion. See fig. 6. in which the hind fectors 
and their apparatus are reprefented as they would appear to 
a perfon ftanding between the two fore-wheels, and looking 
at the hind part of the engine. The fquare over the letter 
A is the feétion of the middle bar, on which, right over 

Vou. XIV. 


the two barrels, are placed the two feStors BCA and DEA, 
forged together. EGHK and fghk are the two pifton 
rods ; and the openings between the letters G, H, aud gh, 
are the {paces through which the hind parts of the two 
treddles pafs. Land M reprefent two ftrong finds rivetted 
on the other fide of the bars on which they are placed ; 
and to each of thefe is faftened a chain like a watch-chain, 
fixed by their upper ends to the upper extremities D and 
B of the iron fe€tors, by which they are drawn up and down 
alternately. Thefe feétors give alfo an alternate motion up 
and down to the pifton-rods, by means of two other chains 
left white in the figure, in order to diftinguifh them from 
the others: thefe are faftened by their lower ends to the 
lower extremities of the feG@ors E and C, and their upper 
ends terminating in a male fcrew, are made tight to the pilton- 
rods at I and f, by two nuts. The fhape of the pifton- 
rods, and the Sze and fituation cf the chains that give 
them motion, are fo contrived, that the vertical axis of the 
piltons is exa@ly in the middle of the breadth of the per- 
pendicular part of the chains, and the upper part of 
the pifton-rod taken together. PQ reprefents one of 
the two crofs bars through the ends of which pafs the 
long handles to which the men apply their hands when the 
work the engine ; thefe crofs bars are fitted on the middle 
bar at fome diftance from the fectors. 

The other parts of this ufeful engine may be underftood 
by the help of fe. 5. which reprefents a vertical fe€tion 
taken through the middle line of the hind part of the en- 
gine, as alfo the fection of the air-veflel, and that of one 
of the barrels, and likewife the protiles of the nind fec- 
tors, and of feveral other parts. A B is the feGtion of 
the bottom of the ciftern, and C that of the hindmoft axle- 
tree. D Eis the vertical fection of a ftrong piece of catt 
brafs or hard metal, fo worked 2s to have a hollow in it, 
reprefented by the white part, and fixed to the bottom 
of the ciftern: this reaches from the opening D through 
the cock W, and afterwards divides itfelf into two 
branches, fo as to open under the two barrels; one of 
thefe branches is exhibited in the figure, and the other 
is exactly behind this. Through this channel, which 
may be called the fucking-piece, water is conveyed to the 
pumps by the preffure of the atmofphere, either from 
the ciftern itfelf, or from any place at a diftance, by 
means of a leathern pipe F, Jig. 7, which ferews on to 
the fucking-piece at D, fig. 5, under the hind trough Z, 
the grate of which is reprefented by the horizontal ftrokes. 
FG reprefents the vertical feétion of another piece of 
eatt brafs or hard metal that may be called the communi- 
cation-piece, having two hollows for conveying the water 
from under the two piftons to the two openings of the 
flanch of the air-veflel; one of thefe hollows appears 
in the figure ; the other lies exa@ly behind this, though not 
ina parallel direction. Between the feétion of the fuck- 
ing-piece D E, and that of the communication-piece F G, 
may be obferved the fe€tion of one of the plates of lea- 
ther, which makes all tight, and forms one of the two 
fucking valves, of which there is another jutt behind this 
under the other barrel. R ST isthe fe@ion of the coppe 
air-veffel, and TV that of the conduit-pipe ; this veffel is 
{crewed on to the hind part of the communication-piece, 
and at top is faftened by a collar of iron to a crofs piece of 
timber. Between the flanch of the air-veffel and the 
communication-piece may be obferved the fection of one 
of the plates of leather, making all tight, and ferewins 
one of the two forcing valves, of which there is another jufl 
behind this, exadly over the other opening of the cor 
munication from the air-veffel. Thefe valves are load 

3N _ 


RS. 


with a lump of caft iron or lead, having °a tail or teat 
‘Jet through the flap of the valve and crofs-pinned under it 5 
andit is to be obferved, tnat though both the valves are 
reprefented open in the figure, they are never both opea 
at the fame time; for when the engine is not at work 
they are clofed down by the weights on their upper fur- 
faces; and when the engine works, two are fhut, and 
the other two are,open alternately by the motion of the 
piftons and the aGtion of the atmofphere, together with 
the re-aG@ion of the air contained in the air-veflel. H I 
is the feétion of one of the barrels of the two pumps, 
which are both fucking and forcing, as is evident from 
the pofition of the valves and the ftruéture of the pil- 
tons, each of whichis compofed of two iron plates, of two 
wooden trenchers, and of two flat pieces of leather turn- 
ing one up and the other down. LK reprefents one of 
the pifton-rods edge-wife, behind which is one of the 
chaius, the top fcrew of which, K, can only be feen. M 
is the end of the middle bar, and N a {fection of the hind- 
mott of the two middle ftands which fupport the middle bar. 
© reprefents the end of the profile of one of the treddles, 
paffing through the reGtangular holes of the pifton-rods, as 
in fig. 8. "The weight on thefe treddles brings them and the 
piitoa-rods down alternately, and they are raifed up again 
by belp of the other fet of chains, one of which may be 
feen edge-wile in this figure, placed on the fole of one of the 
{egtors, &c. Seefig. 6. , 

P Qis part of the crofs bars which carry the handles 
feen edge-wife, and XY reprefents an iron handle, by 
the help of which the cock W_ may be placed in the 
{everal {ituations requifite for the ufe of the engine. The 
mechanifm of the cock W may be underftood by jigs. 
g, 10, and rx, which repxefent the horizontal feétion of it 
in three different fituations It has three holes that are 
left white in thefe figures. In fg. 0. the pofition of the 
cock is reprefented when the handle X Y or K isin a di- 
rection parallelto D E, or to the middle bar, as in fg. 5. 
and jig. 4. In this pofition, the water fupplied by the 
fucking-piece enters at D, and proceeds ceases through 
the cock W to the valve under the two piltons; and 
there ig now no communication from the barrels with the 
cavity of the ciftern. In fig. to. we have the pofition of 
the’ cock when the handle X Y is turned one quarter of a 
revolution towards the eye from the laft mentioned fitua- 
tion, in which cafe there is no communication from the bar- 
rels with the outer extremity of the fucking-piece, but the 
water poured into the fore and hind trough, and pafling 
from thence into the cavity of the ciftern, enters the cock 
fide-wife at W, and, turning at right angles through the 
cock towards I, proceeds to the barrels of the pumps. 
Fig. 11. reprefents the cock W when the handle is placed 
diametrically oppofite to its laft fituation, in which cafe 
there is no communication from the under-fide of the bar- 
rels with the cavity of the ciftern or the outward end of 
the fucking-piece ; but this fituation affords a eommunica- 
tion from the cavity of the ciftern with the outfide of the 
engine, and the water left in the cavity of the ciftern may 
by this means be employed when the engine has done 
working. ‘Thefe engines are made of five or fix different 
fizes. See Defaguliers’s Courfe of Exper. Philof. vol- ii. 
p- 505—515. 

The principles on which this engine atts, fo as to pro- 
duce a continued ftream, are obvious; the water, being 
driven into the air-veflel, as in the operation of common 
fucking and forcing pumps, will comprefs-the air contained 
in it, and proportionably increafe its {pring, fince the force 
of the air’s {pring will always be inverfely as the fpace 


which it poffeffes ; therefore, when the air-veffel is half 
filled with water, the {pring of the included air, which 
in its original ttate counterbalanced the preffure of the at- 
mof{phere, being now compreffed into half the fpace, will be 
equal to twice the preffure of the atmofphere ; and by its 
action on the fubjacent water will caufe it to rife through 
the conduit-pipe, and to play a jet of 32 or 33 feet high, 
abating the effeét of fri@tion. When the air-veffel is two- 
thirds full of water, the fpace which the air occupies is only 
one-third of its firlt {pace; therefore its {pring being three 
times as great as that of the common air, will project 
the water with twice the force of the atmofphere, or to the 
height of 64 or 66 feet. In the fame manner, when the 
air-veffel is three-fourths full of water, the air will be com- 
prefled into one-fourth of its original fpace, and caufe the 
water to afcend in air with the force of three atmofpheres, 


orto the height of 96 or og feet, &c. as in the following 
table : : 


Height of | Height of the | Proportion of Height to which 
the water. | compreffedair. | the air’s fpring. | the water will rife. 
: Taka a Nay 7 

z 2 2 33 feet 
z i; 3 66 
ay "4 
: ; 5 192 
: = 6 165 
y I 
7 T 7 198 
z x 8 231 
: : ; 
3 H 9 ans 
Ts 13 Io 297 


See Martin’s Philof. Brit. vol. ii. p. 69, &c. 

The fire engine, by Rowntree, is a double-force pump, 
of a peculiar conftruction, fimilar in its ation to the deer- 
engine, but as it is on a much larger feale, its conftruétions 


are of courfe varied. In this engine, figs. 1. and 2. 
Plate 1V. Hydraulics, are two elevations at right angles 
to each other, of the external part of the engine mounted 
on four wheels. Figs. 3. and 4. are two fecioae per- 
pendicular to each other, of the body of the engine or 
pump ; fgs. 5. and 6. are parts of the engine. The fame 
letters are ufed as far as they apply in all the figures, 
A,A, A, A; fig. 3. and 4. is a caft-iron cylinder truly 
bored, ten inches diameter and fifteen long, and having a 
flanch at each end whereon to ferew two covers, with 
ftuffing boxes, a, a, in their centres, through which the 
{pindle, B, B, of the engine pafles, and being tight packed 
with hemp rouid the collar, makes a tight joint ; the piton, 
D, is affixed to the fpindle within the cylinder, and tits it 
tight allround by means of leathers; at E, fig. 4. a parti- 
tion, called a faddle, is fixed in the cylinder, and fits againft 

the back of the fpindle tight by a leather. 
awe have now a cylinder divided by the faddle, E, and 
pifton, into two parts, whofe capacity can be increafed and 
diminifhed by moving the pifton, with proper paffages and 
valves to bring and convey away the water: this will forma 
pump. ‘Thefe'paffages are ca{t in one piece with the cylin- 
der: one, d, for bringing the water is fquare, and extends 
about td round the cylinder ; it conneéts at bottom with a 
pipe, e 3 at its two upper ends it opens into two large cham- 
bers, /,¢, extending near the whole length of the cylinder, and 
clofed by covers, 4, 4, {crewed on; i, £, are iquare openings 
(thewn by dotted {quares in fig. 3,) in the cylinder commu- 
nicating with the chambers : fg, /m, are two valves, clofing 
their ends of the curved paflage, d, and preventing any 
2 water 


FIRE. 


water returning down the paflage, d; n,0, are two paflages 
from the top of the cylinder to. convey away the water ; 
they come out in the top of the cylinder, which, together 
with the top of the chambers, f, g, form a large flat furface, 
and are covered by two valves, p,q, to retain the water which 
has pafled through them. A chamber, K, is ferewed over 
thefe valves, and has the air-veffel, h, figs. 1. and 2. {crewed 
into its top; from each fide of this chamber a pipe, wy, 
proceeds, to which a hole is {crewed, as fhewn in fig. 1. 
Levers, x, x, are fixed to the {pindleat each end, as fhewn in 
Jig- 1, and carry the handles, H, H, by which men work the 
engine. When the pifton moves, as fhewn by the arrow in 
Jig. 4. it produces a vacuum in chamber, f, and that part of 
the cylinder contiguous to it ; the water in the pipe, e, then 
opens the valve, m, and fills the cylinder. The fame motion 
forces the water contained in the other part of the cylinder 
through the valve, g, into chamber, K, and thence to the 
hofe through the pipe, w ; the pifton being turned the 
other way, reverfes the operation with refpe to the valves, 
though it continues the fame in itfelf. The pipe, ¢, is 
{crewed bya fiaunch to an upright pipe, P, fig. 5. connected 
with another {quare iron pipe, faftened along the bottom of 
the cheit of the engine; a curved brafs tube, G, comes from 


this pipe through the end of the cheft, and is cut into a. 


{crew to fit on the fu€tion hofe when it can be ufed; at 
other times a clofe cap is {erewed on, and another brafs cap 
at H, within the cheit, is ferewed upwards on its focket, to 
open feveral {mall holes made in it, and allow the water to 
enter into the pipe ; in this cafe the engine cheft mutt be 
kept full of water by buckets. The valves are made of 
brafs, and turn upon hinges. The principal advantage of 
the engine is the facility with which it is cleaned from any 
fand, gravel, or other obftructions, which a fire-engine will 
always gather when at work. 

The chambers, f, 7, being fo large, allow fufficient room 
to lodge a greater quantity of dirt than is likely to be accu- 
mulated in tke ufe of the engineat any one fire, and if any 
of it accidentally falls into the cylinder, it is gently lifted 
out again into the chambers by the pillon, without being 
any obftruétion to its metion: to clear the engine from the 
dirt, two circular plates, r,7, five inches diameter, are un- 
{crewed from the lids, 4,4, of the chambers, f, 7, and when 
cleaned are {crewed on again: thefe {crew covers fit per- 
feQly tight without leather, and can be taken out, the en- 
gine cleared, and enclofed again ina very fhort time, even 
when the engine is in ufe, if found neceffary. 

The two upper valves, p,¢, and chamber, K, canalfo be 
cleared with equal eafe, by bocetitut out the air-veffel, £4, 
Jig. t. which opens an aperture of five inches, and fits air- 
tight, without leather, when clofed. The valves may be 
repaired through the fame openings. The ufe of the air- 
veffel, £2, figs. t. and 2. is to equalize the jet from the en- 
gine during the fhort intermittance of motion at the return 
of the pifton ftroke; this it does by the elafticity of the 
compreffed air within it, which forces the water out con- 
tinually, though not fupplied quite regularly from the engine. 

The engine from which our drawing was taken was made 
forthe Sun Fire Infurance Company, in London, and from 
fome experiments made by their agent, Mr. Samuel Hubert, 
appears to an{wer every purpofe. 

Fire-engine is alfo aname frequently given to amachine 
for railitfg water by fteam, more properly called /ean-en- 
gine, which fee. 

Fire-efeape, a machine for efeaping from windows when 
houfes are on fire. Various machines of this kind have been 
invented by different perfons ; the following feems tobe well 
adapted to the purpofe for which it was defigned. It was ori- 


ginally invented by the late John Daniel Maferes, efg.; and 
B. M. Fortter, efq. has communicated to the public a defcrip- 
tion of it, with fome improvements by himfelf, in the Phi- 
lofophieal Magazine. The principal parts of this machine, 
which is called the “ fling fire-efcape,” are as follows : 
1. The fufpenfion iron A, (Plate XII. Mifcellany, fig. 12.), 
which is formed like a ram-head commonly nfed for fling- 
ing goods from warchoufes, with this difference, the bottom 
haoks are turned up clofe to the upright part, to form two 
clofe rings or eyes; the length of this iron is about four 
inches and a half, thicknefs of the iron out of which it is 
hammered is about half an inch. 

2. Therope B. This is made of flax, and platted ina 
peculiar manner, for which there was a patent taken out, 
It is fold by Armftrong, St. John’s-fquare, Clerkenwell, 
and meafures about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. 
The rope mutt be in length fomewhat more than twice the 
height of the window from the ground. 

3. The regulator C. This is an oblong piece of beech 
wood, fix inchesand a half in length, three inches anda 
quarter bread, and about feven.eighths of an inch thick ; in 
this there are four holes pierced for the rope to pafs through ; 
one of thefe is open at the fide; there is aifo a notch at the 
top of this piece of wood, and an oblong hole about feven- 
eighths of an inch from the bottom. 

4. The upper belt D is a ftout leathern ftrap, about four 
feet three inches long, and one and a half broad, with a 
buckle to it. 

5- The lower belt E isa ftrap of the fame fort as the 
other; but the end, after being put through the buckle, is 
fewed down : this is for the purpofe of fecurity, in cafe the 
tongue of the buckle fhould by accident break. 

6. The union itrap F, fo called from its conneéting the 
regulator to the other parts of the machine. This is lea- 
thern, aad is about a foot and a half long, and aninch anda 
quarter broad; it has, like the others, a buckle to it. It 
is ftained black, which difiinguifhes it from the other leathern 
ftraps. 

The method of putting together all thefe parts of the 
machine is, firlt to pafs one end of the rope through the 
holes in the regulator, then through the two lower rings of 
the fufpenfion iron; the upper belt is then to be pafled 
through a doubling of the union ftrap ; after which the rope 
is to be tied to that belt, and the knot fecured by a ftring 
from flipping (which ftring is to pafs through two {mall 
holes in the leather); asd at about a foot below the rope is 
to be tied to the lower belt in like manner. Next, the union 
ftrap is to be put through the oblong hole in the regulator, 
and buckled; by which the upper belt and the regulator 
will be connected. The other end of the rope may be kept 
wound ona wooden roller, to prevent it from getting en- 
tangled. 

Perfons who purchafe thefe machines fhould havea very 
ftrong iron hook, witha {pring-catch, fixed to fome fecure 
partvof the window-frame, or elfewhere ; on this hook the 
fufpenfion iron is tobe hung by the upper ring, when any 
one wifhes to defcend from the window. The next opera- 
tion is to ftep inte thé lower belt with both feet, and draw 
it up fufficiently high, fo as to forma kind of {wing to fit 
in: the part of the trap which its through the buckle is to 
be laid hold of with the left hand; and the buckle, with 
the right hand, is to be flipt to its proper place, according 
to the fize of the perfon; the tongne 1s then to be put inte 
one of the holes, as in buckUag common itraps. After 
this is done, the upper belt is to be fomewhat loofely 
buckled round the cheft, and then the rope whichis on the 
roller is to be thrown out of the wmdow on the ground. 

3N2 Now 


FI 


Now all being ready for defcending, the perfon is to 
get out of the window, grafping tight with one or with 
both hands, the rope at fome convenient part, taking efpe- 
cial care not to meddle with the fufpenfion iron until quite 
outof the window ; after which the rope below the regulator 
is to be laid hold of with the right hand, and to be let to 
run through the holes as faft as there may be eccafion ; for 
which purpofe, if neceflary, it may be eafily flipped out of 
the open hole; it will then have the check of only three 
holes: if the motion is wanted to be retarded, the rope 
is to be put into the notch at the upper part of the regula- 
tor. 

When one perfon has defcended, and there is a neceflity 
for a fecond immediately to follow, the union ftrap is to 
be unbuckled ; when the regulator will be feparated from 
the upper belt : the belts may then be very eafily drawn up, 
having the friction of the fufpenfion iron only, and the 
perfon above is to put on the belts as the other did, and is 
to be let down gradually, partly by the one below, and part- 
ly by managing the rope as the firit did: in this cafe great 
care mutt be taken, as the check occafioned by the regulator 
is gone. 


Obfervations and Cautions. 


It is not eafy to lay down exact rules for what number 
of holes the rope muit pafs through, as this muft vary ac- 
cording to the weight of the perfon, and other cireumftances. 
It would be well, before the perfon gets out of the window, 
to examine, firlt, (abfolutely neceflary,) whether the fufpen- 
fion iron is on the hook; then, that the three buckles are 
faft, the two knots tied, and that the rope is in the hole of 
the regulator which has the opening. Great care mutt be 
taken that there is not any impediment to the free running 
of the rope ; for which the wall of the houfe muft be exa- 
mincd, and any nails or hooks which may chance to be there 
removed ; alfo iron fcrapers, and every thing wherein the 
rope may be likely to hitch. 

Mr. b.M. Forfter has, in fome refpe&s, fimplified Mr. 
Maferes’s machine, particularly in fubitituting the ram-head 
fufpenfion iron in the place of a more complicated, and, in 
his opinion, lefs fecure piece of mechanifm. (See fg. 13.) 
It confifts"of a folid metal (in the latter improved ones) 
grooved cylinder, round which the rope coiled two or three 
times, by which a confiderable degree of fri€tion was pro- 
duced, and the rapid defcent prevented, which would other- 
wife happen. The metal cylizder is fupported on an iron 
frame, and fufpended by a ring, which ring 1s moveable in 
the focket. A isthe moveable ring in the upper part of 
the frame; B is the frame, enclofing a grooved cylinder ; 
and Cis a metal bar to hold the cheeks together. 

Fire, Lverlafing, in Pagan Theology, isa kind of re- 

uted facred fire worfhipped by the Gavers or Gabres in 
Perfia. Dr. Mounfey, tormerly phyfictan to the czarina’s 
army, has given the following account of it: this perpe- 
tual fire rifes out of the ground inahe peninfula of Abfche- 
ron, about twenty mles from Baku, and three miles from 
the Cafpian fhore. The ground is rocky, over which is a 
fhallow covering ofearth. Ifa little of the furface be {craped 
off, and fire be applied to the hollow, it catches flame imme- 
diately, and burns without intermiffion, and almcit with- 
out confumption ; nor is it ever extinguifhed uulefs fome 
cold earth be thrown over it, by which it is eafily put out. 
There isa fpot of ground, about two Enghith miles in ex- 
tent, which has this property, where the earth continually 
burns; but the moft remarkable part of it is a hole about 
four feet deep, and fourteenin diameter. This fire is wor- 
fhipped, and 1s faid to have burnt many thouland years. The 


RI, 


cracks inthe walls of the caravanfera, inhabited by the re- 
ligious, are covered with flame, if a candle be held to them 5 
and when there is occafton for a fmall light, no more is ne- 
ceflary than to ftick one end of a piece of reed in the ground, 
and apply alighted candle to the other ; a flame will kindle 
at the top of the reed, and burn till it is extinguifhed by 
covering it. They burn ftones into lime, by filling a hole 
in the ground witha heap of them, and bringing a lighted 
candle to the hole, upon which the fire kindles, and in about 
three days burrs the ftones fufficiently. ‘The flame yielded 
by this fire, has neither {moke nor fmell. This facred and 
adored phenomenon is nothing more than an inflammable 
vapour, which iffues in great quantity out of the ground in 
this place, and is fupplied by the naphtha with which the 
adjacent country abounds, Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. for 1748, 
- 296. 
‘: Fire, Lxtinguifbing of. The world has long been of 
opinion, that a more ready way than that in general.ufe, 
might be found for extinguifhing fires in buildings, and it 
has generally been attempted upon the doétrine of explofion. 
Zachary Grey] was the firft perfon who put this plan into 
execution with any tolerable degree of fuccefs. He con- 
trived certain engines, ealily manageable, which he proved 
before fome perfons of the firlt rank to be of fufficient effi- 
cacy, and offered to difcover the fecret by which they 
were contrived, for a large premium given either from the 
crown, or raifed by a fubfcription of private perfons. But 
this {cheme meeting with no better fuccefs than things of 
this nature ufually do, he died without making this dif- 
covery. Two years after this the people who had his pa- 
pers found the method ; and it was fhewn before the king 
of Poland and a great concourfe of nobility at Drefden, 
and the fecret purchafed at a very confiderable price. After 
this the fame perfon carried the invention to Paris and many 
other places, and praétifed it every where with fuccefs. 
The fecret was this: a wooden veffel was provided holding 
avery confiderable quantity of water; in the centre of this 
there was fixed a cafe made of iron plates, and filled with 
gun-powder ; from this veflel, to the head of the larger vef- 
fel containing the water, there proceeded a tube or pipe, 
which might convey the fire very readily through the water 
to the gun-powder contained in the inner veffel. This tube 
was filled with a preparation eafily taking fire, and quickly 
burning away; and the manner of ufing the engine was to 
convey it into the room or building where the fire was, 
with the powder in the tube lighted. ‘The confequence of 
this was, that the powder in the inner cafe foon took fire, 
and, with a great explofion, burtt the veffel to pieces, and dil- 
perfed the water every way: thus was the fire put out in 
an inftant, though the room was flaming before in all parts 
atonce. The advantage of this invention was, that at a 
{mall expence, and with the help of a few people, a fire” 
in its beginning might be extinguifhed; but the thing 
was not fo general as it was at firit expected that it would 
prove; for though of certain efficacy in a chamber or 
clofe building where a fire had but newly begun; yet 
when the mifchief had increafed fo far, that the houfe was 
fallen in, or the top open, the machine had no effeét. 
This was the contrivance firft difeovered by Grevl, and 
from which our chemift Godfrey took the hint of the ma- 
chine, which he called the water-bomb, and would fain have 
brought into ufe in England. A@. Eruditor. ann. 1721. 
p- 183. (See Warer-Bomb.) Dr. Hales propofed to 
check the progrefs of fire by covering the floors of the ad- 
joining houfes with earth. The propofal is founded on an 
experiment which he made with a fir board, half an inch 
_thick, part of which he covered with an inch depth of 


5 damp 


FIER‘ E, 


damp garden mould, and then lighted a fire on the furface 
of the mould; though the fire was kept up by blowing, 
it was two hours before the board was burnt through, and 
the earth prevented it from flaming. The thicker the earth 
is laid on the floors, the better; however, Dr. Hales 
apprehends, that the depth of an inch will generally be 
fufficient ; and he recommends to lay a deeper covering on 
the ftairs, becaufe the fire commonly afcends by them with 
the greateit velocity. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. for 1748, 
277 

: Me Hartley made feveral trials in the years 1775 and 
1776, in order to evince the efficacy of a method which 
he had invented for reftraining the fpread of fire in build- 
ings. For this purpofe thin iron plates are well nailed to 
the tops of the joifts, &c. the edges of the fides and ends 
being lapped over, folded together, and hammered clofe. 
Partitions, ftairs, and floors, may be defended in the fame 
manner ; and plates applied to one fide have been found fuf- 
ficient. The plates are fo thin as not to prevent the floor 
from being nailed in the joiftsin the fame manner as if this 
preventative were not ufed: they are kept from ruft by 
being painted or varnifhed with oil and turpentine. The 
expence of this addition, when extended through a whole 
building, is eftimated at about five per cent. Mr. Hartley 
had a patent for this invention, and parliament voted a 
fum of money towards defraying the expence of his nume- 
rous experiments. (14 Geo. III. cap. 85.) The fame pre- 
fervative may alfo be applied to fhips, furniture, &c. 

Lord Mahon (now earl pa ae alfo difcovered 
and publifhed a very fimple and effectual method of fe- 
curing every kind of building againft all danger of fire. 
‘This method he has divided into three parts, viz. under- 
flooring, extra-lathing, and inter-fecuring. The method 
of under-flooring is either fingle or double: in fingle under- 
flooring, a common {trong lath of oak or fir, about one- 
fourth of an inch thick, fhould be nailed againft each fide 
of every joift, and of every main timber, fupporting the 
floor which is to be fecured. Other fimilar laths are then 
to be nailed along the whole length of the joifts, with their 
ends butting againfteach other. The top of each of thefe 
Jaths or fillets ought to be at 13 inch below the top of the 
joifts or timbers againft which they are nailed; and they 
will thus forni a fort of {mall ledge on each fide of all the 
joifts. Thefe fillets are to be well bedded in a rough plaf- 
ter hereafter mentioned, when they are nailed on, {fo that 
there may be no interval between them and the joifts ; and 
the fame plafter ought to be fpread with a trowel upon the 
tops of all the fillets, and along the fides of that part of 
the joifts which is between the top of the fillets and the 
upper edge of the joifls. In order to fill up the intervals 
between the joifts that fupport the floor, fhort pieces of com~ 
mon laths, whofe length is equal to the width of thefe in- 
tervals, fhould be laid in the contrary direétion to the joitts, 
and clofe together in a row, fo as to touch one another: 
their ends muft reft upon the fillets, and they ought to be 
well bedded in the rough platter, but are not to be faftened 
with nails. They mult then be covered with one thick 
coat of the rough platter, which is be fpread over them 
to the level of the tops of the joifls; and ina day or two 
this platter fhould be trowelled over, clofe to the fides of 
the joifts, without covering the tops of the joiits with it. 

Tn the method of double flooring, the fillets and fhort 
pieces of laths are applied in the manner already defcribed ; 
but the coat of rough platter ought to be little more than 
half as thick as that in the former method. Whilit this 
rough platter is laid on, fome more of the fhort pieces of 
laths above-mentioned mutt be laid in the intervals between 


the joifts upon the firft coat, and be dipped deep in it, 
They fhould be laid as clofe as poffible to each other, and 
in the fame direGion with the firft layer of fhort laths. 
Over this fecond layer of fhort laths there muft be {pread 
another coat of rough platter, which fhould be trowelled 
level with the teps of the joifts, without rifing above them, 
The rough platter may be made of coarfe lime and hair ; 
or, inftead of hair, hay chopped to about three inches in 
length may be fubftituted with advantage. One meafure of 
common rough fand, two meafures of flacked lime, and three 
meafures of chopped hay, will form in general a very good 
proportion, when fufficiently beat up together in the manner 
of common mortar. The hay fhould be put in after the 
two other ingredients are well beat up together with water. 
This plafter fhould be made {tiff ; and when the flooring 
boards are required to be laid down very foon, a fourth 
or fifth part of quick-lime in powder, formed by dropping 
a {mall quantity of water on the lime-itone a little while 
before it is ufed, and well mixed with this rough platter, 
will caufe it to dry very faft. If any cracks appear i the 
rough plafter-work, near the joiits, when it is thoroughly 
dry, they ought to be clofed by wafhing them over with a 
bruh wet with mortar wafh: this wath may be prepared 
by putting two meafures of quick lime, and one of common 
fand, in a pail, and ftirring the mixture with water till the 
water becomes of the confiftence of a thin jelly. 

Before the flooring boards are laid, a {mall quantity of 
very dry common fand fhould be ftrewed over the plalter 
work, and {truck fmooth with an hollow rule, moved in 
the direGtion of the joifts, fo that it may lie rounding be- 
tween each pair of joifts. The plaiter-work and fand 
fhould be perfe@ly dry before the boards are laid, for fear 
of the dry rot. The method of under-flooring may be fuc- 
cefsfully applied to a wooden ftair-cafe ; but no fand is to 
be laid upon the rough plafter-work. The method of 
extra-lathing may be applied to cieling joifts, to floping 
roofs, and to wooden partitions. 

The third method, which is that of inter-fecuring, is 
very fimilar to that of under-flooring ; but no fand is after- 
wards to be laid upon it. Inter-fecuring is applicable to 
the fame parts of a building as the method of extra-lath- 
ing, but it is feldom neceflary. 

Lord Mahon has made feveral experiments in order to de- 
monftrate the efficacy of thefe methods. In moft houfes, 
it is only neceffary to fecure the floors; and the extra-ex- 
pence of under-flooring, including all materials, is only 
about nine pence per fquare yard; and with the ufe of 
quick-lime a little more. The extra-expence of the me- 
thod of extra-lathing is no more than fix pence per f{quare 
yard, for the timber, fide-walls, and partitions ; but forthe 
ceiling, about nine pence per fquare yard. But in moft 
houfes, no extra-lathing is neceffary. Phil. Tranf, vol. lxviii. 
for 1778, part ii. art. 4c. p. 884, &c. 

Fireflaire, in Ichthyolozy. See Raja Paftinaca. 

Fire-fies, in the Hiftory of Infe@s. See Lampyris. 
Awong the flies of Guiana, there are two fpecies of fire- 
flies. The largeft is more than one inch in length, having 
a very large head conneéted with a body by a joiat of a par- 
ticular ftru€ture, with which, at fome times, it makes a 
loud knock, efpecially when Jaid on its back. This fly 
has two feclers, or horns, two wings, and fix legs. Under 
its belly, is a circular patch, which, in the dark, fhines 
likea candle; andon each fide of the head, near the CYCSys 
is a prominent, globular, luminous body, in fize about one 
third larger than a muftard feed. Each of thefe bodies is 
like a rifing ftar, emitting a bright, and not fmall light 3... 
fiace two or three of thele animals, put into a glafs veffel, 

alford 


FIRE, 


afford Heht fufficient to read without difficulty, when 

laced clofeto abook. “When the fly is dead, thele bodies 
will {till afford confiderable light, though lefs vivid than be- 
fore; and if bruifed, and rubbed over the hand and face, 
they become luminous in the dark, like a board {meared with 
phofphorus. They have a reddifh-brown colour, and live 
In rotten trees in theday, but are always abroad in the night. 
The other kind are not more than half as large as the for- 
mer, and their light proceeds from under their wings, and 
is feen only when they are elevated, like {parks of fire, ap- 
pearing and difappearing every fecond. OF thefe the air 
1s full in the night, though they are never {een in the day. 
They are common, not only inthe fouthern, but northern 
parts of America, during the fummer. In Siam, the trees 
on the banks of the river Main in fummer are beantifully 
illuminated with {warms of fire-flies, which emit and con- 
ceal their light as uniformly as if it proceeded from a ma- 
chine of the moft exaé contrivance. 

Fire, Line of; the direction in which balls, &c. are im- 
pelled from cannonand mufketry, is called ** the line of 
fire,” and this again is divided, when {peaking of the dif- 
charge of fhots from cannon, againft any fortified place, as 
in fieges, into two diftiné branches ; namely, the plongant, 
or dire€t fire, which plunges intoa wall, &c. at right an- 
gles therewith ; and the razant, or grazing fire, which 
ftrikes fuch wall at a greater or lefler angle, in proportion 
as the piece from which the fhot proceeds, may be more or 
lefs obliqued from a direét fire. It feareely need be point- 
ed out, that the direét fire is by far the molt deftrudtive to 
that obje& againft which it is peremptorily pointed ; it is 
therefore a defideratum always to be able to take up fuch a 
pofition with the breaching-batteries as may admit of this 
forcible mode of attack, the effeéts of which foon become 
vifible. Nor can it be lefs obvious that the force with 
which a thot obliquely direGted againit any work, will gra- 
dually dimimifh according as the line of fire may approach 
to a parallel with the face to be battered; therefore the 
grazing-fre is fuited ouly to particular purpofes, fuch as 
where an enfilade cannot be made direé, that is, in the 
exat line with the platforms on the battery to be entiladed, 
but rather in reverfe ; that is towards its rear. 

Now it is evident that grazing-/hots will do little fervice 
when they make an angle of lefs than 60° with the wall to 
be battered, efpecially if reveted with mafonry. They will 
however, do great execution, provided they touch on the 
merlons above the cordon, and efpecially if they fall within 
the embrafure, which at fuch an angle mutt afford a front 
nearly at right angles with fuch otherwife oblique tive, and 
of courfe, owing to that obliquity, render it a direé? one in 
fuch particular fituations. This, however, will only hap- 
pen infront of the merlon; in its rear the obliquity will 
be rather encreafed, whereby the fhot will have {till lefs 
power. But, as fhewn under the head of Enrizane, fuch 
fhots as may be thrown juft over the epaulement at the angle 
of a baftion, &c. at an angle not exceeding five or fix de- 
grees, (or perhaps a little more,) in reverfe, will generally 
do full as much damage, as when the entilade proceeds from 
a direét line of fire ; and this will be confiderably aided by 
the parapet being reveted with mafonry, from which, not 
only willfplinters be knocked off, but the fhois will be 
thrown in fuch dire¢tion as may fuffice to render the battery 
untenable: unlefs, indeed, numerous buttrefles, called tra- 
werfes, be thrown up for the purpofe of arrefting the pro- 
grefs of all fuch ediilading vilitors. 

In viewing the exterior of a work, we generally confi- 
#er each face or battery as having its line of fire direétly at 
sight angles with jtfelf: that is, that the cannons fhould fe- 


verally be brought asfquare to genowlieres, againft which 
they reft, when brought forward to the embrafures. It is 
true, that, forthe fake both of allowing greater {cope to 
the direétion of each piece, as well as for avoiding the 
{hock which would attend the formation of narrow embra- 
fures with parallel fides, they are made to diverge perhaps 
to the extent of r2° on each fide, the line of fire may be 
inclined five or fix degrees towards either fide; but, in fuch 
cafe, the revetement would fvon be deltroyed : in fafeine re- 
vetements, not only would the percuftion be felt, but flames 
foon make their appearance, 

Tie defeG&is attendant upon embrafures would long fince’ 
have caufed them to be exploded, were it not that the mer« 
lons afford fo excellent a thelter for the men at the guns ; 
in every other refpe€t, parapets on a low coattruétion, 
over which the muzzles of the feveral pieces can be lald, at 
the fame angle of depreffion as the fuperior flope, have the 
preference ; as they allow the dine of fire to be changed full 
tifteen degrees towards either fide of the direé line of fire 5° 
whence, efpecially in a tide’s way, where a fhip may be 
pafling, the molt important advantages may be gained. "This 
kind of battery is bett fuited to fituations not liable to be 
attacked by mufketry, particularly from the poops and 
tops of fhipping, nor within the ordinary reach of grape or 
cale-fhot. Guns thus laid over parapets are faid to be “en 
barbet.’” 

Vixe-dch, in tri€tnefs applies to every {pecies of fire-arms, * 
which are difcharged by means of locks containing fprings, 
&c., that impel a flint fixed in a {pecies of vice, at the head 
of that part called the cock, againftacurved fte+l plate, 
called the Jammer, fo as to produce from their collifion 
fuflicient fire, in the form of {parks, or feintillations, which — 
beiug by the aétion of the device direéted intoa hollow 
called the pan, before covered by the hammer, caule the gun- 
powder depofted in that hollow, and which is called the 
priming, (it being the firlt portion of that combuftible to be ° 
ignited, )to take fire, and of caurfe, by means of the fouch- 
hole, which opens into the pan, to explode the charge that 
is rammed into the bottom of the barrel. The detfignation | 
fire-lock wasin confequence of this ingenious contrivance 
attached to all pieces ating upon the above principle, in 
contra-diftinction to match-locks, which derive their appel- 
lation from the circumitance of the powder in their pans 
being ignited by the application of a match. See Firs- 
arms, and Marcu-Lock. 

The fre-locks ufed by the Britith are rather fhorter than 
thofe in general ufe on the continent ; yet are the former 
fomewhat the heavieit; and that too, notwithftanding the 
Trench, in particular, brace their barrels to the ftocks by 
means of brafs collars, two, three, or even four in number, 
whereas we affix them merely by wire pins paffing through 
eye-loops attached under the barrel. 

The fire-lock confilts of the following parts. The bar-" 
rel, which is commouly about go inches in length, and 
carries a ball of fourteen tothe pound. The charge being 
fix drachms of powder ; fo that including the ball, the pa- 
per, and the twine, the entire weight of the cartridge 
fhould be 10z. gdr. 11gr. This barrel is affixed to the flock, 
not only by the pins above defcribed, but by a flat projec. 
tion at its butt, about two inches long, through which a 
very fubflantial flat-headed ferew paffes into the more fub- 
ftantial part of the ftock ; which is moftly made from the 
belt walnut wood ; obferving that the grain follows the 
curve of the ftock where it bends between the gripe, that is 
where held by the right hand. and the ttraight part, which 
receives the butt and lock, and pafles all the way under the 
barrel, to within about three inches of the muzzle. The 


ftock 


FI 


itock is furnifhed at its butt with’ a ftout brafs plate, a little 
concave, fo as to fit eafy in the hand, when the piece is 
fhouldered. ‘The part under the ¢rigger is covered by a 
guard made of brafs, which allows accefs to the finger, but 
ferves to prevent the trigger from being adventitioufly 
hitched by boughs, &c. The /ock is faftened to the right 
fide of the barrel, in a pofition not to obftru& the fight 
along the barrel, whereby aim is taken, and at the fame 
time is ina convenient polition for all the operations attend- 
ant upon priming, cocking, half-cocking, &c. The mode 
of faftening is by two fcrews, which having wood heads, pals 
under the butt of the barrel, from the left fide of the ftock, 
and are received by two female fcerews, formed inthe main 

late, on which the feveral parts of the lock are faftened. 

he ram-rod, which is of iron, and, of the fame length as 
the whole of the barrel, fits into three or four fmall brafs 
tubes, faftened to the ftock, called pipes, and tail- 
pipes: at its endit isturned into a male fcrew, for the pur- 
pofe of fitting toa worm, by aid of which the charge 
may be drawn, and the piece cleaned. ‘The bayonet fixed 
at the muzzle with great eafe, being fecured in its place, 
with fufficient firmnets, by a ftrong ftud on the upper line of 
the barrel, which, being ufed to direct the aim, is called 
the fight. 

It being fometimes neceffary for foldiers, and efpe- 
cially artillery-men, to be liberated from the handling of 
their arms, yct without totally relinquifhing them, each 
frre-lock is furnifhed with a leathern fling, which affixes to 
two {wivels placed under the fore-part of the guard, and 
the fore-part of the ftock ; this fling is eafily braced up, fo 
as to lie flat under the ftock, when not required to be paffed 
over the foldier’s breaft, in form of a belt paffing over the 
left fhoulder, and cauling the piece to be fufpended in an 
oblique dire&tion over the back. ‘The value of a fire-lock 
compleat may vary from 15 to 40 fhillings. 

Fire-majier, in our Train of Artillery, is an officer who 
gives the direétions and the proportions of the ingredients 
for all the compofitions of fire-works, whether for fervice 
in war, or for rejoicings and recreations. He has a mate 
to affit him. 

His orders are given to the fire-workers and hombardiers, 
who are obliged to execute them. 

Fire-ofice, an office of infurance from fire. 
SURANCE, 

Vire-ordeal. See Orprat. 

Fire-philofophers, or Philofophi per ignem, a fanatical 
fe& of philofophers who appeared towards the clofe of the 
fixteenth century, and made a figure in almoft all the coun- 
triesof Europe. The aniinguiihtiag tenet from which they 
derived this appellation was, that the intimate effences of 
natural things were only to be known by the trying efforts 
of fire, directed in a chemical procefs. They were alfo 
called Theofophifs, from their declaring againft human 
reafon es a dangerous and deceitful guide, and reprefenting 
a divine and fupernatural illumination as the only means of 
arriving at truth ; they were likewife denominated Paracel- 
fifisy from the name of Paracelfus, the eminent phyfician and 
“chemift, who was the chief ornament and leader of this ex- 
traordinary feét. It was patronized in England by Mr. 
Robert Flood or Fludd, who endeavoured to illuftrate the 

hilofophy of Paracelfus in a great number of treatifes; in 
eins it was zealoufly propagated by Rivier; in Denmark, 
by Severinus; in Germany, by Kunrath, an eminent phy- 
fician of Drefden ; and in other countries by warm and fuc- 
cefsful votaries, who affumed a ftriking air of piety and 
devotion, and propofed to themfelves no other end than the 
advancement of the Divine glory, and the reftoration of 


See In- 


R FE, 


peace and concord in a divided church ; accordingly they 
were joined by feveral perfons eminent for their piety, and 
diftinguifhed by their zeal for the advancement of true reli- 
gion. One of the moft celebrated of thefe was Daniel 
Hoffman, profeffor of divinity in the univerfity of He! 
fladt, who, availing himfelf ef fome unguarded paflace 
the writings of Luther, extravagantly maintained, thet plu- 
lofophy was the mortal enemy of religion ; that truth was 
divifible into two branches, the philofophical and theologi- 
cal ; and that what was true in philofophy was falfe in thea- 
logy. Hoffman was afterwards obliged, by the interpofi- 
tion of Henry Julius, duke of Brunfwick, to retract his 
invectives again{t philofophy, and to acknowledge in the 
moft open manner the harmony and union of found philofo- 
phy with true and genuine theology. Motheim’s Eccl. 
Hilt. by Maclean, aa iv. p. 17, 15. 8vo. edit. 1768. 

Fire-places are contrivances for communicating heat ta 
rooms, and alfo for anfwering various purpofes of art and 
manufadiure. 

For the Jatter kind, fee Furnace and Stove. The 
principal objects with regard to the former are leflening the 
charge of fuel, and augmentlng the benefit of fire. The 
general properties of air and fire, on which their conftruétion 
chiefly depends, are the following, viz. that air is rarefied 
by heat, and condenfed by cold ; i.e. the fame quantity of 
air takes up more fpace when warm than when cold ; air 
rarefied and expanded by heat is fpecitically lighter than it 
was before, and will rife in other air of greater denfity ; fo 
that a fire being made in any chimney, the air over the fire 
is rarefied by the heat, becomes lighter, and immediately 
rifes in the funnel, and goes out; the otherair in the room, 
flowing towards the chimney, fupplies its place, is raretied 
in its turn, and rifes likewife ; and the place of the air thus 
carried out of the room, is fupplied by fresh air coming in 
through doors and windows, or, if they be fhut, through 
every crevice with violence ; or if the avenues to the room be 
fo clofed up, that no frefh fupply of air can be obtained, 
the current ap the funnel mutt flag; and the fmoke, no 
longer driven up, float about in the room. Common fire 
throws out light, heat, and fmoke; the light and heat 
move in right lines with great {wiftnefs, but the fmoke is 
but juft feparated from the fuel, and moves only as it is 
carried off by the ftream of rarefied air; and without a con- 
tinual acceffion of air, will remain crowded about the fire, 
and ftifle it. Heat may be feparated from the {moke and 
light, by means of a plate of iron ; and the greateft feafible 
heat is direétly over the fire, where, befides the rays of 
heat fhot upwards, there is a continual rifing ftream ef hot 
air, heated by thofe rays that are fhot round on every 
fide. 

The fire-places moft in ufe are, 1. The large open fire- 
places, that were commonly ufed in former times, and are 
ftill continued in the country, and in kitchens. Thefe 
require a large funnel, confume a great quantity of fuel, 
generally fmoke, if the door be not left open, and contribute 
little to warmaroom. Their fpacioutnefs ie their greateit 
convenience, 

2. Inftead of thefe old-fafhioned chimnies, the modera 
fire-places, efpecially in towns, have been conftruGted with 
low breaits and hearths, narrowed by jambs. Fire-places 
of this contracted form will keep rooms ge ly free from 
{moke ; but the funnel requires a confiderable quantity of 
air, which rufhes in at every crevice, fo as to render the 
fituation of perfons continually expofed to it uncomfortable 
and dangerous. Many of the difeafes proceeding from 
colds may be afcribed to itrong drawing chimnies, whereby, 
in fevere weather, perfons are fcorched before, while they 

are 


FJ 


are frozen behind, Thefe fire-places are of little ufe in 
warming a room; becaufe the air round them, which is 
warmed by the direct rays of the fire, does not continue in 
the room, but is continually colle@ed into the chimney, by 
the current of cold air coming behind it, and is prefently 
carried off. Befides, the greateft part of the fire is loft, 
being abforbed by the back jambs and hea:th, which are fo 
dark and porous as to reflect very little, and the upright 
heat flies direGtly up the chimney. To remedy this incon- 
venience the Sieur Gauger, in his book entitled La Mecha- 
nique de Feu, publifhed in 1709, and fince tranflated by 
Dr. Defaguliers, (fee Curmney) propofed feven different 
conftru@ions of, 3. A third fort of chimnies, in which there 
are hollow cavities made by iron plates in the back, jambs, 
and hearth, through which plates the heat paffing, warms 
the air in thofe cavities, which is continually coming into 
the room frefh and warm, This conitruction had many 
obvious advantages ; but the expence and difficulty attend- 
ing it difcouraged the propagation of the mvention. How- 
ever, the upright heat was almoft wholly loft in thefe as in 
the commonchimnies. 4. Another kind of fire-place is the 
Holland iron-{tove, with a flue proceeding from the top, and 
a {mall iron door opening into the room. Thele ferve to 
warm a room, fave fuel, and produce a conftant change of 
air. But the fire is not feen, and little ufe can be made of 
it befides that of warming the room. It is therefore rarely 
ufed in England, except in fome work-fhops. 

5- The German ftove is compofed of five iron plates 
{crewed together, and fixed fo as that the fuel may be put 
into it from another room, or from the outfide of the houfe. 
It is a kind of oven reverfed, its mouth being without, and 
body within the room that is to be warmed by it. This 
ftove warms a room with little fuel, and is attended with no 
danger from the irruption of cold air; but the fire is not 
feen, and there is no change of air inthe room heated by it. 
For an account of the Chinefe ftove, fee Kane. 

6. Another kind of convenience for warming rooms is 
a charcoal fire kindled in pots and chafling difhes. ‘This is 
chiefly ufed in the fhops of handicraftf{men. But the ful- 
phureous fumes arifing from the coals render this mode of 
giving heat difagreeable and dangerous, and ina clofe room 
fometimes fatal. 

The ingenious Dr. Franklin, whofe name we have had 
frequent oceafion of recording in this work, having re- 
counted the inconveniences and advantages of fire-places in 
common ufe, propofes a new contrivance for this purpofe, 
called the Pennfylvania fire-place. 1 This machine confifts 
ofa bottom plate or hearth-piece (fee Plate XIV. Mij/cellany, 

Jig. 2.) with a rifing moulding before for a fender, two 
perforated ears F, G, for receiving two {crew-rods ; a long 
air-hole aa, through which the outward air pafles into an 
air-box ; and three fmoke-holes reprefented by dark {quares 
in BC, through which the fmoke defcends and paffes 
away ; befides double ledges for receiving between them 
the lower edges of the other plates. 2. A back plate 
without~holes, and furnifhed with a pair of ledges to re- 
ceive 3. The two fide-plates, each of which has a pair 
of ledges to receive the fide-edges of the front plate, with a 
fhoulder on which it refts; two pair of ledges to receive 
the fide-edges of the two middle plates which form the air- 
box, and an oblong air-hole near the top, through which 
the air warmed in the box is difcharged into the room, and 
a wing or bracket, as H, and a {mall hole, as R, for the 
axis of the regiftertoturnin. See fig. 3. which reprefents 
one of thefe plates. 4. An air-box, compofed of the two 
middle plates D E and FG, figs. 4. ands. The firft has 
five thin ledges or partitiens cal on it, the edges of which 


R FE. 


are received into fo many pair of ledges caft in the other: 
the tops of all the cavities formed by thefe thin deep ledges 
are alfo covered by aledge of the fame form and depth cat 
with them ; fo that when the plates are put together, and 
the joints luted, there is no communication between the 
air-box and the fmoke. Inthe winding paflages of this 
box, frefh air is warmed as it paflesinto the room. 5. A 
front plate, which is arched on the under fide, and orna- 
mented with foliages, &c. 6. A top plate, witha pair of 
ears M, N, (fg. 6.) anfwerable to thofe in the bottom 
plate, and perforated for the fame purpofe. It has alfo a 
pair of ledges running round the under fide to receive the 
top edges of the front, back,-and fide plates. The air- 
box does not reach up to the top plate by 24 inches. 

All thefe plates are of caft iron; and when they are all 
in their proper places, they are bound firmly tegether by a 
pair of flender rods of wrought iron with {crews, and the 
machine appears as in fig. 6. There are alfotwo thin plates 
of wrought iron, viz. 7. The fhutter, which -is of fuch 
a length and breadth as to clofe well the opening of the 
fire-place, and ferving to blow up the fire, and to fecure 
itin the night. It is raifed or deprefled by means of two 
brafs nobs, aud flides in a groove left between the foremoft 
ledge of the fide plates and the face of the front plates, 
8. The regifter, which is placed between the back plate and 
air-box, and furnifhed with a key ; fo that it may be turned 
on its axis and made to lie m any pofition between level 
and upright. The operation of this machine, and the mes 
thod of fixing it, may be underltood by obferving the pros 
file of the chimney and fire-places in fig. 7. M is the 
mantle-piece or breaft of the chimney; C the funnel; B the 
falfe back, made of brick-work in the chimney, four inches 
or more from the true back, from the top of which a 
clofing is to be made over to the breait of the chimney, 
that no air may pals into the chimney except that which 
goes under the falfe back, and up behind it; E the true 
back of the chimney ; [the top of the fire-place; F the 
front of it; A the place where the fire is made; D the 
air-box ; K the hole in the fide-plate, through which the 
warmed air is difcharged out of the box into the room; H the 
hollow, formed by removing fome bricks from the hearth 
under the bottom plate filled with frefh air, entering at the 
paflage I, and afcending into the air-box through the air-hole 
in the bottom plate near G, the partition in the hollow, de- 
figned to keep the air and fmoke apart ; P the paflage under 
the falfe back, and part of the hearth for the f{moke; and the 
arrows in the figure fhew the courfe of the fmoke. The 
fire being made at A, the flame and fmoke will afcend, 
itrike the top T, and give it a confiderable heat ; the {moke 
will turn over the air-box, and defcend between it and the 
back plate to the holes near G, in the bottom plate, heat« 
ing in its paflage all the plates of the machine; it will then, 
proceed under and behind the falfe back, and rife into the 
chimney. The air of the room contiguous to the feveral 
plates, and warmed by them, becomes {pecifically lighter 
than the other air in the room, and is obliged to rife; but, 
being prevented by the clofure aver the fire-place from going 
up the chimney, 1s forced out into the reom, and rifing 
by the mantle-piece to the cieling, is again driven down, 
gradually by the fteam of newly-warmed air that fol- 
lows ; and thus the whole room becomes ina little time 
equally warmed. The air, alfo, warmed under the bot- 
tom plate and in the air-box, rifes and comes out of the 
holes in the fide plates, and thus warming and continually 
changing the air of the room. In the clofing of the chim- 
ney a {quare opening for a trap-door fhould be left open for 
the fweeper to go up: the door may be made of flate or 


ting 


ERE. 


tin, and fo placed, that by turning up againft the back of 
the chimney when open, it clofes the vacancy behind the 
. falfe back, and fhoots the foot that falls in {weeping out 
upon the hearth. It will alfo be convenient to havea {mall 
hole about tive or fix inches fquare, cut near the cieling 
through into the funnel, and provided with a fhutter, by 
occafionally opening which, the heated air of the room and 
fmoke of tobacco, &c. may be carried off without incom- 
moding the company. Fora farther account of the man- 
ner of ufing this fire-place, the advantages attending it, an- 
{wers to objeCtions and diretions to the bricklayer in fixing 
it, the curious reader may confult Franklin’s Letters and 
Papets on Philofophical Subjeéts, p. 284—318. edit. 1769. 
For a farther account of improved fire-places, fee CHIMNEY. 

Fire-pofs, in the Military Art, are {mall earthen pots 
into which is put a grenade, filled with fine powder till the 
grenade be covered ; and then the pot is covered with a 
piece of parchment, and two pieces of match laid acrofs 
and lighted. ‘This pot being thrown where it is defigned to 
do execution, breaks and fires the powder, and thereby fires 
the powder in the grenade, which ought to have no fuze, 
that its operation may be the quicker. 

Fire, Razant, or rafant, is a fire from the artillery and 
fmall arms dire&ed in a line parallel to the horizon, or to 
thofe parts of the works of a place that are defended. 

Tire, Running, is when a rank or ranks of men drawn up 
fire one after another; or when the lines of an army are 
drawn out to fire on account of a victory ; in which cafe 
each {quadron or battalion takes it from that on its right, 
from the right of the firft line to the left, and from the left 
to the right of the fecond line, &c. 7 

Fire/iip, is a veflel fitted up with combuftible appa- 
ratus, fo arranged as to appear {uddenly in a blaze, at any 
given time, or fituation. It is cbferved by Anderfon in his 
Hiftory of Commerce, vol. i. p- 432, that fome Englifh 
veffels, filled with combuttible matter, and fent among the 
Spanith fhips compofing the Invincible Armada in 1588, 
are faid to have given rife to the terrible invention of fire- 
Ships. However, Livy informs us, that the Rhodians had 
invented a kind of fire-(hips which were ufed in junction with 
the Roman fleet in their engagement with the Syrians, in 
the year before ‘Chrift 190; canldrons of combuttible and 
burning materials were hung out at their prows, fo that 
none of the enemy’s fhips durft approach them: thefe fell 
onthe enemy’s gallies, itruck their beaks into them, and 
at the fame time {fet themon fire. Liv. lib. xxxvii. cap. JO. 
tom. ili. p. 322. Ed. Crevier. 

There is nothing peculiar in the conftruétion of a modern 
Sire-fhip, except the apparatus by which the fire is inftantly 
conveyed from one part to another, and from thence to the 
enemy: for this purpofe the fire-room, in which the com- 
buttibles are inclofed, is built between decks, and extends 
from the bulk-head at the forecaftle to a bulk-head railed 
behind the main-maft. The train inclofed in this apart- 
ment is contained in a number of wooden troughs which 
interfeét each other in different parts of the fhip’s length, 
heing fupported at proper diftances by crofs pieces and 
itanchions, On each fide of the thip are cut out fix or feven 
port-holes, in fize about fifteen by eighteen inches, with 
their lids opening downware, and clofe caulked up. ‘Agaiuit 
each port is fixed an ivon-chamber, which, when the {hip is 
fired, blows out the port-lid and letsout the flame. Under 
the mainimd fore {hrouds is fixed a wooden funnel, one end 
of which communicates with a fire-barrel, and defigned to 
convey theilames to the fhrouds, Between the funnels, 
called alfo fize-tranks, are two feuttles or {mall holes in the 
upper deck; ferving alfo to let out the flames. Both fan- 

Vor, XIV. 


! 

nels and fcuttles muft be ftopped with plugs, and have fai’. 
cloth or canvas nailed over them, to prevent any zccident 
happening from above to the combuttibles below. The port- 
holes, funnels, and feuttles, ferve not only to communicate 
the flames to the outfide and upper warks of the fhip and 
her rigging, bat likewife to open a paflage for the inward 
air confined in the fire-room, fo that it may expand itfelf 
without blowing up the decks. Oncach fide of the bulk- 
head behind is cut a hole big enough to receive a trough 
of the fame fize as the others; leading troughs whofe 
foremoft ends commuuicate with other troughs within the 
fire‘room, extend obliquely from thefe openings to fally- 
ports cut through the fhip’s fide: the decks and troughs 
are well covered with melted rofin. When either of the 
leading-troughs is fired, the flame is immediately conveyed 
to the oppofite fide of the fhip, and both fides burn to- 
gether. 

The cabins’of the lieutenant and mafter are behind the 
fire-room, one on the ftarboard and the other on the lar- 
board fide. The captain’s cabin is feparated from thefe 
by a bulk-head. 

Of thefe fire-thips we have two forts, wiz. the con- 
Sflograting and the exploding. The former have been long 
in wie, but the latter appears to be of rather Jater adoption. 
The veffels employed may be from 60 to 200 tons, or more ; 
their fize being ufually adapted to the fervice they are to 
perform. The following detailed account of the prepara- 
tions and proportions of the requifite materials will give our 
readers a perteét idea of this horrible contrivance. 


Proportion of combuftible Stores for a Fire-Ship of 150 Tons. 


Fire-barvels, filled with compofition - 8 
Iron chambers to blow open the ports - 12 
Compofition for priming - barrels = 34 
Quick match - - ditto I 
Curtains, dipped - - 48 
Reeds, long, tingle dipped - 150 
: Single dipped - 75 
Ditto, fhort, { Dosble dpa 6 a5 
Bavins, fingle dipped - - 250 


The fire-barrels are about 2 feet 4 inches high, and 
1 foot 6 inches in diameter. Each barrel muft have 4 holes 
of about 6 inches fquare cut in its fides; and thefe holes 
mult have a {quare piece of canvas nailed over them quite 
clofe.. They are then filled with the fame compofition as 
for carcafes; and 4 plugs of about 1 inch ia diameter and 
3 long, and well greafed, are thruft into the top, and then 
left to dry. When dry, the plugs are takea out, and the 
holes filled with. fufe compofition, with quick-match at the 
top. After this, the whole is fmeatd over with mealed 
powder, mixed with {pirits of wine. When dry again, a 
fheet or two of brown paper is laid over the top, and then 
one of the canvas covers, which is made fecure by the upper 
hoop of the barrel. 
The compofition for dipping reeds, bavins, and curtains, 
conlilts of J 
Rotin - 


- 120 Ib. 
Coarfe fulphur “ 90 
Swedith pitch - Go 
Tallow - - e} 


Mealed powder - 

This will dip about roo reeds and 2¢ 
Fach curtain contains 1 fquare yard of barras; and each 
cover for fire-barrels, 1 {quare yard of facking. Inimed 
ately that the curtains, covers, &c, are dipped, tl 
be itrewed over with tine brimftone, before n 
erews cold. The irow chambers for blowmg open’ the 

0 8 


are to 


the ofl 


. ion 
ie COMpoNntic 


ports, 


B.LLLR E. 


ports, hold from 9 to 11 ounces of powder. They are 
fixed in fuch manner as to prevent their recoil, and to in- 
fure the ports being blown open. The vents are ufually 
corked up, and covered with a piece of barras, till required 
to be primed, for which the following compolition is pre- 
-pared: 


Saltpetre pulverized 5 224 |b. 
Rofin ditto - 2 
Sulphur ditto - 18 
Mealed powder - Ad 
Linfeed oil - - I pint. 


The fhip fhould not be primed when fitted out, but only 
when intended to be fireé. The mode of fitting out is this: 
The whole breadth of the fire-room is to be divided into 
nine parts; and troughs, about 4 inches wide and as many 
deep, are laid both along the whole length of that room, and 
acrofs; fo as to form a general communication, and to infure 
that the whole of the combutftibles may be ignited nearly at 
the fame moment. The eight fire-barrels are ranged along 
the two fides ; and over them are two fire-fcuttles, or open- 
ings with fire-trunks, by which the flames are directed up- 
wards, towards the reft of the apparatus. ‘The reeds and 
bavins are tied down to the troughs, to prevent their rolling 
out of their places, as the fhip may roll or pitch; and the 
curtains are nailed up to the beams, equally throughout the 
fire-room, 

When the veffel is about to be fired, all the reeds and 
bavins are to be taken up, and a little of the priming com- 
pofition fprinkled in the bottoms of the troughs: the reeds, 
&c. are then to be lightly tied down as before. Quick 
match, of fix or eight threads, doubled, mutt be laid along 
on the tops of all the reeds, &c. and abundance of priming 
compofition ftrewed over it, as well as over all the fire-room. 
The covers of all the fire-barrels muf& be cut open, and made 
to hang-down on the fides of the apertures. Leaders, of 
ftrong quick-match, muft be laid from the reeds to the bar- 
rels, and to the iron chambers; tying them to the feveral 
yents, to infure their not falling off. Strong leaders of 
quick-match, four or five times doubled, mutt be laid from 
the reeds to the fally-ports ; and thefe laft muft be connected 
by quick-match, that the whole may take fire at once. 

The following mode is now in ufe for producing an ex- 
ternal fire, in addition to that kindled within. Fire-boxes, 
filled with carcafe-compofition, are diftributed in the fol- 
lowing manner in a fhip with three mafts : 


Boxes. 
i box is fufpended from each of the cat-heads ane} 
davits, on each fide of the bow, inall - 4 
8% flung acrofs the bowfprit - - 8 
4 Bi eacli of the out-riggers abaft - 8 
2 from the graplins of each of the lower yard-arms 12 
1 from the dead-eyes on each fide of the tops 6 
1 from the middle of the infide of the fore, main, 6 
and mizen fhrouds - - - 


Total boxes of compofition 44 


Thefe boxes are fufpended by chains and hooks; but 
thofe thrown acrofs the bow{prits and out-riggers are fixed 
by ftaples. The two inner ones are laid with leaders of 
quick-match, which fire inftantly ; or elfe with port-fires, 
cut to burna given time: they communicate with the outer 
ones by reeds tied down on the bowfprit.and out-riggers. 
The bexes that hang from the dead-eyes and fhrouds are 
fired by curtains fuieended from the fhrouds; the lower 
onss hanging immediately over the large fire-barrels, The 


two boxes on each yard-arm are hung the one over the 
other; the upper one having a leader of quick-match carried 
along the yard from the fhrouds: this in burning will 
doubtlefs fire the lower one. Befides the boxes, there are 
fire-harrels arranged as follows: Two half-barrels on the 
fore-caltle ; two abaft the main-deck, and four on the main 
deck ; two in each top, placed againit the malts; and four 
large fire-barrels, under fire-trunks, to convey fire to the 
curtains on the fhrouds. 

All theie fire-barrels and boxes are to be fired by feparate 
leaders of quick-match or port-fire, fo that every part of 
the fhip may be fired, and envelope her in fmoke during her 
approach to the enemy; while the refidue need not be ig- 
nited until the crew may be quitting to efcape in their 
boats. This is certainly a very hazardous duty; the atten- 
tion of the enemy being always attra¢ted by fuch fire-fhips 
as appear likely to take effect: hence the boats are manned, 
and every endeavour is made by long poles, like boat-hooks, 
to get hold fo as to tow away into a contrary direétien ; or 
long-boats, &c. are moored with chains extending upon 
the furface of the water, for the purpofe of arrefting the 
progrefs of the flaming vifitor. Whether it be from a re- 
fined idea, or fiom the moft determined refentment towards 
thofe who a¢t in tire-fhips, may be difficult to judge; but 
there is rarely any quarter given to fach as fall into the 
enemy’s power. However, under ordinary circumiftances, 
the evacuation is not attended with much difficulty, ualefs 
there be much fwell, by which the boat’s return may be 
greatly impeded, thereby fubjeGting the crew to a heavy 
fire from every quarter. When we under{tand that twe 
men, turnifhed with lighted port-fires, can fet fire to the 
whole of the leaders on the deck, &c. in lefs than a minute, 
we may collet that after once the veflel has got into a pro- 
per dire€tion, within a few minutes fail of the enemy, no 
occafion for remaining in her, fo as to rifk the crew, need 
ever exift. In general, the fire becomes univerfal in the 
courfe of five minutes; the ports being blown open by the 
chambers, and allowing the flames to rufh out in the moft 
awful manner ;—in fucha manner as to preclude the poffi- 
bility of approach in boats, which cannot aé when the fire 
has become general. 

Exploding fire-fhips are conftruéted on a fimilar principle ; 
adapting it to the explofion, at a given time, of an immenfe 
trough of powder running the whole length of the veffel, 
for the purpofe of burfting her to pieces, and of deftroying 
whatever veflels may be within reach of the fhock. 

Fire-ffone is a coarfe, harfh, dutty free-ftone, of a mo- 
derately compact texture, of a pale greyifh colour, nearly 
white, with a very flight greenifh tinge. This ftone is mo- 
derately hard and heavy, and flightly colours the hands ; it 
is compofed of a fmall fine angular grit, cemented by an 
earthy {parry matter, intermixed with numerous {mall 
{pangles ofa filvery mica: it will not ftrike fire with fteel, and 
in the fire changes to a flight reddifh hue. It is called alfo 
Ryegate-ftone, from the place whence it is chiefly brought ; 
it bears the fire and a high degree of heat, without melting 
or exfoliating ; and is much ufed for chimnies, hearths 
ovens, ftoves, &c. 

It does not bear the weather, and is therefore unfit for 
building. 

The bett fire-ftone that England affords, is perhaps that 
obtained from the mill-ftone grit itrata, from a bed with 
globular ochry {tains in it, and which is ufed for lining the> 
iron furnaces of Derbythire and other diftri€ts ; it is dug at 
the Rooks quarry, in Afhover, on Stanton Moor, and ate 
places. Of late years a good fire-ftone has been ufed at 
Butterly furnace, by Mr, Jeflop, junior, from the, fine micas 

ceous 


FIR : 


ceous grit-ftone im the fhale, (thale free-flone) at Bull 
Bridge, near Crich. The loweft and moft filicious beds of 
the chalk ftrata anfwer the end of a fire ftone, for which 
purpofe they are dug at Ryegate, Godftone,. and other 
places on the fouthern fkirt of the North Downs, in Surry, 
for the ufe of the metropolis: the celebrated free-ftone at 
Tottenhoe, in Bedfordfhire, is of thie flratum, and makes a 
tolerable tre-ftone. 

Fire-water, a name given toalkaheft. See Icnis aqua. 

Fire, wild, is a kind of artificial or faGtitious fire, called 
by the Greeks the liquid, or maritime fire, which burns 
aye under water, and that with greater violence than out 
or it. 

Tt is compofed of fulphur, naphtha, pitch, gum, and 
~ bitumen ; and it is only extinguifhable by vinegar, mixed 

with fand and urine, or by covering it with raw hides. 

Its motion or tendency is faid to be contrary to that of 
natural fire, and always following the dire@tion in which it 
is thrown, whether it be downwards, fidewife, or other- 
wile. For the anpoyance of the enemy, it was employed 
with equal eifeG by fea and land, in battles or in fieges. It 
was either poured from the rampart in large boilers, or 
launched in red-hot balls of {tone and iron, or darted in 
arrows and javelins, twifted round with flax and tow 
which had deeply imbibed the inflammable o'l: fometimes it 
was depofited in fire-fhips, and was moft commonly blown 
through long tube- of copper, which were planted on the 
prow of a galley, ard fancituily fhaped into the mouths of 
favage monfters that feemed1o vomit ftreams of liquid 
and confuming fire. 

The French call it Greeé Jire, or feu Grecois, becaufe 
firft ufed by the Greeks about the year 660, as is obferved 
by the Jefuit Petavius, on the authority of Nicetas, 
Theophanes, Cedrenus, &c. 

The inventor according to the fame Jefuit, was an en- 
gineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, named Callinicus, who frit 
applied itin the fea-tight commanded by Conitaatine Pogo- 
nates againft the Saracens, near Cyzicus, in the Hellefpont ; 
and with fuch effeét, that he burnt the whole fleet there- 
with, wherein there were thirty thoufand men. 

But others will have it of a much older date; and hold 
Marcus Gracchus the irventor ; which opinion is fupperted 
by feveral paffages, both in the Greek and Roman writers, 
which thew it to have been anciently ufed by both thefe na- 
tions inthe wars. See Scaliger againft Cardan. 

Conftantine’s fucceffors afd it on divers oceafions, with 
equal advantage as himfelf; and what is remarkable enough 
is, that they were fo happy as to keep the fecret of the 
compofition to themfelves, as the palladium of the ftate, 
though their gallies and artillery might occafionally be lent 
to the Romans, fo that no other nation knew it in the year 
960. 

Hugh, king of Burgundy, demanding fhips of the em- 
peror Leo for the fiege of Frefne, defired likewife the 
Greek fire. Chorier, Hift. De Dauph. 

By various precautions, the fecret was confined above 
400 years to the Romans of the Eaft, and at the end of the 
11th century, the Pifans, to whom every {cience and every 
art were familiar, fuffered the effe&ts, without underftanding 
the compofition of the Greek fire. It was at length either 
difcovered or {tolen by the Mahometans, and inthe holy wars 
of Syria and Egypt, they retorted an invention contrived 
againft themfelves, on the heads of the Chriftians. 

F. Daniel gives us a good defcription of the Greek fire, 
in his account of the fiege of Damietta, under St Louis. 
Every body, fays that author, was aflonifhed with the 
Greek fire which the Turks then prepared, and the fe. 


FIR 


cret whereof is now loft. They threw it out of a kind 
of mortar; and fometimes fhot it with an odd fort of 
crofs-bow, which was ftrongly bent by means of a han- 
dle, or winch, of much greater force than the bare arm. 

That thrown with the mortar fometimes appeared in the 
air of the fize of a tun, witha long tail, and a noife like 
that of thunder. It came flying through the air, fays 
Joinville in his « Hiftoire de St. Louis,’ like a winged, 
long-tailed dragon, about the thicknefs of an hogfhead, with 
the report of thunder and velocity of lightuing ; and the 
darknefs of the night was difpelled by this deadly illumi- 
nation. The ufe of the Greek, or, as it might now be 
called, the Saracen fire, was continued to the middle of the 
14th century, when the fcientific or cafual compound of 
nitre, fulphur, and charcoal effeGted a new revolution in the 
art of war and the hiftory of mankind. Leonard da Vinci; 
in his MSS., publithed by Venturi, defcribes the compofi- 
tion of the Greek fire as formed by mixing over the fire, 
the charcoal of willow, nitre, brandy, rofin, fulphur, pitch, 
and camphor. A woollen cord is then plunged in the mix - 
ture, and made into balls, which may afterwards be provided 
with fpikes. Thefe balls, being fet on fire, are thrown into 
the enemy’s veffels. A fimilar compofition has been given 
by Baptiila Porta, in his «« Mag. Natur. l. xii.c. 2.” The 
modern difcoveries refpeting combuftion have difclofed 
the whole fecret of compofitions which burn without accefs 
to the atmofphere, but by means of oxygenafforded from nitre. 
The balls deferibed by Frezier, (Des Faux d? artifices) 
which thine on the furface of water are nothing eife but the 
Greek fire. 

Fire-works, or artificial fires, are preparations made of 
gunpowder, fulphur, and other inflammable and combuftible 
ingredients, ufed on occafion of public rejoicings, and other 
folemnities. 

The principal of thefe are rockets, ferpents, ftars, hail, 
mines, bombs, garlands, letters, and other devices. See 
Rockets, Star, Boma, &c. 

The invention of fire-works is by M. Mahudel attributed 
to the Florentines and people of Sienna; who found out 
likewife the method of adding decorations to them of ftatues, 
with fire iffuing from their eyes and mouths. 

The art of preparing and managing fire-works is called 
Pyrotechny. 

The making or felling of fire-works, or {quibs, er throw- 
ing them about in any ftreet, is, on account of the danger 
that may enfue to any thatched or timber buildings, declared 
to bea common nufance, by g and ro W. III. cap. 7. and 
punithed by a fine of 2o05. 

Fire-workers, were formerly fubordinate officers to the 
fire-mafters, who commanded the bombardiers, but they 
are now fecond licutenants to the royal regiment of 
artillery. 

Thele receive the orders from the fire-mafters, and {ee 
that the bombardiers execute them. 

Fire, Jfland, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Indian 
fea, near the coa{t of Africa ; S. lat. 17° $0’. 

FIRENZUOLA, Acwo to, in Biogrephy, an Italian 
poet, born at Florence in 1493, was fon of Baftiano de’ 
Giovannini, a perfon of confiderable note in his own country. 
He ftudied at Sienna and Perugia ; and in the latter place he 
contracted an intimacy with the famous Peter Aretin, whom 
he accompanied to Rome. He was intended for the pro- 
feflion of the law, and exercifed the duties of an advocate, 
which he at length quitted to enter the congregation of 
monks of Vallembrofa, with the expedation of attaining 
fome preferment in the church. He died at Rome about the 
year 1545, having pafled much of his live in ill health. Hie 

3 Oz wntiog 


Fin’ 


writings rank among the lighter produGtions of Italian liter- 
ature. "They have been frequently priated ; and were cof- 
leGted in three volumes at Florence in the year 1763. Thefe 
confift of works in verfe and in profe ; of novels ; amorous 
difcourfes ; a piece againft the new letters introduced into 
the Italian by Triffino; difcourfes in natural hiltory ; two 
comedies ; a tranflation of the Golden Afs of Apuleius, 
adapted to himfelf and the circumftances of his own time. 
In almoft all his pieces he exhibits a cultivated aad elegant 
tafte, but is often more free in his manners than became the 
clerical chara€ier. Moreri. 

FIRGOS, ia Geography, a town of the ifland of Samos ; 

miles W.N.W. of Cora. 

FIRING, inthe Afanege, denotes a kind of correction or 
difcipline of thewhip, ufed by horfe-dealers ; and which they 
cruelly praGtife in order to terrify a horfe, and thus to 
roufe his mettle, that he may appear to the belt advantage. 
Whereas this object is moft honettly and moft efieGiually at- 
tained by a moderate ufe of the whip. 

Firins, in the Military Ariz, denotes the difcharge of 
the fire-arms ; and its objet is to do the utmoft execution 
to the enemy. 

‘Lhe prefent method of firing by platoons is faid to have 
been invented by Guftavus Adolphus, and firft ufed about 
the year 16183 the reafon commonly given for this method 
is, that a conftant fire may be always kept up. There are 
three different ways of platoon firing ; viz. ftanding, ad- 
vancing, and retreating. But previous to every kind of 
firing, each regiment or battalion muft be told off in grand 
divifions, fubdivifions, and platoons, exclufively of the 
grenadiers, which form two fubdivifions, or four platoons, 
of themfelves. In firing itanding, ether by divilions or 
platoons, the firft fire is from the divifion or platoon on the 
right; the fetond fire, from the left; the third, from the 
right again ; and fo on alternately till the firing comes to 
the centre platoon, which is generally called the colour 
platoon, and does not fire, remaining asa referve for the 
colours. Firing advancing is performed in the fame manner, 
with this addition, that before either divifion or platoon 
fires, it advances three paces forward. Firing retreating 
varies from either of the former methods; for, before either 
fivifion or platoon fires, if they are marching from the 
enemy, it muft go to the right about, and after firing, to 
the left about again, and continue the retreat as flow and 
orderly as poflible. j 

In hedge-tiring the men are drawn up two deep, and in 
that order both ranks are to-fire ftanding. Oblique firing 
is either to the right and left, or from the right and left to 
the centre, according to the fituation of the object. The 
Prufhans have a particular contrivance for this purpofe 3 if 
they are to level to the right, the rear ranks of every pla- 
toon make two quick but fmall paces to the left, and the 
body of each foldier turns one-eighth of a circle, and vice 
verfa, Parapet firing depends en the nature of the parapet 
over which the men are te fire, and alo upon that of the 
attack made to poffefs it. This method of firing is fome- 
times performed by fingle ranks ftepping on the banquette 
and firing ;,each man inftantly handing his arms to the 
centre rank of. the fame tile, and taking his back in the 


room of it; andthe centre rank giving it to: the rear to. 


load, and forwardije the arms of the rear to the front ranks 
by which means the front rank men can fire fxpor feven 
rounds ina minute, with exa@trefs.. Parapet firing may alfo 
be executed two deep, when the banquette’ is three feet 
broad, erin field works, where no banquettes are made. 
Square firing is performed by.a regiment or body of men 
drawn up ia a hollow iquare, in which cafe each front. is 


FIR 


generally divided into four divifions or firings, and the flanks 
of the fquare, being the weakelt part, are covered by four 
platoons of grenadiers. ‘The firtt fire is from the right di- 
vifion of each face; the fecond from the left divifion of 
each face, &c. and the grenadiers make the laft fire. Street 
firing is praétifed in two ways; either by making the divi- 
fion or platoon that has fired to wheel by half-rank to the 
right and left outwards from the centre, and to march im 
that order by half divitions down the flanks on each fide of 
the column, and to draw up in the rear, and goon with 
their priming and loading ; or, to make the divifton or pla- 
toon, after firing, to face to the right and left outwards 
from the centre, and one half rank to follow the other ; and 
in that orderto march in one centre file down on each fide 
of the column into the rear, and there draw up as be- 
fore. 

FirinG iron, in the Manege, is a piece of copper or iron, 
about a foot long, one end of which is made flat, and forged 
like a knife; the back of it being half an inch thick, and’ 
the fore-edge about the fifth or fixth part of this. ° When 
the farrier has made his firing-iron red hot in his forge, he 
applies the thinneit part to the horfe’s fkin, and fo gives 
the fire to the hams, or fuch places as ftand m need of 
it, 

The utility of firing, or of applying the a@tual cautery in’ 
itrains is doubtful. Mr. Lawrence tried it without fuecefs. 
Its ufe is faid to be to difculs fwellings by promoting ab- 
forption, and by contracting the fkin to form a conftant 
bandage round the finews, both dering the cure, and ever 
afterwards: when the paltern-joiuts are exceedingly full and 
{fwelled, the legs gorged, the tendons enlarged, and, in- 
deed, the parts indurated,’ bliftering and firing feem to be- 
abfolutely neceffary, when no other meafures will be 
fufficiently ufeful. In the Veterinary college, it is the 
practice, in this operation, to draw the lines vertically round 
the affe&ted limb ; the contraction of the fkin in that direGtion. 
forming the molt effectual and uniform bandage on the part: 
See Spavin, RinGpone, &e. A 

TFIRKIN, an Englith meafure of capacity, for things li- 
quid, containing the fourth part of the barrel. 

The firkin of ale contains eight gallons; and that-of-beer, 
nine; two firkins of beer make the kilderkin; two ktlder- 


kins the barrel; and two barrels the hogfhead.. In the 


country a firkin of ale and beer is 84 Winchetter gallons. 

The firkins of herrings, foap, aud butter areon the foot= 
ing of the firkin of ale ; viz. a gallon per firkin lefsthan that, 
of beer. 

FIRLAYENKA, in Geography, a town of Poland; in: 
the palatinate of Lemberg; 48 miles E. N.E. of Lem- 
berg. 

FIRLOT, in Agriculture, is a term which is generally 
applied to a dry meafure of grain in the northern parts of 
the kingdom; but which differs in fize, according to Mr.. 
Sommerville, in the proportion of 21, 25 to 3%. ‘There is 
therefore a /mall and a laxge frlot. Wheat, rye, beans, 
and peas are ufually fold by the fimall firlot; but ma‘t, 
barley, andoats by the large firlot. Tour fmall firlots are; 
according to the fame writer, 4.087276 Winchelter bufhels ; 
four large ones. 5,96263 Winchelter bufhels. Four firlots 
make a boll. See Weicuts and Measures. The firtot 
is tkewile diftinguifhed into the oat and the wheat kinds. 
The oat firlot, which contains twenty-one and a querer 
Scotch pints, is nineteen anda half inches in diameter, both: 
at the top and bottom, being of a perfeétly cylindrical form, 
and feven and a-half inchesin depth. The wheat firloteen- 
tains about 2211 cubical inches, and that for barley thirty- 
one itandard pints ; it deems therefare thatthe Scoteh wheat? 

fastot 


‘ 


FIR 


finite exceeds the Englifh bufhel, by thirty-three cubical 
inches. 


FIRMAMENT, (from the Latin jirmamentum.) This’ 


word has been ufed with great latitude by facred writers, 
by aftronomers, by poets, and other writers. When 
Ptolemy of Egypt endeavoured to reconcile the phenomena 
of the celeftial bodies with the prevailing philofophy of the 
times, he fuppofed that the earth was immoveably fixed in 
the centre of the univerfe, aud shat the moon, mercury, 
venus, the fun, mars, jupiter, and faturn, were carried round 
the earth by different {pheres ot folid but tranfparent mat- 
ter. Beyond them he fuppofed the exiftence of an eighth 
{phere whereon the fixed {tars were fituated, and this he 
called the firmament of thé fixed flars; and beyond this 
firmament be placed the primum mobile, and the ca/lum 
empyreum. In procefs of time the abfurdity of this aftrono- 
mical hypothefis was clearly demonftrated, in confequence 
of which the Ptolemaic fpheres were utterly difregarded ; yet 
the word firmament {till remained in ufe ; its meaning, how- 
ever, became lef{s limited; fo that fometimes it was ufed to 
exprefs the region of the fixed ftars; at other times it 
denoted a peculiar region; or fome peculiar regions of the 
heayens, as may be deduced from the expreflions, he middle 
jmament ; the various firmaments. It has alfo been ufed to 
fignify .the fly, or the whole expanfe of the heavens. 
Derham fays (in his Aftro. Theol.) ** what an immenfe 
{pace is the firmament, wherein a great number of ftars are 
feen with our naked eye?” Dr. Keill, in his A ftronomical 
Lectures; fays, “a {petator therefore living in the fun, 
when he looks towards the heavens, will obferve its furface 
to be fpherical-concave, and concentrical to his eye, in 
which furface he will obferve an innumerable multitude of 
ftars, which we call fixed, every where difperfed through- 
out the whole heavens, which like fo many gilded ituds, 
with a bright luftre, adorn the firmament.” 

In various parts of the fcripture, the middle region of 
the air is called the firmament. ' 

It is curious to obferve that whilft moft writers, ancient 
no lefs than modern, feem to confider the firmament as fome- 
thing aerial, or fluid; others, with Ptolemy, have con- 
fidered it as folid and tranfparent like cryital. Indeed, upon 
the leaft reflection, this laft ideafeems to be more confonant 
with the nature of the word, which fuggells the idea of 
fomething firm and fubflantial, a fort of toundation fit to 
{upport great, heavy, and magniiicent’ objects. In fa&, 
fome writers of note have ufed it in this fenfe, and entirely 
independent on aflronomy. Thus Bacon (in his Advance- 
ment of Learning) {peaking of the principles of every fub- 
jet, which human induftry always endeavours to find out, 
fays, ‘The mind of man doth wonderfully endeavour, and- 
extremely covet this, that it may not be penfile; but that 
it may light upon fomething fixt and immoveable,.on which, 
ason afirmament, it may {upport itfelf it its {wiit motions 
and difquifitions.’? 


Confidering that ftriking circumftance of the fixed ftars. 


conttantly: preferving their relative fituations ; it muft be 
allowed, that Ptolemy was, not without apparent reafon, 
induced to confider the firmament of the itars, as fomething 
folid and permanent. . Previous toythe very, recent mott 


accurate obfervations, which have fhewn that very flight. 


alterations of diftances do a€tually take place among the 
flars, it was not even fufpected that any fuch thing exiited ; 
_ and the daily movement which they were obferved to-have, 
was confidered as the common movement of them all, or 
rather of their firmament, which appeared to revolve round 
the earthionce in each 24 hours: 
_ Befidesthis appavent daily motion, it, isto be remarked 


FIR 
. 

that the fun returns to the equinox every year before it re~: 
turns to the fame point in the heavens, hence the equi.oe- 
tial points havea retrograde motion, which, though’ very 
f{mall, in procefs of time amounts to fomething confiderable, 

and it will complete a whole revolution, fo as to return to 

the fame point, afier a great number of years. (This is 

called the Precession of the equinoxes, which fee ; and 

the whole revolution round the ftarry firmament is called the 

great year, or annus magnus.) This circumftance did nog 

efcape the notice of ancient altronomers, and their calcula- 

tions refpeting the quantity of the annual preceflion, or of 

the whole revolution, were not much lefs accurate than 

thofe of latter times. Ptolemy reckoned the annus magnus, 

or the grand revolution of his ftarry firmament, equal to 

36,000 ordinary years. Hipparchus came to the fame con- 

clufion, Tycho Brahe reckoned it equal to 25,412 years. 

And the more modern aflronomers, though not quite agree=- 
ing among themfelves, generally reckon it equal to about 

26,000 years. 

FIRMAN, in the Eaft. Indies, and particularly in the 
erritories of the Great. Mogul, is the paffport, or per- 
mit, granted to foreiga veflels, to trade within their jurif- 
diction. 

FIRMICUS, Marernus, Jurius, in Biography, ar 
ecclefiaftical writer, flourifhed about the middle of the 
fourth century. He is faid to be a Sicilian by birth; to 
have praGifed for fome time as an advoeate in the- 
Forum at Rome; and, in his old age, to have become a 
convert from heathenifm to Chriftianity. He was author” 
of a treatife, “ De Errore profanarum Religionum,”” which 
was addrefled to the emperors Conftantius and Conftans. 
It isa learned and well-written performance, and fets forth, 
by way of contraft, the reafonablenefs and excellence of the 
Chriftian fyftem, in comparifon with the abfurd'and immoral 
tenets of the Gentile creed. It had been well had he been 
fatistied with demonftrating by argument the fuperior ex- 
cellence of his religion; but unfortunately he called upon 
the civil power to propagate it by force, and by fevere 
ediéts to crufh and overahelm the abettors of error. This 
work has often been reprinted ; and in the year 1666 it was 
publifhed at Paris, at the end of Cyprian’s works; and it is 
inferted ia the zth-volume of the ‘ Bibliotheca Patrum.”” 
A mathematical, or; perhaps, more properly, an aftro- 
logical treatife, entitled, ‘ Aitronomicornm, icn de Ma- 
thefi, lib. viii.?? is afcribed to Firmicus, though not with- 
out difpute. It was fir pubdlifhed at Venice, in 1497, m 
folio, from a copy brought by Pefcennius Niger from Con- 
ftantinople ; and has been frequently reprinted fince, to- 
gether with the works of Manilius, and the aftronomical 
pieces of Ptolemy. It treats of the power and influence of 
the ftars, according to the doétrine of the Egyptians and 
Babylonians ; and contains a curious mixture of mathe- 
matical fcience with the reveries of judicial. aflrology. 
Moreri. 

FIR MILIAN, an eminent’ Chriftian bifhop, -who flou- 
rifhed in the third century, was defeended from an honourable 
family in Cappadocia... He was ordained bifhop of Czefarea 
about the year 233, and was held in the higheit eftimation 
for learning and for the excellence of his moral charaGter’ by 
his contemporaries... In all the important eccletiaftical mat- 
ters that were agitated in his time, the opinion of Firmilian 
was looked up to with profound refpe& and veneration. He 
was prefent at the council of Iconium, held in 2353 at the 
council of Antioch, in 252, convened on the fubject of 
Novatian’s fehifm;-he was alfo prefident of the council 
held, fome-years after, at the fame place, to examine into 
the.opinions of Paul of Samofata. He was.again invited ie 

tac 


FIR 


the council held at Antioch, in the year 270, by which 
Paul was condemned and depofed; but died at Tarfus, on 
his journey, about the end of the year 269. ‘This was an 
unfortunate event for Paul, who had already been faved by 
his influence, and who would probably have again expert- 
enced his kindnefs in this new attack on his principles and 
charaéter, had he lived to argue the matter in council. 
Firmilian was not much diftinguifhed as an author ; yet his 
merits, moderation, and candour, entitle his memory to the 
refpect of pofterity. Theodoret charafterized him as ‘ an 
illuftrious perfon, equally matter of human and divine know- 
ledge.”? He was united in ftriét friendfhip with Origen, 
whom he invited into his own country, and to whom he 
paid feveral vifits, for the fake of improving by his inftruc- 
tions in divine knowledge. He took the part of St. Cy- 
prian, in the difpute about baptifing heretecs that returned 
to the catholic church; and wrote a long letter to St. Cy- 
prian on the fubjeét, in which he expofed the inhymanity, 
pride, and: infolence of Stephen, bifhop of Rome. St. 
Bafil mentions with refpe@ the works of Firmilian, but 
without exprefsly naming them. He was a man zealoufly 
attached to the truth, but candid and liberal to thofe who 
differed from him, and anxioufly defirous that they fhould 
never be molefted on account of their opinions. Moreri. 
Lardner. 

FIRMIN, Tuomas, was born at Ipfwich, in Suffolk, 
in the year 1632, where he was educated under the eye of 
his parents, who were {tri€tly religious; and with regard 
to this world’s goods, they were refpeétable but not rich. 
“© God gave them,’’ fays the friend and biographer of Fir- 
min, the wifh of Solomon, ‘ neither poverty nor riches, 
but that middle eflate and rank, which contains all that is 
valuable and delirable in wealth, without the parade, va- 
nity, and temptations that. generally adhere to riches.’ 
When Thomas was of a proper age, he was bound appren- 
tice to a tradefman in London. In this fituation he was 
remarkable for his diligence and aétivity, as well as for his 
amiable and obliging man: ers. With his matter he ufually 
attended _the fermons of the celebrated Arminian preacher, 
Mr. John~Goodwin: by this he became an early convert 
from Calvinifm, in which he had been brought up, to the 
principles of Arminius. At tke expiration of his appren- 
ticefhip he entered into bufinefs on his own account, with a 
capital of roo/. only, which in 1665 was increafed by an 
addition of soo/. that he received with a citizen’s daughter 
whom ke married. By {kill and induftry he foon acquired 
property ; but, what was of infinitely more importance, he 
became eminently known for the excellence of his difpofi- 
tion, the integrity of his dealings, his folicitude to promote 
the happinefs of others, and his kind and conftant-exertions 
for alleviating the diftrefles of the poor and unfortunate. 
He was, from his firfk commencement in bufinefs, defirous 
of obtaining the friendfhip of perfens eminent for moral 
worth, foreigners as well as his own countrymen, and par- 
ticularly of the clergy of different denominations. From 
thefe connetions he, in future life, was enabled to derive 
effential affiltance in promoting the benevolent and ufeful 
defigns for which he afterwards became fo eminently diftin- 
guifhed. Among other perfons, he was intimately ac- 
quainted with Mr. John Biddle, who confirmed him in his 
Arminian fentiments, and made him a profelyte to Uni- 
tarianifm, for the fake of which Biddle himfelf was perfe- 
cuted and banifhed. (See Bippre.) Firmin was not to 
be diverted from his kind intentions, becaufe the tyranny of 
Cromwell fell heavily upon him: he fhewed him every at- 
tention while here; and when he was fent, by the protetor, 
a prifoner to the Scilly ifles, he procured for him a penfion, 


FIR 


which Cromwell had virtue enough to allow hint to receive 
during his banifhment. Mr. Firmin enrolled among his in- 
timate friends Dr. Whichcote, Dr. Worthington, Dr. 
Tillotfon, and Dr. Wilkins. By the intercourfe which he 
thus maintained with the clergy, and the great confidence 
placed in his judgment to recommend men of abilities and 
worth to fituations for which they were adapted, he was 
enabled to ferve the interefts of many promifing young 
preachers and fcholars, who were candidates for le€turefhips, 
{chools, &e. Inthe year 1664, Mr. Firmin, being a wi- 
dower, married again ; and with his wife he hada very con- 
fiderable fortune. In 1666, his houfe was deftroyed by tlie 
great fire of London; but his charaéter as a tradefman was 
new fo well known, that by the increafe of bufinefs he foon 
repaired the lofs which he fuftained by that event, and 
might have amaffed much property, had not his heart 
prompted him to devote a great proportion of his profits to 
benevolent and humane purpofes. In the year 1676, he 
erected large premifes, and eftablithed a linen manufaéture, 
for the fake of affording employment to a number of poor 
children, who were ufelefg to. and a burden on, the com- 
munity. Here he found conitant work for many hundreds, 
who were either acquainted with the different branches of 
the bufinefs, or were willing to be inftruéted in them. The 
returns proved, as he expected, very inadequate to the ex- 
pences incurred; yet, from his own funds, and from the 
affittance which he obtained from well-difpofed perfons, he 
was enabled to bear the lofs, and to give away occafional 
fums of money, more than their earnings, and to diftribute 
fuel and clothing among the poor manufaéturers in fevere 
feafons. In the year 1678, he publifhed ** Propofals for 
employing the Poor, elpecially in and about the City of 
London, and for the Prevention of Begging, &c. in a 
Letter to a Friend.’? In this traét he defcribes the pro- 
grefs and good effeéts of his inftitution, and makes a num- 
ber of valuable obfervations relative to the moft proper 
means of providing for the neceffities of the peor. After 
this he attempted to fet up a woollen manufaéture ; but the 
lofles which he fuftained, through the ignorance of the 
perfons employed, obliged him to relinquifh his project. 
He ereGted a large warehoufe on the banks of the Thames, 
in which he depofited corn and coals, purchafed in the 
cheapett feafons, to be fold at prime coft, in times of fcar- 
city, to the poor, Mr. Firmin was fignalized by the zeal 
and aétivity which he difplayed in liberating poor debtors 
from prifon, and in providing for the more comfortable fub- 
filtence of others whom he was unable to redeem. He was, 
however, the means of opening the prifon doors to many, | 
whofe families were ready to perifh for want; and his re- 
commendation and influence are faid to have had great 
weight with fome leading members of parliament, in the 
pafling of certain aéts of grace in behalf of poor debtors. 
Mr. Firmin was one of the governors of St. ‘Thomas’s hof- 
pital, and extremely active to render it as ufeful as poffible : 
he was alfo a governor of Chrift’s hofpital, of which he 
proved himfelf a great benefa€tor and conftant fuperintend- 
ant. When the French proteftants fled into England, to 
efcape the perfecution of Louis XIV., Mr. Firmin was 
active in providing for their relief; and feveral thoufand 
pounds were entra to his care and management, for the 
benefit of the refugees. He was equally zealous in behalf 
of thofe who fled from Ireland to England, to efcape the 
perfecutions of James II. He was, in fhort, a tok affi- 
duous aflertor of the civil and religious liberties of man- 
kind; and in no inftance did he ftand by to witnefs oppref- 
fion, without endeavouring to affert the rights of the 
oppreficd. By the diftribution of publications written in 

defence 


FIR 


defence of publie freedom, he endeavoured to roufe his 
countrymen to a vindication of their rights, in oppofition to 
the king (James II.) and he may be regarded asa zealous 
promoter of the revolution in 1688. After that event, he 
gave evidence that his benevolence was attached to no party, 
bet was active in relieving thofe who were fuffering for 
eonfeience fake. The high charaéter which this excellent 
man fuftained attraéted the notice of the queen, who ex- 

yefled a deep concern that fo good a man was not orthodox 
in his religious fentiments ; and intreated archbifhop Tillot- 
fon to endeavour to convince him of his error. The prelate 
replied, that he had already made the attempt; but that 
Mr. Firmin’had been too early and too deeply impreffed 
with Unitarian principles, to admit now of contrary im- 
preffions. After this, Dr. Tillotfon publifhed fome fer- 
mons on the points in difpute, and fent one of the firlt 
copies to Mr. Firmin; who immediately drew up an anfwer 
to them, which he prefented to the archbifhop: ftill, how- 
ever, their friendfhip for one another did not abate, With 
Dr. Compton, bifhop of Tendon, Mr. Firmin was equally 
in favour; and it muft not be forgcetten, that the annual 
colleGliions for the poor, which are made in and about 
London at Chriftmas, under the authority of the king’s 
letter, were fet on foot by Mr. Firmin, who had the direc- 
tion of the bufinefs feveral years. This excellent man died, 
December 20th, 1697, in the 66th year of hisage. He 
was interred, according to his own defire, in the cloyfters 
belonging to Chriit’s hofpital, where the following infcrip- 
tion was erected to his memory. = 

“Under that ftone, near this place, lyeth the body of 
Thomas Firmin, late citizen of London, a governor of this 
and Saint Thomas’s hofpital; who, by the grace of God, 
was created in Chrift Jefus to good works, wherein he was 
indefatigably induftrious, and fuccefsfully provoked many 
others thereto ; becoming alfo their almoner, vifiting and 
relieving the poor at their houfes, and in prifons, whence 
alfo he redeemed many. He fet hundreds of them at work, 
to the expending of great ftocks. He rebuilt, repaired, 
and added conveniences to hofpitals, weekly over-feeing 
the orphans. The refugees from France and from Ireland 
have partaken largely of his charity, pains, and earnett foli- 
citation for them. He was wonderfully zealous in every 

ood work, beyond the example of any of ourage. Thus 
fhewed he his faith by his works, and cannot reafonably be 
reproached for that which brought forth fuch plenty of 
good fruits.” Life of Firmin in Unitarian Traé&s, vol. v. 
1806. 

Firmin, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- 
* partment of the Rhdéne and Loire; 5 miles W. of St. Eti- 
enne. 

Firmin, St a town of France, in the department of 
the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- 
triét of Gap: the place contains 851, and the canton 4477 
inhabitants, on a territory of 2224 kiliometres, and in g 
communes ; 13 miles N. of Gap. 

FIRMITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit- 
meritz; 8 miles N.W. of Leitmeritz. : 

FIRMNESS, Firmiras, iu Philofophy, denotes the 
confiltence of a body; or that ftate, wherein its fenfible 
parts cohere, or are united together, fo that the: motion of 
One part induces a motion of the reft. In which fenfe, 
firmnefs ftands oppofed to fluidity. 

Some authors confound firmnefs with denfity ; as think- 
ing the fame ftate or property of body implied by both; or 
at leaft, that firmnefs follows denfity: but this is a miftake. 
Fer mercury, the denfeft body ee nature excepting gold, is 


FIR 


yet one of the moft fluid; and even gold itfelf, with all ite 
denfity, when fufed, wants firmnefs, or cohefion. 

Many of the Cartefians, and others, hold firmnefs to con- 
fift in the mere quiet of the particles of the body, and their 
mutual immediate contact; urging, that a feparation of 
parts can only arife from fome matter interpofed between 
them, which is excluded by the motion of contiguity. 

But the infufficiency of this hypothefis is evident: for 
mere fimple reit has no force, either to a& or refift; and 
confequently two particles only joined by reft and contiguity, 
would never cohere fo as that a motion of the one fhould 
induce a motion of the other. This is obvious in the cafe 
of two grains of fand, which, however contiguous, and at 
reft, will never conftitute a firm coherent body. 

The firmnefs of bodies, then, depends on the connexion 
or cohefion of their particles. Now, the caufe of cohe- 
fion, fir I. Newton, and his followers, hold to be an 
attraCtive force, inherent in bodies, which binds the {mall 
particles thereof together; exerting itfelf only at, or ex- 
tremely near, the points of contaét, and vanifhing at greater 
diftances. 

The firmnefs of bodies, therefore, follows the laws of the 
cohefion of bodies. See ConEsion. 

Hence, firmnefs in all bodies muft be as the furfaces and 
conta&ts of the component parts: thus a body, whofe parts 
are by their peculiar fhapes capable of the greateit centaéts, 
is moft firm; and that, whofe parts are capable of the leaft 
contaét, will be moft foft. 

In the former, the greateft requifite is to be as near to 
cubes as poffible, and in the latter to fpheres. And in the 
fame manner are to be accounted for, not only all the inter- 
mediate degrees between the moft firm and the moft foft 
bodies, but thofe different confiftencies, which are diftin- 
guifhed by other names, as friable, tenacious, glutinous, 
and the like; for the greater are the folidities of the com- 
ponent parts of any body, in proportion to their furfaces, 
though that body, by the aptitude of the contaéts, may be 
what we call very hard ; yet it will be moft friable or brittle. 
And where the furfaces of the component particles are 
much extended upon a {mall quantity of matter, the bodies 
they compofe, though they may be light and foft, yet they 
will be tenacious or glutinous; for although the flexibility 
of their compounding parts admits of their eafy changing 
of figure by any external force, yet by their touching 
one another in fo many points, they are very difficultly 
feparated. 

The former is the cafe in cryftallized falts, refins, and 
the like; the latter in turpentines, gums, and all of that 
fort. 

FIRM-ORE, a kind of lead-ore. 

FIRMUM, in Ancient Geography, Fermo, a town of 
Italy, in Picenium, nearly S. of Potentia; fituated at 
fome diftance from the fea. Inthe courfe of the Punic 
war, it fent fuccours to the Romans againit Hannibal. It 
was taken by Totila, in the year 544. 

FIROSAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoof- 
tan, in Mewat; 13 miles W. of Cottilah. See alfo Fr- 
ROSAPOUR. 

FIROUSABAD), a town of Perfia, in the province of 
Mecran; 60 miles N.W. of Ermajal. 

FIROUZABADI, Israyim Anov IsHax, in Bio- 
graphy, a Perfian doGor of high reputation for knowledge 
of the principles of the Mahometan law, who flourifhed in 
the eleventh century of the Chriftian era, and was born at 
Firouzabad, a town near Shiraz. Here and at Baffora he 
received the fundamental principles of his education. From 

Baffora. 


FIR 


Baffora he repaired to Bagdat, at that time the imperial 
city and refidence of the caliphs, where he placed himfelf 
under the ableft inftru€tor, and was afterwards invited by 
the illuttrious Nezam Molk, grand-vizier, to undertake the 
dire&tion of the fince celebrated college, which had juft 
been erected at his expence. The duties of this important 
office, which at firft he would gladly have declined, he per- 
formed with honour to himfelf, and to the great advantage 
of thofe who were committed to his charge, till his death 
in the year 1083, when he was in the 82d year of his age. 
His lofs was fo generally regretted, that his difciples went 
into mourning for his death ; and the college over which he 
had prefided was ordered to be fhut.up for a whole year, in 
teltimony of the public forrow which was univerfally felt. 
He was author of a work, which is highly efteemed by the 
Mahomertans, entitled, «¢ Al anbih,’’ or “ General In- 
formation ;”’ in which the principal rites and obfervances cf 
the Muffulman law are fully treated of and explained. 
Gen. Biog. 

Frrouzasadi!, Mecpeppin Asou Tuoarer Monam- 
mrp Ben Jacos, a learned Oriental lexicographer, was 
born in-the year of the hegira 729, or in 1328 of the 
Chriftian era. We had the high honour of being noticed, 
on account of his great learning, by the moft celebrated 
potentates of his time, particularly by Ben Abbas, Tamer- 
lane, and Bajazet, frit emperor of the Turks, who at dif- 
ferent times made him many valuable prefents. He died at 
the age of 88, in the year 817 cf the hegira. His works 
ave a diCtionary of the Arabic language, entitled, “¢ Camus,” 
or “the Oceans’? it confifted of two volumes. He was 
author likewife of a work entitled, ‘* Ahaflan al Lathaif,”’ 
which is a collection of pleafantries and witty fayings; and 
of another, “ On the Means of being happy.’”? Moreri. 

FIROZABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, 
in the foubah of Agra; 16 miles E.S.E. of Agra. 

FIROZEPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar 
of Sumbul; 5 miles N E. of Sumbul. 

FIRST Mover, in the dncient Affronemy. 
mim J7obile. 

Firsr-fruits, Annates or Primitia, the profits of a bene- 
fice for the firlt year after avoidance. See AnNaTeEs and 
Primitre. 

The firl-fruits were formerly eftimated according toa 
rate or valur made under the direction of pope Innocent IV. 
hy Walter bifhcp of Norwich; in 38 Hen. III. and after- 
wards advanced in value by commiflion from pope Ni- 
cholas III. A.D. 1292, 20 Edw. I. which valuation of 
pope Nicholas is ftill preferved in the exchequer; and the 
tenths or decime were the tenth part of the aimual profit of 
each living by the fame valuation: claimed by the holy fee 
on the authority of the precept recorded in Numb. vur. 26, 
Thefe papal ulurpations were firft introduced into this king- 
dom by Paudulph the pope’s legate, during the reigns of 
king Johu and Henry III. in the fee of Norwich, and 
afterwards attempted to be made univerfal by the popes 
Glement’'V. and John XXII. about the beginning of the 
fourtcenth century. Thefe claims were often oppofed b 
the Englifh parliament ; but they continued till the reform- 
ation ta the reign of Henry VIII. at which period it was 
computed, that in the compafs of 50 years, 800,000 ducats 
had-been fent.to Rome for firt-fruitsconly. “Phis revenue 
was annexed to the crown by 26 Hen. VIII. cap, 3. con- 
tvmed by 1 Eliz. .cap. 4. and a new valor beneficioruin was 
taen made, by which the elergy are at prefent rated. By 
thefe tatutes all vicarages under ten pounds a-year, andoall 
relories under ten marks, anc difcharged from the payment 

i 


See Pri- 


FILS 


of firft-fruits; and if the incumbent lives but half a year, 
he fhall pay only one quarter of his firft-fruits; if one whole 
year, half of them; if a year and a half, three quarters; 
and if two years, the whole. By ftat. 27 Hen. VIII. 
cap. 8.. no tenths are due to be paid for the firft year; and 
by other tta\utes of queen Anne, in the fifth and fixth years 
of her reign, if a benefice be under fifty pounds per annum, 
clear yearly value, it fhall be difcharged of the payment of 
firft-fruits and tenths. Queen Anne granted her. royal 
charter, confirmed by fat. 2 Ann. cap. 11. whereby the 
whole revenue of firft-fruits and tenths is vefted im truftees 
for ever, to form a perpetual fund for the augmentation of 
poor livings, ufually called queen Anne’s bounty. Blacktt. 
Comm. vol.i. p.284, &c. See AuGMENTATION. 

First-Fruits, Office of, is-kept in the Temple, under 
the direétion of a remembrancer, receiver; and comptroller, 
and their deputies and clerks. 

FIRUZABAD, Firous-asap, or Giaur, in Geogra- 
phy, atown of Perfia, in the province of Farfiflan ; 65 
miles S.S.W. of Schiras. N. lat. 28° 49’, E. long. 51°? 
58/.—Alfo, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 
12 miles W.N.W. of Nehavend. . 

FIRUZINUS Co or, a term that frequently occurs in 
{ome of the old writers on gems, and has been miftaken by 
many to mean a rufty brown; and by others, black ; but 
thefe are not colours to be fought after among the gems, 
and yet it is to thofe that this epithet is ufually applied. 
We find .it ufed for a blue kind of jafper by fome au- 
thors, the fame with the jafpis boreas of Pliny and Dio- 
{corides, and by others for the fapphire, which fome of 
the ancients, particularly Theophraitus, having called it 
peavey that is, black in its deepelt colour, authors have 
been led to fuppofe that this word ftood for black; but 
as there are not, nor ever were, any black fapphires, it is 
certain from this, as well as many other mftances, that 
the ancients ufed this word, pra, for a deep blue, and 
in that fenfe, firuzinus color does fignify the fame thing ; 
it being the aerinus color of the ancients, or what we 
call fky colour, ora fine blue: fuch as the colour of the 
fineit fapphires. 

FIRUZKOH, in Geography, a fortrefs of Greater Bu- 
charia, on the mountains that feparate Balk from Segeitan, 
takenin 1404, by Timur Bec ; 30 miles S. of Gaur. 

FIS, German, a fharp in multe. 

_FISA, in Geography, a town of South America, in the 
province of ‘Tucuman; 25 miles N. W. of St. Fernan- 
Go. 

FISANELLE, in Ornithology, a name given by the 
Venetians to a water-fowl of the colymbus kind, called by 
authors the colymbus major, or great diver. Very common 
inthe markets of Italy. See Cotymaus. 

FISC, Fiscus, in the Civil Law, the treafury of a 
prince, or ftate ; or that to which all things due to the pub- 
lic do fall. 

The word is derived from the Greek Qicxo;, a great bafket, 
ufed when they went to market. 

By the civil law, none but a fovereign prince has 
a right to have a fife, or public treafury. See Aira- 
RIUM. ; 

FISCAL, fomething relating to the pecuniary intereit of 
the king, the public, or a private perfon. 

The emperor Adrian erected the office of fifcal advocate 
in the Romaa empire. 

FISCARD, or Fisucarp, in Geography, is a {mall 
market and tithing town in the hundred of Cemmacs, 
Pembrokethire, South Wales, diftant from London 1504 

“ * “miles, 


FIS 


wiles, and by the refurns made under the population a&, 
contained, in 1801, 344 houfes, and 1505 inhabitants. The 
town is fituated on the declivity of a high cliff, near where 
the river Gwayne, which feparates the hundred of Cemmaes 
from the hundred of Pebidiog, falls into the fea, forming a 
convessient road with good anchorage, veflels lying fafely 
in five and fix fathom water. The church is remarkable for 
little, but being deititute ofa fteeple. In the town are two 
other places of worfhip, one for baptifts, and another for 
methoditt diffenters. There are very few good houfes, and 
the narrow, unpaved, filthy ftreets are ftrongly contrafted, by 
the cottages being wholly white-wafhed, both walls and 
roufs. The town is however in an improving ftate, and 
lately it has received the advantages of a poft-office, and a 
weekly market held on Fridays, which is well fupplied with 
corn and other provifions, cloth, flannels, ftockings, &c. 
Yet itil its public accommodativns are fo few and indiffer- 
ent, that Mr. Malkin’s advice to travellers, “ that they 
fhould aim to avoid pafling a night here,” is {till eligible. 
A road cut through a rock, forming a communication be- 
tween the upper and lower parts of the town, opens a fine 
view tothe bay. he harbour, having been recently affift- 
ed by theereétion of.apier, is of great advantage to the 
Trith trade, as Fifhgardis the only port on this part of the 
Welth coalt, unincommoded with thofe dangerous fands, 
denominated bars ; and its fituation to the north of Mil- 
ford renders it a fafe retreat for fhips in blowing weather, 
unable to get round St. David’s head. ‘he port has a 
{mall coafting trade, which employs about fifty veflels, from 
20 to 1co tons burthen in the conveyance of butter and 
corn. A manufacture of coarfe cloth is carried on in the 
town, but the principal part of the inhabitants is occupied 
in the herring-fifheries, quantities of which in the feafon are 
caught and cured here, particularly what are termed red 
herrings, by the procefs of {moking. Several fmoking- 
houfes are in the vicinity, and from fern being ufed for the 
purpofe of drying, the fifth are efteemed for their fuperior 
flavour. rom the north-eaft wall of the church is a re- 
markable echo, which repeats fentences diftin@tly three 
times. Ina dingle below the church is a {trong chalybeate 
fpring, celebrated for its fanative virtues : and between the 
church and the river is a vaft ftone, calculated to weigh 
more than nine tons, flat at top, meafuring nine feet in dia- 
meter, and refting upon three others placed in the ground, 
evidently one of thole Britifh Druidical monuments, deno- 
minated cromlecheu. : 
This place was brought into general notice a few years 
fince, by the circumftance of two holtile frigates appearing 
off the port, and afterwards landing at Llanano, in the 
neighbourhood, 1409 French invaders, who, after alarming 
the whole kingdom, and keeping poffeflion of this part of 
the country a few days, were oppofed by the fea-fencibles, 
anda troop of yeomen cavalry, amounting to 656 effective 
men, under the command of lord Cawdor, to which infe- 


rior force, after a fmall refiftance, they furrendered, and . 


were marched prifoners to Haverfordweit. A curious inci- 
dent on that occafion deferves notice. ‘T’o the fpeedy and 
favourable termination of this, at firft, formidable ag¢reffion, 
it appears the females contributed. Numbers aflembled 
upon the furrounding heights, clad in their fearlet whitrles, 
(long mantles), and drawn up in ranks, the enemy took 
them for additional forces, 

“FISCEL, a town of Spain, in Arragon; 15 miles N.W. 


‘of Ainfa. 


FISCELLUS Mons, Mount Fi/callo, a mountain of 
Italy, between the country of the Sabines and Pice- 
zum. 

-FISCHAMUND, atewa of Auftria, fituated at the 

Vou. XIV. 


Fis 


jun&tion of the river Fifcha with the Danube; 12 miles 
E.S.E. cf Vienna. 

FISCHAUSEN, atown of Pruffia, in the Frifch-hoff, 
anciently the refidence of the bifhop of Samland ; 5 miles 
W. of Konigherg. N. lat. 54° 45’. E. long. z0° 2’. 

FISCHBACH, the name given to feveral towns of 
Germany, in the bifhopric of Bamberg, in the territory of 
Nuremberg, and inthe principality of Bayreuth —Alfo, a 
town of Swabia, in the county of Limburg. 

Fiscusacu, or Vi/p, a town of Switzerland, in the 
Vallais ; 27 miles E. of Sion. 

FISCHBRUN, atown of Germany, in the territory of 
Nuremberg: 4 miles N.E, of Herfbruck. 

FISCHER, Joun Curistian, in Biography, the moft 
pleafing and’perfeé performer on the hautbois, and the moft 
ingeniouscompofer for that inftrument that has ever delighted 
our country during full fixty years, that is to fay, fince Batifta 
San Martini ceafed to be heard. Fifcher was born at Fri- 
burg, and brought up at one of the common reading {chools 
ina village in Bohemia, where all the children learn mufic, 
with reading and writing, as athing of courfe. The firfl in- 
ftrument put into his hands was the violin, but after he had 
made fome progrefs in it, taking up the hautbois in fport, 
he fancied he could exprefs his feelings better with the reed 
than the bow ; he therefore attached himfelf to that inflru- 
ment, and became, early in life, fo excellent a performer on 
it, that he was appointed one of the king of Poland’s ce- 
lebrated band at Drefden. Here he remained till its diffo- 
lution, when he went to Berlin, without any intention of 
continuing there ; however, arriving at a critical time, he 
was retained, and had the honour, during a month, to ac- 
company his majefty, Frederic the late king of Pruffia, alone, 
four hours every day. This circumftance was occafioned 
by an offence having been given by C. Ph. Em. Bach, who, 
in going with the reft of the band from Potzdam to Sans 
Souci in winter, had been fo frightened by the badnefs of the 
road, as to exclaim to one of the houfehold on his arrival, in 
rather {trong terms; “ tell our matter, fir, that no honour 
or profit will be a fufficient compenfation to us for fuch 
dangerous fervice; and unlefs the roads are rendered fafer, 
we” ({peaking in the name of the whole band), “ can come 
hither no more.” It is true that the roads were very bad, and 
it isas truethat Bach was extremely frightened in pafiing 
them. But cowardice fometimes is defperate; fituations 
give a courage in remonitrance, of which the greateft heroes 
are not in pofleffion; for Bach’s boldnefs in this particular 
not only furpaffed that of all his brethren, but of the molt 
intrepid generals, and great captains in the Pruffian army ; 
none of whom, however they might have withed it, had 
the audacity to complain of this dangerous pafs ere they 
could arrive at Sans Souct. But a court is at all times, and 
in all countries, of difficult accefs! The confequence of the 
tranfport that had efeaped Bach was temporary difgrace 
and banifhment from court ; and this accounts for Pilcher 
being the only mufician allowed to accomp his Pruffian 
majefty in his retirement and mufical recreations. From 
Berlin he went to Manheim, to hear and be heard, and 
thence to Paris, where he performed at the ‘* Concert Spis 
rituel ;?? and of the fenfation which his performance pro- 
duced there, an enthufiaftic account is given in the Mer- 
cure de France. As Fifcher, like Abel, was obliged to work 
his way hither by concerts, as foon as he had a little re- 
plenifhed his pure, he came over to England, where it was 
always his intention to fettle, and where, as foon as he 
had been once heard in public, at a benefit concert, no 
other concert, public or private, was thought complete 
without his performance ; and being engaged to piay a con- 
certo every night at Vauxhall, he drew thither all lovers of 

a 9 raulic, 


ries 


mufic, but particulaly profeMors, among whom the elder 
Park, who played the hautbois at. Drury Lase theatre, 
ufed to quit his poll, aud.forfeit half his night’s falary im 
order to run to Vauxhall to hear him; which he didnot 
unprofitably, for no tone approaches fo near to that of 
Filcher, in richnefs aad power, as that of the elder Park. 
Whiea the queen’s band was, formed, Fitcher was appointed 
one of her majefty’s chamber mufictans ; and when Bach and 
Avbel; uniting, effablifhed a weekly fubfcription concert at 
_ Hanover-fquare, where, for a long time,;.no mpfic was 
heard but that of thele excellent’ mafters, Fifcher was’ al- 
lowed to compofe for himfelf, and ina ftyle fo new asd fan- 
ciful, that in point of invention, as well. as tone, talte, ex- 
preflion, and neatnefs ofexecution, his piece was always re- 
garded as one.of the higheft treats of the night, and heard 
with proportionate rapture. Here Cramer, Crofdil, Cer- 
vetto, and other eminent profeffors, eftablithed their repu- 
tation, and by every new performance mounted ftill higher 
in the favour of the public. 

In all mufical performances at the univerfities, the triennial 
meetings at, Worceiler, Hereford, and Gloucefter, at Sa- 
hifbury; Winchetter, and other provincial towns, Fifcher’s 
concertos were eagerly expected. and heard with rapture. 
Fifcher’s tone was not only uncommorly fweet, but fo 
powerful, that Giardini, who nevercould praifea German 
but through the medium of abufe, ufed to fay that he had 
fuch an impudence of tone as no other inftrument could con- 
tend with. ‘Then his execution was quite as much as the 
inftitument would bear to produce an agreeable effe&t. His 
tafte and chiaro-f{curo were exquifite, and he had his reed 
under fuch command, as more’ feldom to canarder or 
cackle like a duck, than any player we ever heard. And 
as to his compolition, though it was infinuated by Bach and 
Abel that he had not. itudied regularly, and was no very 
profound theotifi, he was always fo original, interefting and 
pleating, that he may be pronounced one of the few intui- 
tive muficians who had powers which he knew not how he 
acquired, and talents at which {ludy alone can never arrive. 
A certain mufical traveller Las drawn a parallel between the 
performance of Fifcher and Berozzi of Drefden, nephew to 
the two celebrated Berozzis of Turin, on hearing him play 


avery difficult concerto on the hautbois in a very Plcalingy 
3 


and mafterly manner ; owning, at the fame time, that the le 
he thought of Fifcher, the more he was delighted with Be- 
rozzi. However, he tried to difcriminate, and to difcover 
in what each differed from the other: and firft, Fifcher 
feemed the moft natural, pleating, and original writer of 
the two for the inftrument, and was the moft certain of 
his reed; which, whether from being in lefs conftant prac- 
tice, or from the greater difficulty of the paffages, he knew 
not, failed Berozzi, in rapid divifions, more frequently than 
Vifcher; however, Berozai’s fwell, or mefla di vece, was 
prodigious ; indeed he continued to augment the force of a 
tone fo much, and fo jong, that it was hardly poffible not 
to fear for his lungs. 

His tafte and ear were exceeding delicate and refined ; and 
he feemed to pofiefs a happy and peculiar faculty of tem- 
pering a continued tone to different bafes, according 
to their feveral relations: upon the whole, his perform- 
ance was fo capital, that a hearer mult be extremely faftidious 
not to receive fromit a great degree of pleafure. 

Fifcher left England in 1786, and in the beginning of 
the next year had not been heardof. His majelty enquired 
feveral times, with lome folicitude, whether he had written to 
any of his frieuds in England, and was anfwered in the ne- 
gative; one cf them underftood, by report, that he was at 
Strafburg. He returned, however, at the end of 1787, and 
gontinued in England during the reit of his life. About 


FIS 


the year.1777 he had, married a daughter of the admirable 
painter, Gainfborough, an enthufaftic lover of good mofic 
and performance, and Gf none fo much as Fifcher’s ; indeed 
he enchanted the whole family with his ftrains, which were 
beyond meatfure captivating, and he ftood fo well at. his in- 
ftrument, that his figure had all the grace of a Tibian at the 
altarof Apollo. But, alas! fomething elfe befides a fine 
fizure ard fine mufic are neceffary to conttitute domeftic 
happinefs. The marriage was not aufpicious; the minds 
were not in tune together, the temperaments were diffonant, 
and the coincidence .teo infrequent to produce harmony. 
But we wish not to “ draw their frailties from their dread. 
abode ;’? fhe had external beauty, grace, and aceomplifh- 
ments; but he, with a good perfon, and fuperior. genius 
for his art, was extremely deficient ia colloquial eloguence, 
and in all thofe undefinable charms of converfation which 
engage the attention, and endear the {peaker. He had not 
a grain of fenfe but what he breathed through his reed ; he 
never fpoke more than three words at a time, and thole 
were negatives or affirmatives. But peace to his athes. 
Though he had few charms for a friend or companion, he 
delighted the public at large in a higher degree than is al- 
lowed to any but gifted mortals. This admirable mufician 
was feized with an apopleétic it during the performance of 
a folo at the queen’s houfe, at his majetty’s concert. Prince 
William of Gloucefter, obferving his fituation, fupported 
him out of the apartment, whence he was conveyed tohis 
refidence in Compton-flreet, Soho, where he expired about 
an hour afterwards. he 
Fiscuer, Joun Anprew, a phyfician of Erfurt, was 
born on the 28th of November, 1667, his father was a ce- 
lebrated apothecary of that place. He graduated in the 
univerfity of his native city, in April, 1691. He was-ap- 
pointed profeflor extraordinary in the faculty of Erfurt in 
1695, and profeffor of logic in the Evangelical. Collzge in 
1699 ; but he relinquished both thefe appointments in 1718, 
in order to affume the duties of the profefforfhip of patho- 
logy and of the practice of. medicine, to which be had been 


:nominated three years before.» Filcher acquired confi~ 


derable reputation at Erfurt, and in the courts in the 
vicinity of that city. He had been ten years phyfician to 
the court of Mayence, when he died on the 13th of Februa- 
ry 1729 He has left feveral effays in the form of inaugu- 
ral thefes; which were publifhed between the year 1718, 
and that of his death ; but he was alfo author of fome more 
important works: viz. 1. Confilia Medica, que in ufum 
practicum et forenfem, pro fcopo curandi et renunciandi 
adornaia funt.’” Three volumesof this work were publithed) 
fucceflively at Francfort, in the years 1704, 1706, and 1712. 
—2..‘* Thas in. nuce, feu Medicina Synoptica,”?” Erfurt, 
1716.—3. ‘“ Refponfa Practica,” Leipfies 1719.— Eloy. 

Fiscuer, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Cars 
niola; 17 miles S.E. of Stein. i 

FISCHERLIN, in Ornithology, aname given by many 
of the northern nations to a {mall fpecies of the larus or 
guli, called by Mr. Ray darus pifcator, by Linnzus urns 
minuta, and in the: Englifh, the lefler, fea-fwallow. See 
Lagus. 

P FISCHGEYER, a name given to the falco rufus ; which 
ce. f } 

FISCHIARE, Jial. to hifs. Fi/chiata, hifled, 

FISCHIETTO, /tal. a whiftle, a hifs, a cat-call. 

FISCHOTTER, in Zoology, a name given by Ridinger 
to the ntu/fcla /utra ; which fee. é a 

FISGARD. See Fiscarp. 

FISH, in Zoology, a clafs of animals which have either a ° 
naked or {caly body, always having fins, but without = , 
For a further defcription of the characters of this clafs, and 

2 ¥ 


Fis H. 


“of tle different orders into which it is diftributed; fee 
‘Piscss. Seealfo [cHTuxvorocy. 

Fisu, or Fisues, Anatomy of; has engaged much of the 
attention of phyfiolozitts, on account of its affording many 
examples of organs on a fimple plan, or palpable feale, which 
$n other animals poffefs either an obfenre or minute ftreGure. 
The brain, the ear, the organ of {mebhiing, the digeftive and 

_ abforbent fy (tems, have been-efpecially ftadied in this clafs, 
with the view of illuilrating their anatomy and funGtions jin 
other creatures. 

The continual rsfidence and progreffion of fithes in fo 
@enfe a medium as water, neceffarily oecafion remarkable pe- 
culiarities ia their organs of motion, as well as a different 
mode of expofing the blood to the influence of the air, and 
confequently a difitrent arrangement of the circulating vef- 
Hels than is ufually met with in other animals; thefe parts of 
the anatomy of fifhes are inftru€tive both to the natural hif- 
torian and to the phyfiologilt. 

Lhe very extraordinary property which Some fithes poffels 
of communicating an ele&ric frock, forms one of the mot 
interefting fubjc Gs in the hillory of the animal economy. 

In compoling the prefent article, we have drawn our in- 
formation, as far as our opportunities permitted, from a@tual 
difletion and obfervation ; frequent references to the writings 
of other anatomifts are therefore not introduced. It is ne- 
ceflary, however, to acknowledge, that we have derived 
great affiftance from the comprehenfive fyftem of M. Cuvier, 
particularly with refpeét to the anatomy of the rare and 
exotic fpecies of fifhes; and that we are indebted for feveral 
interetting faGts to the very valuable, though compendious 
work, of prof:ffor Blumenbach on comparative anatomy, 
tranflaced by Mr. Lawrence. 

‘Organs concerned in the exercife of the vital fundions. 

- The mouth and its contained parts.—Vhe pofttion of the 
mouth of fifhes is fomewhat various. It may be tated ge- 
nerally, that it is fituated under the fnout in the chondrop- 
terygii, inthe furgeons (acipenfer), and the pegafus. Lu other 
fifhes it is placed at the end of the {rout 

The orifice of the mouth in fifhes has ufually the appear- 
ance of a tran{verfe flit, as in mammalia; but in feveral {pe- 
cies, particularly amongtt the abdominal fithes, the aperture of 
the mouth.is made by a fiffure paffing obliquely downwards 
and backwards. In the /amprey (petramyzon) the mouth is 
nearly round, and refembles a fucker. 

Fifhes canwot, with propricty, be faid to poffefs /ips. 
Many of them have fome folds of the integuments, which 
overlap and conceal the edges of the jaws and teeth; but 
thefe parts poflefs neither the fru€ture, nor perform the 
funGtions, of the lips in mammal, Is feveral fifhes with 
large feales no foft parts are d'fcoverable about the edge of 
the mouth. 

The cavity of the mouth of fifhes is ufually very great, 
in proportion to the fize of the animal; a circumllance 
highly neceffiry to them on account of the manneria which 
thefe acimals take their prey : for the fame reafon alfo, the 
mechapilm of the jaws is fuch as to allow the mouth to be 

- protruded or pufhed forwards, and opened to a great exten’. 
In fome {pecies the mouth is capable of being opened fn fii- 
ciently wide to take in a body even larger than that of the 
fifh to which it belongs. The great capacity of the mouth, 
and the peculiarity in the motions of the jaws, depend upon 

-the bumber of bones “or cartilages which enter into the 
compofition of the face of fifhes, and upon the exiftence of 
certain mufeles. Thefe parts will be deferibed along with 
the other organs of motion. 

“The: internal furface of the mouth ia fifhes bears con- 


‘filver hue, tinged with blue, 


fiderable refemblance to the common fin’: it is, however, 
divefied of fcales, and is generally white, although in fome 
fithes it partakes of the colour of the furface of the body; 
in the maclarel (feomber feombrus) for inftance, it ts of a 


Every part of the mouth‘is covered with a very tenacious 
flime, or mucus; the gland s which fecrete it are notin general 
ealily feeu, and do not commonly appear to be congregated in 
particular carts of the morth’or pharynx, as tn mammalia. 

As fifies do not chew their food, they ‘do not require an 
extentive motion of the fongue; in moft fpecies this organ 
performs no movement, €x--cpt what 's I 7 t 
parts with which it is‘con Chvier kz 
mufoles of the tongue in Leer ced (murena c 
losous to dyoe and {ome tranfverlé fibres extenc 


the ed.ses ta th fame fifh. We 
have not-difcovered any mufcles correfponding to thefe in 
fome other fpecies we have examined. Tf the tongue 


E 
fithes weregeneraily provided with muftics, it ufuelly forms fo 
inconfiderable a proj<Gion into the cavity of the mouth t! 
it could not ferve ag ap organ-of mattication ; in many fpe- 
ciés it is {carcely to-be diftinguifhed from the other parieres of 
the mouth, and in ‘the ray penusthere is, properly {peaking, 
no tongue, the place of tht lingual-bene being fupplied by a 
mere rim of cartilage. 

Salivary glands do not appear to exift in the clafs of fifhes, 
with the exception of the carp (cyprinus), in which there is a 
glandular body of confiderable fize placed under the bafe of 
the cranium, exe@iy before the grinding tecth ; the cland is 
of an uniform ftrn@ure and a ycllowifh red colour, i: adheres 
firmly to the membrane of the palate which covers it. In 
this genus the teeth of the phatynx are confiruéted for di- 
viding or triturating the food. L 

In the fRate, thornback, and others of the ray genus, there 
are many glandular bodics, about the fize of pins” heads, lying 
under the membrene of the palate, upon the mufcles for de- 
preffing the lower jaw: their internal {tru@ure is ‘cellular, 
and they appear to fecrete the mucus with which the mouth 
of thefe fishes is fo abundantly fupplied. 

The teeth of fihes are very remarkable, whether we confidcer 
them with refpe& tothe number, fituation, or figure. 

In thofe inftances where the teeth are fufficient'y large to 
be diftinély feen, fom= hundreds have been reckoned in a 
fingle fifh; the whie fhark has upwards of two hundred 
around the aperture of the mouth, and when the teeth are 
minate and ciofely fet, asim many of the offeous fifhes, their 
number exceeds a!l calculation. . 

The fituation of the teeth in fifhes is extremely fingular; 
they are not confined tothe jaws, but are found aif in the 
palatine arches, dn the bone unildgous to the vomer, fo hich 
défeénds from the cranivm to form the middle of the roof 
of the mouth, on the lingual bore, on the intérnal 
cave furface of the arches which ful 
and upon thole bonés which are 
commencem=-tt of the elophagt 
pike, have teeth in ali thef 
2h, want the 
uranofcopus has None oa the tongn 
latine and ‘linzual teeth dre & 
gadus, the gurnard. 
turbot, fole, ad dory. “The 
illary, branchial, and pharyngeal teeth. ‘Lhe 
is Without all, except the brariéhia! add p 
lait kind of teeth on-y are found in the carp. 
getera have the maxilary a’one. “The. 
thé only fh Which is ent rely deprived of teeth. 

The /bape of the teeth an fifhes is very various. 

I» 


3 f 


at 


; 
Genus dat 


Cuvier 
bay 


FES H. 


‘has, however, eftablifhed four principal forms to which he 
thinks all the cthers may be referred: the firft are the 
_ hook-/baped teeth, which kave fharp points bent towards the 
back part of the mouth ; thefe are ufually of a {mall fize, 
and are very numerous, they are by fer the molt common ; 
moft fifhes have them in fome part of the mouth. The fe- 
cond kind of teeth are truly conical in their form ; the an- 
terior teeth of the anarrhichas lupus afford the beft examples 
of thefe, The third fort have the crowns either flat or 
blunt, and rounded ; the pharyngeal teeth of the carp (cypri- 
nus carpio) are broad and flat, like plates, and as initances of 
thofe with round crowns may be mentioned, the pofterior 
teeth of the dorado and others of the genus /parus. The 
fourth divifion of Cuvier includes the teeth with a cutting 
edge, or the qwedze-/haped ; thefe may either have the edge 

lain, as in the plat/e (pleuroneéies plateff2), or denticulated, as 
in the ¢euthis. 

Different {pecies of teeth frequently exift in different parts 
of the mouth in the fame fifh; thus, the genera feuthis, offra- 
éion, and baliftes, have hook-fhaped teeth poiteriorly, and in- 
cifive in the front of the mouth. In the anarrhichas lupus, 
and fome of the genus /parus, there are hook-fhaped teeth 
behind, plates or flat-crowned in the middle of the mouth, 
and conical teeth before; the /parus fargo, and fome others, 
have the front teeth incifive, the middle flatecrowned, and 
the pofterior hook-fhaped. 

Cuvier has given a defcription of the form and fituation of 
the teeth in moft of the principal genera of fifhes; but, as 
much minutenefs or detail on this fubje@ cannot prove 
interefting in an anatomical point of view, we fh:ll confine 
eurlclves to the more ftriking varieties in the teeth of fithes. 

In the genus raja the jaws are befet with anumber of teeth 
arranged in the manner of a pavement; thefe are ufually 
of the fame fize, and difpofed in {quarcs clofely fet to each 
other. In fome fpecies, efpecially in the foreign rays, the 
middle teeth are the largeft, and run in bands acrofs the jaws : 
in fome of thefe alfo this pavement of teeth is prolonged 
towards the palate ; in the torpedo, and fome other {pecies of 
raja, each of the teeth is elevated in the middle into a {pine 
or tharp point. 

In the fhark genus (/qualus) there are feveral rows of 
teeth ; thofe of the front row are the largeft and oldeft, and 
ftand up on the jaw; the fucceeding rows are of later 
growth, and are laid down wich their points turned towards 
the mouth ; the number of the rows that are turned inwards 
varies even mm the fame fpecies. The form of the teeth in 
this genus is ufually that of @ triangular plate; they are 
attached at their bafe, and the other edges are more or lefs 
denticulated or grooved. 

Amongft the Jbranchioflegi there is very confiderable 
variety. The genera daliffes and offracion have eight teeth 
upon each jaw ; in the former they are wedge-fhaped, broad, 
and flat, and with oblique edges; in the latier they are 
comprefled upon the fides. The pharynx of the dali/es is 
furnifhed above and below with two rows of fine, conic, 
clofe-fet teeth. 

The Jump fib (cyclopterus lumpus) has one or two rows of 
{mall pointed teeth upon the jaws and the pharyax. 

The frog-fi/h (lophius pifcatorius) has two rows on each 
jaw, a {mall one on each fide of the palate, and the four 
plates of the pharynx furnifhed with tolerably flrong 
hooked teeth. 

In the /patularia there are a number of very minute 
teeth upon the jaws and lateral parts of the palate. 

In the furgeon (acipenfir) thereare no teeth of any kind found. 

In the chimera the lower jaw furnifhes two naked pro- 
jeGions, which are {{riated and fharp-edged, gnd the upper 


jaw. bas two others of nearly a fquare figure, which core 
refpond to thefe. In the pslate there are two triangular 
offeous plates. 

Cuvier thus defcribes the fingular formation of the jaws, 
which fupplies the place of teeth, in the genera diodon aud 
tetraodon. e 

The lower jaw of a diodon prefents two eminences, 
which are ufed for maftication, i. e. the border of the jaw, 
which is parabolic, and a round difk in the middle. 

A large canal runs in the interior of the bone, and 
feparates the maf{s of the difk from that of the border, and 
tran{mits to both thefe parts their nerves and blood-veffels. 
The triturating furface of the difk exhibits fome tranfverfe 
and parallel ftrie; on cutting it in a vertical direétion 
each of the ftriz is perceived to be the termination of a plate 
or lamina, which afcends a little pofteriorly from the canal 
to the difk. Thefelaminz are ali laid one upon the other, 
and by this pofition the {upsrior lamin are moft expofed to 
friGtion, and confequently the fhorteft. They are evidently 
alfo the oldeft ; they are hard and confolidated together, in 
proportion as they defcend they are fofter and more fepa- 
rate from each other. Tne lowelt do not reach the triturat- 
ing furface, but are covered by the bone of the jaw; thele 
are quite diftinét from each other, and fhew the original and 
proper ftruéture of the plates. 

Each of thefe laminz is divided by a fiflure in its middle. 
The inferior and potterior furface is tolerably fmooth, but 
the oppalite one exhibits, when viewed through the micro- 
{cope, an extremely fine net work of little canals; this is 
occafioned by the impreflions left by veffels which have run 
upon it, and which came from the large canal where the bafes 
of the laminz reft ; in faét, the parietes of the canal are pre« 
ceded by an infinite number of fmall holes, which lead into 
the intervals between the lamin. 

The border is alfo furnifhed with lamine which incréafe 
in an oppofite order to thofe of the difk; the anterior 
lamin being inferior and of the lateft growth. The laminz 
alfo are parallel with the furface of the mafticating border. 
The firlt lamina which is ufed prefents its flat furface, and is 
confequently entirely worn before the one which fucceeds it. 

The defcription here given of the lower jaw of the diodon 
applies equally to the upper jaw, provided the names of the 
lamine are changed according to their diffcrent pofition, as 
{uperior for inferior, and vice ver/a. 

The genus ¢etraodon refembles the diodons, in having the 
laminated borders, but wants the triturating difks. Each of 
their jaws is divided mto two pieces by adenticulated future. 

Fig. 1. Plate 1. Anatomy of Fifbes, exhibits the lower 
jaw of a diodon, cut through longitudinally ; a, the central 
plate, or triturating furface ; 3, the feGion of the laminz, 
the edges of which conftitute the triturating furface 
¢, the large canal through which the veflels and nerves of 
the laminz are tranfmitted; d, the border of the jaw; 
e, the laminz which form it; f,-a {maller canal for accom. 
modating their veflels and nerves. 

Amongtt the apodal fifhes, the anarrhichas lupus has the 
teeth of the front of the jaws very ftrong, and conical in 
their figure ; thofe of the fide, and on the vomer, form large 
hemifpherical tubercles; the internal row of each palatine 
arch is fimilar to the fecond, and the external to the frit ; 
the pharynx is fet with {mall conic teeth. 

The murena helena has the teeth compreffed, with thin 
edges, and fharp-pointed ; thofe of the common ee/ and the 
conger (murena anguilla and the conger) are {mall, ftraight, 
{trong, blunt, and clofe fet; the firlt teeth of the vomer in the 
elena is at a diftange from the others, which it alfo much: 
exceeds in fize, 

The 


EES Ho. 


The jugular order of fithes alfo exhibits confiderable varie- 
tics in the torm and number of the teeth. 

The blennius fuperciliofus has a very regular clofe row on 
each jaw of long narrow teeth: the dlennius ocellaris has 
belides a trong hooked tooth placed at the back part of 
each jaw. 

The ¢rachinus draco poffeffes teeth in all the different fitu- 
ations except the tongue; they are very minute and clofe- 
fet, relembling the pile of ve'vet:, 

Vhe uranofcopus /caber bas twelve or fourteen teeth, of a 
hook fhape, on the lower jaw, and numerovs minute tecth 
on the upper jaw and pharynx, and two little lateral plates 
on the fore-part of the vomer. 

In the thoracic fifhes there is perhaps ftill greater variety 
than in the preceding orders; the individuals of the fame 
genus often differing from each other. 

The flying gurnard (trigla volitans) has only fome {mall blunt 
tubercular teeth upon the jaws; the armed guxnard (trigla 
cataphrada) has fome clofe-fet teeth, like villi, upon the 
branchial arches and vomer, and none at any other place. 
The common gurnards have fine teeth upon the jaws and 
branchiz, and a little plate on the anterior part of the 
vomer. 

The dory (zeus faber) has fome {mall hooked teeth upon 
each jaw, the vomer, and the branchial arches.. The zeus 
vomer has on the lower jaw only a row of teeth, fo fine as 
{carcely to be felt. 2 » 

In the genus pleuroneZes there is confiderable variety with 
refpect to the form and fituation of the teeth. 

The chetodons have upon the jaws long, fine, fetaceous 
teeth, lke the briftles of a brufh. 

The pharyngeal teeth of the genus /abrus are broad and 
hemifpherical, and are difpofed exaély like pavement ; 
the anterior teeth vary in the different {pecies. 

The labrus niloticus, however, differs remarkably from the 
reft of the genus; the jaws are furnifhed with feveral rows 
of long, flender teeth, which have two or three points; 
the teeth of the pharynx are ftraight, flender, fharp, and 
very long. 

In the genus /parus, the lateral teeth of the jaws are 
arranged in the manner of a pavement, in two or more 
rows. In fome fpecies two of thefe teeth are diltinguifhed 
from the reft by being larger, and of a more flattened oval 
Pais 3 the anterior teeth vary much with refpeét to their 
orm. 

Lhe perches, and the genus holocentrus, in general have 
Numerous minute teeth, like vill, upon the two jaws, the 
anterior part of the vomer, each fide of the palate, the 
tongue, and the pharynx. 

The jaws of the genus /carus are naked, and project fome- 
what like the beak of a parrot ; each mandible is divided by 
a middle future; the border is furnifhed with fome little 
fhort cutting teeth, which are very clofely applied te each 
other. , 

_ In the genus cepola there is a fingle row of teeth to 
each jaw. Thofe of the lower jaw are remarkably {pread 
out. 

In the abdominal order of fifhes, the genera filurus and 
falmo exhibit great variety with refpect to their teeth ; in 
the latter genus particularly the differences are very re- 
markable. 

The filurus clarias has the teeth of the upper jaw ftraight, 
flender, and fharp, but thofe of the lower jaw are bent into 
the form of an overturned italic © ; they are long, comprefled, 
and terminated by a point. 

The common falmon and trouts (falmo falar, and falmo 
Jario) have hook-fhaped teeth in all the parts of the mouth 


where they are met with in other fifhes, and likewife 
upon the arches which form the extenfile lip of fifhes. 

The falmo dentex has ten or twelve large hook-fhaped 
teeth upon the jaws; thofe of the pharynx are fine, like 
villi. 

The falmo nefafch has the maxillary teeth fetaceous, like 
thofe of the chefodon, but forked at the extremity, and the 
pharynx covered like ve'vet 

The maxillary teeth of the nilotic falmon are thick end 
truncated, and have the crowns furnifhed with two or three 
conic tubercles, like the molar teeth of fome quadrupeds. 

The ferraJalmo of La Cépede has tenor twelve teeth on 
each of the jaws, in the form of {harp wedges, with three or 
five notches on the edge. 

The jaws of the /a/mo rhomboides have very fmall, fhort, 
flexible, fetaceous teeth. 

None of the laft mentioned five {pecies have the interior of 
the mouth furnifhed with teeth in the fame manner as the 
common faimons and trouts. 

The whole of the genus cyprinus poffels only teeth in the 
pharynx. The fuperior pharyngeal bone prefents a fingle 
plate ; and the two inferior bones of the pharynx are each 
furnifhed with very thick, ftrong teeth, which vary in num- 
ber and form in the different {pecies. 

The carp (cyprinus carpio) has four ar five of thefe teeth; 
the three or four pofterior and fuperior of which are flat- 
crowned and tranf{verfely grooved; the one moft anterior is 
round, with a little point in the middle. 

Some other {pecies of cyprinus, as the auratus, the bipun@a- 
tus, the bream, tench, and rud, have the teeth compreffed, and 
their edge applied obliquely to the fuperior pharyngeal 
bone. 

The barbel (cyprinus barbus) has nine pharyngeal teeth, 
four below, three in the middle, and two above; they are 
club-fhaped, and end in points a little bent. 

The cyprinus dobula has feven teeth in two rows, all 
pointed, and a little like hooks. 

The cyprinus nafus has twenty-one compreffed teeth. 

In the wilotic carp there are eleven of thefe, the points of 
which are worn down by fri€tion againft the plate of the 
fuperior pharyngeal bone. 

The genus ¢/ox are well fupplied with teeth. The com- 
mon pike (¢/ox /ucius) has teeth in all the parts of the mouth 
where they are found in other fifhes ; thofe of the vomer are 
tubercular, the others are hook-fhaped ; the ¢/ox delone has 
the maxillary teeth ftrong, hook-fhaped, and in one row ; 
it wants the lingual teeth. 

There are three different /rudures to be obferved in the 
teeth of fifhes. 

The firft kind of ftru@ure exilts in the conic and hook- 
fhaped teeth, which are generally found in che offeous fifhes 5 
their teeth are implanted in alveoli, as the teeth of mam- 
malia; they confiit of offeous fubftance, covered externally 
by a layer of enamel: after the eruption of the crown or 
external part, the roots of their teeth become anchylofed 
with the bone which contains them fo firmly, that they can- 
not be feparated without a fracture of the latter. The 
growth of the teeth fituated in fockets is effe&ted by the 
developement of internal offeous layers. 

The fecond kind of itru€ture is found in the teeth of the 
genus /gualus. Thefe are not immediately connected with 
the jaws, but are contained in the gums, or foft parts cover- 
ing them. They increafe in the manner of the epiphyfes of 
bones: their offeous part is at firft foft and porous, and 
afterwards acquires throvghout the denfity and hardnefs of 
ivory. 

The third fort of ftru&ture belongs to the flat or blunt 

6 teeths. 


& IS) BL 


tecth, which are arranged in the mariner of a pavement, as 
thafe ou the jaws in the ray genus, and in the palates of 
feveral other fifhes. They ere compofed of a number of 
minute offeoustubes, arranged in the dire€tion of the teeth, 
intimately conneéted together, and covercd upon their ex- 
ternal extrem‘ties by a common layer of enamel. From 
this itruGure Cuvier has diflinguifhed thefe teeth by the 
term compound. They are not implanted ia the fubftance of 
the bone, but adhere to the membrane which covers it; 
they evidently, however, confit of two parts correfponding 
tothe root end crowa; the former is marked by regular 
and clofe furrows, aud contains a number of pores, which 
receive and tranfmit the nerves aad blood-veflels of the teeth; 
the tubes of the crown are more denie in their ftruétare than 
the reft of the tecth. 

The jaws of the anarrhichas lupus are furnifhed with anum- 
ber of dentiform eminences, which are compofed of off-ous 
tubes, or fibres that run from the bafe to every point of the 
furface. The bafe adheres to the jaw by its circumference 
only; this circumference exhibits many foramina, through 
which the veflcls and nerves pafs to the tubes when in a itate 
of growth. All thefe emigences are placed upon a fub- 
ftance much more fpougy than the reft of the jaw, which 
ferves as the medium by which they are united. On the 
middle of each eminence a little tooth grows, but is calt off 
very early, fo that, except when the ffh is young, the denti 
form eminences alone feem to {upply the place of teeth. 
Fig. 2. of Plate 1. of the Anatomy of Fifbes: a is the 
dentiform eminence; J, the {mall teeth ov it. Fig. 3. of 
Plate I. thews the furface on which the eminence is tixed. 

The triturating farfeces of the jaws in the genera diodon 
and tetraodon might be confidered as compound teeth ; the 
lamine are analogous to the tubes, and are covered, like them, 
by enamel. ‘ / net 
» The mode of /ucceffion of the teeth of fifhes varies accord- 
ing to theix ftrudture. Thofe that grow in fockets are re- 
placed by others which form at their roots, when the root of 
the old tooth becomes confolidated with the focket which 
contains it; it is nourifhed like the reft of the bone, and 
acquires a cellular ftru€ture, which it did not originally pof- 
fefs. In proportion as the new tooth increafes, the iub- 
dtance of tthe juw grows into the cavity of the old one, which 
it fills up to the crown. This then feparates from the reft 
of its root by a regular fra€ture which exhibits fome radiated 
lines. F 

The new teeth in many f{pecies penetrate the cellular 
offeous fubftance, which filis up the cavity of the root, and 
exadily oceupies the fituation of the tooth that 1s caft off. 
In the large, pointed teeth, fuch as thofe of the genus ¢/ox, 
&¢. the eruption of the new tooth is on the fide of the one 
that is fhed. 

In the aaarrhichas lupus, not only the teeth are fhed, but 
thofe fingular eminences on which they grow are alfo caft 
off, and replaced by others. Thefe eminences appear to 
refemble in {trudture and mode of growth the horns of the 
deer ; they ave hed precifely in the fame manner; tole 
which fecceed grow on the tide of the eminences they 
replace, and do not, until they increafe in fize, fill the 
vacancy left by the latter. 

When the flat tecth.of the rays are loft they appear to be 
replaced by others, which grow in the fame fituation. 

The cutting teeth of the Bards, as already mentioned, are 
in feveral rows, the anterior of which only is ufed by the 
animal; the polterior rows are of fucceflive growths, and 
zre deligned to fupply the place of thofe in the front row, 
in the fame manner as the venomous teeth of /erpents are 
Sneceéded by thole of a later growth fituated behind. 


The lamin which ctmpofe the triturating furface of the 
jaws of the diodons and tetracdons ave replaced in a manner 
analogous to the cutting teeth of the fharé 3 thefe laminge 
grow and come into ufe:facceflively, by which means the 
matticating funface is always preferved. 

In the genus /farus the tecth are replaced by others grow= 
ing from behind, but which do not make their appearance 
until they are wanted. On examining the jaws of ome of 
this genus, a number of tabercies are obferved 6n the fore= 
part, which are the remains or roots of the teeth that have 
been worn down; and if the jaw be divided, a multitude of 
the germs of teeth will be difcovered internally, which are 
afterwards to come into ufe. 

The mechanifm of the jaws, the fmall fize and immo- 
bility of the rongre, the want of {slivary glands, and the 
ufual form and pofition of the teeth, io fithes, al! confpire to 
point out the manner in which thefe antmals take their food, 
and that they do nat, but with very tew exceptions, mafticate 
it, or even in any degree divide it previous to its being res 
ceived into the ltomach. 


Pharynx and afophagus. 


The pharynx of fifhes is rather diftinguifhed from the 
reft of the celophagus: by analogy of fituution, and for the 
convenience of deicription, than from any refemblance it 
bears to the pharynx of mammalia. 

The paflage from the potterior part of the mouth into the 
cfophagus is diminifhed by the exiltence of certain bones, 
which are attached to the baivs of the branchial arches, and 
enter into the compofition of the parietes of the commence- 
ment of the alimentary canal. . 

Thefe are very properly called the pharyngeal bones; they 
are ufually befet with teeth, as already mentioned ; the laft 
branchial arches and the pharyngeal bones can be approxi- 
mated by certain mu{cles, fo as nearly, if not entirely, to fhut 
up the communication between the mouth and cefophagus : 
immediately behind the branchial arches and pharyngeal 
bones there is a very {trong fphin@er mufele, which fur- 
rounds the origin of the celophagus, and appears to be the 
continuation of thofe fibres which clofe the branchial arches. 
This mufcie feems to have the power of perfedtly fhutting 
the pharysx. The delign of this mechanifm is evidently to 
enable the fifh to convey its prey, without any preparation, 
and while it is ftillalive, into the ttomach. The teeth fituated 


on the pharyngeal bones, and on the infide of the branchiz, 


are well calculated for affiting in this operation: to under. 
{land the effect of the teeth of a fihh in the a& of deglutition, 
it is only neceflary to introduce the hand into’the back part 
of the mouth, even after the animal is dead, when it will be 
found that the retreat of the hand is oppofed by the points 
of a number of teeth at all fides. The conftrudtion of the 
interior parts of the mouth and pharynk appears to be 
entirely fubfervient in fifhes to the performance of deglu- 
tition. ; 

In Plate I.of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fg. 4. exbibits a view 
of the back part of the mouth of pharynx of the carp (cy- 
prinus carpio); a, the inferior pharyngeal bones befet with 
itrong giinding tecth; 4, the {fuperior pharyngeal bones 
with flat furfaces; ¢, the fuperior parietes of the mouth ; 
d, the tongue; e, e, the branchial arehes of each fide; f* the 
aperture ic/t between thefe parts which leads into the efo- 
phagus. ' . 

The efophagus of fifhes is commonly very fhort ; in fome 
inftances the mouth might almolt be feid to open into the fto- 
mach; it is by no means unfrequent, on feparating the jaws 
of a ifh extenfively, to bring into view the contents of that 


cavity. 
The 


—— 


FIS 4. 


The cefophagns is generally very wide, often of the fame 
capacity as the flom=ch itfelf. A free paflage into the: foe 
mach becomes nec flary to thofe avimals, on account of the 
fize of the fifhes they prey upon, and their voracity in 
catching them. Fifhes rufh upon whatever appears to be 
their prey impetvoufly, and fometimes without dilerimina- 
tion. In this’ manner they fometimes {wallow other fub- 
ffances along with, or in place of. their proper food. We 
lately took a large ftone out of the ftomach of a dory (zeus 
faber), which bore all the marks of having refided there {ome 
times it was from a knowledge of the rapacious habits of 
this fh, that the ftory of St. Pcter’s taking the tribute 
money out of its mouth probably originated. 

The cefophagus is covered internally, asin other animals, 
by cuticle, which terminates abruptiy at the ftomach in fome 
fifhes ; this however is not perceptible ; in which cafes it is 
difficult to determine exactly the limits of thefe two portions 
of the alimentary canal. The internal membrane is ufually 
white and fmooth, and forms fome longitudisal wrinkles, 
folds, or fpicule. In feveral of the ray and fhark genera 
this ftru€ture is very evident, although Cavier defcribes the 
internal furface of the efophagus and ftemach in thefe fihes 
to bealike. In the maid (raja clavata) the difticGtion between 
the ftru@ture of the cefophasus and that of the ftomach is 
ftrikingly plain. In the dog-f/h, the laminz of the internal 
membrase of the cefophagus are numerous, prominent, and 
terminate in points which are direéted backwards. Thefe 
diminifh the capacity of the cana), and thus ferve to detain 
any fifh the animal may {wallow; but the molt remarkable 
contrivance of this fort is that lately difcovered by Mr. 
Home in the bafking fhark (/qualus maximus). In this fith, 
in addition to the fpicule obferved im the other Species of 

Squalus, thé efophagus produces, around its termination in the 
ttomach, a number of fringed proceffes, very much refem- 
bling fhoulder-knots ; thefe appear to be mufcular internal’y, 
and probably are capable of entircly ciofing the entrance of 
the cefophagus into the ftomach. In fg. 5. of Plate I. of 
the Anatomy of Fifbes, the ftomach and efophegus of the 
bafking foark (fqualus maximus) is reprefented upon a very re- 
duced feale: a fhews the {piculated part of the efophagus ; 
b5, the fringed termination of that cana}. 

In the /patularia, the parietes of the cefophagus have three 
ftrong longitudinal ruzz, and fome others between them of 
afmaller fize. In the furgeon, the internal membrane pro- 
duces fpines like thole of the dog-fith; which, when mi- 
nutely examined, are feen to be reticulated upon the furface. 
The /ygnathus pelagicus, and /parus figanis, have large longitu- 
dinal folds in the celophagus. The latter has likewife an cefo- 
phagus of fome length: at the place where it joins the tto- 
mach, it forms a cxcal procefs or cul-de-fac of a conical 
figure, the end of which is turned forwards. 

“In the offracion cubicus, and fome other fifhcs, there is a cir- 
cular fold of the internal membrane, which clearly marks 
out the termination of the cefophapus; in other inftances, 
this part may be diftinguifhed from the ftomach by the 
ftrength and arrangement of its mufeular fibres, but in every 
inftance, if the blood-veffels of thefe parts’ have been pre- 
vioufly inje&ted with a coloured fluid, there will be no afi. 
culty in determining which is the cefophagus and which is 
the ftomach, the former being always lefs vafeular. 

The’ cefophagus in fthes is particularly well fupplied with 
mucus, to facilitate the paflage of any body through it ; 

’ ghis mucusis furnifhed by follicular glands, which are Htuated 
behind the internal membrane ; they are more numerous in 
fome fifhes than others: we h=ve found them very plain and 
arranged in clufters round the efophagus of the mudlet, 


There is on the cefophazus of the torpedo a very remarkable 
giandular apparatus for the fecretion of mucus. 


Of the Abdominal Cavity. 


The abdomen of fifhes is a diftin& cavity, containing only 
the vifcera proper to that part; it differs therefore from the 
common cavity of the body in birds end reptiles: it however 
ufually occupies the greater pert of the trusk in fifhes in 
wich it does not refemble the ablomen of max aoeeits 
parietes are chiefly compofed of the portion of the great 
lateral mufeles which are fpread upon the fides of the body, 
the ribs being too fhort in Sfhes to form a f-ame for the abdo- 
men; the cavity is every where covered with peritoncum, ex- 
cept next the [pine, where that membrane is rec G@-d acrofs 
the air-bladder and kidnies, leaving thofe parts on the out- 
fide of the peritoneum. The r-fle€ons of this membrane, 
which embrace the different 2bicminal vifcera, are very thin, 
but the part which lines the 2b?omen is fufficiently ftrong. 
In the moon fifo (tetraodon mol), and in many other te- 
traodons, it is {tated by Cuvier to be thick, foft, and as it 
were gelatinous ; 2!though in the flurgeon, and others of the 
branchioflegi, its texture is firmand tendiacus looking. 

The partion of peritonenm which lines the muferlar 


" parictes of the cavity very frequently partakes of the colour 


of the external furface of the body, in confequenceé of there 
being a pigment placed behind it. In the plaife (pleurone@es 
plateffo) the two fides are of different colours, corr: fponding 
to the brown and white fides of the body ia that fith. 

In fome fifhes there are proceffes of the peritoneum which 
go oneach fide of the inferior fpinous bones of the tail, under 
the lateral mufcles ; thefe form facs for containing ufually 
the organs of generation and part of the kidnies, and in 
fome inftances a convolution of the infeltines: thus the bag 
which gocs outon the dark fide of the /ole receives a long coil 
of the inteftinal canal. 

There are fome very remarkable circumftances to be no- 
ticed in the abdomen of the ray kind and the Jfturgeon (aci- 
penfer): there have long been obferved in the former two 
foramina, one on each fide of the anus, which lead by a 
fhort oblique canal into the cavity of the abdomen ; they are 
wide enough to admit a goofe-quill inalarge fkate, but con- 
tain within them a femilunar fold, which aéts as a valve 
in obttru@ing the paflage of the water into the abdomen, 
but does not prevent fluids to pafs out of this cavity. Dac- 
tor Morroe; who affumed the difcovery of thefe foramina, 
was inclined to fuppofe that the fea water occafionally was 
admitted by them; he fays, “ the great quantity,and evidently 
fait tafte cf the liquor of the abdomer, lead him to look for 
pafflages by which the fea water might gér into the cavity.’? 
In’one inltance, he had the fluid snalyfed, when he found 
that it contained about one feventy ith part of falt, 
which, however, he admits to be not lf the quantity 
that exifts in common fea water. “ Further,’? be f «1 
difcovered that in the /eate, the bottom of the pericardium 
is lengthened into the fhape of a funnel, which divides into 
two branches which are tied ciofely to the lower part of the 
eefopiiages, and open into the cavity of the abdomen: 
fromthe obliquity of thefe branches, and their intimate ad- 
hefion to the afoptagus, reither air nor water can be forced 
into them from the abdomen. 


which is highly 
ferve to convey tl 
of the abdomen.” 


} Fithes, p. 
In the frurgeon (acipenfér Purio) Dolor Montece has alfo 
deferibed 


Monroe’s Phyfiolugy of 


FIS H. 


defcribed and figured two openings near the anus, fimilar to 
thofe found in the /Zate, and further, he difcovered in the 
flurgeon a large membranous funnel, fituated upon each kid- 
ney, into the middie of tlie pelvisof which its bottom opens 
by-a wide orifice. ‘* We can have little or no doubt,” he 
fays, “that the liquor of the abdomen of the flurgeon pafles 
into the pelvis of the kidney, for we cannot fuppofe that the 
urine paffes through the holes defcribed into the cavity of 
the abdomen, as the pelvis has large openings into the com- 
mon cloaca, as in other fifhes.?? (Monroe, loc citat.) He con- 
eludes by exprefling his opinion, that the defign of the holes 
on the fide of the anus is to admit the fea water, and that 
the funnels connected with the kidney are for the purpole of 
difcharging it again. From the circumftance of the water 
of the abdomen containing fo much lefs falt than fea 
water, and even lefs than that found within the cranium of 
fifhes, which isa fhut cavity, he is difpofed to admit that it 
is in part a fecretion from the arteries. In our opicion, it ap- 
pears more reafonable and confiltent with general analogy to 
{uppofe, that all the fluids moiftening the cavities of thefe 
fifhes are produced in the ufual way, and that the openings 
are merely for carrying the fuperabundant liquor out of the 
body, than to imagine that an extraneous fluid fhould be ad- 
mitted to fupply the place of a peculiar fecretion ; confidering 
the matter in either point of view, however, the anatomical 
fact of a communication between the interior cavities of the 
body and the external element, is not only highly curious, 
but without example in any other clafs of animals. 


Stomach. 


This cavity is commonly fituated immediately behind the 
feptum which f-parates the heart and branchiz from the 
abdominal vifcera to which it is attached, as well as to the 
furrounding parts by reflections of peritoneum. 

The form which the ftomach of fifhes mo{t commonly pof- 
fcfles has been very aptly compared to the head of the chemi- 
cal veffel, called an alembic, {uppofing it to be inverted anda 
Intt!e elongated ; the large opening correfponds to the cefo- 
phagus; the {mall or lateral part to the contra€ted portion, 
which ends at the pylorus, and the bottom to the cul-de-fac 
of the ftomach. . The moft common deviations are produced 
by the bottom of the cul-de-fac, or cecal portion of the 
ftomach, being either longer or fhorter than what has been 
propofed as the ftandard (hape. ‘There are alfo other varie- 
ties in the figure cf this vifcus which will be noticed in the 
following defcription. 

The mufcular coat of the ftomach varies very much in 
thicknefs, and likewife with re{pe& to the diftin@tnefs and 
arrangement of its fibres. 

Between the mufcular and internal coats there is often 
found a layer of mucous follicles. 

The internal membrane varies very much as to thicknefs, 
and its furface is either {moo:h, reticulated, or plicated. 

The ftruCture of the ftomach in fifhes does not correfpond 
with any natural claffification of thefe animals, and therefore 
does not admit of a fy {tematic defcription. 

The rays have the ftomach nearly of the common form. 
There are fome folds of the internal membrane ; in the maid 
(raja clavata) it is a thick fpongy mafs, which peels off 
eafily after maceration. 
look like the ruge of the human ftomach, they are not 
however produced by the folding of the coat, but by the 
thinnefs or a&tual deficiency of fome parts of “it, we oblerved 
very thinly fcattered over it thofe {mall round depreflions 
which Mr. Home has conceived to be the glands for fe- 

creting the gaftric juice; in this as well as other in{tances 


The irregularities of the furface — 


thefe glands bear no fort of proportion to the quantity of 
the fluid which phyfiologifts have hitherto fuppofed requifite 
for digzeftion. 

The ftomach in the /karks covfilts of two portions; the 
firft is much longer and wider than the fecond, which is 
ftraight, and has the appearance of an inteftine; the two por- 
tions communicate by a fmallopening, which will only pers 
mit fubitances to pafs intothe fecond ftomach, that are re- 
duced into a {mooth and fluid ftate. ‘Chere are well marked 
longitudinal ruge in the firfl ftomach, but thofe in the fee 
cond are but little apparent. ~ > ; 

In the Lafking fhark (fqualus maximus) the firt flomach 
is reticulated at the beginning, and towards the pylorus has 
very prominent, longitudinal folds, and there is a globular 
cavity interpofed. between the pylorus and the inteftine, 
which communicates with each by a very contraéted aper- 
ture. 

In the greater dog-fifh (/qualus canicula) the mufeular fibres 
of the fiomach are moftly Jongivudinal; they are numerous 
at the cardiac and pyloric extremities, but not wel! marked 
elfewhere. The mufcles of the ftomach are mych ftronger 
in the greater cat-fifh (/qualus fellaris) than in many other 
{pecies ; they are extended over the whole of both portions; 
their courfe is longitudinal. The internal membrane in this 
fpecies forms large and numerous folds, which have different 
direétions ; behind the internal membrane of the large por- 
tion of the ftomach there is a glandular layer of a greyifh 
colour and fome thicknefs, f 

The /gualus nafus has two forts of ruge in the firft fto- 
mach ; the oneare longitudinal, and lie parallel to each other ; 
the fecond are tranfverfe, and perpendicular to the firft. 

The internal membrane of the firlt portion of the ftomach 
in the jaw fhark (fqualus priflis) has twelve or fourteen 
very large longitudinal and parallel folds, which are grooved 
tran{verfely ; the fecond itomach in the fame fith is perfe@ly 
{mooth. 

The ftomach of the /amprey (petromyzon marinus) is not 
to be diftinguifhed from the other parts of the alimentary 
canal, except from its fituation. 

In the furgeon (acipenfer /turio) the ftru&ture of the ftomach 
is fingular ; after being prolonged for fome way as a fimple 
tube, it is bent fo as to make a complete turn, it becomes con- 
tracted on this fide of the pylorus, and then again forms an 
enlargement of a pyriform figure, the bale of which corre- 
fponds to the pyloric opening; this en'argement is produced | 
by a very thick mutcle, the fibres of which run obliquely from 
without inwards; the pyloric orifice is really very {mall, and 
bounded by acircularfoid. The internal membrane is fmooth 
and without villi, except at the part corre{ponding to the en= 
largement, at which place there are thin, long folds of a py- 
ramidal figure, the bafes of which touch the pylorus, and 
are covered with a net-work, fimilar to that in the eef.pha- 
gus of this fifh. 

The ftomach of the /patularia is very wide, and fills a 
great part of the abdominal cavity ; it bas a round figure, 
and forms a cul-de-fac which is not as ufual in the direction 
of the celophagus, this canal and the inteitine opening near 
each other. The internal furface of the ftomach is fmooth : 
there is a circular valve at the pylorus. 

In the /ygnathus pelagicus the alimentary canal proceeds 
from.the mouth to the anus, as in the /ampreys, without forme 
ing any convolution: the part which correfponds to the fto- 
mach is, according to Cuvier, the one-feventh of the whole; 
it is diftinguifhed from the reft by a flight contraétion, and 
by two layers of mufcle: the external layer is formed of 
circular fibres, which furround the ftomach ; the ternal 

layer 


FISH. 


layer is longitudinal. Theinternal membrane has fome large 
longitudinal folds. 

The ftomach in the genus Za/ifles, and in the offracions, bears 
¢onfiderable refemblance to that of the /ygnathus. It has 
thick parietes plicated internally, and ts diitinguifhable from 

e other parts of the canal by its thick mufcular coat; in 
Me bali/les there is a denticulated valve interpofed between 
the ftomach and inteftines, In the offracion cubicus, the part 
correfponding to the ftomach may be known by its form ; its 
parietes are thin, tran{parent, and wider than the reft of the 
eanal ; its internal membrane is fmooth, except next the cefo- 
phagus, where it produces fome waving folds; from that 
place the canal gradnelly diminithes, its coats become thicker, 
and the internal furface villous and plicated. 

- The form of the itomach in the od/ong tetraodon is very 
different from the ufual one in fifhes. It isthe fhape of a 
globe, a little extended at the cefophageal and pyloric ori- 
fices, which are ficuatcd exa@tly opvofite to each other; the 
one before and the other behind. The coats of the ftomach 
are thin and weak, and apparently without mufcular fibres: 
the internal {urface does not prefent any inequalities, and th 

orifices are unfurnifhed with any valve. : 

Cuvier defcribes the ftomach of the dophius pifcatorius as a 
bag, having the fame capacity and direction as the aefopha- 
gus, and extending nearly the whole length of the abdominal 
cavity. The interna! membrane is confounded with the cel- 
lular coat, is very thick, foft, and pulpy, and forms a great 
number of thin proceffes and large irregularly fhaped ruge; 
the firft are particularly remarkable around the cardia, where 
they feem to produce many glandular maffzs, fome of which 
extend into the clophagus. There are further to be ob- 
ferved fome little orifices of cells equally {mall, placed in the 
fubftance of the internal membrane, which appear to be de- 
figned for the fecretionof mucus. The aperture of the py- 
Jorus is much contraét-d; it is furrounded by a very thick 
circular border, which proje@s confiderably into the inteftine. 
The mufcular coat of the ftomach is very ftrong at every 

art, its fibres are longitudinal. 

In the dump fi/b (cyclopterus lumpus) the figure of the fto- 
mach is nearly that of two ovals united at their ends; the 
angle formed by their junétion correfponds to the cecal por- 
tion of the ftomach in other fifhes, and the other ends re- 
ceive the eefophagus and the inteltine ; the ftomach is {mooth 
vpon the internal furface, except near the pylorus, at which 
place there are fome plice; it exhibits a number of opaque 
f{pots, which are occafioned by the union of very fmall len- 
ticular cells fituated between the mufcular and internal coats. 
They have eagh a {mall orifice in the centre, and appear to 
be deftined to fecrete the mucus of the flomach; the muf- 
cular coat is confined to the fecond oval part of the ftomach, 
and near the cardiac orifiee ; the parictes are in other places 
thin and tranfparent. 

' Inthe ee/the cecal portion of the flomach is very much 
elongated, and of a taper or funnel-fhape; the pylorus. is 
fituated very near the cefophazus, and appears to be formed 
by two portions ; one from the cfophagus, and the other 
from the elongated part of the ftomach, from which it would 
appear that all the food does not in this fifh pafs through that 
part; the internal membrane produces fome longitudinal 
plice: at the pylorus, which become lefs eminent and waving 
towards bottom of the funnel part of the ftomach. The 
fibres of the mufcular coat are circular ; although they are 
longitudinal on the eefophagus; there is a tubercle of the in- 
. oe membrane, which conftricts the aperture of the py- 
jorus. 
~The conger has very nearly the fame fort of Lomach as the 
sommon eel ; the prolonged part is, however, lef taper, the 
Vou. XIV. » 


mufcular fibres are more curved, and the pylorus is bordered 
by a broad lamina ; the internal membrane is firm and white, 
and forms a few long folds which extend from the cefophagua 
to the bottom of the cul-de-fac, or czcal portion. 

The jugular order of tithes afford many examples of the 
ufual or proper figure of the ftomach. 

In the trachinus draco the ftomach varies but little from the 
ftandard form; it is fomewhat larger than the cefophagus, 
and its parietes are thrown intoa few irregular and oblique 
folds, which are vifible even on the external furface. 

The genus gadus does not afford much fingularity in the 
formation of the ftomach. The cod (gadus morrhua) has 
the cecal portion very fhort, or, in other words, the part 
which goes to end in the inteftine runs near the bottom of 
the ftomach. 

The hake (gadus merlucius) has this part placed forwards, 
and the whiting (gadus merlangus) hasit ftill more fo. 

The Ang (gadus molua) has the cul-de-fac much elongated, 
but without any alteration in its capacity. In all thefe fithes 
the part which ends in the inteftine is much contra&ted. 

Amongft the thoracici we obferve the following varieties of 
ftructure in the ftomach. 

In the father lafher (cottus feorpius), and bull head (cottus 
gobio) the ftomach is very mufcular and of an irregular fhape. 
The cacal portion is confiderably larger thao theocfophagus; 
the part which ends in the inteftine is fituated near the en- 
trance of the cefophagus. In the goby of the Nile (cottus ni- 
Joticus) the czcal portion is fmaller than the other parts of 
the tlomach, and the ioteftine crifes far from the eefophagus. 

The ftomach of the /corpena horrida refembles that of the 
nilotic goby. 

Inthe lyre (callionymus Iyra) the cut-de fac is formed im~ 
mediately at the commencement of the ftomach, which is at 
firit globular, and is afterwards contreéted pofteriorly to 
nearly the fize of the cefophagus ; on the right fide of the di- 
latation, the part which ends in the inteftine goes off an- 
teriorly ; the walve of the pylorus is produced by the pro- 
jeftion of that part of the ftomach into the inteftine. 

In the’remora the right part of the ftomach has not, as ia 
general, a {all bowel arifing from the fide of the cul-de-fac, 
but a fhort prolongation of that part which is bent forwards, 
and forms an angle pofteriorly. The mufeular coat is very 
ttrong, and the iaternal furnifhed with very prominent los- 
gitudinal ruge. 

The figure of the ftomach differs very much in the dif- 
ferent {pecies of the genus pleuroncées. 

In the turbot ( pleuronedes maximus) the middle portion of 
the flomach is a little enlargec, but the cul-de-fac is very 
fhort ; the pylorus being nearly at the bottom of the fe~ 
mach): neither the figure given by Cnvier of the trrbar’s lo 
mach, nor that contained in Blafius Anatomie Animalium, is 
corre. 

In the flewronedes lineatus the ftomach is wide, irregularly 
round, with thin coats, and fmooth on the internal. furface. 

The -ttomach of the fole (pleuronedes folea) has-a bent 
figure like a portion of an S; there is a flight dilatation at 
the greateft curvaturé, which takes the place of the ufual 
cul-de-fac. There is no contraction of the canal at the py- 
lorus ; the diftirétion between the ftomach and intefting, 
however, is marked both on the outfide, and internally, by a 
whitifh line ; the ¢nner furface is thrown inte fome irrggular 
longitudinal folds. 

Cuvier deferibes the ftomach of the plaife ( pleuronede: 
platefa) as forming a continuous canal with the efophagus 
and inteltine ; there is, however, always a degree of dilatas 
tion»at. one fide of the flomach, which varies according aa 
w may be diftendcd by food; this corvefponds to the com- 


3Q) moa 


FRSA, 


mon cul-de-fac ; the parietes of the ftomach are thin and 
fmooth on the internal furface ; at the pylorus there is a 
funnel. fhaped valve, which projsés into the cavity of the in- 
teitine for fome diftance. 

The ftomach of the flounder ( pleuronedes fleffus) refembles 
that of the p/ai/e, except that it is contraéted at the pylo- 
rus, which gives it a conical figure, 

Inthe John dory (zeus faber) the ftomach is round and 
very capacious; in one initance we foundit contain eight mo- 
derate fized flounders. Cuvier deferibes the internal mem- 
brane as being irregularly rugons, but we have obferved that 
ahe furface is covered with {mall mefhes; each of which con- 
tains within it a {till finer reticulation ; the mefh-work is 
wanting, however, upon that part of the internal membrane 
which lies between the entrance of the cefophagus and the 
pylorus; the pyloric orifice is abridged by a circular projec- 
tion of the internal coat. 

The form of the ftomach in the chetodon zebra, as de- 
{cribed by Cuvier, is fingular: it follows the fame dire&tion 
as the cefophagus from before backwards, but is diftin- 
guifhed from it by having a greater capacity ; it dilates fud« 
denly, and prefents on the fide of the cardia very fhort 
cul-de-fac, of which the bottom is turned forwardg, and the 
cavity is feparated from the card'ac orifice by an internal 
projection ; the ftomach is flightly contraéted betore its ter- 
mination, and its coats, which were before thin and tranf- 
parent, acquire confiderable thicknefe, more particularly 
the mufcular tunic; the termination of the ftomach at 
the inteftine is marked by aconfiderable proje@ion. The 
internal coat is without ruge. j 

The chetodon ciliaris bas a large flomach bent into an arch: 

The chetodon arcuatus has the ftomach at firft continued 
-for fome way as a large canal, in the fame direGtion of the 
cefophagus, it then bends to form a right angle, and be- 
comes dilated into a confiderable oval fac, of which the op- 
polite extremity opens into the inteftine by a very con- 
tracted orifice ; the parietes of the firtt portion are thin and 
tran{parcnt 3 thofe of the fac are more mufcular ; the inter- 
nal furface 1s {mooth in both divilions. 

In the fteuthis the ftomach at firlt forms a canal, with 
thick coats, the internal of which is plicated throughout its 
length; it then bends from behind forwards to join a fecond 
portion, which is wider, and of which the coats are thin and 
iranfparent, but become more fubitantial towards the other 
extremity ; the part of the ftomach which forms the cu've is 
elongated, and correfponds to the cul-de-fac of other fifhes. 

lp the Aobocenthrus fogo, the ttomach is an elongated bag, 
with the bottom contracted ; the parictes are moderately 
ttrong, the internal coat produces feven or eight broad 
rug, which difappear in the portion which goes off very 
near the bottom to form the pylorus. 

There is confiderable variety in the form of the ftomach 
in the genus fparus. The /parus /pinifer has a very large 
ftomach, which occupies a great part of the abdomen; 1% 
refembles a round bottle or fi ik, with a wide neck, which 
eorrefponds to the celophagus ; the inteftine, compared with 
the ttomach, is very fma}l, and arifes abruptly from the le wer 
part of theneck, and coniequent!y very far from the bottom 

-of the ftomach ; the parietes of the bag are thin, and the in- 
ternal furface of it quite fmooth. "The /parus Aganus hae a 
conical fhaped dilatation where the elophagus joins the 
ftomach, the bottom of which is turned forwards. This, 
which is wider than the efophagus, paffes firft from before 
backwards, then bends from behind forwards; the curva- 
tion produces a confiderable cul-de-fac. ‘The portion which 
fucceeds it is longer and lefs wide than the firft part of the 
ftomach.. 


Cuvier ftates the ftomach of the genus debrus to poffels 
the ordinary form and ftru@ure. In the gibbous wraffe 
(labrus tinca) however, we have found the c@lophague, 
{tomach, and firlt or {mall inteftine, to make a continuous 
canal, without any material difference in capacity or in ftruc- 
ture; each of thefe parts is reticulated upon the internal 
furface. ‘ : 


In the perches (genus perca) there is nothing in genera 
very peculiar to remark ; the chief deviations from the com- 
mon ftru€ture appear to be with refpeé to the length and 
form of the cul-de-fac ; this part is conical in the perch of 
the Nile (perca nilotica); it is deep in the fea-persh. Blafhus 
gives a figure of the vifcera of the perch, in which the intef- 
tine appears continuous with the cefophagus, and the cxcal 
portion of the ttomach is like a long bag, with a contracted 
neck. 

In the fiickleback (gaflerofleus pungitius) the ftomach is an 
oval fizure, and without curvature. 

The red gurnard (trigla cuculus) has the portion which 
ends in the inteltine contiderably enlarged. 

Lhe piper (trigla lyra) has the pylorus fituated very near 
the cfophagus, which is ftraight. The body of the ftomach 
is nearly of an oval fhape, and the bottom of it forms a very 
fhort cul-de-fac, lefs in diameter than the celophagus. 


In the fcomber Janfun the portion which arifes from the 
body of the ftomach to terminate in the inteftine is an oval 
figure, and fo large in proportion to the reft of the cavity, 
that it {eems like a fecond ttomach ; its mufcular coat is very 
ftrong, and the internal one has fome thick longitudinal 
folds. 

The abdominal fifhes exhibit fome more remarkable 
varieties in the ftru€ture of the ftomach than the preceding 
orders. 

In che carps (cyprinus) the ftomach forms a continuous 
canal from the cefophagus to the inteftine. In the fea pike 
(e/ox belone) alfo it cannot be diftinguifhed from the adjoin- 
ing parts of the alimentary canal; the ftomach of the com- 
mon pike (cfox lucius) forms no cul-de-fac, the inteftine going 
off at its bottom; but the fituation of the pylorus is plainly 
marked by an annular contraétion externally, and by a cir- 
cular fold of the internal membrane. The figure of the 
ftomach is that of a very elongated bag, fomewhat wider 
in the middle than the other parts; its mufcular coat is 
ftrong ; the internal membrane furnifhes at firlt fome dilin& 
longitudinal folds, which become numerous, and covered 
with papilla in the lower part of the bag. 


In the herring (clupea harengus) the ftomach at firft paffes 
backwards, like the continuation of the ofophagus ; it is 
then reflscted forwards, fo as to form an acute angle with 
the firit portion ; the outlide of this curvature produces a 
tong, conical cul-de-fac: thefe portions are diftinguifhable 
by their ftru@ture, as well as their form’: the firft has thick 
parietes, and the internal furface plicated ; the fecond has 
thin coats, and is {mooth internally ; the pylorus, which. is 
the termination of the refleed portion, is much contraGed. 

The flomach forms a cul-de-fac in the genus /almo, which, 
howcver, varies much with refpe€t to its depth. In the 
Jielt (faimo eperlanus) it is long and pointed, as in the erring. 
Ta the common /a/mon and trout (falmo fario) the cxcal por- 
tion of the ttomach is very inconfiderabiee There is a kind, 
of trout, found in the weftern part of Ireland, which, from- 
the great ftrength and thickne{s of the mufcular coat of its 
ftomach, is eommonly called the gillaroo or gitzard trout, 
It is pot generally fuppofed to be a diftin& {pecics, but a 
variety of the /a/mo fario. Hunter ftated the parietey of its 
ftomach to be two-thirds thicker than thofe of the common 
trout; he did not, however, confider it¢ flomach as ferving: 


Fis 8, 


the purpofes, or as deferving the name of a gizzard; the 
internal furface is foft and villous, and therefore not fit for 
grinding the food ; the contraétions of the ftomach are how- 
ever fufficiently powerful to break the fhell-fifh on which 
this trout fubfifts, with the affiftance of round, fmooth 
ftones, which are {wallowed for the purpofe. The common 
trout likewife takes ftones into its ftomach, with a fimilar 
defizn. 
The ftomach of the fi/urus bagre is an oval, or rather the 
fhape of a flaflk, with a very wide mouth ; its parietes are 
hard, ftrong, and thick; the portion which leads to the 
pylorus is fhort, and arifes from about the pofterior third, 
which occafions a confiderable cul-de fac. 
There is no cxeal portion of the ftomach in the genus 
~hnableps ; that of the anableps tetropthalmus is a canal 
curved upon itfelf, before it ends in the inteftine, from 
which it is feparated by a flight contra¢tion, and a circular 
valve ; the left fide of the internal furface of the ftomach 
exhibits thick folds, which form a net-work, apparently of a 

landular ftru€ture; the other parts of the internal mem- 
i are covered with fine villi. 

Cuvier defcribes the cxgal portion of the ftomach, in the 
genus mormyrus, as being wide and fhort ; we fhould rather 
fay that the itomach is dilated into a bag, which lying tran{- 
verfely acrofs the direétion of the cfophagus, refembles, in 
fome degree, the form of this cavity in mammalia. 

The moft fingularly conftruéted ftomach in the whole 
clafs of fithes is met with in the mullet (genus mugil), of 
which Cuvier has given an imperfe& defcription, and bad 
figure. In the common f{pecies (mugil cephalus), the ttomach 
may be divided into three parts; the firit refembles in form 
and direétion the cefophagua, from which it commences ; 
it leads to the back of a large mufcular mafs, into which it 
opens; the fame canal is afterwards continued for a con- 
fiderable way backwards, and is gradually contra&ed in capa- 
city, until it finifhes in a pointed blind extremity. The 
mut(cular mafs has a figure not quite {pherical, but fuch as 
would be produced by the application of two difks to each 
other ; the largeft diameter of it meafures about an inch : 
the tubular part of the ftomach opens into the centre of one 
difk ; the inteftine commences exaétly oppofite, or at the 
centre of the other; a ftraight canal leads dire@tly through 
the mulcle, which therefore correfponds to the pyloric por- 
tion of the ftomach. It has, however, been confidered by 
fome anatomifts as an example of the true gizzard ftomach 
in fifhes, and not without foundation ; the mufcular fibres 
which compofe the interior part of it are fhort, clofely ap- 
plied to each other, and interwoven fo as to produce a mafs 
neatly of an homogeneous ftruéture; the fibres are more 
diftin& on the external furface ; they pafs from the centre 
to the circumference, where they feem to coalefce 
with each other, and with a layer of mulcle, which paffes 
round the mafs like a ring: this arrangement of the muf- 
cular fibres bears fume refemblance to that of the gizzard 
in birds, and certainly fhews that the apparatus in the mu/let 
is capable of exerting an extraordinary degree of force. It 
fhould further be added, that the internal part of the muf- 
eular mafe is lined with a cuticular coat of fome ftrength: 
this is very eafily detached by maceration, and is found to 
be confined, as in birds, merely to the grinding furface. As 
arguments again{t the {uppofition of the mufcular apparatus 
in the mullet performing the funétions of a gizzard, it may 
be ftated that the cavity it contains is too fmall to ferve <s 
a refervoir for any quantity of food ; that the cuticle is too 
weak to fultain the fri€tion with hard bodies, and that the 
food. muft be in a great meafure digefted in the tubular 
portion of the ftomach, before it pafles into this. Thefe 


obje&tions we are difpofed to allow toa certain extent ; but 
that the aliment undergoes a further comminution and ad- 
mixture, while moving through the mufcular portion of the 
mullet’s {tomach, we cannot entertain a doubt, both from 
the contemplation of the ftruéture of the part, and of the 
inteftines which fucceed it, and from aé¢iual obfervation 
made upon its contents, immediately after the death of the 
animal. 

Cuvier defcribes the ftomach of the white mullet (mugil 
albula) as differing only from that of the mugil cephalus with 
refpeét to the fhape of the cul-de-fac, and the mufcular 
portion ; the firft has the proper form of a bag, being wider 
at the lower part than above, the latter is the figure of a 
globe, inftead of being compreffed or levclied on the inferior 
and upper furfaces. 

The figures which illuftrate the form and ftrutere of the 
flomach are contained in Plates I. and II. of the Anatomy of 
Fifhes. Fig. §.0f Plate 1. exhibits a view of the ftomach 
ot the ba/Ring /hark (/qualus maximus) laid open on one fide x 
c, the portion of the ftomach next the ceefophagus, the inner 
furface of which is reticulated ; d,4, the fucceeding parts of 
the flomach, with longitudival laming or folds, which are 
particularly promiuent near the pylorus; ¢, the purfed, or 
contraéted opening into the {ccond ftomach ; f, the fecond 
ftomach, partially feen behind the other; g, the commence- 
ment of the inieftine ; 4, the biliary duGs, pafling as a band 
to the inteftine; #7, the fpleen. : 

Fig. 6. of the fame plate fhews the globular cavity, 
or fecond ftomach, and its communication with the firft 
ftomach and intettine ; a, the external furface of the pyloric 
portion of the ftomach ; 4, the intermediate cavity laid open, 
to bring into view the contreCted aperture leading into the 
principal ftomach, and the one into the inteltine; c, the 
cavity of the firft part of the inteftine expofed; d, the com- 
mencement of the f{piral valve ; ¢, the projeétion into the ine 
teftine, upon which the {mall aperture of the fecond ftomach 
is feen ; f, the papilla, by which the bilary ducts terminate 
in the inteftine; g, a portion of the fpleen; 4, twelve or 
thirteen biliary ducts, forming a fingle fafciculus, which 
proceeds to the inteftine. 

Fig. 7. of the famé plate reprefents a portion of the 
ftomach and cefophagus of the raja clavata; a, the inner 
furface of the cefophagus; 42, the internal coat of the 
ftomach, which is‘ thick, foft, unequal, and, as it were, 
raifed upon the furface of the other coats ; the depriflions 
{een upon it are produced by the deficiency of the internal 
coat itfelf ; fome {mall foramina are fcattered over the fur- 
face, which are the glands fuppofed to furnifh the galtric 
juice. by Mr. Home, but which by others are commonly 
defcribed as mucous glands. 

In Plate Il. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, fig. t. reprefents 
the ftomach of the ¢etraodén oblongus; a, the efophagus ; 4, 
the beginning of the inteftine ; c, the ftomach, of a globular 
figure. Fig. 2. fhews the ftomach of the ¢e/ (murena 
anguilla); a, the celophagus; 4, the cul-de-fac, or cecal 
portion of the ftomach of an elongated taper form; c, the 
inteftine. Jig. 3. exhibits the ftomach of the /ole (pleuro- 
aces folea) which defcribes an S§ like curve ; a, the flight 
dilatation which correfponds to the cul de-fac. Fig. 4. re- 
prefents the ftomachr of the p/ai/e (pleuronees plateffa); a, the 
cefophagus; J, the inconfiderable dilatation whrch marks 
the fituation of the ftomach ; c, the pylorus; @. d, the two 
fhort pyloric ceca; ¢, the fingle cecum from the firlt 
portion of the inteitine, as far as it 1s known, peculiar to 
this ith. Fig. 5. fhews the ftomach of the chetodon zebra 5 
a, the efophageal extremity ; 4, the pylorus; ¢, the portion 
of the ftomach, correfponding to the cul-de-fac, which, in 


Pm ole) thie 


FISH. 


tis fpecies, is turned forwarde, Fig. 6. is the tomach of 
the /parus Jpinifer ; a, the cefophageal extremity ; 4, the 
inteltine, of a fmall fize, arifing near the cefophagus ; 
¢, the body of the ftomach, which forms a perfeét bag. 
Fig. 7. is the ftomach of the mullet (mugil cephalus); a is 
the part continued from the cefophagus; 4, the funnel, or 
cul-de-fac ; ¢, the mufcular portion, which has been com- 
pared to a gizzard, on which the arrangement of the muf- 
cular fibres is feen; d, the inteftine; eee, pyloric cece. 
Fig. 8. fhews the fame ftomach, with the mufcular part 
cut through longitudinally ; a, the efophageal extremity ; 
b, the funnel feen behind; c, the mufcular portion, in the 
centre of which appears the opening, through which the 
food paffes to the inteftine; d, the cuticle lining this paf- 
fage, puckered or folded on itfelf. 

Inteflines. 

There are, properly {peaking, but two inteftines in fifhes; 
the firft correfponds to the /maill, the fecond to the great ; 
thefe terms, however, are not applicable to the divifions of 
the canal in this clafs of animals, unlefs they were reverfed, 
as that which would be called the great is often lefs capa- 
cious than the other. Cuvier has called the fecond portion 
of the inteftines in fifhes relum, to which part it is certainly 


more analogous than to the co/on, or cacam, although fome- 
times it experiences a confiderable and fudden enlargement, 
The firft and fecond portions of the canal are commonly 
diftinguifhed from each other by an annular projeétion of 
the internal coat, which is generally thick and rounded on 
the edge, and appears to contain fome circular mufcular 
fibres, which, by their contraétion, will increafe the valvular 
obftrution to the paflage of fubftances from one inteftine 
into the other; thefe parts are further indicated by a dif- 
ference of ftru€&ture in the internal membrane, and com- 
monly, alfo, by a different arrangement of the fibres in the 
mulcular coat. The capacity of the fecond inteltine, as 
already mentioned, is almoft always either fmaller or larger 
than the preceding part of the canal ; moft commonly it is 
{maller. ‘The internal ftructurey charaGteriftic of each intefs 
tine, is moft ftrongly marked in the one next the pylorus, 
and in the other towards the anus. 

The variation with refpeét to the form, length, and ftruc- 
ture of the inteftines of different fifhes, do not accord with 
the natural divifions of this clafs of animals; remarkable 
deviations being often found amongtt individuals of the fame 
genus, and even fometimes in varieties of the fame fpecies, 
as will appear by the following table, and in the defcription 
of thefe parts in the principal genera. 


Taste of the proportional Lengths of the Intefinal Canal in Fifhes, Extracted from Cuvier’s 
Lecons d’Anatomie comparée, tom. 3. 


ee ES eS EL LL LE SS, 


Length of the 


body, from the 

endof the fnout 

to the 

Names. 

ing the cauda) 

ho. 
Lamprey . . . : . 0,148 

a . A 5 2 . 0,300 (4) 

Shark ; A 6 4 25759 
Sturgeon . : C é, 25273 
Spatularia . A : ¢ 0,11 4(c) 
Baliftes . 0 : c ‘ 0,130 
Tetraodon mola . ~° . : 4 1,000 
Tetraodon oblongus . 4 5 0,140 
Murena helena. A " é 
Commoneel . ° . 0,720 
Whiting : 5 : 0,290 
Cottus infidiator : : 5 0,360 
Pleuroneétes limanda_. 4 0,150 
Chetodon arcuatus . . 0,105 
Perch . : Fi . z 0,210 
Perca labrax. . 5 . 0,923 
Sparus . . ; ° ° 0,190 
Barbel;. . 5 S ‘ 0,390 
Rud . : ° = . * 210 
Cyprinus dobula : < i 0,290 
Tench F . : i F 0,280 
Efox brafilienfis ° ° 0,130 
Common pike « . ° 0,840 
Polypterus Niloticus. =. : 0,510 
Mormyrus . 3 ‘ . = 0,260 
Mullet ; ; f 4 05250 


Silurus bagre . : ° ; 0,320 


Length of in 
reftinal 
extre-|from the pylo-jre€tum, or fe-Jof the intelti-|body to that 
mityof the tail,/rus to the vaivcjcond intetine. {nal canal. 
without includ-|of the rectum. 


\ Relation of the 
canal, Length of the}Total lengtt|{ength of the 
of the intefti- 
nal canal. 


0,200 TRG 
0,189(¢) 0,540 ie 
1,200 1,8 
0,024 4,8 
0,270 “eae 
39572 qs 
0,090 1,5 
0,230 ; 
0,254 2,6 : ba 
0,240 1,2 5 
0,060 0,339 Is 
0,200 3 
0,055 0,600 A gem ile 4 
0,160 og C 
0,793 1,3 : 
0,739 Ix 
0,015 ye 
1,350 Aen 
0:400 iG 
03349 ree 
0,090 1,3: 
0,140 0,820 ae 
0,275 IT: 
0,160 Tra: 
0,959 I: 3,8 


EH 


(a) Meafure of the alimentary canal, from the pofterior 
parts of the mouth to the anus. 

(+) Length, meafured. from the border of the lower jaw 
to the anus. 

(c) Length taken from the end of the muzzle, but not 
including the leaf. 

(d) Length meafured from the end of the foiral valve to 
the anus. . 

“In the lampreys (pelromyzon) the alimentary canal pafies to 
the anus without any fenfible dilatation or convolution ; the 
abdominal cavity is however of confiderable extent. The 
inner furface of the inteftine is covered with fine longitudinal 
plice ; the refleGion of peritoneum, which correfpords 
to the mefentery, completely encompaflcs the greatcft 
part of the inteltine, by being coiled upon it, in confe« 
quence of which it is allowed great latitude of motion in the 
abdomen. 

The inteftines of the ray and /hark genus make no ma- 
terial convolutions, and appear remarkably fhoit for the fifh ; 
the length, however, Jolt by this circumftance, is amply 


fupplied by the ftructure of the firft inteftine ; the internal. 


membrane of which is. converted into a {pirel valve, which 
nearly fills up the canal from the pylorus to the commence- 
ment of the fecond inteftine; the food, therefore, initead of 
pafling {peedily to the anus, traverfes a confiderable circuit. 
The {piral membrane is tolerably fmooth upon its furface, 
but is extremely vafcular ; an injeétion of the blood veffels 
will render this part of a vivid red, and fearcely thew any 
effe& upon the other parts of the alimentary canal. The 
valvular portion of the inteftine in the /qualus maximus ter- 
minates at the rectum in a foliated appearance, refembling 
a rofe, by which the paflage of the food is obftru€ted. 

The fecond inteftine of thefe fifhes ufually makes one or 
two flight curves; it has a {mailer diameter and thinner 
coats than the preceding ; the inner membrane is villous at 
the commencement. Cuvier has defcribed a layer of a grey- 
i, glandular fubfance, as being interpofed between the 
mufcular and internal coats; this has not been obferved 
by us. 

There is a remarkable glandular body conneéted by a 
flender tubtlar foot-ftalk with the rectum which is only met 
with in the ray and /hark genera; in the former it is fome- 
what of the figure of the feed of a ftone fruit, with thelefferend 
towardstheinteftine. Wehave obferveditin thedog-f/h to be 
long, round, and pointed at the freeextremity. Its fubftanceis 
very denfe and unyielding, refembling a good dealthetextureof 
the human uterus; it contains a {mall cavity, which appears 
to have a {mooth furface, but, if accurately examined, ex- 
hibits fome cells or depreffions, which would feem to be the 
orifice of mucous glands. In the /gualus maximus, Mr. 
Home found this gland deeply reticulated in the inner fur- 
face, and to contain a dark coloured glairy fluid, Deétor 
Monroe, in his Phyfiology of Fifhes, called this body, from 


analogy of fituation, appendix vermifermis, and fuppofed it. 


to be defigned to perform the fame funGtions of that part in 
the human inteftine. Cuvier, on the other hand, defcribes 
it amongft the anal glands of animals, to which clafs of or- 
gans he thinks it moft analogous. It appears tous to be a 
Er deftined to fupply the rectum with mucus, 


Tn the furgeon (acipen/er) all the parts of the inteftine are 
extremely mofcular; the internal furface is reticulated 
throughout the greateft portion of the canal; at the be- 
ginning the mefhes are fo deep as to produce cells ; at fome 
diftance from the pylorus: there arifeaa fpiral valve, which 

Belittl jral 


S Hy 


is loft at nearly. the fame diftance from the anus ; its turng 
are much lefs frequent than thofe of the valve in the ray and” 
dog-fifh, In the fiurgeom it is fuftained by a ftrong pillar 
which runs in the centre of the tube of the inteftine, and 
which feems to be compofed of mafcle internally ; the valve 
refembles ftairs placed around a pillar, except that it is not 
uninterruptediy attached to the centre, but rathes coila 
upon it, leaving in fome places the internal border at liberty; 
it does not f{eem, therefore, neceflary for the alimentary 
fubftances to pafs around all the turns of the valve. In the 
Sturgeon there is interpofed between the reticulated membrane 
and the mufecular coat a thick layer of a glandular f{ub- 
ftance, which is clofe in its texture, a greyith.colour, and ia 
whick may be feen fome {mall white branches. Te lat 
portion of the inteftinal canal has neither valve, reticulation, 
nor glandular fub{tance; its coats are thin, and its diameter 
diminithed, 


Cuvier defcribes the inteftinal canal of the Jpatularia as 
being fhort, but contrived to retard the paffage of the ali- 
mentary fubftances through it. It is very wide for two- 
thirds of its length, and is then foddenly contraG@ed into a 
{mall canal ; it next becomes dilated a fecond tme, and forms 
an oval pouch, the cavity of whichis divided by fix circolar 
valves: the fucceffive enlargements and contr: tions pro- 
duced by thefe are vifible on the external part of the in- 
teftine ; the poach opens into a fhort and contra@ed canal, 
which is analogous to the redum. he firlt portion of the 
inteftine of this fih is moft mufculer, end cxhibits a net- 
work on the internal furface, fimilor to that of the flurgeon ; 
the mefhes of which are, however, not ftrongly marked, 
except in the firft two thirds of the inteftine. The parietes 
of the pouch, containing the valves, are thin, but the fhort 
canal, immediately fucceeding, has an evident mufcular coat, 
and the internal furface longitudinally plicated. 


Inthe /ygnathus pelagicus the alimentary canal is withowt 
convolutions, as already mentioned, and preferves neazly the 
fame diameter throughout its whole length ; the ficft or {mail 
inteftine has thin and tran{parent coats, and the inver fur- 
face is covered with longitudinal plice, waving and ramified 
together} itis feparated from the fecond inteftine, or rectum, 
by acircular valve; the latter canal has trong parietes, and 
upon the internal furface thick rog= running longitudinally, 
ferrated upon their edge. undulating, andfendins branches to 
each other. he /ygnathus acus differs from the elagicus in 
wanting the ruge in the fecond inteftine, which is {mooth 
and covered with fine cuticle. 


The offracton cubicus, in which the inteftine is without con- 
volution, has the firlt portion. flightly plicated internally ; 
and ia the fecond .more eminent rugz difperled longitudi« 
nally and parallel to eachotber. This part of rhe anteitine 
is likewife more mufcular, and feparated from the firit bya 
circular valve. 

In the da/ifles the firth intefine is, for about two-thirds of 
its length, thin, uniform in fize, and {mooth internally ; at 
the commencement of the laft third it exhibits fome dila- 
tations, and towards the end beconics much enlaraed, at 
which place the internal coat acquires a beautiful vious ep- 
pearance ; a contraction of the parietes, and an annular pro- 
jeGtion internally, ferve to diftinguith the commencement of 
the fecond.inteltine, which is fhort and longitudinally pli 
cated on the infide. 

In the genus ¢efraodon the inteftines make two or three 
convolutions, but preterve nearly the fame diameter throughs 
out ; a foldof the inner mtembrane’is placed at the beginmnag 
of the fecond inteltine, which has Gronger coats than the 


rity 


FISH. 


firft, and deeper longitudioal folds of the internal fur- 
face. 

The inteftinal canal is longer in the moon-fi/h (tetraodon 
mola) than in the other fpecies, and forms numerous convo- 
lutions. The firft inteftine is capacious, and has a ftrong 
mufcular coat, which exhibits on the internal part of the 
gut very diftiné longitudinal fafciculi; the inteltine diminifhes 
in widenefs, and the thicknefs of its coats as it proceeds. 
There is alfo a thick white glandular layer between the in- 
ternal and mufcular coats, which difappears on approaching 
the fecond inteftine ; in which, however, it is again formed. 
The internal furface of both inteftines is covered with vil- 
lous proceffes, that are at firit coarfe, but become fine to- 
wards the commencement of the fecond inteftine, in which 
théy re-appear. 

The inteftinal canal of the fea devil (lophius pifeatorius) 
has but little variation in its capacity from one end to the 
ether; the folds of the internal membrane take a lozenge 
figure. 

ota the lump fife (cyclopterus lumpus) the firlt intefline ta 
diftinguifhed from the fecond by a circular valve, which pro- 
jeéts into the latter; the mufcular coat of the firft is alfo 
lefs thick and has the fibres circular, while in the fecond they 
are confiderable, and are arranged upon the external part of 
the inteftine longitudinally ; both intefines are plicated on 
the inner {urface, but the fecond has the folds larger and lefs 
regulars 

In the anarrhichas lupus the fecond portion of the intefti- 
nal canal has thick coats, and an external layer of longitu- 
dinal mufcular fibres; the two parts are indicated by the 
interpofition of a circular valve, but the internal furface of 
both is covered by a number of fringed plice arranged in 
different direétions. 

The feveral parts of the inteftinal canal in general have 
little variation with refpeét to their capacity. In the genus 
murena, the conger (murena conger) has the fecond inteftine 
wider than the firlt; it has alfo, particularly at the com- 
mencement of the canal, a glandular ftruéture of the inter- 
nal coat, fimilar to that already defcribed in the /lurgeon. 
In all this genus the diltinction of the two portions of the 
inteftines are marked by a fimilar valve. 

In the urana/eopus fcaber the firft and fecond inteftines are 
not diftinguifhed by any valvular projection of the internal 
furface, but by the ftruéture of their coats. They are at 
firft thick and the canal {mall, foon afterwards the inteftines 
become much enlarged, thin, and tranfparent, which ftruc- 
ture is continued to near the anus; the internal membrane 
produces in the firft divifion of the canal fine longitudinal 
plice, touching each other to a zig-zag manner ; thefe gra- 
dually decline, and in the part correfponding to the rectum 
become ftri€ly longitudinal and parallel, with fmall ruge 
arffing alternately on the fides. The canal experiences many 
convolutions. 

Nhe firft inteftine of the weaver (¢rachinus draco) is reti- 
culated upon the inner furface ; the fecond portion is thin. 

In the genus gadus the firft and feeond parts of the intef- 
tinal canal are diftinguifhed both by a difference of ftru¢ture 
and a valyvlar projection ; the firit inteftine of the hake (ga- 
dus merlucius) bas upon the inner furface fringed plice, 
which gradually diminifh towards the rectum. In the cod 
(gadus morrhua) the canal is {mooth internally, except at its 
firft convalution. In tne Jing (gadus molua) the firlt intef- 
tine is plicated longitudinally ; and in the whiting (gadus mer- 


Jangus) the inteftinal canal appears {mooth on the inner fur» 


face ; the rectum is very fhort, and wider than the firft in- 
teftine. 5 


In the remora (echeneis remora) the firfl intefline is rugous, 
the fecond {mooth. 

In the genus coffus there is a valve at the origin of the fe- 
cond inteftine. In the cottus niloticus there is a glandular fub- 
{tance fituated behind the internal membrane, reaching for 
fome way from the pylorus, that increafes the bulk of that 
part of the gut, the diameter of which is alfo very wide ; the 
canal, after proceeding for a confiderable diftance, becomes 
again dilated at the {mall portion correfponding to the rec- 
tum. The whole extent of the fmall inteftine exhibits 
internally a net-work, which has very deep mefhes; in the 
reétum the feme ftruGture 1s obferved, but the mefhes are 
wide and fhallower. 


The inteftinal canal forms three convolutions in the /eor- 
pana horrida, The internal membrane ts flightly plaited and 
villous, and the parietes thin in the firft inteftine ; the reétum 
. ferent larger, and has internally waving longitudinal 

olds. 


In the dory (xeus faber) the two inteltines are divided 
by aconical valve. The firft is reticulated upon its inner 
furface ; when viewed with a magnifying glafs, we have ob- 
ferved each meth to inclofe a finer net-work within it, and 
the projeétions of the membrane, which form the reticulation, 
to end in delicate villous laminz ; probably the fame ftruc- 
ture would be found to exift in the inteftines of many other 
filhes,; the re€tum in the dory is without reticulation, and 
thin in its parietes. 

‘There is fome varicty with refpeé& to the ftru€ture of the 
inteftines in the flat jibes (pleurone@es.) The plaife (pleuro- 
neGes plateffa) has the canal wide for fome way from the 
pylorus, atter which it gradually diminifhes to a moderate 
fize, and continues of the fame magnitude to the anus; 
the inner furface is covered with well marked plice arranged 
longitudinally, and others conneéting them tranfverfely ; in 
the wide part of the inteftine the plice are fo prominent 
that they float in the cavity, the border is plaited like the 
ruffle of a fhirt, and altogether they produce one of the 
moft beautiful furfaces we have obferved in the inteftines of 
fifhes. This plicated ftru&ture becomes gradually lefs evi- 
dent in the courfe of the canal, and is nearly loft on ap- 
proaching the retum. That portion of the inteftine pof- 
fefles alfo reticulated plice, but they are indiftin€& ; the in- 
teftine becomes thick and flefhy near the anus. Cuvier af- 
ferts, that its diameter is twice as great as that of the pre- 
ceding part of the canal; but in thofe inftances we have 
examined, if any difference could be obferved, the reétum 
was lefs than the adjoining part of the inteftines. There is 
a circular valve at the commencement of the re&tum. 


In the turbot (pleurenedes maximus) the internal membrane 
of the firft inteftine produces fringed laminez, which are 
clofe together and reticulated ; they gradually decline, and 
in the reGtum, the origin of which is marked by a valve and 
a fudden dilatation, the lamine or plice become very remarke 
able, floating in the cavity of the inteftine. The canal is 
moft mufcular,'from the firft convolution to the pylorus, and 
in the retum., 

The firft intefline of the brill (pleuroncétes rhombus) is 
plicated internally, it is at firft large and then becomes con 
tra&ted. The reGum is fmooth and confiderably wider than 
the part of the canal immediately adjoining it. 

In the /ole (pleuroneées folea) the diameter of the inteftinal 
canal is nearly the fame throughout, alihough Cuvier afferts 
the contrary. The internal furface of the firit portion looks 
as if it were grooved, the folds projeéting very little, and 
being clo&ly applied to cach other; they pafs in a waving 

manner 


FISH. 


manner in the longitudinal direétion ; near the pylorus, how- 
ever, the folds are more prominent and puckered or plaired 
upon the edges, The parietes of the retum are thin; the 
internal membrane forms in it flight, incompaét, longitudi- 
pal folds. The two parts are diftinguifhed by an annular 
projeCtion. 

n the pleuronedes limanda, Cuvier ftates the inteftine to be 
very wide at the commencement. and after diminithing to 
be enlarged again a little in the reGtum. The internal mem- 
brane has flight ruge arranged in a lozenge fizure near the 
pylorus, but farther on it becomes {mooth. 

In many of the genus chetcdon the inteltinal canal is very 
large ; in the chetodon arcuatus and chetodon xebra the parictes 
of the inteftine are thin, delicate, and tranfparent, and dilated 
in fome places for containing the excrements. The internal 
membrane of tue firlt inteftine has the plice difpofed ina 
zig-zag manner near the anus, theircoats become thickened 
and rugous internally. 

In the genera /abrus and /parus the ftructure of the intef- 
tine varies in the different {pecies ; in the /abrus melops the 
rectum is fo wide, according to Cuvier, as to refemble a fac, 
into which the firft intefline is inferted ; a valve is fituated at 
this place. In other {pecies the fudden enlargement of the 
reGtum alfo exifts, but the valve is wanting in the giblous 
wraffe (labrus tinca); the firft inteftine is of the fame diameter 
as the ttomach, with which it appears to be continuous; it 
is villous and reticulated on the inner furface ; the re&um is 
very fhort, and twice the width of the firft inteltine ; its in- 
ternal membrane exhibits a cellular appearance from the 
mefhes of the net-work being fo deep. 

The coats of the inteflines in the /parus /pinifer are thin, 
and the internal furface is without villi or plica. 

In the perch the firit inteftine is a little enlarged at the 
‘commencement, afterwards it diminifhes, and again acquires 
bulk ; the fecond portion or the re€tum exceeds in fize every 
part of the canal. The internal coat of the firft intcttine 
‘furnifhes numerous laminz, forming many-fided areolz, 
which gradually become longitudinal and parallel to each 
other. There is a prominent funnel. fhaped valve at the ori- 
~ gin of the fecond inteftine; as ufual, this part of the gut 
has longitudinal fibres in its muicular coat. In this fifh the 
ftru@ure of the rectum is fngular, its longitudinal, folds are 
denticulated upon the edge, and arecrofled by other traa{verfe 
plice in a zig-zag manner ; the folds which compofe the an- 
gles that are direGted towards the anus are more prominent 
than the reft and concave, fo as to produce little cups or 
facs. The baft (perca labrax) hasloofe, plaited, longitudi- 
nal laming on the internal furface of the firft inteftine, ex- 
aly refembling thofe of the {mall inteltine of the /nate ; the 
fecond inteltine has remarkable thick coats, and is perfeAly 
fmooth on the inner furface. 

In the flickleback (ga/terofleus aculeatus) the inteftine is 
very wide at its origin, it foon, however, becomes {mall, 
and continucs fo to the end of the canal. 

Inthe mackarel (/comber feombrus) the internal membrane 
of the Grit inteftine is nearly {mooth, but that of the fe- 
cond is plicated, 

Cuvier defcribes a very remarkable cecal procefs, or cul- 
‘de-fac, which is fituated at the origin of the rectum in the 
piper (trigla lyra), it paties for a fhort diftance on the fide of 
the firit inteftine, from which it is feparated by a femi- lunar 
valve; it refembles, in form and pofition, a good deal the 
excum in mammalia, of which no other fifh affords a fimilar 
example. : . 

In the seuthis heparws the inner furface of the inteftine is 
Hightly villous ; the two postions are not diftinguifhed by a 


vaive as ufual, but near the anus the canal becomes greatly 
enlarged, and again diminifhed before its termination, 

The inteftinal canal in the genus cyprinus forms no dilatation 
or internal valvular projeGtion, but ufually diminifhes in ite 
courfe from the cefophagus to the anus, beth in diameter 
and the ftrength of ics coats. 

In the carp (cyprinus carpio) the inteftines make three 
convolutions and one-half ; th: internal membrane at the be- 
ginning of the fi-(t portion of the canal produces a reticu- 
lation, of which the intervals are very deep, refembling the 
cellular appearance of the inteltine defcribed in the urgeon. 
This net-work gradually diminifhes in the carp, uatil oear 
the anus, where it again increafes. 

In the barbel (cyprinus arbus) the interna! membrane fur- 
nifhes plicz which go longitudinally in a zig zag manner, 
and are finely villous; towards the end of the canal the villi 
are lefs thick, and the plice more compaét and fmaller, fo 
as to give the appearance of a grooved furtace. 

Inthe rud (cyprinus rutilus) the inner coat furnifhes beau- 
tiful plica pafling in zig-zag tranfverfely ; they are larger 
and clofer at the commencement of the canal than in the 
fucceeding parts ; near the anus the edges of the folds have a 
fringed appearance. 

The inner furface of the inteltine in the cyprinus dobula is 
villous in every part, but there are no zig-zag plicz. 

In the tench (cyprinus tinca) there are irregular zig-zag 
lamire, with fringed edges. 

In the genus c/upea the diameter of the inteftinal canal is 
nearly the fame throughout ; the coats are thin and weak, 
the inteftine are alfo ufually fhort, they do not form any con- 
volution in the erring (clupea harengus), and only two turns 
in the anchovy (clupea incra/icolus.) 

In the mullet (mugil cephalus) the inteitinal canal is fin- 
gularly long, and forms convolutions one around the other, 
fomewhat in the manner of the inteftines of feverab water 
birds ; thefe coils are much more numerous than they are 
reprefented by Collins in his anatomy ; we have counted 
eleven turns of the inteftine, which were all vifible on firt 
opening the body; the convolutions are prefled together, and 
the inter{paces fi'led with fat, fo that the whole forms one mafs 
which almotft occupies the whole abdomen of this fih. The 
diameter of the canal varies but little throughout its whole 
extent; the internal membrane is without folds, but furnifh- 
ed with villous proceffes, which are thick, long, and dittin® 
in the firft convolutions, but as ufual gradually decline af- 
terwards. 

Tn the gar fh (c/ox belone) the inteftine extends from the 
mouth to the anus without any convolution = it fhould be re+ 
marked, however, that the abdominal cavity is very leng m 
this fith, Cuvier ftates the ftra@ture of the inteftine to be 


the fame throuzhout its whole length, and that the inner 


furface of it is {mooth, and without villi; but we find in our 
notes that the internal membrane is villous, and, if minutely 
examined, is hkewife reticulated; and tbat the villous 
itru€ture is extended in two ftripes upon the inner furface of 
the fecond inteltine, and thus difappears. 

The parietes of the inteftinal tube in the common pike (cfox 
/ucius) are thick, and the origin of the reQum is marked b 
a valve, and alfo by an increafe of volume ; the internal fur- 
face of the firlt inteftine is villous, and appears grooved ; in 
the fecond the villi are very long and fringed.. ; 

In the /almon (/almo falar) the internal membrane forms in 
the beginning of the inteftinal canal very long villi, which foat 
into the cavity ; thefe gradually diminifh, and in the laf part 
of the gut there are broad tranfverfe folds, which become 
larger and more diftin& as they app oach the anus. The 


inteftine- 


Frs H. 


* 
inteftine of the trout (falmo fario) wants the villi, but the 
tranfverfe plice are more regularly placed than in the 
falmon. 

Cuvier defcribes the inteftinal canal of the bichir (polypterus 
xilolicus, Geoff.) as being fimnilar to that of the flurgeon. There 
isa {piral valve that commences immediately beyond the py- 
Jorns, and forms eight turns, which are approximated and 
prolonged pofteriorly ; this valve docs not extend to the 
anus, and tke interval which wants it, Cuvier confiders as 
the reGtum; bctween the internal and mufcular coats there is, 
at the commencement of the canal, a glandular layer, which 
increafes the pariectes, for the diftance of a decimetr- to 
double thcir fize, after which it is fearcely to be perceived 
in this part of the inteftive. The internal coat forms a net- 
work, asin the flurgeon, of which the mefhes became fhal- 
lower as they recede from the pylorus, and are almolt en- 
tirely effaced beycnd the gland. The parietes of the re€tum 
are very thin, and its inner coat fhews fome flight loagitudi- 
nal folds. 

In the anableps tetropthalmus the internal membrane of 
the firft inteftine produces a fine and apparently glandular 
reticulation, and the parictes of the fecond inteftine are very 
thick, and the inner furface plicated longitudinally. 

Cuvier defcribes a curious ftructure in the inteftine of the 
filurus lagre; the beginning of the canal is wide, it then 
contracts and continues for fome way o! the fame fize ; about 
the middle, the inteftine is f{uddenly enlarged, and its coats 
become thin, and there isa kind of infertion of the firft half 
of the canal, which opens into the fecond by a {mall or'fice, 
bordered by a circular valve ; at fome diflance beyond this 
place the parietes acquire thicknefs, and the diameter of 
the tube becomes {mall as before ; and finally, this inteftine 
terminates in the re€tum, which is large and diftended at 
this place. The valve of the rectum is very prominent, its 
parietes are remarkably ftrong and mufcular, the inner mem- 
brane has longitudinal folds; a fimilar appearance exifts on 
the inner furface towards the end of the firft inteftine, but 
they are ramified nearer the pylorus. ; 

~The inteftinal tube in the genus mormyrus has en uniform 
diameter, is {mooth internally, and unprovided with a valve 
at the commencement of the rectum. : 

From the preceding defcription it will be perceived that 
the inteftines of fithes poflefs a. more complicated and beautiful 
ftructure of the internal membrane than exifts in any other 
elafs of animals ; the alimentasy canal of fibhes, for this reafon, 
as wellas the nature of their food, is generaliy found to be 
fhort ; the laft divifion of it, which in mammalia very pro- 
perly receives the name of the great or /arge inteftines, is, 
as before ob{crved, often the fhorteft and moft contracted 
part of the canalin fihes. The te¢tum in this clefs rarely 
ferves as a ref-rvoir for feces; its internal furface is often as 
well fizted for forming and abforbing the chyle es the fir 
portion of the gut, and fometimes even more fo: it may, 
therefore, be faid of fithes that the whole tra&t of their ali- 
mentary canal performs, in a greater or le{s degre+, the func- 
tions of the {mall mteftines in other animals. 

In Plate IL. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, fig. 9. fhews the 
walvular portion of the inteltine of the /Rate (raja satis) which 
is dried in order to render the turns of the valve more dif- 
ting. Fig. 10. exhibits a piece of the valvular part of the 
inteftine of the flurgeon (acipenfer flurio); a, the central 
portion; J, the coiled part ; ¢ c, the internal furface of the 
parietes of the canal, Jig. 10. of Plate IIL. of the dna- 
tomy of Fifhes, gives a view of the internal furface of the 
firit inteltine of the /lurgean, where the ceca are conneéted 
with it; a,the furface of the gut deeply reticulated or cellular. 

/ 


Fig. 11. of Plate TY. isa portion of the fir isteftine oF the 
dory (zeus faber) on which the mefh-work and intermediate 
reticulation of the internal membrane are reprefented. In fir. 
12. of the fame plate, the internal furface of the inteftine 
next the pylorus is difplayed in the ¢urbot (pleuronedes maxi- 
mus); a, the laminated appearances of the internal membrane 
of the inteftine in this hth. Fig. 13. exhibits @ portion of 
the firft inteftine in the plaife (pleuronedtes plateffa) laid open 
to expofe the puckered pitce2 of the internal, membrane. 


“Fig. 14. of the fame plate reprefents the abdominal Vifcera 


of the mullet (mugil cephalus) es they appear on opening 
the body ; a, the efophagus; 4, the liver, conceal the 
ftomach ; c, the numerous coils formed by the ipteltinal 
cana! in this fih; d, fome of the pyloric ceca, nearly of the 
fame fize of the inteltine. JG. 15. 1s a piece of the inteftine 
of the mullet laid oper, by which the villi of the internal 
furface are feen. a 

In Plate YI. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig 1. exhibits a part 
of the inteftinal canal, with the gland attacred to the rectum 
in the dog-fifh (fqualus catulus);a, the reQum; b, the glandular 
body, of an clongated figure in this {pecies ; c, a portionof the 
valvular part of the inteftine left. Jig. 2. fhews this gland 
in tie /kate (raja batis) magnified and laid open} a, the 
fundus; 4, the neck of the gland ; feveral irregular depref- 
fions are {een upon theinner furface. Fig. 3. repreferits the 
rofe-formed termination of the valvular intefline of the 
Squalus maximus in the re€tum, deferibed by Mr. Home. 
Fiz. 4. exhibits the inner furface of the reQ@um in the /urbot 
(pleuronedies maximus); a, a portion of the firft inteftine, 
with flight, waving, longitudinal folds ; 4, the commence- 


“ment of the rectum, marked by a valve; c, the internal 


furface of the rectum, forming very prominent, floating 
lamirz; d, the anus. Jig. 5. fhews the form of the re€tum, 
and its conneétion with the firlt intefline, in the pimelodus 
bagre ; a, the origin of the reétum, which is enlarged, and 
receives the firft inteftine in the way of infertion; J, the 
reCtum becoming again enlarged. ig. 6. exhibits the 
cecal proces in the piper (¢rigla lyra) ; a, the firlt inteftine y 
4, the part analogous toa cecum; ¢, the rectum. , 


Liver. 


The fituation of this vifcus is generally the fame in fifhes 
as in the preceding claffcs; #. e. it immediately precedes the 
flomach, which it covers more or lefs by its lobes. It the 
genus pleuronedes, however, and fome other fithes whieh have 
the abdominal cavity fhort and round, the liver lies between 
the fide of the ftomach and firlt convolution of the in- 
teftine ; to the former of which it is more immediately con- 
nected. ' 

The liver is retained ‘n its pofition by means of refle@tions 
of its peritoneal covering, which are attached to the feptum 
that fuftains the pericardium, and to the efophagus, and 
likewife by the large veins that come from the liver to the 
junction of the fubclavian veins, 

The magnitude of the liver is in general very confiderable 
in proportion to the fize of the fihh, c 

The colour of the liver varies; it is generally paler than 
in other 2nimals ; often an afh-colour, and fometimes milk- 
white. 

Its-form is fubj-@ to continual variety ; it is generally 
not divided into many lobes ; moft frequently, perhaps, only 
into two. As Cuvier has confidened the divifions of the 
liver more in detail than we have done, we fhall chiefly 
follow kis defcription, given in the Legons d’ Anatomie 
comparée. oe 

In the genus Jamprey (petremyzon) there is but a fingle 

lobe 


Pal 


FISH. 


Tobe ; the liver is much elongated, and has a good deal the 
figure of a tongue, 

In the rays the liver is divided into three long lobes, which 
extend throughout the whole length of the abdominal cavity. 
Cuvier deferibes but two long and very diftin@ lobes in the 
genus Squalus, but, befides thefe, we have noticed in the 
kefer dog-fifo (fqualus catulus) two very {mall, thin lobes, 
fituated upon the fide of the ttomach-next the fpine. 

The fpatularia and flurgeon have two large lobes to the 
liver, which are fub-divided in the lacter into a great num- 
ber of lobules. 

There are three divifions made by fhallow fiflures in the 
Jrogfijo (lophius pifcatorius), and one lobe only in the 
Sygnathus pelagicus, the tetraodons, and theeump fifh (cyclop- 
éerus lumpus). 

Amongtt the apodal order of fithes, the eels (murena), and 
the ammodytes iobianus, the liver is not divided, but merely 
a little notched in fome fpecies of the firft ; but there are 
two lobes in the liver of the anarrhichas lupus, the eledrical 
eel (gymnotus elediricus), and the firomateus parw. 

OF the jugulares, the genera gadus and dlennius have two 
or three long lobes. ; 

In the whiting (gadus merlangus) the left lobe extends 
almoft the whoie length of the abdominal cavity, between 
the inteftines and air bag. 

The weaver (trachinus draco) has the liver compofed of 
exe lobe. 

The liver is triangular, and without divifion in the cottus 
niloticus, but the cottus /corpena has two lobes. There are 
alfo two lobes in the liver of the /corpena volitans, although 
that of the /corpena horrida conlitts of a fingle lobe. There 
are two lobes in the liver of the ¢rigla cuculus, of the mullus 
barbatus, of the echeneis remora, of the pleuronedtes flefjus, 
and of the turbot (pleuroneGes maximus). The liver is without 
lobes in the following fpecies of pleuroneGes ; the plaife, the 
pleuronedes lincatus, and limandoides ; there 1s a {mall lobe 
placed behind the principal one in the /o/e, of a fingular 
fhape, with two points bke horns, which has not been 
noticed by Cuvier. The liver has three lobes in the comer 
thynnus ; that of the fead (fcomber trachurus), and of the 
pilot (feomber dudor), have two lobes. There are three lobes 
in the little flickleback (ga/ferofleus pungitius.) the common 
frickleback (gafferofteus aculeatus), and four in the ga/ero/feus 
Spinachia. YVhe divifions of the liver are equally various in 
the perch and fciena genera; the liver is without lobes, and 
vf the fhape of an arrow ; in the river perch it is likewife un- 
divided ; and triangular in the fitena Jabrax; although 
Bloch fays, there are two unequal lobes in the liver of this 
fith. In many other /eienas and perches there are three 
lobes, detply feparated. In the dory (zeus fader) there are 
two lobes, one of which very much exceeds the other in fize, 
and forms a kind of third lobe at its external corner. 
‘There are two lobes in the liver of the chetodon ciliaris, and 
only two flight notcaes in the chefodon zebra. he holo- 
centrus Jogo has three unequal lobes. The liver of the 
Sparus falpa has three lobes; there are two in that of the 
Jparus pagrus, the fparus erythrinus, and likewife in the 
abrus melops; but itis a fingle lobe in the other fpecies 
of ok 

nthe genera cyprinus the liver is very deeply divided into 
lobes, of which the number varies according to the fpecies ; 
in the carp (cyprinus carpio) the lobes are fo difpofed 
amongit the different convolutions of the inteftines, that 
it is difficult to afcertain their number; the liver in this 
{pecies exceeds in proportional bulk that of every other 
animal. The liver docs not divide into lobes in the pike 
(fox casa in the exocetus exiliens, in the falmon (falmo 
Von. XLV. 


falar), in the anableps tetropthalmus, and in the white mullt 
(mugil albula). Yhere are two lobes in many o¢ the genus 
clupea, iu the filurus glanis, and in the loricaria maculata. 
There are three lobes in the liver of the /ilurus bagre. 

It fhould be obferved, that in the above inftances there are 
ufvally feveral f'ght notches and fiffures upon the ferface 
of the liver, which fome anatomifts would, perhap:, cor- 
fider as divifions of this vifcus, although Cuvier bas not 
done fo, 

The divifions of the liver, as well as its figure, are 
but of little importance in ail animals: fometimes they 
are defigned to accommodate the neighbouring vifccra, and 
at others look like accident ; but in no cafe can the form 
materially aff & the funGions of this organ. 

The texture of the liver in fifhes is iemarkably foft; un- 
lefs in a very recent ftate, it immediately gives way under 
the preffure of the fingers. Fromail the obfervations we 
have been able to make, however, it appears to poffefs the 
fame ftruGture as the liver in the three precediag claffes ; the 
vena porte terminates in penicillous branches, even more 
evidently in many fishes than in bi:ds or reptiles. 

The liver contains a great quantity of liquid oil in thofe 
fifhes that have not the fat difperfed over the diffcrent parts 
of the body ; of thefe the /hark, ray, cod, &c. are examples. 
The gadus virens has the liver fo rich with oil, that the 
inhabitants of Norway catch it for the purpofe of obtaining 
its oil to burr. Mr, Home ftates, that the liver of the 
Squalus maximus yielded about three hogfheads of oil. 
The oil cf fithes appears as if it were diffufed in thofe parts 
which contain it, a3 it readily flows from them, but it is 
more probably depofited in large cells, which freely com- 
municate, than in the common intertticial fubftance. 

The biliary duds of the liver in fifhes, except in a very 
few inftances, do not conjoin to form a common hepatic 
du&, as in other animals; they proceed directly as thry 
leave the different lobes of the liver, to open either into the 
gal!-bag or its excretory canal, or into both; in confequence 
of which the hepatic duéts are in general numerous and very 
{mall in fifhe:. 

In the /gualus maximus a fafciculus of twelve dus, like 
a navel ftring, pzfles trom the liver to the inteltine, from 
which it is prefumed there is no gall-bag in this {pecies. 

In the ray genus there are feveral very flender du@s, 
which terminate in the gall-bag, and one large branch, 
which is furnifhed by the middle lobe of the liver, and 
communicates with the cyftic dua. 

In the /jgnatkus pelagicus the different hepatic dus pro« 
duce a trunk, which, however, does not go or to the ins 
teltine, but terminates in the cyftic du@. 

In the genus ¢e/raodon there are three principal hepatie 
dués, of which the firft opens into the gali-bag, near the 
neck, and the other two enter the cy‘tic du@ at different 
diftances. 

In the Jophius pifcatorius there are two hepatic duds, 
which end in the cyitic; the one at its origin, and the other 
at fome diftance. 

The /ump (cyclopteras lampus) forms an exception te the 
general rule, with refpe& to the termination of the hepatic 
dus ; in this fifh there is no gall-bladder, and the different 
branches from the liver foon unite, to form a fiegle dua, 
which proceeds direGly to end in the inteftine. The iew fihhes 
which do not poflefs a gall-bag have probably a fimilar 
ftruGure; although it has not been examined. 

In the anarrhichas lupus the Hepatic duéts ere extremely 
numerous: the right lobe of the liver furnifhes three faicicul:, 
of five or fix branches, which enter diltin@ly iato the gall- 
bag; the left lobe gives soe to three fafciculi; the firit 


3 has 


FIS H. 


has three branches which open into the neck of the gall- 
bag ; the others are compofed each of two branches, and end 
in the cyftic dud. 

There are three or four principal hepatic dus in the ec/, 
which terminate in the duétuscyfticus near its origin. 

In the cod (gadus morrhua) there are feveral {mall hepatic 
du&s, which torm four branches; thefe, after pafiing fome 
way, enter an enlargement of the cyftic duét, which takes 
place near its entrance into the inteftine. Inthe hake (gadus 
merlucius) there are many {mall hepatic ducts, which termi- 
nate in fucceffion upon the cyftic dué. 

The hepatic du&ts of the /corpana horrida penetrate the 
eyftic dud. 

In the ole (pleuronedes folea) the duéts from the liver go 
chiefly to a dilated part of the duGtus cytticus. In the drill 
(pleuronedes rhombus) the cyitic du@ receives two from the 
hier before its dilatation ; and one trunk, wh'ch is compoled 
of feveral branches, enters the dilated part of the cyftic 
du&. In the turbot (pleuronedes maximus) fome of the 
hepatic lobes open into the gall-bladder, and others into 
the dilated part of the cyftic dud. 

In the dory (zeus faber) there are two or three minute 
eanals which pafs from the {mall lobe of the liver into the 
neck of the gall-bladder, and four confiderable ducts that 
go from the large lobe to the cyltic duét, which they enter 
at different diftances. 

In the river perch (perca fluviatilis) the hepatic du& 
opens into the neck of the gall-bag, and in the /ea perch 
(/ciena labrax) there are three priocipal branches from the 
liver which end in the cyftic duét, at dfierent diftances. 

The barbel (cyprinus barbus) has the hepatic duets ending 
in the cyftic. 

The /almon fends hepatic du&s into the neck of the gall- 
bladder. 

In the bichir (polypterus niloticus) the trunk of the hepatic 
dus is joined to the cyttic. 

In the filurus bagre there are eight or ten little ducts from 
the liver to the cyltic dua. 

In all the inftances we have examined, the entrance of the 
hepatic ducts into the cyftic, or the gall bag, is not accom- 
panied by amy valve or projection of the coats ; the ftruéture 
of the hepatic duéts alfo appears to be fimple, and the in- 
ternal furface without any valve or reticulation. 

The gall-bag is not univerfally met with in fifhes ; it has 
not been found in the /amprey (petromyzon marinus); in the 
pride (petromyzon branchialis).1n the lump (cyclopterus lumpus); 
the piper (trigla lyra) ; the pleuroneétes radiatus, the perch of 
the Nile, and in many /tienas ; we have not obferved a gall- 
bag alfoin the weaver (trachinus draco). 

Thefe inltances of the abfence of the gall-biadder are 
fewer than thofe noticed in mammalia, and ‘n birds ; a refer- 
yoir in which the bile may be concentrated, 1: may be con- 
cluded, is therefore more neceffary to fifhes than to the hot 
blooded animals; the circumftance of the bile all pafling 
through either the gall-bag or its du€&, when thofe parts 
exilt, 1s a ftrong proof of this opinion. 

Cuvier defcribes the gall-bag as being more variable with 
refpc& to pofition in fifhes than in the other claffes ; it is 
fitnated horizontally or obliquely, in regard to the whole 
Sith, and ir thofe two cafes its fundus may be either turned 
forwards or backwards; at other times it is placed tranf- 
verfely under the ftomach, of which the /lurus bagre affords 
an example; it is fometimes in a degree 1mbelded or con- 
cealed by the fubitance of the liver. 

The form of the bag'is alfo fubjcé to variety ; it is molt 
commonly either egg fhaped or pyriform; fometimes it is 
globular ; fometimesit is ovular, with the end next the du& 

~ =z 


very obtufe or flattened; this we have obferved in fome of 
the flat fifbes (pleuroneétes). In the lefer dog-fifh (/qualus 
catudus) we have found it of the fhape of a tube, nearly two 
inches long ; the duét arifes from the end the fartheft from 
the inteftine, and is feen like a {maller canal, accompanying 
the other which compofed the gall-bladder. 

The bulk of the gall-bag is alfo variable; perhaps it. 
might be ftated thatit is large in proportion to the rapidity: 
of the digeition in the fifh. The bag is large in the an- 
arrhichas lupus, the pike, the /patularia, and moon-fifb, (diodon 
mola); it is imall in the /ygnathus pelagicus, fcorpena horrida, 
the river perch ; feveral of the genus chetodon, the fole, brill, 
and fomeothers of the pleurone@es, alfohavea{mall gall-bag, but 
in thofe the dilatation of the cy{tic du& makes amends for it. 

The ftruéture of the gall-bag would feem to be fimply 
membranous, the parietes are thin and {mooth on the inner 
furface, which do not exhibit any glandular appearance or 
reticulation. 

The cy/flic du@ in general paffes off directly from one end 
of the gall-bag, without forming any contortion, as in mam- 
malia; it is alfo, as far as we have obferved, a fimple mem- 
branous tube, with a {mooth furface internally, and the 
orifice by which it communicates with the gall-bag is un- 
provided with any valvular ftru€iure, by which means the 
bile flows through it without interruption. 

The cyttic du& tranfmits all the bile which paffes te the 
intettines, with a few exceptions of thofe fifhes which are 
unprovided with a gall-bladder; it therefore correfponds 
to the du€tus communis choledocus of other animals. Ia 
feveral fifhes, as the cod (gadus morrhua), fome of the pleure- 
neces, as the fole, brill, turbot, and others, the cyltic 
canal forms a remarkable dilatation previous to its termina- 
tion in the inteftine ; this dilated part receives fome or all 
the duéts from the liver; it is fo large in the ¢urbot, that 
Cuvier defcribes it as a fecond gall-bag, to which it certainly 
correfponds in its office, by accumulating and detaining the 
bile on its way to the inteltine. 

The cyftic, or rather common biliary du&, ufually dif- 
charges its fluid into the inteftine, along with the pyloric 
ceca, by an opening in the midft of theirs; fometimes it ends 
in one of the ceca. This happens in the plai/e ( pleurone@es 
plateffa), the river perch, and the dory (zeus faber). The 
duét enters the inteftine at fome diitance from the pylorus 
in the pike (¢/ox luctus). 7 

In the /gualus maximus, the orifice through which the bile 
is poured into the inte{tine is placed upon a procefs like a 
nipple. 

The magnitude of the liver, and the formation of the 
biliary duéts in fifhes, plainly indicate two circumitances in 
their phyfiology, namely, that a large quantity of bile is 
fecreted, and that this fluid pafles in a concentrated ftate 
into the inteftinal canal. It is remarkable that the bile is 
{carcely to be detected in the tract of the firft inteltine, and 
that even the {zeces in the laft portion of the canal are lefs 
coloured by this fecretion than in other animals; this faét- 
ftrongly fupports the opinion of the bile being deflined to . 
aft in the converfion of the alimentary fubftance into 
chyle, in performing whica it is itfelf decompofed and 
difpofed of. 

The dile of fihhes, as far as we are acquainted, has not yet 
been fubmitted to any exaét analyfis; it does not however 
appear to differ materially in its properties from the fame 
fluid in other animals. It is-ufually of a deep green colours, 
althcugh the liver is-often in fifhes of a pale yellow colour, 
which probably arifes from the bile fojourning for fome 
time in the gall bag, before it is carried into.the inteftine. 
It is alfo more fluid than in mammatia and birds, as might 

be 


F1IS H. 


be expeéed in confequence of the gall-bag not being con- 
ftru€ted to furnifh a mucous fecretion as in thefe animals. 

In figs. 5 and 6, of Plate 1. of the Anatomy of Fifhes; 
the letter 4 indicates the fafciculi of twelve biliary duéts, 

* which are found to pafs from the liver to the firft inteflines 
in the /gualus maximus. 

In Plate II. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 7. thews the 
manner in which the hepatic du&s proceed to the gall-bag 
and cyftic du; a, the portion of the liver next the gall- 
bag; 6, the gall-bag; c, the dilated part of the cyftic 
du&; d, the hepatic ducts paffing to the gall-bag; ¢, the 
duéts from the liver tothe dilatation of the cyttic duct. 
Fig. 8. of the fame plate, exhibits the termination of 
the biliary duéts in the wolf-fi/h (anarrhichas lupus); a is the 
liver; 4, the gall-bag ; c, the cyftic duct; d, a portion of 
the inteftine, into which the cyftic du opens ; e, fafciculus 
of feveral hepaticdu@ts from the right lobe, going to terminate 
diftin@ly in the gall bag; fj fafciculus from the left lobe 
ending in the neck of the gali-bag; ¢, g, two other fafciculi 
from the left lobe, which open into the cyftic du. 
Fig. 9. of this plate, reprefents the hepatic duéts going to 
the intefline in the /ump fifb (cyclopterus lumpus); a is a 
part of the liver; 4, che hepatic duG@, coming from the 
liver, and uniting into a common duét, which is indicated 
by c; dis the portion of the intefline into which the 
common biliary du& opens. 

In fig. 6. of Plate 1. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, the letter 
f points out the nipple-fhaped procefs, on which is feen the 
orifice of the hepatic duéts within the inteftine of the /gualus 
maximus, — ~ 


Ceca, or pyloric Appendices. 


Cuvier has, with fome propriety, confidered thefe parts as 
proceffes of the inteffinal cana!, and has combined his de- 
fcription of them with that of the inteltines; in fome fithes 
they are fo wide, that the alimentary fubftances mult necef- 
farily pafs into them, but in general they are very {mall 
worm-like proceffes, with a cavity fcarcely wide enough to 
admit a probe; but whatever their bulk may be, they are 
always continuous with the tube of the intefline. 

The internal furface of the cca is extremely vafcular, 
even more fo frequently than that of the adjoining intettine. 
When the internal membrane of the inteftine is plicated or 
laminated, that of the czca is fometimes reticulated ; but in 
general the ftruéture of the inner furface of the cca cor- 
refponds with that of the neighbouring furface of the intef- 
tine, although it may not be fo ftriking. 

The cavity of the ceca always contains a quantity of 
tenacious mucus, which may be more abundantly obtained 
by prefling the parictes of the ceca between the fiagers. 

The ceca poffels a mufcular and a membranous coat, like 
the other parts of the intettinal canal. 

The cxca in general bear confiderable refemblance, both 
in fize and fisure, to a clufter of worms attached to the 
canal of the intefline by one extremity ; in fome inltances 
they are conjoined to form truaks, which open into the 
inteiline. In the /patularia they are united two and two, 
and produce feven principal branches, which at la’ join in 
one trunk. In the flurgeon they are fhort and wide, and 
colleGed together into one mals, into the centre of which 
they all open by very large mouths; the inner’ furface is 
deeply reticulated, fo as to give the whole mafs, when cut 
into, rather the appearance of a congeries of cells, thao a 
colleGion of ramified tubes, which has led many authors to 
defcribe this part in the /Zurgeon as a fingle gland analogous 
to the panereas ; the mufcular coat is {trong ; and has the 
fibrés diftributed im different direétions, and the opening of 


the conjoined ‘ceca into the inteftine is fingle, and would 
be as wide as that canal if it were not for an annular fold 
which contraéts the orifice a little. There is a greyith 
glandular fubftance very difcernible behind the ceils, fimilar 
to the glandular layer already noticed in the firft inteftine of 
this fith. 

There is great variety with re{pe&t to the number of the 
pyloric ceca, and in feveral fifhes they are altogether want- 
ing ; neither their prefence, however, nor their number, leems 
to have much relation to the babits or general ftructure of 
the fifh, except in the ray and /hark genera, in which the 
ceca are wanting, and their places {upplied by a real pancreas. 

Befides, in the chondropterygit the ceca are not found in 
the genera /yenathus, offracion, baliftes, tetraodon, and diodon, 
amongft the branchioltegi; in any of the apodal fihhes: 
in the uranofcopus and blennius genera, in fome fpecies of 
pleuronedes ; 1n the fparus Jpinifer, and the labrus tinca : in 
the anableps tetropthalmus, many {pecies of efox, the genera 
eyprinus and filurus, and probably others which have not 
been examined. 

Cuvier has taken the pains to reckon the number of py- 
loric ceca which exift in many fihhes; we fhall therefore 
follow his account. 

The /Jophius pifcatorius has but two, which are {mall aud 
fomewhat pyriform in their fhape. 

In the cyclopierus lumpus the cecaare {mall, form about fix 
ramifi-d rays, and as they approach the inteftine they unite 
and open iato each other. 

In the genus gadus, the number of the appendices varies; 
they are alfo often ramified, or united into trunks, which 
open into the inteftine; there are four orifices of thefe in 
the whiting (gadus merlangus), and fix in the cod (gadus 
morrhua). In the hake (gadus merlucius) there is, in place oF 
the cca, one large cul-de.fac, of which the bottom is turned 
forwards, and which opens by a large aperture into the 
commencen eat of the inteftinal canal; there are cizht ceca 
inthe gadus mujflela, thirty-two in the barbel (gadus lota), 
and thirty-four in the Jing (gadus molva). 

There are eight long and lender appendices in the weaver 
(trachinus draco). 

In the genus coftus the number of the czca varies from 
four to nine. 

There are fix in the remora (echencis remora). Twenty- 
fix ceca are found inthe /w-mullet (mullus furmuletus), and 
fix only in the mu/lus barbatus. 

The feorpena horrida has four ceca 3, the number varies 
much in the genus ¢trigla; the piper (frigla lyra) has from 


5° 
eight te ten; the trig/a cataphrada tix. 

In mott of the pleuronedies there are but two ce@ca, as ia 
the turbot, the -bri/l, the pleuroneGes limanda, the flounders 


the deb. Cuvier alfo reckons two in the plai/e, and only 
one in the Ao/lidut: as far as our recolleQion ferves, there 
are two very large ceca in the Aofiibut, and in the plaiye, 
befides the two mall conical dilatations at each fide of the 
origin of the inteliinal canal. We have lately difcovered, 
about an inch. beyond thcf+, a third cecum, from the fide 
of the inteitine, exa@ly refembling in fhape and ftru@ure 
the two already defcribed by authors. This is the more 
worthy of remark, as it is the only inflance we know in 
which the firft inteftine of fifhes furnifhes any fuch procefa 
except at the pylorus. 

In the mackarel (feomber /combrus) the ceca are very 
numerous ; but there are only three in the fomber /fanfun, 
in the /comber thynnus there are two, which divide each 
into thre branches. In the pilot (/comber du@or) there are 
twenty-five ; and in the fead (/comber trachurus) twelve or 
thirteen cuca. 


3Re 


There 


FIS H. 


There are but two little appendices fituated at each fide 
of the pylorus in the ffickleback (ga/fero/teus aculsatus). 

The cxca are fine and fmall in moft of the perches and 

feienas In the common perch (perca fluviatilis), and the 
perca xingel, there are but three. In the perca nilotica there 
are four; fix ceca are found in the perca lucto-perca. 
Vhere are feven or eight in the /ciena nigra, five in the 
feiena labrax, and fix in the /ciena cirrofa, and amuch greater 
number in the other individuals of this genus. 

There are four cxca in the teuthis hepatus. * The chetodon 
ercuatus has about thirty long, flender ceca; the chetodon 
zebra only five. 

In the genus /parus there are ufually from three to five 
exca; the /parus Jalpa has four; the /parus auratus, and 
Sparus fargus, have three ; the Sparus pagrus, fparus mena, 
and /parus brama, have each four, and there are five in the 

aris annisaris. 

The cecal appendages are numerous in the genus clugca. 
There are eighteen long, fleader ceca in the anchovy (clupea 
encraficolus); twenty-tour in the Lerring (clupea barengus), 
which open into the ifftettine by twelve orifices, ranged ina 
line ; there are as many as eighty in the c/upea alofa. 

The genus falmo exhibits great variety in this refpect ; 
there are but fix in the /melt (falmo eperlanus), although in 
the falmo murena there exift one hundred and fifty ; in the 
common falmon (falmo falar) there are about feventy, 
placed in feveral rows, along the fide of the inteftine. 

There are two cxca in the mormyrus labiatus. Geoffroy. 

The common mullet (mugil cephalus) has fix ceca; the 
mugil albula but one. 

The only point of view in which we can confider the 
pyloric ceca is, as prolongations, or proceffes of the ali- 
mentary canal, defigned to furnifh an additional quantity of 
the inteftinal mucus ; this office is reconcileable to all the 
varieties of form and number, and the occafional abfence of 
thefe parts, which could only affe@t the mucous fecretion 
of the ceca with refpeét to quantity, and any deficiency of 
that fluid might be fupplied by a more copious fecretion 
from the intettine itfelf. This opinion feems fupported by 
the relative magnitude of the ceca, and of the parts of the 
alimentary canal from which they arife. We have obferved 
that the capacity of the ftomach, or of the firft part of the 
inteftine, is greateft in proportion to the bulk of the fifh, 
in thofe fpecies where the ceca are cither wanting or few, 
and that thefe parts are commonly {mall when the cca are 
numerous or large. 

In Plate I1. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, Jig: 4, exhibits the 
three ceca in the plaife (pleuronedes plateffa): c is the 
pylorus; d, d, the two pyloric ceca; e, the third cecum 
peculiar to this fifh, arifing from the inteftice, at a fhort 
diftance from the pylorus. Jig. 12. of the fame plate gives 
a view of the internal {urface of the ceca, and the adjoining 
parts of the inteftine in the turbot (pleuronedes maximus) : 
ais the laminated furface of the inte‘tine; 44, the internal 
membrane of the two ceca, in which the laminated ftru€ture 
is lefs apparent. ‘The letters e,e, e, of fig. 7. and the letter 
d, in fig 14. of this plate, refer to fome of the ceca in the 
mullet (mugil cephalus). 3 

In Plate LI1. of tne Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 10. fhews the 
Internal {trudture of the ceca, and their connection with 
the inteftine in the /furgeon (acipenfer fturio) ; a, the cavity 
of the inteftine ; 4, the valve of the pylorus ; c, the cavities 
of the ceca expoled by a feGion. ‘The larger orifices belong 
to branches of the cca, the {maller to the cells produced 
by the reticulation of their internal membrane ; d, the large 
common opening of the cxcainto the gut ; ¢ ¢, the muf- 
eular coat which furrounds the ceca, and gives them the 


appearance of a fingle gland, Jig. rr. of the fame plate 
reprefents the numerous ceca in the /2’mon (fa‘mo falar) 3 
@ is a portion of the inteftine at the pylorus; & b, the 
cecain great numbers arranged along the intefline. 


Pancreas. 


This gland only exifts in twa genera of filhes, the ray 
and fharé; the glandular apparatus which has been de- 
{cribed by fome anatomifts as a pancreas, in the ffurgeon, 
is really, as we have before obferved, only an affemblage of 
fhort ceca, having many communications with each other. 

The pancreas is fituated immediately beyond the pylorus, 
upon the firft inteftine; its form is fomewhat triangular, 
but very irrerularly fo; it is divided into lobes. In the 
Jinaller dogfifh (Squalus catulus), (we have obferved the 
pancreas to be double, or of two portions, of which one is 
placed on each fide of the inteflize. 

The texture of the gland is foft, compa, and uniform $ 
its minute ltruéture is, therefore, obfeure ; its colour isa 
rich reddifh white; it has a much fmaller proportional volume, 
than the pyloric ceca vufually have, to thofe fithes in which 
they exilt. 

The fluid which this gland fecretes, appears to refemble 
the pancreatic juice of the three preceding claffes of animals, 
and not the mucus of the pyloric czcas which cireumftance, 
as has been before mentioned, affords a ftrong prefumption 
that the offices of thefe two fecretions are different. 


Spleen. 


This organ is fuppofed to exift in all fifhes; we have, 
however, failed to dete& it in two difleGtiors of the 
lamprey (petromyzon marinus) ; but, until affured by further 
obfervation, we are unwilling to affert pofitively, that fo 
extraordinary a departure from the common ftru@ture of 
the clafs does occur in this {pecies; it may be prefumed, 
however, that if this fith poffefs a fpleen, it is fo infigni- 
ficant as to readily efcape notice. 

The fituation of the fpleen, with refpeét to the adjacent 
vifcera, is by no means uniform in fifhes; it is perhaps 
moft commonly placed on the upper fide of the cx:al por- 
tion of the ftomach, that is to fay, between its fundus and 
the f{wimming bladder, which lies along the back. 

In the /bark and ray genera it proje@s from this fituation, 
fo that one half of it les on the left fide of the {tomach. 

In the angel-fi/h (/qualus fquatina) Monroe obferved two 
fpleens, one of which was attached to the lage, the other 
to the fmaller curvature of the ftomach. In the “fer dog- 
Sife (fqualus catulus) the fpleen is divided by a deep fiffure, 
which is what we prefume doétor Monroe meant by two 
fpleens ; one portion is on the left fide of the fundus of the 
ftomach, and the other paffes above it. Mr. Home repre- 
fents the {pleen of the /gualus maximus as a chain paffiag 
round the ftomach. Cuvier defcribes two branches of the 
fpleen in the flurgeon (acipenfer flurio), which are attached 
to the curvature that the ftomach makes in this fith pof- 
teriorly. Doétor Monroe reckoned feven fpleens in the 
Aturgeon, but ail very fmall; the largeft, he fays, did not 
exceed the fize of a dried horfe-bean, and the other fix were 
none of them larger than a dried garden pea. 

The fpleen is enveloped by the mefentery, near the com- 
mencement of the inteftinal canal in the dump /i/ (eyclopterus 
lumpus). It is fixed on the right fide of the beginning of 
the firit inteftine in the /patularia. In the eel it is placed 
between the ftomach and the next portion of the inte(tinal 
canal. In the /corpena it is found interpofed between the 
pyloric extremity of the ftomach, and one of the ceca. 
The remora has it fituated between the liver and the 

ftomach ; 


FISH, 


flomach; its pofition is likewife fimilar in feveral {pecies 
of pleuronedes, as the plai/e, fole, brill, &c. 

In the dory (zeus faber) it is connected to the left fide of 
the czcal portion of the ftomach, It is extended upon the 
funnel-fhaped cul-de-fac of the ftomach in the mudlet (mugil 
ecphalus); and the pike (e/ox lucius) has the fpleen fufpended 
in the curve which is produced pofteriorly by the ftomach 
and the firft inteftine. : ; 

The fhape of the fpleen is in general irregularly trian- 
gular. Cuvier, as_ before mentioned, defcribes the fpleen 
of the /furgeor as forming two branches anteriorly. The 
fpleen is much elongated in the /patularia, the viviparous 
blenny, &c.; it is {mall and {pherical in the plai/e (pleuronedies 
plateffa), the echeneis remora, and others; of a very irregular 
fhape in the darbel (cyprinus barbus}. Collins has ftated the 
{pleen to be double in fome of the pleuroncées, as the turbot, 
plaife, and flounder; likewile in the eek the mullet, and 
others, in which he appears to have been incorreét, or to 
have reckoned the fiffures of the {pleen as complete divifions 
of the vifcus. 

The internal organization of the {pleen appears to agree 
with that deferibed in the other clafles of animals. The 
arteries divide like the branches of a broom, and terminate 
in very minute ramufcules ; the veins originate from cells, 
which, although not large, are fometimes very vifible in 
confequence of their containing a dark coloured fubltance : 
when the texture of a fpleen is unravelled, which is very 
eafy from the loofenefs of its texture, the cells, if filled with 
this fubftance, appear like {mall grains of coffee adhering to 
the extremities of the veffels; this dark appearance of the 
cells is not general, nor do we believe conitant in the fame 
individual ; it feems to be rather an accidental condition of 
the organ: after it has once been perceived, there is no 
difficulty in recognizing the fame fort of granular appear- 
ance, of a pale brownifh colour, in the {pleens of other 
fifhes. What is the fubttances which give the granular ap- 
pearance in thefpleen of fifhes? Is it the fplenic blood 
changed in its properties while pafling through the cells? 
More obfervation is required to an{wer thefe queitions. 


Abforbents. 


The honour of difcovering the lymphatic fyftem in fithes 
has been claimed both by Dr. Monroe and Mr. Hewfon ; 
but it fhould probably be fhared between thefe two anato- 
miftc, who were both engaged in the purfuit of it about 
the fame period. he seafon for its remaining fo long 
unknowr, feems to have been the greater magnitude of the 
abforbent veffels in this clafs than in mammalia, or birds. 
Anatomitts, in fearching for the minute branches, overlooked 
thofe palpable piexufes, cells, and trunks, which, when 
once difcovered, rendered the developement of the whole 
fyttem perfeGily eafy; thus we find Mr. Hewfon made 
many unfuccefsful attempta with different fifhes, both 
recently dead and while ftill alive, before he was able to 
dete& any veffels of this nature. Another circumstance 
which ftood in the way of the difcovery of this fyftem of 
veflels was, that it does not poflefs any lymphatic glands, 
as in mammalia. ; 

We hhall firft give a defcription of the abforbents in the 
thondropteryzii, and afterwards in the ofeous fithes. } 

In the fhate (raja batis) the la&teals may be feeh to arife 
numerouily from the ttomach and inte(lines ; they accompany 
the blood-veffels of thefe organs ; they communicate with a 
fingular cellular body, which lies along the great curvature 
orexternal fide of the ftomach, The internal ftru€ure of 
this part, when prepared by inflation and drying, refembles 
fomewhat the cancelli of the bones, being compofed of a 


great many cells of very irregular fhapes, and all communi- 
cating the one with another. The principal abforbent veflels 
pafs through it. 

This cellular receptacle of the chyle may probably 
perform the fame offices of the abforbent glands in other 
animals, 

The lymphatics of the liver, gall-bag, pancreas, and 
{pleen, alfo accompany the blood-veflels of thefe parts ; 
they freely communicate with each other, and, uniting with 
the abforbents of the ftomach and inteftines, they form a 
plexus on each fide of the ftomach, which proceeds along 
the fides and the back part of the cefophagus to the fide 
of the {pine, and near to the large veins analogous to the 
fubclavian ; at thefe parts all the abforbents of the different 
parts of the body are affembled. 

The lymphatics of the kidnies and organs of generation, 
with thofe of the tail and pofterior parts of the body, 
proceed along the fpine. 

The lymph of the head and Jateral fins is conveyed into 
the common refervoir, principally by means of a large 
trunk, which paffes on each fide of the head, and which 
receives large latcral branches from the adjacent parts. 

The different abforbents of each fide of the body, after 
communicating with each other in the fubclavian plexus, 
furnith two fhort trunks which ¢o to terminate, the one 
on the rizht, the other onthe left fubclavian vein, near 
the jun@tion of thofe veffels with the internal jugular veins. 
Thefe two trunks correfpond in their office to the tho- 
racic duéts of other animals, but do not ferve as refe rvoirs, 
aa they have lefs capzcity than the plexus from which they 
take their origin. 

At the orifices of the trunks into the fubclavian véins, 
there are placed two femilunar valves, to prevent the blood 
efeaping into them. There is no other inftance of valves 
throughout the abforbent fyftem of fifhes; although the 
veflels have a flattened, jointed appearance, as if their canal 
was interrupted by valvular contraétions. 

In the offous ffbes, of which the cod and haddock are 
taken as examples, the la@eals are of a {maller fize than in 
the /kate; they run on each fide of the mefenteric artery, 
and form numerous tranverfe communications over this veffel; 
they enter a large receptaculum, which liee on the right fide 
of the anterior, or e@fophageal portion of the ftomach. 

This receptacle is compofed at its back part, according to 
Hewfon, of two branches; the one lies between the com- 
mencement of the inteftinal canal and the ftomach, and 
runs a jittle way upon the czca, receiving the lymphatics of 
the liver, cca, and thofe of the potterior part of the ftomach, 
and part of the la¢teals. The other branch of the receptaculam 
receives the lacteals of the remainder of the inteftinal canal ; 
the receptaculum alfo derives fome. lymphatics from the 
{wimming bladder, from the gall-bag, and the pofterior part 
of the cefophagus. 

Mr. Hewfon has defcribed the thoracic du& as arifing 
from this receptaculum, pafling for about half an inch ia 
the haddock, on the right fide of the cefophagus, where it 
divides into two brayches, one of which pafles behind the 
cefophagus to the left fide, the other goes ftraight on, on the 
right fide, runs paft the upper part of the kidney, from 
which it receives fome {mall branches, and foon after is 
joined by a branch from the large lymphatic that lies upon 
the clavicular bone. It likewife, near this part, fends a 
branch to join the du& of the oppofite fide, and then a 
little farther on is joined, by thofe large lymphatics which 
make a net-work behind the heart. Thefe lait-mentioned 
veflels receive the lymphatics fromthe anterior gills and 
fauces. The thoracic duct, after being joined by theie 

velels, 


FI 


veffels, communicates with the net-work near the orbit; 
where its lymph is mixed with that of the lymphatics from 
the pofterior part of the gills, from the anterior fins, the 
belly, &c. and then from this net-work a veilel goes into 
the jugular vein, juft below the orbit. 

The lymphatics of the left fide agree exa@ly with thofe 
of the right. Hewfon’s Account of the Lymphatic Syftem 
in Fifth. Phil. Tranf. for 1769. 

Nether Hewfon nor Cuvier, (who feems to have copied 
his defcription) have reprefented the common receptacles 
of the lymph in offous fifhes accurately. Thefe parts do 
not deferve to be called net-works, but, as Dr. Monroe 
has named them, large cellular receptacles; they are par- 
ticularlyglarge in the haddock (gadus eglefinus), and cod (gadus 
morrhua),and are mott eafily cemonttrated by inje@ing with 
a fluid, or inflatirg any of the large abforbents im the 
neighbourhood of them. ‘Thefe receptacles are fituated 
immediately behind the gills, and may be difplayed by 
cutting through the integuments at that place; the recep- 
tacles have lefs magnitude in the /a/mon ( /almo falar), but 
are fill too much dilated to merit the name ofa plexus of 
veffels. 

The receptacles communicate by large canals, which 
crofs from one to the other, behind or above the heart and 
cefophagus. 

Independently of the abforbents of the vifcera already 
defcribed, the lymphatics of the head and mufcular parts 
of the body give origin to four principal trunks, and a 
plexus which terminate in the large receptacles. or common 
refervoir of the fyftem. 

The firf of thefe carries the lymph of the under furface 
of the body and tail ; it is a confiderable vefle’, extending 
along the medial line of filh; from the tail towards the 
head it becomes a little enlarged under the thorax, and 
communicates with the large receptacles, by means of 
fome foramina which lead into a canal on each fide, between 
the two ventral fins. 

The next two trunks are alfo fuperficial ; they run along 
the fides of the fih near the linez lateralee. From each fide 
of thefe trunks a number of branches go off immediately 
under the fkin, which produce a beautiful penniform 
appeararce ; thefe trunks open diretly on each fide into the 
common receptacles that are placed behind the gills. 
Befide thefe veffels, Hewfon defcribes a deep-feated {et of 
abforbents, which accompany the ribs. 

The fourth trunk is deeply fituated and large, it com- 
mences near the tail, and lies between the roots of the 
{pinous procefles of the vertebra; as it proceeds towards 
the head it colle&s the lymph, from the dorfal fins and 
adjacent parts of the body ; having arrived near the head 
it fends a branch to each thoracic du€t, near the part 
where they come off from their common trunks. 

The lymphatics of the brain and organs of fenfe, and 
thofe from the mouth, jaws, and gills, forma complex 
anaftomofis or plexus near the orbits, and fend a veffel 
into each of the common refervoirs. 

In the /almon each of the receptacles terminates the 
fyflem, by fending a canal into the upper end of the cor- 
refponding inferior vena cava, contiguous to and on the 
fore and outer fide of the internal jugular vein. 

The entrances into the venous fyftem are guarded in 
offcous fithes, as in the /kate, by femjlunar valves. 

As the abforbent veffels are unprovided with valves, the 
moft cffeGtual way of expofing them, is toinjeét the fyftem 
from fome of the principal trunks; the beft for this pur- 
pofe is the’ one which runs under the fin of the belly. By 
this means the molt minute branches may be filled and ex- 


SH. 


hibited. Dr. Monroe fucceeded in injeéting from the trunkg 
the abforbents of the brain. of the membranes of the eye, 
and the ear in the /kate (raja batis), by which he difco- 
vered that the lymphatics of the brain form an intricate 
plexus ; he alfo filled the ultimate branches of the abfor- 
bents of the fkin. Thefe are moft beautifully reticulated, 
and are particularly large and numerous upon the upper 
or dorfal furfece of the /Rate, on which they terminate by, 
foramina capable of being demonftrated. Dr. Monroe 
fays, that not only water, but air, milk, quickfilver, and 
even oil of turpentine, coloured with the powder of ver- 
milion, were cifcharged upon the furface of the fkin, by a 
vaft number of diftin orifices, placed at regular diftances 
from each other; yet the force with which thefe liquors 
were injected was vcry fmall, and there was no extra- 
vafation into the cellular fubftance any where under the 
fkin, or in the interftices of the mufclee. It is remarkable 
that the effufion of thefe liquors upon the fkin takes 
place only on the upper furface of the fifth, where the 
fkin is tough and fcabrous: it however proves that it does 
not happen in confequence of extravafation, or rupture of 
the veffels, for in that cafe the effufion would be folely or 
principally feen on the under furface of the fif on which 
the fkin is much more weak and thin, Monroe concludes 
that the cutaneous lymphatics, fituated on the back of the 
Jeate, are defigned to abforb a portion of fea water for the 
purpofes of furnifhing the falt liquor found in fuch con- 
fiderable quantity within the cranium of that fifh. See 
Monroe’s Phyficlogy of Fifhes, p. 34. ; 

The facility of injecting the abforbents from their trunks 
enabled Mr. Hewfon alfo to fill a feries of very minute 
veffels, between the internal and mufcular coats of the 
inteftines; and upon the plice, (or, as he terms them, villi) in 
thefe fituations the abforbents anaftomofe and run together, 
fo as to produce a very clofe and beautiful reticulation. 
If mercury be injected into this nct-work at one part, it 
fpreads over the inteftine ; and if the inteftine be inverted, 
and the mercury f{queezed, it is eafily forced into the 
{mall veffels on the internal coat. t 

In one injeGion Mr. Hewfon made of the ftomach of 
the cod, the abforbents were feen to pafs through the external 
coats, dividing into {maller asd {maller branches, without 
any appearance of a net-work between the mufcular and 
villous coats, although conliderable force was employed in 
the inje¢tion ; from which he concludes that the abforbent 
veflels of the ttomach do not poffefs the fame arrangement 
as thofe of the inteftines. See Hewfon’s Account of the 
Lymphatic Syftem in Fifhes. Phil. Tranf. vol. lix. 

In Plate lV. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. reprefents 
the curvature of the ftomach of a /fate, (raja batis) with the 
cellular receptacle of the chyle in fitu and of the natural 
fize; a, the portion of ftomach ; 4, the cellular receptacle 
attached to it. Fig. 2. of the fame plate, exhibits the 
receptacle magnified, and cut open, after having been pre= 
vioufly inflated and dried, in order to expofe its internal 
itruéture ; @, indicates the cellular part ; 4, 4, the abforbent 
veflels pafling longitudinally through the receptacle and 
communicatingwi th its cel’s: Fig. 3.0f Plate lV. difplays 
the common receptacle of the chyle and lymph in the 
haddock, (gadus agilefinus) with fome of the lymphati¢ 
trunks which enter it; @ is the receptacle diended by 
injection, it appears like a large fac, fituated immediately 
behind the gils;in order to .expofe it the gill-cover is 
cutaway; 4 the branchiz; ¢ is the abforbent which runs 
along the middie line of the belly, and communicates with 
the receptacle by branches fent in between the abdominal 
fins; d, the lateral abforbent truck, which enters the 

recep= 


FI 
receptacle direétly; ¢, the lateral fubcutaneous duc 
obfcurely fee, running parallel with the lateral abforbent 


veffel. 


Heart. 


Fifhes have not, properly fpeaking, a thoracic cavity, 
although their heart and gills are very diftinéily feparated 
from the abdominal vifcera, by means of a feptum, which 
croffes the body immediately before the liver. This die- 
phragm is not mufcular, as far as we have obferved, but 
receives a flender mufcle on each fide from the fcapula. 
It is ufvally thick and firm, and is apparently compofed of 
tendinous fibres, interwoven together like the mufcular fal- 
ciculi of the internal furface of the human auricle, and the 
web thus formed is further ftrengthened by the peritoneum 
on one fide, and the pericardium on the other. 

The heart is fituated in the middle line of the body, be- 
tween the branchiz of each fide, and farther forward, that 
is, nearer the head than in other animals; the {pace between 
the mouth and the belly being generally very inconfiderable 
in fifhes. 

The pericardium is larger, and of a rounder figure than 
the heart; this is neceflary on account of the irregular 
form of that vifcus. oan salt 

The external refle@tion of the pericardium is in general 
a ftronger membrane than the peritoneum ; it appears to 
be tendinous in flru€ture, although commonly very thin. 

We have not obferved any material deviations from the 
common itruéture of the pericardium, except in the lamprey 
( petromyzon marinus), in which we have lately difcovered a 
moft fingular conformation of the part. The pericardium 
in this fith is compofed of firm cartilage, of a rounded 
figure, and fo far imbedded in the anterior portion of the 
liver, that a great part of it is concealed from view until the 
fubftance of the latter be cut afunder; there are feveral 
frena, or tendinous proceffes fent off from the internal 
furface of this cartilaginous fac, which are attached to the 
furface of the heart, and ferve to fuftain it in its proper 
pofition in the bag. ‘ ; f 

The above ftru@ure in the /amprey is a confirmation of 
an opinion we have held, that the pericardiam does not 
alter its figure with the contraction and dilatation of the 
different parts of the heart; from which arifes the neceflity 
of a greater quantity of aqueous fluid in this cavity, than is 
found in thofe containing the other vifcera. 

The pericardium of the /eate (raja atis), as has been 
mentioned in {peaking of the abdominal cavity, was dif- 


S H. 

tracted, or fotms a fort of neck. The parietes of the 
auricle are generally thin; its mafcular fafciculi form no 
remarkable projeGtions, and are diftributed over the internal 
furface, rather in the manner of a mefhwork or irregular 
ramification. The opening into the ventricle is ufually 
furnifhed with two femilunar valves. 

In the moon jifh (tetracdon mola) there are four valves of 
a {quare fhape in this fituation, and in other inftances, as 
amongft the /harks (/qualus), the aperture into the ventricle 
is guarded by a fingle delicate valve, the border of which 
is attached by many points to the parictes of this cavity. 
The opening of the venz cave into the auricle is fituated 
rather fuperiorly, that is, fomewhat on the fide of the auricle 
next the fpine; it is near the neck, er part which is united 
to the ventricle, confequently the auricle appears, on open- 
ing a fifh, like an entire bag, depending from the 
ventricle, the communication with the cavz not being 
vifible in that view of the parts. 

The ventricle has; according toCuvier, moftcommonly four 
fides ; we fhould fay, the moft ufual fizure is that of a fhort 
pyramid, with three fides, the bafe of which correfponds 
to the fourth. The ventricle is, however, globular in 
the finooth hound (fqualus muflelus), and triangular in the 
dog-fifh ( /qualus canicula), and exhibits fome other variations 
of form in different {pecies. The parietes of the ventricle 
are ftrong and flefhy, and furnifh many fafciculi on the in- 
ternal part of the cavity, fimilar to thofe obferved in the 
ventricles of other animals. 

At the anterior part of the ventricle, and near the aper- 
ture into the auricle, there arifes a fhort tube, from which 
the branchial artery is afterwards continued. Cuvier has 
called this part the foo//alk or bulb of the branchial artery. 
Its fizure is various; in the /lurgeon (acipenfer Sluric) it is 
oval; in the ray and _/bark genera it is cylindric, and in 
other fifhes it 1s moft commonly pyriform ; the bulb is lefs 
mufcular than the ventricle, but much more fo than the 
artery ; there is often a confiderable layer of mufcular fibres 
around it, which are continued upon the branchial artery. 
The internal part of the bulb is commonly made irregular 
by a number of ftrong longitudinal fafciculi. The mem- 
brane which lines the bulb produces fome folds of a femi- 
lunar, or a parabolic form; thefe have their free edge 
turned towards the branchial artery, confequently perform 
the office of valves, in obftru@ling the return of the blood 
upon the ventricle. In the /barks there are two rows, of 
three valves each, the one at the origin, the other at the 
termination of the bulb; there are alfo two rows in the 


covered by Doétor Monroe to produce a funnel-fhaped furgeon, the fir compoied of four valves, the fecond of 


elongation towards the abdomen, which is divided into 

two branches or canals, terminating by open mouths in the 

latter cavity ; as far as our obfervation goes, this ftruéture is 
eculiar to the ray genus. ' 

The heart in fifhes is compofed of two cavities only, an 
auricle for receiving the blood from the veins of the body, 
and a ventricle for propelling it to the branchie. The 
diftinétion of thefe parts is very evident, by which the figure 
of the heart is rendered peculiar, appearing like two bodies 
conneéted to each other. 

The pofition of the auricle, with refpeé to the ventricle, 
is fubjeét to vary; it is ufually placed anterior to it; it 
covers; and even paffes beyond the ventricle in the genus 
gadus, the rays. fmooth hound (/qualus mujlelus), and the dog- 
fife (fqualus canicula), &c. r 

The auricle is generally much more capacious than the 
ventricle. Its figure is not eafily afligned; itisa fac, of 
which the lateral parts are dilated, and at the place where it 
becomes conneéted to the ventricle it is in a degree con- 


five. Inthe ray genus, Cuvier reckons four rows, com- 
pofed of the fame number of valves, and in the genus gadus, 
the carps (cyprinus), and falmons (falmo), &c. but two 
valves, placed at the entrance of the footitalk, and none at 
any other part. 

Arteries. 

We have already faid that the heart of fithes is fingle, or 
confifts only of an auricle and a ventricle, it confequently 
furnifhes but one artery ; this veffc] is analogous to the 
pulmonary, as it conveys ail the blood to the organs of 
refpiration ; it being entirely fubfervient to the fun@ions of 
the gills or branchiw, it has been with great propriety 
termed the dranchial artery. 

This veilel arifes from the bulb conne&ed with the ven- 
tricle, of which it is in reality but the continuation, and 
from which, in fome fifhes, it is not very diftinguifhable. 

In the Rate (raja datis) the artery proceeds under the 
cartilage which joms the inferior extremities of the bran- 

chal 


F1S H. 


chial arches; it fir fends off, nearly at right angles, two 
Jarge branches, one on each fide, by which the trunk is con- 
fiderably diminifhed; thefe two branches foon divide each 
into three others, which go to the three pofterior branchial 
arches, along the convex edge of which they pafs, and 
are loft in fine ramifications upon the laminz of the gills. 
The branchial artery then continues its courfe until it arrives 
oppofite to the firft gill, when it terminates in two branches, 
which make a flight curve backwards, and each divides 
again into two branches, which fupply the two anterior 
gills in the fame manner as already defcribed. 

In oftous fifbes the diftribution of the branchial artery 
does not materially differ from that in the /tate ; the veflel 
gains the bone to which the inferior extremities of the 
branchial arches are articulated, along which it divides and 
fends its branches between the fhort mufcles of the branchiz 
fituated at this place; the ultimate number of thefe branches 
are but four, correfponding to the ufual number of the gills 
in thefe fifhes; the laft branch proceeds almoft dircétly 
backwards. 

The branches of the bronchial artery having conveyed all 

the blood to the gilis, and diftributed it there in a manner 
to be hereafter defcribed, it is returned by another fet of 
veffels, which many anatomifts have confidered as veins, but 
which would with much more propriety be called the re- 
turning arteries of the gills, both on account of their 
ftru@ture and office. Thefe veffels do not carry back the 
blood tothe heart, but, after uniting together, diftribute it 
to every part of the fith’s body ; there is therefore but one 
Circulation in this clafs of animals, in the courfe of which 
the organs of refpiration are interpofed. 
. The arteries which receive the blood from the gills, and 
convey it to every part of the body, have been fo fully de- 
feribed by Monroe and Cuvier, that we have fearcely any 
thing to add to their account of them. The kate (raja 
Batis) forms their chief example. 

In this fith each gill furnifhes an artery, which makes a 
circuit’ round the fuperior extremity of its cartilaginous 
arch, from below backwards. Monroe defcribes the arteries 
produced by the gills as being double upon all except the 
firlt, and befides being united together at their extremities 
fo as to form arterial circuits, are conjoined with each other 
by means of large tranfverfe canals. 

The artery of the anterior gill, after anaftomofing with the 
next, by the tranfverfe veflel, turns forwards to be diftributed 
to the head; it fupplies the parts of the upper jaw, the eye, 
the ear, the nofe; gives {mall branches to the fore-part of 
the brain. There are likewife fome veffels fent off from the 
anterior fide of the trunk of the arteries of the firlt and 
fecond gills, which are diftributed to the mufcles and ex- 
terna! parts of the head. Thefe firft branches, derived from 
the arteries of the gills, may be confidered analogous to the 
carotid. 

After fending off the preceding arteries, the veflels fur- 
nifhed by the gills produce, by their junétion at the fuperior- 
part, or upon the cartilages of the vertebra of the neck, 
three principal trunks ; at the place, where the moft enterior 
is formed, it fends off a veflel which penctrates the cranium, 
at the inferor part, near to where it is joined with the 
vertebral eolumn ; this artery divides, on entering the cavity 
of the eranivm, into three branches: tbe 1{t runs backwards 
upon the inferior furface of the {pinal marrow, and unites 
with the correfponding artery of the other fide, and with a 
middle veflel, which forms a communication between the 
different arteries of the brain. Thefe three branches compofe 
a fingle artery, which pafles upon the f{pinal marrow, and 
may be called with great propriety the /pina/ artery, ‘The 


2d branch of the artery of the brain goes forwards and 
inwards, and again forms a junétion with its fellow, and the 
one which runs along the middle line of the lower furface of 
the brain and f{pinal marrow. The 3d branch paffes to the 
origin of the medulla fpinalis, and there gives off two 
branches which extend to a vafcular ring, produced from 
the fides of the middle artery; the branch {till advances as 
far as the eighth pair of nerves, where it fends of two other 
branches, which unite to give origin to the middle artery 
already mentioned. After producing this veffel the anterior 
branch goes on diftributing {mall arteries to the brain; it 
paffes under the root of the fifth pair of nerves, to the tu- 
bercles of the olfaGtory nerves, where it is expanded on 
branches that {pread in radii, or like the pes anferinus of the 
portio dura. The intricate aralftamofes produced by this 
artery with its fellow, and with the middle veflel of the 
lower furface of the brain, have been compared by Cuvier 
to the Greek capital letter phi, accompanied with two femi- 
circles affixed to it, in oppofite direétions, thus o@c. This 
arrangement of the veflels of the brain may be confidered as 
analogous to the rete mirabile of the carotid in quadrupeds, 
and the circle of Willis in man. The artery which is diftri- 
buted to the brain in fifhesappears, from ‘ts origin and courfe, 
to fupply the place of the vertebral artery. 

The three trunks produced by the blood veflels of the 
gills proceed inwards and backwar’s upon the inferior 
{mooth furface of the cartilage, correfponding to the cervical 
vertebrz, and foon unite into one large veffel which is aualo~ 
gous to the aorta. 

At the place where thefe v.flcls are afflembled to form 
the aorta, there is given off a large branch, which cor- 
refponds to the /ubclavian artery, both in its fituation, and on 
account of the parts it fupplies; it paffes dire&tly acrofs 
the cartilages which compofe the peétoral member, or great 
fin of the ate, into which it enters, and immediately divides 
into two great branches, which take the courfe of the broad 
cartilage that fuftains the rays and mufcles of the fin, the 
one paffing anteriorly, the other backwards, and each diftri- 
buting branches in the direétion of the mufcles of the 
fio, 

The fubclavian, according to Cuvier, furnifhes pofteriorly 
a {mall artery, which goes to the ovary in the female, and to 
the tefticle in the male, and is analogous to the /permatic. 

Before the fubclavian penetrates the fin it gives off a re- 
markable branch anteriorly, which pafles along the fore part 
of the gills; it there fends communicating branches to the 
veffels that are immediately produced from the gills, and 
likewife fome which are diftributed upon the gills themfelves 
for their nourifhment, which are confequently analogous to 
the éronchial arteries of thofe animals which have lungs. 
It detaches alfo, inwards, fome arteries to the heart and 
trunk of the branchial artery, which fupply the place of the 
coronary arteries ; and, laftly, it is loft in branches which go 
tothe mufcles and parts about the upper jaw. 

The aorta proceeds in a ftraight line upon the under fur- 
face of the cartilages compofing the dorfal vertebre, on 
which there is a groove for itsreception, and when it arrives, 
at the tail it becomes completely enclofed in a canal, which 
is ee by the inferior {pinous procefles of the caudal ver- 
tebra. 

Soon after entering the abdomen the aorta fends off the 
celiac artery; this veflel pafles backwards, and is diftributed 
in particular to the fpiral valve of the inteftines, to the liver, 
and to the ftomach. The firft branch accompanies the 
cyftic duét to the commencement of the inteftines, which it 
penetrates very near the pylorus, in order to ramify to in- 
finity upon the {piral valve: fome of its {mall branches alfo 


3 ge 


FIS H. 


‘0 to the pancreas, and to the pofterior part of the ftomach. 
The fecond branch, or the hepatic artery, is a {mall veffel ; it 
goes with the hepatic du& to the bafe of the liver, at which 
place it enters that vifcus. | When the czliac artery has 
arrived at the internal edge of the itomach, it divides into 
two branches, the one inferior, of which the ramifications 
are detached at right angles, from right to left, under the 
inferior furface of the ftomach; the other is fuperior, 
and is diftributed to the correfponding furface of the fame 
Organ, and gives likewife fome {mall arteries to the left fide 
of the fpleer. 


_ Thenext branch of the aorta is the mefenteric artery. It 
pafles to the right of the fpleen, to which it gives two large 
branches that enter it at one fide, and furnifh at the other 
fide arteries to the pancreas; it afterwards tollows the right 
tide of the inteftinal canal, to which itis diftributed. Its 
chief branches, to the number of nine or ten, detach them- 
f-lves at right angles at nearly equal diftances from each 
other, and crois end furround the inteftine. The fucceed- 
ing branches of the aorta are much {maller than the pre- 
ceding. 

The two firft ge to the commencement of the oviduét; 
which they furnifh with many branches, particularly at the 
fuperior part; but before arriving there each of them fends 
an artery to the mufcles of the {pine analogous to the dorfal 
branch of the intercoftals, or of the lumbars in mammalia. 

A third branch furnifhes fome arteries to the fpinal co- 
lumn and to the commencement of the kidney, and goes par- 
ticularly to the oviduct. 

A fourth artery arifes from the aorta, and is fent exclu- 
fively to the kidney, at the fide of which it detaches a {mall 
lumbar artery, which is diftributed to the parietes of the 
belly, to the mufcles of the fpine, and to the vertebral 
column. 


' Three other arteries, having a fimilar deftination, arife 
more pofteriorly from each fide of the aorta. p 


_ Finally, there proceeds from the aortaa large branch on 
each fide; it foon fends off a renal artery, which advances 
the length of the kidney, diftributing its branches to it, 
after which it continues its courfe outwards in the moft pof- 
terior part of the abdomen, and produces an artery analo- 
gous to the efiga/ffric, and then efcapes from the cavity, and 
is expended upon the anal fin. 


“ . The arterial fyftem of fifhes in general does not differ 
materially from that defcribed in the /Eate ; the gills being 
four, they confequently furnifh one branch lefs than in the 
genus ray, or the /fharé. The aorta in fome of the cartilagi- 
nous fifhes, inftead of paffing in a groove as is ufual, is con- 
tained in a canal formed in the bodies of the vertebra : this 
is remarkably the cafe in the /urgeon (acipenfer flurio), and 
the /amprey (petromyzon marinus). 'The coats of the aorta 
adhere firmly to the fides of the canal, fo that it would ap- 
pear in thefe fifhes the blood flows through the aorta as 
through a paffive tube. 

. In thofe fifhes which have ribs, the aorta gives offa number 
of branches to the intercoftal fpaces, which correfpond to 
the intercoflal arteries. Thefe veffels, however, diftribute 
branches to the kidnies before they pafs to the parietes of 
the belly. 

The fplenic artery is not generally as it is in the Rate, a 
branch of the mefenteric, but of the celiac, or that artery 
which fupplies the firft portion of the alimentary canal, the 
liver, and {pleen. 

* Cuvier ftates that there are generally in fifhes two me/en- 
teric arteries, and defcribes them in the frout (fale fario). 

‘ VoL. XIV. 


“ 


The firf, or anterior mefenteric, he fays, is detached from the 
aorta very near the middle of the body, and at a diftance 
from the trunk of the caliac ; it advances for a little way 
in the fubftance of the mefentery, and divides into two 
branches, of which the one goes forwards and the other 
backwards, parallel to the inteftinal canal, asd fupplies it 
with branches which form right angles with the artery that 
furnifhes them, and which having arrived at the inteltine, wind 
round it in a ferpentine manner, and give off branches that 
extend forwards and backwards along it. 

The pofterior mefenteric artery arifes from the trunk of the 
aorta at fome diftance from the firft ; it paffes backward pa- 
rallel to the inteftine, and diftributes its branches to the pof- 
terior portion of it: thefe go off at acute angles, and are 
not ferpentine, as thofe of the anterior mefenteric artery. 
This veffel hkewife fends branches to the bladder, which 
alfo receives others from the pofterior intercoltals. 


Although the arteries of fifhes have fo peculiar an origin, 
andare fent to parts differently conftructed than thofe in 
mammalia, they bear confiderable refemblance to the arteries 
of that clafs. From the preceding defcription it will be 
feen that almoft all the arteries of fifhes admit of the fame 
names that are applied to the veficis of mammiferous ani- 
mals. 

The mode in which the aorta is formed in fifhes, makes it 
impoffible for the heart to communicate its impulfe to the ar- 
terial fyftem: the circulation of the blood in thefe animals 
is therefore carried on flowly, and unaccompanied by the 
pulfe, or that faltatory motion that is obferved in the prin- 
cipal arteries of the hot-blooded animals: confiftently alfo 
with the offices of thefe veffels, their parictes are thin, and 
appear to be deprived of the middle or contraétile coat. 
The arteries of fithes very much refemble in their ftru€ture 
the veins of other animals ; they further agree with veins in 
the circumftance of having the branches of large capacity, and 
often as large as the principal trunks of the body. 


In Plate IV. of the Anatomy of Fifkes, fig. 4. exhibits a 
view of the heart and branchial artery of the /Rate (raja 
batis); a, the ventricle of the heart ; 4, the auricle; c, the buib 
of the branchial artery; d, d, the places at which the femi- 
lunar valves are found; ¢, e, the two firft branches 
of the branchial artery ; f, g, & their .divifion into three 
branches deftined for the three potterior gills ; 7, the continua- 
tion of the trunk of the branchial artery ; 4, 4, the two 
branches in which the artery terminates; /,m, the two branches 
which goto fupply the two anterior gills: the numberg 
I, 2) 3) 4. 5», indicate portions of the five gills which are 
left on one fide, in order to fhew a little of the courfe of the 
branches of the branchial artery along their convex edges. 


Fig. 5. of the fame plate, fhews the formation of the aorta 
and fome of its principal branches in the /éafe; the parts on 
the lower fide of the body are cut away to bring into view 
the obje@s of the figure: a is the trunk of the returning ar- 
tery (or vein, 2s it 1s often, though improperly, termed) of 
the anterior gill; 4, the continuation of this veficl diliributed 
to the fnout and external parts of the head ; c, a communice- 
tion between the returning artery of the firft gill with that 
of the fecond, pointed out by d; ¢, the trunk formed between 
thofe proceeding to form the aorta; f. f/f, {mall arteries fent 
from this trunk to the mufcles and other external parts o 
the head; g, the anaftomofes between the two returning 
ries of the fecond gill ; 4, the fecond artery of the fecond gill; 
i, &, the returning arteries of the third gill; /, their communica- 
tion; m, a, the arteries of the fourth gill; 0, their anaftomofis ; 
p> the branch of the firit trank fent to the brain; g, the fecond 
arterial trunk which forms the aorta; / ¢, the artecies from the 

38 aftie 


-" 


FISH, 


Mich gill united as the others by a crofs branch ; w, the third 
@rterial trunk which produces the aorta; v, the commence- 
ment of the aorta formed by the congrefs of the three arte- 
rial trunks on each fide; x, the braneh of the aorta which 
correfponds to the fubclavian artery ; y, the branch of this 
artery which goes forward, communicates with the external 
ends. of the returning arteries of the gills,and fends off the 
branches analogous to the bronchial and coronary arteries, 
and others to the mulcles of the jaws ; z, the divifion of the 
fubclavian artery in order to fupply the great peétoral fins or 
wings of this fifh; 1, the celiac artery, 2, the mefenteric : 
Several fmall arteries are feen to arife fiom the fucceedirg 
parts of the aorta which go to the organs of generation, the 
kidnies, &c. 


Veins. 


The aperture by which the venous fyftem of fifhes termi- 
nates in the auricle of the heart is very fmalJ, in proportion 
to the fize of that cavity, and to that of the adjoining trunks. 
The contra€ted opening into the auricle muit, in a certain 
degree, perform the office of valves, or at leaft diminifh 
the current of the blood upon the heart. 

The commen venous finus with which the auricle imme- 
diately communicates, pafles on each fide tranfverfely and 
backwards ; it is formed, according to Cuvier, by the ‘con- 
courfe of five principal trunks: 1, the polterior vena cava ; 
2, the trunk of the vene cave hepatice ; 3, and 4, the two 
inferior ven cave ; 5,atrunk which conveys the blood from 
the parts in the neighbourhood of the gills. 

The poflerior vena cava receives the deep-feated venous 
branches in the neighbourhood of the fpine; the trunk 
itfelf accompanies the aorta, and, like that veffel, it is in- 
clofed between the inferior {pinous proceflcs of the caudal 
vertebre ; and in thofe fifh which have the aorta lodged ina 
cawal in the bodies of the dorfal vertebrae, as in the /am- 
prey (petromyzon), and the flurgeon (avipenfér), the polterior 
vena cavais accommodated in a fimtlar manner ; the pofterior 
cava isin general am inconfiderable trunk with ref{p:&€ to ea- 
pacity, it is however very long, and is without dilatation, 
being nearly of the fame fize throughout : this veflel is not 
deferibed by Doétor Monroe, and appears to have entirely 
efcaped his obfervation, elthough, from the number of {peci¢s 
in which we have feen it, we believe that it is conitantly 
to be found in this clafs. 

The vene cave hepatica of the fevetal lobes of the liver 
unite immediately before cheir termination in the commoa 
finus under the heart, they are always confiderably dilated ; 
Monroe itates that in the fate (raja batis) they form 
between the liver and the heart finufes, che diameter of which 
ig ten times greater than that of their openings. 

The éavo anterior cave are the molt important veins in the 
body; they receive the blood from a great part of the 
mu{cular fubftance-of the &fh, the organs of generation, 
&c. They lie contiguons to each other in tke abdomen, 
and are greatly dilated. They form large receptacles of 
blood, according to Monroe, above the ovaries in the fe- 
male, and the telticles in the male fish, at which piace thefe 
veins communicate freely wrth each other. 

The blood of the anterior and lateral parts of the body, 
efpecially in the jfat chondropterygii, and the fifhes with 
large petoral fins, 1s conveyed by trunks of fome fize, 
which correfpond to the jugu/ar and /ubclavian veins of other 
animals. 

The latter truak appears to be the continuation of the 
gommon finus, into which the other trunks open by orifices 
fmaller than the veffels themfelves, the edges of which are 
prominent and loofe, or floating, fo as to perform, in fome 


degree, the offices of valves. - Dr.» Monroe fays, that he 
obferved within the external jugular veins, and at the tere 
mination of the internal jugulars, a pair cf valves, Bmilar 
to thofe in the veins of the human fubje&. At the ter- 
mination of the renal veins, and large branches of the 
hepatic veins, he found fingle membranes fixed by threads 
from their edges, refembling the coronary vein of our 
heart ; and at the termination of the other large veins, 
e{pecially near the heart, he fays, there are not only con 
trected orifices, but doublings at their edges, which have 
fo far the effe€t of valves, even in the dead body, that 
we cannot fill completely all the veins, by throwing an 
injection in at one ef their branches. Page 18. Monroe’s 
Phyfiology of Fifhes. : 

It fhould however be obferved,.that the veins of fifles 
are not valvular in their courfe, like thofe of mammalia. 

It is unneceffary to give a particular deferiptionsof the 
venous branches, which produce the trunks above-mentioned ; 
thefe, as far as we have obferved, accompany the rami- 
fications of the arteries, and are fingle veffels of a fomewhat 
greater diameterthan the aitcry. 

The coats of the veins of fifhes are extremely fine 
and thin; fo much fo, that they would feem to be intae 
pable of fuffcring much diltenfion without being ruptured. 

We have frequently obferved that the veins of fifhes 
appeared as if they were in a great meafure emptied of 
their blood, particularly in the dilated parts of the anterior 
cave, which veffels would feem to have a capacity beyond 
their ufual contents : the great fize of the principal venous 
trunks of fifhes is therefore, probably, not fo much the 
confequence of long continued diftenfion, as original orzani- 
zation. It appears to be a circumitance in the ftructure 
of thefe animals, adapted to the flow motion of their blood, 
and not as Dr. Monroe fuppoled, dependent upon the 
preffure of the water on the furface of their gills, caufing 
an accumulation of the blood ia the interior parts of their 
bodies. The exifteace of feveral venous trunks for colle@ting 
the blood from the fmaller branches appears alfo to be a 
provifion to obviate the fulnefs which would arife, if all 
the blood was flowly accumulated in one or two trunks. 

Fig. 4. Plate 1V. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, prefents 
a view of the principal venous trunks in the Pale, 
(raja bafis); nis tne common finus, in which al! the veins 
meet, -{ctn pafling from each fide behind the anricle into 
which it opens ; 0 o 9, part of the vene cave hepatice taken 
ovtof the liver; they pour their blood into the finus, oppofite 
to the auricle; p, p, the two anter:or vene cave; g, the 
place at which they communicate with each other; rand 
the veins analozcus to the internal and external jugulars; 
t; the trunk, which correfponds to the fubclavan vein 5 
u, v, two branches of the fubclavian, which colle the 
blood trom the great peGoral fins; x, a large vein from 
the mufcles, and other parts behind the abdomen, which: 
opens into the fubclavian. , 


Vital Temperature. 


All the hot-blooded animals poffefs a degree of tempe- 
rature fuited to the fnnétions’ they naturally perform ; 
which cannot be materially altered withowt inconvenience 
to them; and any confiderable deviation from which is 
refifted by an effort of their vafcular fyems: this we have 
termed their fandard heat. ‘The temperature of fifh-s, both 
from their organization, and the element they inhabit, is in 
general low: one of their claffiie characters is being cold. 
blooded. ‘There is however a good deal of varicty in the 
natural temperature of different {pecies: thofe that live inthe 
fea are fome degrees colder than the frefh-water fifhes ; and 

5 thofe: 


FISH. 


thofe that are active, dnd frequent the furface of the water, 
as many of the genera cyprinus, falmo, &c. have a higher 
temperature than the more fluggith {pecies. We may ftate 
the ftandard heat of the one kind of fifhcs to be about 60° 
of Fahrenheit’s fcale, and that of the other about 50°. 

As the vital heat is lefs independent of the external 
temperature, in proportion to the lownefs of the ftandard, 
or, in other words, as the heat of the animal is more incon- 
ftant when it is not naturally high, we find that the 
temperature of fifhes, commonly, is nearly the fame with that 
of the water in which they refide. In fome experiments 
We made upon carps and eels, we cou'd not difcover any 
material difference between their heat, and that of the 
water in which they were placed, until the latter was 
heated, or cooled, many degrees beyond its ordinary tem- 
perature. 

Mr. Hunter’s experiments on this fubject were attended 
with a fimilar refult, although they appear fomewhat in- 
corfiftent with each other, as he has ftated them. 

_ Upon one occafion he put an ee/, its heat being 44°, 
which was nearly that of the atmofphere, into water heated 
to 65°, for fifteen minutes: and upon examination it was of 
the fame degree of heat with the water. In another ex- 
periment, he fays, he put a tench, whofe heat was 41°, into 
water at 65°, and after remaining there ten minutes, the 
ball of the thermometer being introduced both into the 
fiomach and reGtum, the quickfilver rofe to 55°. 

Having removed a carp out of a pond, the water of which 
he had afcertained to be 65° and a half, he introduced the 
thermometer into its ftomach; the quickfilver rofe to 69° 
fo that the difference between the water and the fifh was 
3° and a half. 

Thefe two laft experiments do not quite accord with the 
two following. Having put an ec/, the heat of whofe 
flomach was 37°, into a freezing mixture, its temperature 
funk to 31°. The animal, he fays, at that time appeared 
dead, but was alive the next day. He took a living and 
dead tench, and a living and dead ee/, and put them into warm 
water ; they all received heat equally faft: and when they 
were expofed to cold, both the living and the dead admitted 
the cold likewife with equal quicknefs. 

It is beyond all doubt that fifhes readily fuffer great 
alterations in their natural temperature, and that this is not 
attended in them with any f-rious injury. It has been 
afferted that they can even be entirely frozen, and afterwards 
‘reftored to life; and if we may credit Sonnerat, he faw 
in the Philippine iflands fifhes {wim in water at the heat of 
187° of Fahrenheit. 

'Mr. Hunter afferts that he never fucceeded in freezing 
whole fifhes, and afterwards recovering them; although 
his experiment of freezing the ee/, as above-mentioned, 
would lead us to make a different conclufion, He froze, 
he fays, the tail of a tench (as high as the anus), which be- 
came as hard as a board; when it thawed, that part was 
whiter than common, and when it moved, the whole tail 
moved as one piece, and the termination of the frozen part 
appeared like the joint on which it moved. 

ealfo froze the tails of two gold ji/bes until they be- 
came as folid as a piece of wood. ‘Thcy were put into cold 
water to thaw, and appeared for fome days to be very well; 
‘but that part of the tails which had been frozen had not the 
natural colour, and the fins of the tails became ragged. 

About three weeks afterwards a fur came all over the 
frozen parts; their tails became lighter, fo that the fithes 
were fufpended in the water perpendicularly, and they had 
almoft loft the power of motion; at lait they died. The 
water in which they were kept was New River water, 


changed every day, and about ten gallons in quantity. See 
Hunter’s Animal CEconomy, 

From thefe experiments it would be inferred, that even 
parts of fifhes will not admit of being frozen without dif- 
organization. 


Organs of Refpiration. 


Alltruly aquatic animals poffefs certain parts of a lami- 
nated or tufted ftru€ture for minutely dividing the water, 
and extracting from it the air with which it is intermixed. 
The gills of fifhes are peculiarly well contrived for this mode 
of refpiration, both from their pofition and organization. 

The gills of fifhes are fituated on each fide of the neck 5 
they have always a very free communication with the cavity of 
the mouth, of which they may be generally confidered as con- 
{tituting the pofterior parietes. They are covered externally 
in the chondropterygit by the common integuments, and in the 
other fifhes ufually by a bony or cartilaginous operculum, 
which is, in moft inttances, increafed by the addition of 
fome radiated bones that are covered by a procefs of the 
fkin. 

In the chondropterysit the gills are fixed by being con- 
nected externally to the integuments that enclofe them, 
which are perforated by a number of foramina, varving ac- 
cording to the genus; but in the other orders of fifhes the 
gills are unattached at the cxternal fide, and the branchial 
aperture is fingle and capable of being much enlarged and 
diminifhed by the elevation and depreffion of the operculum, 
which is moved by certain mufcles in the manner of the 
lid of a box. 

‘fhe branchie are fuftained upon fome cartilaginous or 
offeous arches, which are placed fo that their concavity is 
turned obliquely forwards towards the mouth, and their 
convex fides are directed backwards and outwards. Thefe 
arches are conftru€ted to admit of their bafes being contra&ted 
and dilated, and of being approximated one with refpe& to 
another; for which purpofes they are provided with nume- 
rous and complicated mufcles. The motions of the branchial 
arches are alfo connected with thofe of other parts in their 
neighbourhood ; the pharyngeal bones, hyoides, &c, al- 
though chiefly intended for deglutition, enter into the 
mechanifm of the refpiratory organs; and the branchial 
arches on the other hand are employed in ceglotition ; fo that 
all the parts fituated about the origin of the efophagus have 
complicated fun@tions, as will appcar when they are more 
fully defcribed along with the other organs of motion. It 
is fufficient at prefent to ftate, that by the motions of the 
different parts with which the branchiz are connected, their 
vafcular furfaces are expanded, contrated, and prefied 
again{t the water, which runs over them. 

The real organs of refpiration in fifhes are the great nume 
ber of laminz which are fixed upon the convex fides of the 
branchial arehes. Thefe lamine in the Jdranclizfegi and 
offious fifhes are arranged in two rows upon each branchial 
arch, of which there are generally four on each fide. The 
lamine are very narrow,’ elongated, and pointed at their free 
extremity, and are ufually united to each other by their in- 
ternal edge for about two-thirds of their exteat from the 
bafe ; they are commonly fet clofe to each other, producing 
the appearance, in a great degree, of the teeth of a comb, 
or the barbs of a feather. Tach of the lamine contains a 
very delicate plate of a cartilaginous flruture, by which 
they preferve their form and pofiticn againit the force of the 
water. Their fuperficies is fmooth ilong the edges, but we 
have lately difcovered that the intermediate fufface is co- 
vered with extremely fine thia villous procefles, by which 
means the refpiratory furface is infinitely extended. 


35 2 We 


FISH, 


We have already flated that. the fingle artery which 
arifes from the heart of fifhes is entirely expanded on the 
gills, The branthes of this veffel pafs along the convex 
fides of the branchial arches under the bafes of the lamine. 
They furnifh in this route a branch to each pair of laminz, 
which afcends between them as far as they are united, and 
then divides into two branches that go along the internal 
edge of the lamine to their extremity; thefe produce an 
immenfe number of minute veflels, which are expanded in fine 
ramifications upon both furfaces of the pair of amine. The 
extreme terminations of thefe veflels form the roots, or give 
birth to the artery of the body, or aorta. Thefe are collected 
upon each lamina by a branch which runs along its external 
edge, and the veffels, thus produced, terminate in one which 
runs like the branch of the branchial artery under the roots 
of the laminz, upon the convex fide of the arch. Thefe 
branches receive the blood from each of the gills, and concur 
to form the aorta, in the manner formerly defcribed. 

The ftru€ture of the organs of relpiration in the chon- 
dropterygii differs in fome refpects from that above defcribed. 
In the lampreys (petromyzon), there are feven gills on each 
fide, and in the raysand /harks (raja and /qualus) there are 
five on each fide. The /ampreys have only, however, a 
fingle row of lamin to the firft and the laft gill, and the 
two laft genera have but one row of laminz to the anterior 
gill. In thefe fifhes the branchial arches fuftain upon 
their convex edges a number of cartilaginous procefles or 
radii, upon which there is a mufcle of fome thicknefs placed, 
that has the effect of approximating them to cach other. 
The real lamine of the gills arife from the fides of thefe 
parts, and are compofed, in fact, of refleGtions of the mem- 
brane which covers them. Thefe lamine are broader and 
fet farther afunder than thofe of other fifhes; they are un- 
attached at one edge, and at part of the other. They have 
upon each fide a number of fub-divifions or {mall folds, 
which vary in their figure and extent in the different {pecies; 
thefe fub-lamine conftitute the true refpiratory furfaces. 

The branch of the branchial artery, which proceeds along 
the convexity of the arches, furnifhes to each pair of lamine 
two veflels ; the larger of which is fent to the internal edge 
of the lamine, and the other runs upon the external edge 
along with the branch which colleéts the blood from the 
Jamine for the aorta. The artery of the internal edges 
anaftomofes at fome diftance from the extremity of the la- 
ming, with a branch which pafles tranfverfely from one la- 
mina to another, and thus eftablifhes a communication be- 
tween all the internal branches of the branchial artery. The 
minute or ultimate ramifications of the branchial artery are 
expanded upon the {mall or fubordinate laminz, which arife 
from the fides of the others. 

Cuvier defcribes the branchiz of the Aippocampus as being 
differently organized from thofe of other fifhes. They are 
compofed of eight rows of tufts united by pairs in fuch a 
manner as to correfpond with the four ordinary gills) The 
external rows have only five tufts; thofe which fucceed 
have fix; there are feven in the third; and in the middle 
rows there are eight tufts. The confequence of there being 
a different number of tufts in the feveral rows is, that 
the entire gills appear of a round figure. Each of thefe 
tufts, of which the extremity is round, is formed of a car- 
tilaginous lamina, which is fxed upon the branchial arch, 
and fuftains, as in the ray genus, fome other little membrano- 
vafcular lamin, very diftin@ from each other, and arranged 
upon the cartilaginous lamina, in the direftion of the bran- 
chial arches, 

The Sa anguillaris has been difcovered by M. Geoffroy 
to poffefs fome fupernumerary organs of refpiration, of 


avery fingular firu€ure, In this fith the ordinary gills, 
exift, but with fhorter lamin than are ufually found ; 
in addition to which there are two organs on each fide, 
confifting of a hollow trunk and numerous branches, 
the parictes of which refemble the cozts of an artery. 
The external furface of thefe vafcular trees is covered 
by the ramifications of the branchial artery, which be-, 
come more fine and numerous as they extend upon their 
branches. The extremities of the ramifications open into 
the branches of the arborefcent organs, and diitil into them 
their blood, through a multitude of villi that cover the inte- 
rior furface of thefe branches. The trunks of the organg 
themfelves terminate in the roots of the aorta, where they 
come from under the gills. 

Cuvier confiders thefe parts as not only ferving the pur- 
pofes of refpiratory organs, but alfo as aéting as hearts, by 
giving an impulfe to the blood which flows through the 
aorta. 

The numerous furfaces furnifhed by the gills of fifhes 
qualify them for dividing, in an eminent degree, the water 
which paffes over them, and for feparating from it all the air 
with which it may be mechanically combined. The quan- 
tity of air confumed by the refpiration of a fifh is greater 
than would be at firft expeéted. If one be enclofed in a 
veffel of water which is completely excludsd from the at- 
mofphere, it very foon extraéts all the air mixed with the 
water, and expires. Such a refult will, however, excite no 
furprife if we contemplate the extent of furface upon which 
the blood is expofed to the furrounding element. 

Monroe has calculated that the furfaces of the gillsin a 
large /kate (raja batis) are nearly equal to the whole external 
furface of the human body. There are eighteen fides on the 
branchie ; each of thefe fides has about fifty divifions or 
doublings of the membrane ; each of thefe divifions, he fays, 
poffeffes one hundred and fixty fubdivifions, doublings,orfolds 
of its membrane, the length of each of which, in a very large. 

JSkate, he takes as about one-eighth of an inch, and its breadth 

about the oneefixteenth of an inch; fo that in the whole 

gills there are one hundred and forty-four thoufand fubdivi- 
fions or folds, the two fides of each of which are equal to 

the fixty-fourth part of a fquare inch ; or the furface of the 

whole gills in a large /£ate is equal to two thoufand two hun- 

dred and fifty fquare inches, that is, to more than fifteen 

{quare feet. ; 

It appears to us that Dr. Monroe has very much over- 
rated the dimenfions of the laminz of the gills in his calcula- 
tion ; {till, however, it muft be admitted, that the refpiratory 
furface of the branchiz in the /Rate is prodigioufly extenfive, 
and vaftly furpaffes what would be fuppofed before being 
thus viewed in detail; andif the aggregate of all the fur- 
faces of the villi we have difcovered in the laminz of the 
gills in ofeous fifhes could be afcertained, it would probably 
be found to exceed very far the fuperticies of the gills in the 
ray geuns. 

Some fifhes, as the genus eyprinus, &c. come to the furface 
of the water to obtain a fupply of air from the atmofphere ; 
the {pecies that require this are particularly vivacious ; many 
of thefe will refpire air alone for feveral days after they are 
caught, during which the operculum of the gills may be ob- 
ferved to rife and fall alternately, like the motions of the 
thorax in thofe animals which refide conftantly in air. 

In Plate IV. of the Anatomy of Fifkes, fig. 6. reprefents a 
portion of the gills of the cod(gadus morrbua) of the natu- 
ral fize. a isa piece of the branchial arch, on which the la- 
minz are fuftained ; 4, 4, the laminez of one row; ¢, «, thofe 
of the other row appearing partially behind them. ig. 7. 
of the fame plate, exhibits the manner in which the two 

6 Toys 


F1IS He 


rows of lamince are placed with refpeét to each other in the 
cod; ais the branchial arch cut tran{verfely ; 6 5, the fe€tion 
of the branches of arteries which tranfmit the blood to the 
gills, and return it afterwards to form the aorta; ¢ ¢, a la- 
mina of each row croffing each other, which is the pofition 
they have in this fifh, in which they are not united to each 
other. Jig. 8. of the fame plate, prefentsa fingle lamina 
of the cad, confiderably magnified, in order to fhew the 
villous proceffes we have difcovered to exilt upon its furface, 
Fig. 9. isa lateral view of a portion of the gill of the 
Shate (raja batis) ; a, the bafis of the gill or branchial arch ; 
4, the furface from which the lamine proceed, and to which 
they are conneted by the greateft part of one of their cdges ; 
¢, ¢, the fine edges of the lamine. Fig. to. of this plate, 
fhews one of the lamine of the firft order of the /kale, mage 
nified ; a, the border which is attached; 4, the edge which 
floats, is feen furnifhed with villous proceffes ; c, the inter- 
mediate furface, covered with fine fubordinate laminz. 


Kidnies and urinary Bladder. 


. Thefe glands ufually bear a greater proportion to the fize 
of the body in fthes, than in any other clafs of animals. 
They not only extend the whole length of the abdominal 
cavity, but often pafs as far forwards as the fides of the 
cfophagus, and back of the cranium, and fometimes go 
backwards along the {pine, confiderably beyond all the ab- 
dominal vifcera. They are proportionably {ma'l in the ray 
and fhark genera. 

« The kidnies are always clofely applied to the furface of 
the vertebral column, from which it is difficult to remove 
them ; the furface, which is next to the fpine, isconfequently 
very irregular, particularly in ofeous fi/bes. The greatett 
part of the kidnies is covered. on the tower furface, by the 
air-bladder, when this organ exifls. 


_ The form of thefe glands is fomewhat various; fometimes, 
as in the carp, &c. there is a tranfverfe lobule on the external 
fide of each kidney, at the anterior part, which gives them 
an uniform figure. This lobnle projects chiefly from the 
internal fide in the dory (zeus fuber). “I'he kidnies are fome~ 
times of nearly the fame breadth at every part ; in other in- 
ftances they are confiderably {maller anteriorly. They are 
in general but imperfeétly divided into lobules, which gives 
an obfcure notched appearance along their external edge ; 
there are two pofterior lobes which project backwards for a 
greater or lefs diftance. 


The proper coat of the kidnies is extremely thin. On 
the under furface they are covered by the peritoneum, which 
clofely edheres to them. 

. The ufual colour of the kidnies 13 a dark reddifh brown. 

. Their texture is foft and fragile, and yields equally in all 
directions to the preflure of tbe fingers, In the ray and 
Seark genera their fubftance is formed of a lighter red 
colour than in ofleous fifhes. In every inftance the kidnies 
have an uniform ftru€ture. ‘They are very vafcular, being 
fupplied by numerous arteries from the adjacent trunks. 


The uriniferons du&s are numerous, and diftributed 
throughout the whole fubflance of thefe glands. They are, 
at their commencement, fine and tranfparent; but as they 
become larger their coats appear opake, and of*a filvery 
hue. There are no cells or refervoirs in the interior of the 
kidney, into which the uriniferous canals pour out their 
fluid, as in mammalia; thefe velfels coalefce to form the 
ureters, as in birds and reptiles. 

' Thefe duéts run generally along the under furface of the 
kidnies, imbedded in their fubftance, and acquire magnitude 


as they proceed. In the /gualus maximut, according to Mr, 
Home, they run along the inner edge of the kidnies, 

An urinary bladder, {uch as exilts in other animals, ia 
wanting in a great number of fifhes; but in its place we ge- 
nerally find a dilated canal into which the ureters open. This 
canal 1s fometimes fo wide as to approach the appearance of 
a fac or bladder ; it is generally capable of containing a 
certain quantity of urine. Its coats are ftronger than thofe 
of the proper urinary bladder, and it is often plicated or 
laminated upon the inner furface. 

When the urinary bladder exifts, it is a thin pellucid bag. 
It is found in many cartilaginous tithes, as the frog-fifh 
(lophius pifcatorius) ; the lump fifh (cyclopterus lumpus) ; moon 


JSife (tetraodon mola), &c. &c. and the number of offcous 


fifhes in which it has been obferved to exift is much greater. 
la the carp (cyprinus carpio)the bladder is of a {pherical fhape; 
in the father-lafber (cottus fcorpius) it is more elongated in its 
form, and of confiderable fize in proportion to that of the 
fifh to which it belongs. 

The urinary bladder difcharges its contents ufually by’ 
an opening diftin& from the anus, and placed a little farther 
back than that aperture. 


There is no proper urinary bladder in the ray and _fhark gee 
nera. Theureters terminate in a cloaca, asin birds. Mr. Home 
has, however, obferved. in the da/king /hark (/qualus maximus) 
that ‘* the ureters terminate in an oval cavity juft within the 
verge of the anus, which has an imperfe@& feptum fepzrat- 
ing it into two parts, the ureters opening on the op- 
polite fides of this feptum ; this cavity mult, therefore, he 
fays, be confidered as the urinary bladder. This cavity 
opens externally in the male, by an infundibular procefs 
which correfponds to the penis. DoStor Monroe has like- 
wife called the part which conveys the urine into the cloaca 
in the common /eate the urinary bladder. 


It is impoffible to affign the ufe of the bladder or any 
refervoir for the urine in fithes; thefe animals continually 
refiding in the water, one fhould have fuppofed that no 
inconvenience could have arifen from the expulfion of their 
urine as faft as it was fecreted ; perhaps part of their urine 
is abforbed, as in other animals, and carried back into the 
{yf{tem, for which purpofe it is neceflary to detain it for fome 
time before it is ejected. 

No accurate examination has been made of the chemical 
properties of the urine of fifhes, as far as we are ecquainted. 
Although exceedingly tran{parent, it pofleffes more of the 
urinous flavour than the contents of the bladder in reptiles ; 
it'may, however, be queftioned, how far the fluid found in 
the bladder of reptiles is really urine: this will be confidered 
in its proper place. 

Anatomifts have agreed in denying rena! glands or capfules 
to the whole clafs of fifhes; there are in the dory (zeus 
faber) two afh-coloured glandular bodies, about the fize of 
{mall peas, placed upon the pofterior extremity of the 
kidnies ; thefe glands are of a firm, tough texture through- 
out; they are attached to the kidnics, and alfo to the 
pofterior end of the air-bag, by fome ligamentovs-looking 
cords. We have not yet examined other fifhes with the 
view of obferving fimilar bodies in them; we are, therefore, 
not prepared to fay how far thefe glands may ecrrefpond 
with the renal capfules of other avimals, or whether they 
may not be conneéted with the offices of the air-bag in this 
particular fith. 

Fig. 11. of Plate IV. in the Anatomy of Fifhes, reprefents 
the dilated canal, which takes the place of the urinary blad- 
der in the dory (zeus faler) ; a, a, are portions of the two 
ureters which end in the fundus of the fac; 4, the wide part 

oi 


Fis H- 


of the canal; ¢, the contraéted part, which goes on to 
terminate behind the anus; the canal is laid open to thew 
that it is plicated on the inner furface. 


Organs fubfervient to the generative Fundlions. 


Male parts of generation—If we except the holders, or 
ergans ot prebenfion, in the genera raja and /qualus, there are 
no external parts of generation in the clafs of fifhee. From 
the manner in which thefe animals in general accomplifh the 
a@ of generation, a penis would be perfectly ufelefs to them, 
and the organs for preparing the male femen would be ex- 
pofed continually to injury, if placed on the outfide of their 
bodies. 

The parts reputed to be the organs of prehenfion in the 
vay and /hark kind, are fituated at the fides of the anus, be- 
tween the two ventral fins. They confitt of three parts, 
articulated with the pelvis, refembling additional abdominal 
members. They are compofed of thirteen cartilaginous 
joints, of different fizes and fizures, which are moved by 
certain mufcles covered by the common integuments, ard 
connected with a fingular gland. 

The firft part is formed by three fhort cartilaginous 
pieces, articulated one to the other. The fecond part is 
likewife compofed of three cartilages, which are long, and 
not moveable upon each other. The two exteroal pieces 
interrupt a canal which proceeds to open in a hollow formed 
in the third part. This laft is made.up of feven cartilages, 
all moveable on each other; it receives likewife one of the 
pieces of the fecond part, which goes on as far as its 
extremity. 

The fir part admits of flexion outwards upon the fecond, 
and of extenfion, and the whole member is moveable from 
without inwards. Thefe motions are performed by the 
means of two mufcles. One of thefe arifes from the pelvis 
and terminates at the commencement of the fecond part. 
It is confounded with the flexor of the veotral fin. The 
other mulcle is fmailer, and placed upon the firlt; it arifes 
from the firft part, and is inferted at the commencement of 
the fecond. 

There is a third mufcle which takes its origin from the 
third part, and envelopes the fecond, except a {mall portion 
of its external fide, and is inferted by a flender tendon upon 
the inferior and external fide of the la{t piece, and is affixed 
at the fuperior fide to an extended border that is prefented 
before the piece, which hasthe figure of ablade. The ute 
of this mufcle is to open the canal already mentioned, which 
is clofed by the elafticity of the parts compofing it. 

The gland is fituated at the exterior of the middle part 
of this apparatuse It is an oval figure, and furrounded 
by a thick mufcle; it furnifhes a very vifcid fluid, and its 
excretory duét opens into the groove that is formed by the 
two cartilaginous pieces of the fecond part, and is lo{t in 
the hollow of the third. 

Naturalifts are not agreed with refpe& to the ufe of thefe 
fingular members. Cuvier thinks that they are only em- 
ployed in {wimming, as the largeft of their mufcles is alfo 
the depreffor of the ventral fin, and as their parts are not 
provided with mufcles, to be approximated with fufficient 
force to act as organs of prehenfion. Bloch, and many 
others, fuppofed that they were defigned to hold the female 
during coition. Geoffroy believes that they are introduced 
into the cloaca of the female, and perform the office in fome 
degree of a penis. We are molt inclined to adopt the lalt 
opinion. If this apparatus was intended for {wimming 
alone, why fhould it be peculiar to the male? and if for 
prehenfion, a gland to fecrete a flimy fluid would be not 


only unneceffary, but inconvenient. The ray and /hark 
genera fhould therefore, perhaps, be confidered as excep- 
tions to the general obfervation, that fifhes do not poflefs 
a penis. 

The tefes of the genera raja and /qualus differ very much 
from thofe of other fifhes; they bear a greater refemblance 
to the fame organs in fome reptiles than to thofe of their 
owu clafs. Each tefticle confifts of two parts united toe 
gether. The one is an uniform glandular mafs, fomewhat 
like the texture of the teftes of other fifhes ; it is flattened 
and imperfe&tly divided into lobes. The other portion is 
made up of a great number of {mall {pherical bodies, on the 
external furface of each of which there is a flight depreffion, 
like an impreffion made by the head of a pin; thefe bodies 
are united to each other by fome ftrong filaments, and are 
inclofed in a fine membrane. This tubercular fubftance 
forms the principal portion of the gland, aug is divided 
into feveral lobes or maffes of different fizes." When exa- 
mined with a magnifying glafs it appears to confift of very 
minute round grains. 

The teiticles in thefe fifhes give origin to a real epididymis, 
which is evidently compofed of a couvoluted tube, It is 
thin, where it is conneéted with the gland, with which it 
appears to be continuous; it forms alarge mafs of an oblong 

hape. 

From the lower part of the epididymis the was deferens 
comes forth; it is a canal of confiderable fize, and as it 
proceeds along the fpine, towards the anus, formsa great 
number of figmoid flexures or coils upon itfelf. Thefe 
become lefs ftriking, and the dué& enlarges as it approaches 
a fac near the cloaca, in which it terminates in fuch a man- 
ner, that although they form a common receptacle, there is 
not a free communication between them. 

Monroe {tates that thefe facs contain a green coloured 
fluid, and he confiders them analogous to the pro/fate gland; 
they appear to us to correfpond much more with the ve/ficule 
Jeminales, if they be looked upon as any thing more than 
a dilatation of the vas deferens. Monroe deferibes the di- 
lated part of the vas deferens, before its communication with 
the fac, asa veficula feminalis; in which he is evidently wrong. 
He was led into this error from confidering the veficule fee 
minales of mammialiaas mere refervoirs of the femen. 

The vas deferens and fac of each fide open into a cylindric 
papilla, which is vifible in the cloaca. 

The teites of the other orders of fifhes are two elongated 
bodies, fometimes cylindric or conic in their form, but moft 
commonly notched or divided into imperfeét lobules ; they are 
of a pele grey or afh colour, foft, pulpy, and homogeneous 
in their te ture, relembling very much medullary fubftance 5 
their foftnefs renders their intimate ftru@ture very obfcure, 
but they appear to be compofed of an intertexture of fine 
membrane and pultaceous matter. They do not furnifh any 
epididymis, nor, properly fpeaking, vafa deferentia; but 
open at their pofterior extremity almoft immediately at the 
foramen, behind the anus, which is a common opening for 
tran{mitting the urine and femen. The teftes of fifhes are 
popularly known under the name of the mi/t or /oft row. 

hefe glands increafe remarkably in fize during the feafon 
that the females expel their ova; they are then full of a 
white thick fluid, like miik, which is no doubt the male 
femen. At this period they make fo material an addition 
to the bulk of the body of ftifhes, that thefe animals are 
then orly fought after as articles of food. 

In Plate V. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. exhibits a 
view of the genital organs in the male fkate (raja batis) 5 
a is the white medullary portion of the tefticle; 6, the 
tubercular portion ; thefe parts are cut away on the oppos 

fite 


FISH. 


fite fide to abridge the fize of the figure and expofe other 
parts; cc, the epididymus of each fide; d, d, the vafa 
deferentia; e, e, the facs in which the vafa deferentia termi- 
nate; the one on the right fide is laid open to expofe its 
cavity and conncétion with the vas deferens; f is the 
cylindric papilla upon which the conduits of the femen 
terminate. 


Female organs. 


In the genera raja and /gualus thefe parts are more pecu- 
liarly formed than even the male organs of thefe fifhes. 
‘They refemble in a very great degree the female organs of 
birds, 

The ovaries of thefe genera confift of clufters of round 
eggs of various fizes and different ftages of growth. The 
membrane which envelopes the ovaries nearly furrounds each 
of the ova, which therefore, efpecially when mature, appear 
diftin& and have fome liberty of motion. Thefe ova confit 
only of the yolks, and are of a pale yellow colour. In 
their mode of growth, conneétion with the ovary, and man- 
ner of exclufion from it, they very much refemble the 
racemus vitellorum of birds. 

Although in thefe genera there are two oviduéts, they are 
conjoined at their extremities to form a fingle aperture, which 
is placed immediately behind the feptum that divides the 
branchial and abdominal cavities, This part ot the oviduéts 
may be confidered as analogous to the infundibulum in birds. 
The ovarian tube of each fide at firft procceds for fome way 
outwards and backwards, at which place its canal is 
fmall, and its parietes thin and plicated longitudinally upon 
the inner furface. It then fuddenly enlarges, and inclofes 
ip its coats a large glandular mafs, fomething between a 
f{quare and kidney fhape; this body is compofed of a num- 
ber of white tubes, which are fo difpofed that their ends 
are tumed towards the cavity. or internal part of the gland; 
at one fide of this mafs there is the appearance of a {tripe of 
tubes or fibres, which croffes the other ftructure, and is_pro- 
bably a mufcle for contraéting the cavity. The internal 
membrane of this part is fmooth, and fo thin and tranfparent 
thatthe tubes are very vifible through it. 

_ The interpofition ot fo large a gland in the courfe of the 
ovarian duét is unqueftionably for the fecretion of that re- 
markable horny covering or /hell which is found on the ova of 
thefe fithes, and yet it fhould be obferved, that we have 
not been able to difcover the orifices of the tubes upon the 
internal membrane of the oviduét, nor have we fececeded in 
éxprefling the {malleit quantity of fluid ftom the tubes into 
the cavity of the gland. 

’ The portion of the ovidu& which fucceeds the gland is 
greatly dilated, its parietes are thin, and the internal fur- 
face ('n the /Rate at leaft) is covered with fine tranfverfe 
folds, or rather linear impreffions, not refembling the plice of 
an intefline, which are thin produdtions of the internal 
coat. 

The oviduéts terminate by a corrugated or puckered 
Opening on each fide of a confiderable cavity, within the 
anus, which fome authors have defcribed as a werws, and 
others asthe c/oaca. The latter name appears to be the 
moft correct, as this cavity receives the urine, and communi- 
cates with the reétum. The orifices by which the ovi- 
duéts terminate in the cloaca are furrounded by mucous 
glands. | 

In the genus chimera there are firft fome fmall du&s, of 
which the extremity attached to the ovaries is apea and 
{prcad out. Afftera fhort {pace they fuddenly enlarge, and 
form aconfderable glandular mafs, of which the fafciculi 
of tubes that compole it are perpendicular to its parictes 


From thefe glands to their termination. the ovidu@s are 
membranous, and of great capacity; where they terminate 
they are conjoined and open externally by one common 
aperture. 

In the ofeous, and in the cartilaginous fithes, except thofe 
already defcribed, the ovaries confit of two membranous 
facs or bags, the cavity of which is occupied by numerous 
leaves, formed by reflections of the membrane 3 the folds 
are ufually placed tranfverfely; they contain the ova 
withio their duplicatures ; they are copioufly fupplied with 
blood-veffels, and exhibit (efpecially after injeGion, with a 
coloured fluid) a very beautiful and variegated foliated ap- 
pearance, 

The ovaries of different offeous fifhes are of various forms ; 
they are ufually elongated and poirted at either end. In 
the dory (zeus faber) they are flat, and approach a {quare 
figure ; in many fifhes they have four corners, which are elon- 
gated forwards and backward>, In fome of the pleuronefes, 
and in fome other fifhes, a part of the ovaries is extended 
backwards in that procefs of the abdominal cavity which 
is continued along the external parts of the {pines of the 
caudal vertebra. 

We have oblerved but one ovary, of a pear fhape, in the 
perch (perca fluviatilis) ; perhaps fome other fithes may be 
found to have fing]le ovaries, 

The ovaries of offeous fithes increafe prodigioufly during 
the feafons for depofiting their ova. At this period they 
exceed in fize all the reft of the vifcera; although after the 
feafon of {pawning they are the fmalleft vifcera in the body : 
the variations in their bulk depend upon the number of ova 
they contain, for their parietes are at all times nearly of the 
fame thicknefs. 


Fifhes in general furpafs all other animals in fecundity 
M. Rovffeau, a laborious French anatomilt, has taken the 
pains to reckon the number of ova contained in the ovaries 
of feveral fpecies.. He found in the flargeon (acipenfer Jflurio) 
1,467,856 eggs ; in the mackarel (fcomber fcombrus) 129,200 ; 
in the perch (perca fluviatilis) 69,216; in the carp (cyprinus 
carpio) 167,400; and in the pike (cfox lucius) 166,400 
eggs. 

The ova of thofe fifhes which are not viviparous are all 
fmail, and of the fame fize; they are generally about the 
bulk of pin heads. They are not expelled from the ovary 
in fucceflion, as in the chondropterygii, but in large quantities, 
like the fpawn of frogs ; which they further refemble in being 
impregnated, and undergoing their changes outfide the body 
of the parent. 

Except in the viviparous fithes alfo there are no ovidués > 
the ovaries terminate immediately at a particular aperture 
placed behind the anus. 

From the preceding defeription it will be perceived, that the 
mode of generation in the genera raya, /qualus, and chimera 
is effentially different from that of fifhesin general. Inthofe 
genera the eggs do not leave the ovary unul they acquire 
a confiderable magnitude; their ttru@ure is eompleted in their 
paffage through the ovidu@ts, in which alfo they are moft 
probably impregnatéd, During the refidence of the ege in 
the ovidu& its contents are changed in their organization, 
and the foetus is formed in the fame manner as ‘during the 
incubation of the egg of birds; and when the ovum is dif. 
charged from the body of the filh, the fhell fplits, and admits 
the water in which the foetus floats, {till nourithed by the 
yolk which remains attached to its inteltine. 

At this period we have difcovered that the feetal fith is 
provided with external branchial appendages exaGtly fimilar 
to thols met with in the sadpoles of fome reptiles. It is 

whea 


FISH. 


when thefe fall off, and the yolk is confumed, that the young 
fith feeks its own fubfiftence. 

The fhells of theeggs of the raja and /gualus genera, after 
being evacuated by their inhabitants, are commonly from 
their lightnefs caft on fhore, and are known in fome places 
under the name of /ea bats. For a further account of the 
hiftory of the ovum, and the changes it undergoes in fifhes, 
fee the articles Ovum and IncuBaTion. 

The fecond figure of Plate V. of the Anatomy of Fifhesy 
gives a view of the female organs of the /Rate (raja batis) ; 
«a, the firft portion of the ovarian tubes; 4, their junction 
and aperture by which they communieate with the cavity 
of the abdomen ; c, ¢, the glandular bodies ; the one on the 
right fide is laid open to fhew its compofition to be of tubes ; 
d, d, the fucceeding portions of the ovidvé, which are very 
capacious, and perform in fome refpeéts the offices of uteri; 
¢,a mature egg feen in the enlarged part of the oviduct ; 
fi fr the ovaries containing eggs of various fizes ; g g, the 
termination of the oviduéts in the cloaca; 4, the cioaca; 
the opening by which it receives the urine; &, the 
anus. 


Organs employed in the Exercife of the animal Fun@ions. 


Brain. 


The dura mater in fithes refembles very nearly the common 
periofteum ; the diftinction of two layers is not evident ; and 
thofe broad refle@tions of the internal layer which exift in 
‘mammalia for feparating the different divilions of the cere- 
bral ma(s are wanting. The dura mater approaches, in the 
large fihhes, nearly to a cartilaginous nature. 


As the cavity of the cranium is much larger than the brain, 
there is a confiderable {pace left between them, which contains 
a quantity of gelatinous matter in the cartilaginous fifbes, and 
commonly an oily fluid in the ofeous ffbes. ‘There is alfo a 
confiderable quantity of falt water found in the cavity of 
the cranium, which has been fuppofed by doétor Monroe to 
be fea water carried thither by abforption, as we have men- 
tioned in {peaking of the falt liquor met with in the cavities 
of the abdomen and pericardium of filhes. 

The fluid of the cavity of the cranium is very frequently 
flained by admixture with blood, which appears to_ be ex- 
travafated in it in {mall quantity. 

Thefe fiuids are contained in a very loofe cellular texture, 
which correfponds to the funica arachnoidea of other animals. 
Monroe found the furface of the brain covered with a number 
of {mall {pheroidal bodies ; thefe are probably contained in 
the tunica arachnoidea. . 

The pia mater clofely invefts the furface of the brain aS 
ufual ; it likewife lines the ventricles, and produces a plexus 
analogous to the choroid plexus ; which however does not float 
in the cavity of the ventricles. Cuvier deferibes alfo two 
other produGtions of the pia mater, fituated.in the fourth ven- 
tricle, which appear to be at liberty. 

The brain of fithes poffeffes the chara&ters defcribed in 
that of dirds and reptiles in a ftill more remarkable degree 
than this organ in either of thofeclafles. Itis very {mall in 
proportion to the fize of the whole body, and bears even a 
greater difproportion to the bulk of the nerves which arife 
from it. Cuvier ftates the proportion of the brain to the 
reft of the body to be as 1 to 2496 in the white fhark 
(/qualus carcharias), 1 to 1344 in the great dog-fifh ( fqualus 
canicula), 1 to 37440 in the sunny (/combir thynnus), 1 to 
1305 in the pike (c/ox lucius), 1 to 560 in the carp (cyprinus 
carpio), t to 1817 in the filurus glanis. The greater tize of 
the brain in the carp accords with the well known dociliry 


and intelligence of that fpecies; and the fmall proportion 
which the brain of fifhes generally bears to the fize of the 
body, is what might naturally be expected from the dulnefs 
and incapacity of this clafs of animals in general. On look- 
ing at the brain of a ffh one is {truck with its diffimiarity 
to the cerebral mafs of man or quadrupedsy-it appears like a 
fucceffion of tubercles fearcely conjoined together: the 
eminences which nearly correfpond to the cerebrum and 
cerebellum are not diftinguifhed from the others, which 
give origin to the nerves, and in fome cafes might be over- 
looked from their being {maller. 


The cerebrum is always compofed of two hemifpheres, as 
in other animals; it is {mooth and without convolutions : 
thofe parts called corpus callofum, fornix, &c. cannot be dif- 
tinguifhed at the junction ot the hemifpheres. 

There is a cavity in each hemifphere which correfponds 
to the /ateral ventricle; it is not, however, prolonged and 
refleGed fo as to form thofe parts termed dorns in mam- 
malia. 

The floor of the ventricles is plain in the ray and /hark 
genera, but in moft other fifhes there is an elevation, ulually 
of a femicircular figure, from the external or convex fide of 
which a number of medullary ftrie go off in a radiated 
manner upon the internal parietes of the ventricle: this 
eminence correfponds to the corpus ffriatum; it varies with re- 
fpe&t to fize in different {pecies, and alfo fometimes in its 
figure: according to Cuvier it forms in the whiting (gadus 
merlangus), an elevated oval body. 

Between the corpora ftriata there isa {mall chink, which 
opens into the third ventricle. 

The anterior commifure of the brain is fituated a little 
below thefe eminences. 

There are fome tubercles within the hemifpheres, which 
Cuvier confiders analogous to the ¢ubercula quadrigemina, 
although their fituation isnot the fame. They are placed, 
as in birds, before and above the thalami nervorum opti- 
corum. In the genus crprinus there are four of thefe 
tubercles, two anterior and two pollerior; the former 
are extremely long, cylindric in their fhape, and 
bent outwards and backwards, taking the curvature of the 
lateral ventricles, the cavity of which they fill: they are 
marked potteriorly by a longitudinal furrow ; the polterior 
tubercles are round, and much fmaller than the anterior. 


The cel (murena anguilla), haddock (gadus eglefinus), and 
herring (clupea harengus), have but one pair of thofe tubercles, 
which produce a femioval eminence before the cerebellum, 
between the pofterior extremities of the corpora ftriata. 
The pike (cfox luctus), trout (falmo fario), falmon (falmo 
falar), and perch (perca fluviatilis), have four tubercles which 
are diftin&, round, and f{mall; the pofterior pair is larger 
than the anterior. Thefe tubercles are not found in the ray - 
and /hark genera. 

‘The thalami nervorum opticorum are two diftin& tubercles 
fituated below the hemifpheres, as in birds; each of them 
likewife contains a ventricle. 

The cerebellum is generally Jarge in proportion to the ces 
rebrum, and in fome in{tances even exceeds it in fize: it is 
fometimes rugous on the furface; it is always a fingle tu- 
bercle without lobes, and ufitally of a heart fhape, the apex 
of which is turned backwards ; fometimes the fuperior part 
is the moft prominent. When the cerebellum is cut 


into, the feétion of it expofes fome indiftin® pale.coloured 


lines; but that arborefcent arrangement of medullary fub- 
ftance, called ardor vite, does not exilt. 


The fourth ventricle is generally large; with refpe& to 
the other cavities of the brain, it not only pafles under the 
cerebellum 


FI 


cerebellum as ufual, but afcends for fome way in its fub- 
flance. 

We have next to confider thofe additional tubercles of 
the brain of filhes upon which its chara€ter depends, and 
which conftitute in general the greateft part of its bulk; 
they are placed. before the cerebrum and behind the cere- 
bellum. ; 

The anterior tubercles give origin to the nerves, which 
go to the organ of f{melling ; they are therefore commonly 
named the olfadory tubercles. They are ufually a fingie 
pair. Inthe ray and /hark genera they are united and form 
one mafs, which exceeds in fize all the reft of the brain: 
the figure of this mafs is a little various, and is difficult to 
defcribe. Inthe thoribeck (raja clavata), it is fomewhat of 
atriangular figure, one of the fides or the bafe being turned 
forwards ; in the /efer dog fifh (fqualus catulus) the fore part 
is cirenlar, and the back a little concave in the centre. The 
olfa&tory tubercle in thefe fithes has been defcribed by fome 
authors as the cerebrum, and by others as its anterior lobes. 

The olfa&tory tubercles are long and narrow in the flurgeon 
(acipenfer flurio) ; they are oval maffes, fmaller than the hemi- 

- fpheres in the /ump-f/b (cyclopterus lumpus), and in the moon- 
jifh (tetraodcn mola). In the genus gadus they are round, 
and in the cod (gadus morhua) they are nearly as large as 
the hemifpheres: according to Cuvier they are alfo round 
and notched on one fide in the wraffes (/abrus), and in the 
carp (cyprinus) ; but Ebel and Scarpa have delineated them 
in the common carp (cyprinus carpio), of an egg-fhape ; 
they are oval in the filurus glanis. 

There are four olfa€tory tubercles arranged in pairs in the 
fiat fifbes (pleuronedes), the herrings (clupea), the pikes (cfox), 
the perches (perca), and in the genus /a/mo: the anterior 
pair is in the common fike (c/ox Jucius) fo {mall, that they 
might readily efcape ob{crvation: the pofterior pair, although 
larger, are not equal in fize to the hemifpheres, 

In the sels (genus murena), there are three pair of olfac- 
tory tubercles; the firft pair are thef malleft; the fecond 
fomewhat larger; and the third, or pofterior, confiderably 
the largeft, being about the magnitude of the hemifpheres. 

- The olfaGtory tubercles do not in any {pecies contain a ca- 
vity or ventricle. 

~The tubercles fituated behind the cerebellum are peculiar to 
the clafs of fifhes: they are in general a fingle pair, but in 
fome fpecics there isa third fingle tubercle placed in the 
middle immediately before the other two, and behind the 
cerebellum. 

~ Some anatomifts fuppofe that the lateral tubercles are 
analogous to the corpora olivaria of mammalia, and the mid- 
dle tubercle has been deferibed as a fecond cerebellum: the 
latter is evidently erroneous; but the former appears to be 
perfeGtly well founded: the ccrpora olivaria and thefe tu- 
bercles correfpond both with refpeé& to fitvation and in 
giving origin to the pofterior nerves of the brain: it would 
be more corre&, however, to fay that the corpora olivaria 
are thefe tubercles on an abridged {cale. 

The pofterior lateral tubercles are large and irregularly 
furrowed inthe ray genus. Inthe whiting (gadus merlangus), 
and the cod (gadus morhua), the tubercies are oval, and 
placed above the medulla oblongata, They are fimilar m the 
gommon.and couger eels (murena anguilla and m. conger); they 
are incovfiderable’in the pike (c/ox luctus), the /almon (fale 
falar), the treut (falno fario), and the perch (perca /luvi- 
atilis ) 

In the carp (cyprinus carpio) the pofterior lateral tubercles 
are extremely large; they equal in fize the hemifphere of 
the cerebrum ; they have fomewhat the figure of kidnies. 

Vou. XIV. 

, 


SH. 
This fith likewife poffeffes the middle tubercle, which is 


large, and of a round figure. 

There are no cavities in the pofterior tubercles of fithes. 

There is nothing very peculiar to remark with refpe& to 
the origin of the nerves in fithes. 

The olfadory nerves are produced from the tubercles 
placed before the cerebrum, as already mentioned ; they gene- 
rally appear as the continuation of thefe tubercl-s; this is 
particularly evident in the ray and /hark. 

An the carp and filurus glanis, &c. the olfafory nerves 
arife by two or three filaments from the tubercles. 

The optic nerves take their rife, as ufual, from the thalami 
nervorum opticorum; immediately after their origin they 
decuffate, or crofs each other. In offeous fifhes this is molt 
obvious ; in which the optic nerves may be feen lying eae 
acrofs the other, and only conneéted by cellular fubftances. 
The right nerve goes to the left eye, and the left nerve to 
the right eye. Many anatomilts have fuppofed, in confe- 
quence of the decuffation of the nerves being fo palpable ia 
fithes, that fomething of the fame kind takes place in other 
animals, by which they have explained the fympathy that 
is well known to exift between one eye and the other, in 
the fuperior animals ; there is, however, fuflicient conne4tioa 
between the two fides of the brain, to account for the 
{ympathies of the organs of vifion, without afcribing it to 
the decuffation of the optic nerves. 

Euftachius and Malpighi have ftated, that in fome fithes 
the optic nerves have an inveftment of pia mater, containing 
very elegant longitudinal folds. 

The third and fourth, and fixth patr of nerves, arife aa near 
as may be from the fame parts of the brain which furnifh 
them in mammalia. 

The ffih pair are produced by a common trunk with the 
portia mollis, or auditory nerve; this trunk arifes from the 
tubercles bebiad the cerebellum in the rays and farks, and 
from the beginning of the medulla oblongata, in the ofous 
fifhes. 7 

The facial nerve, or that analogous to the sortia dura of 
the /eventh pair, is quite diftin& from the auditory ; and 
arifes in common with the par wagum, or the eighth pair, of 
which it might, with equal propricty, be confidered a 
branch. 

The nerves analogous to the eighth pair arife from the fide 
of the medulla oblongata, and the back part of the pofterior 
lateral tubercles of the cerebellum, when thefe exif, 

There is no nerve analogous to the ninth pair, or hypogloffal 
nerves in fifhes ; although Ebel has figured a large afcicalus 
in the carp, (cyprinus carpio), which he defe tb<s 2s the ninth 
pair. Much confution exifts amdngft autho:s on this fu jt; 
thus Ebel confounds the eighth with the ninth pair; 
Monroe calls the olfaétory tubercl:s the anterior protu- 
berances of the brain; and deicribes the fixth for the fifth 
pair of nerves ; Scarpa delineates the hemifpbercs of the 
cerebrum under the name of the olive foaped protuberances 
of the brain. See Monroe’s Phyfiology of Filhes. Anstomice 
Difquiiitiones de Auditu & OlfaQu, by Scarpa; and Ohferva- 
tiones Neurologic: ex Anatom. comparata, by Jo. Godof. 
Ebel. ’ 

The brain of fithes has been hitherto byt little fludied jn 2 
phyfiological point of view. Its ftruéture in this clafs of 
animals, however, promifes to illudtrate the fan@ions of the 
different parts of the organ, as they are fo diftin@, that their 
proportional. magnitude and importance may be fairly ap- 
preciated. The great relative fize of the eminences which 
furnifh the nerves of fenfe, and the {mall quauiity of cerebral 
fubftance employed to unite them into one mafs, would 
lead us to conclude, that filhes receive vivid impreflions upox 


2 thetic 


FISH 


their organ of fenfe, under the immediate impulfe of which 
their aétions are dire ted 3 and that they have little capacity 
for combining or aflociating their fenfations : a conclufion 
which exa@ly accords with what has been obferved refpec- 
ing the habits and manners of this clafs of animals. We 
believe if the fame rule for judging of the mental faculties 
be extended to other animals, that it will anfwer equally 
well; and that the /enfitive powers will be found propor- 
tioned to the relative magnituce, and the diftin€@tnefs of the 
parts of the brain which give origin to the nerves ; and that 
the intelledual facuities wi!l keep pace with the developement 
of thofe parts which ferve to unite the preceding. It is 
poflibie that this rale may b= employed, to calculate the 
comparative cxccllence of the fenfitive, and intellectual facul- 
ties of individuals in the fame f{pecies. Perhaps even by 
thefe means fome fteps may be made tow irds afcertaining the 
fhades and varieties in the mental charaGter of men. 

The {ympathetic connection of the different parts of the 
fyftem, doubtlefs depends upon the union of the nerves in 
the common fenforium, which being imperfeét in fifhes, it 
became neceflary thattheir optic nerves fheuld be diftributed to 
the fides oppolite to their origin, on account of the organs of 
vifion acting confentaneoufly,or in harmony,with each other. 

In Plate VI. of the Anatomy of Iifbes. fig. 1. exhibits 
the upper furface of the brain of the carp (cyprinus 
carpio); a, a, the two olfa€tory tubercles; 4, 4, the two 
Remifpheres of the brain; ¢c, the cerebellum ; d, d, the 
two laceral tubercles placed behind the cerebellum, analo- 
gous to the corpora olivaria ; ¢, the fimp'e tubercle behind 
the cerebellum ; f the medulla oblongata. 

Fig. 2. fhews the brain of the carp alfo, in which the hemi- 
fpheres of the brain are cut, and turned to each fide, in order 
to bring into view the anterior tubercles which fill the lateral 
ventricles, and which are fuppofed analogous to the nates; 
gg, indicate the tubercles in queition, the other letters indicate 
the fame parts as in the preceding figure. 

Fig. 3. is the fame brain, with the nates feparated at their 
polerior part, in order to expofe the polterior tubercles, 
or thofe correfponding to the tefes; 4, b, are thefe parts; the 
references of the other figures are the fame asin the firlt 
figure. ; 

Fig. 4. is another view of the fame brain; the nates and 
tefes, or tubercula,quadrigemina, are raifed to fhew the 
corpora ftriata, and the opening into the other ventricie, &c. 
i, i, exhibitsthe ftriated bocies ; /, the fillure which leads into 
the inferior ventricle ; 4, &, the thalami nervorum opticorum, 
which are fearcely vilible. The other letters have the fame 
fignification as in the preceding fizures. 

. Fig. 5. is ftill the fame brain, with the hemifpheres re- 
moved, in order to expofe completely the thalami nervorum 
opticorum, which are defignated by the letters /, 2. 

Fig. 6. thews the brain of the carp, with the cerebellum 
divided and turned towards each fide, to expofe the fourth 
ventricle; the references are continued the fame. 

Fig. 7. is the brain of the carp, viewed upon its under 
furface. The parts feen in that pofition, which have been 
already reprefented in the other figures, are indicated by the 
fame letters. ‘The nerves are numbered according to the 
names they ufually bear, as the rit pair, or olfactory; the 
2d, or optic, and fo on; the decuflation of the optic nerves 
is pointed out by the letter m. 

Fig. 8. is a reprefentation of the upper furface of the 
brain in the ce/ (murena anguilla). The letters 2,a,a,a,a,4, 
defignate the fix olfaftory tubercles; 5,4, the two hemi- 
{pheres of the brain, which are not larger than the polterior 
olfactory tubercles 5. ¢, the cerebellum ;, d, the medulla ob- 
longata, . 


Fig. 9» exhibits the inferior furface of the brain of the eel e 
e,¢, are the thalami nervorum opticorum: the other letters 
correfpond with thofs of fg. 8. In both thele figures the 
nerves are indicated by their numbers, 

In Plate VIL. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. 1s a view 
of the head of the shornback (raja clavata), diflected to exe 
pofe she brain and organs of fente: ais the large medullary 
mafs formed by the olfaétory tubercles; 4, 6, the two hemie 
fpheres of the cerebrum, called by Scarpa olivefhaped pro- 
tuberances of the brain; c, the cerebellum depreffed along 


the middle, but not divided into two lobes ; d, a portionof “ 


the brain, which mult be confidered either as a divifion of 
the cerebellum, or the middle poerior tubercle; ¢, ¢, the 
lateral pofterior tubercles; £ medulla fpinalis. Where the 
nerves are {een in this figure, they.are expreffed by their. 
number. 

In the difleQed head of the pike (c/ox lucius), fhewn by: 
Jig. t. in Plate VIIL of the Anatomy of Fifbes, a, a, indicate: 
the two principal olfaétory tubercles; 4,4, two inconfider- 
able enlargements of tle root of the olfaGtory nerves, which 
might be confidered as lefler tubercles; c, c, the two hemi. 
{pheres of the cerebrum; d, the cerebellum. In this figure, 
likewife, fuch nerves as are feen to arife from the brain are 
expreffed by their numbers. 

In fig. 4 of Plate VILL. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, the 
olfagto:y tubercles of the carp (cyprinus carpio) are fhewn > 
a, the cerebrum; 4, 4, the olfactory tubercles; ¢, c, the origin 
of the olfactory nerves by filaments; d,d, the trunks of the 
olfactory nerves. The other nerves that appear are indi. 
cated by correfponding numbers. 


Nerves. 


The courfe and diftribution of the jir/ or olfaflory pair of 
nerves are pointed out in the defeription of the organ of 
{melling. 

The termination of the optic nerve is defcribed in that part 
of the article which treats of the eye of fifhes. The com- 
ponent filaments of the optic nerve are particularly evident: 
in this clafs of animals, and may be demonftrated without any 
preparation. They are commonly flat; and Cuvier de- 
{cribes them as being fometimes formed of a very thin mes 
dullary lamina, folded on ittelf, and contraéted into the 
figure of acord. ‘This is particularly obfervable in the cod 
(gadus morhua), and the fword-ffh (xiphias). 

The third, fourth, and fixth pairs of nerves in fithes differ. 
fo little, with refpe&t to their difribution, from the fame 
nerves in other animals, that they do not require to be de- 
{cribed. 

The jth pair of nerves, as before-mentioned, arife by a 
common trunk with the auditory nerve. In the Rate (raja: 
batis) they form two trunke in the cranium, and appear to 
coalefce in pafling out. On the outfide of the cranium there 
are again two nerves produced: the one is the ophthalmic 5- 
the other pafles under the cartilage behind the orbit, and 
immediately divides into three branches: one of thefe is a: 
nerve which has not been hitherto accurately defcribed ; the 
other branches correfpond to the /upesior and inferior maxila 
lary nerves. 

The opdthalmie branch of the jth pair paffes out of. the 
cranium into the fuperior part of the orbit, and then divides 
into two branches; of which one proceeds acrofs the orbit,. 
under the rectus fuperior and externus, and the external ob- 
lique mufcles of the eye; the other croffes above all the 
parts in the orbit. Thefe two branches, on arriving at the 
nafal cavities, re-unite to form a fingle nerve. Previous'to. 
this re-union, the fuperior branch of the ophthalmic gives. 
offa.branch to the organ of {melling. This forms an anaf- 

2. tomofis. 


———— 


FISH 


omofis with another branch, which is fent off from the con- 
joined nerves of the ophthalmic. . 

After pafling beyond the nafal cavity, the ophthalmic 
breaks into a long fafciculus, from the fides of which a great 
number of fhort branches arife, which are loft in the gela- 
tinous fubftance that is on each fide of the middle carti- 
lage of the fnout, and upon the edge of that cartilage. 

The remarkable anaftomofis of the ophthalmic nerve, and 
its diftribution in the fnout, is reprefented in Plate Vil. of 
the Anatomy of Fifbes. and fig. 1. r. fhews the origin of the 
ophthalmic from the fifth pair; s, the fuperior branch pefl- 
ing over the mufcles ot the eye; ¢, the inferior branch going 
between the mufeles of the eye; uw, the coalition of thefe 
two; 2, the firft branch fent to the organ of imelling; w, 
the fecond branch given off from the united nerve; x, the 
anaftomofis of thefe branches; y, the diltribution of the 
ophthalmic nerve in the fnout. This plate exhibits the parts 
as they appear in the thornback (raja clavata), in which they 
do not difler matcrialiy from the defcription we have given of 
them in the Late (raja batis). 

The branch of the fifth pair of nerves, which we mentioned 
ag not be:nz accuratcly cefcribed by other anatomits, pro- 
ceeds in a {traight line from its origin, under all the parts of 
the orbit, to reach the tranfverfe cartilage, fituated on the ex- 
ternal fide of the organ of {melling. Having penetrated 
this cartilage, one part of the nerve forms a fort of bulb or 
ganglion, from which.a number of fine filaments depart like 
rays: thefe are abruptly, and almoft immediately, loft in the 
membranous ftruéture which forms the centres of the albu- 
mino-gelatinous duéts, to be hereafter defcribed. The 
other portion of the nerve is diftributed in long branches to 
the lame gelatinous fubftance of the fnout. This branch of 
the fifth pair is the moft remarkable in the fifh’s body, on 
account of its giving the only example of a gangliform en- 
largement of anerve, (thofe of the organsof fenfe excepted,) 
and from the peculiar mode of its termination. It is difh- 
cult to-determine whether the fingular conformation of this 
nerve be defigned to beftow a nicer fenfe of touch on the 
f{nout, or to produce, with the albumino-gelatirous duéts, 
an electric apparatus fimilar to what exifts in the torpedo, 
&c. The latter, from analogy of firuéture, is very pro- 
bable; although the eleStric property, if it exift in the ray 
kind generally, has not yet been detedicd by its effects. 

The /uperior maxillary nerve of the /kate pafles forwards 
under the external fide of the cranium, to gain the outer 
edge of the middle cartilaze of the fnout. In this courle it 
diftributes fome {mall branches to the neighbouring parts, 
and afterwards runs in a groove in the fide of the cartilage, 
as far as the point of the fnout, fending off fmall brancies 
to the gelatinous fubftance, in the fame manner as the oph- 
thalmic nerve, 

The inferior maxillary nerve in the /Rate (raja batis) goes 
forwards under the orbit, and fends off {everal {mall branches, 
which penetrate and are loft in the operculum of the nafal 
cavity, and the integuments before the upper jaw: it then 
turns round the external part of the upper jaw, concealed 
by the large mufcles which furround the ends of the jaws, 
and divides into feveral branches, which are diftributed to 
thefe mufcles. One of thefe branches goes on to be ex- 
pended upon the integuments of the lower jaw. . , 

The facial nerve, or that which correfponds to the portio 
dura of the feventh pair, is much larger in the cartilaginous 
than the ofeous filhes. It forms two branches foon after its 
origin: one of thefe afcends in the cranium, through which 
it pafles, and is lott upon the integuments. + - 

‘Bee other branch goes through a particular foramen, into 


the cavity of the ear, paffes beneath the Principal cretaceous 
body, and there forms the remarkable snaftomofis wich the 
auditory nerve, from which the ampulla of the pofterior 
femicircular canal is fupplied. The trunk afterwards penes 
trates the cranium, and re-appears upon the external part, 
where it is loft in a number of branches in the foft parts and 
integuments of the head. 

The auditory nerve of the Sfth pair in fithes is analogous 
to the portio mollis of the feventh pair in other animals; and, 
like it, is diftributed exclufiveiy to the interior of the organ 
of hearing. It is deferibed and figured in that part of the 
article where thé ear is treated of 

The eighth pair of nerves in fithes differ materially from 
the fame nerves in other animals, with re{pr& to their courfe 
and ramification. This depends upon the fituation and 
ftrn@ure of the parts they fupply, in order to preferve an 
analogy with the nerves of this name in the other claffes of 
animals. The fft and molt important branches are fent to 
the branchiz: thefe may be confidered as fupplying the 
place of the far vagum of memmatia. They are fituated 
moft anteriorly, and are ufuaily four on each fide: they fe- 
parate from each other immediately upoa leaving the crae 
nium, and proceed to the branch x. When they appro2ch 
thefe, each branch divides into two; one of which runs ia 
the groove fituated on the convex edge of the cartilages or 
bones that bear the branchiz, and fends of numerous fila- 
ments to the laminz of the gills; the other branch paffes in 
the correfponding groove or gutter of the concave edge of 
the branchial cartilages or bones, and is diltributed in a 
fimilar manner. The anterior branch of the Grit branchial 
nerve, however, returns into the cranium, in order to be 
diftributed to the ear. 

The fecond branches of the eighth pair mot commonly 
come out of the cranium as two or three difting nerves, 
but fometimes they are furnifhed from the fame trunk, as 
the laft branchial. One of thefe nerves is loft upon the bran- 
chial mufcles. The fecond, which is larger, is diftributed 
to the fide of the cefophagus, as far as the ftomach. The 
third branch is conjoined with the cervical nerves that go 
to fupply the peétoral fin. 

The latt branch of the eighth pair has a very remarkable 
diftribution ; it is fituated polteriorly to the others, at its 
origin ; it proceeds almoft direétly outwards, and backwards 
towards the integuments of the fide of the body, immedi- 
ately under which it runs as far as the tail, when it tere 
minates in fine filaments, upon the rays of the caudal fin. 
This fingular nerve is nearly of the fame fize throughout its 
whole length; it has no palpable communication with the 
inter-vertebral or other nerves ; and its courfe correfponds 
to the lateral line on the fide of the body. It bears a 
greater analogy, perhaps, to the nerwus accefforius than to 
any other, although its termination is much more remote. 

According to Cuvier the eighth pair of nerves in the 
chondropterygit confifts of a fingle trunk, which does not 
divide until it reaches the parts to which it is didributed. 
In thefe fifhes the long lateral nerves are fituated nearer to 
each other, and moré towards the back. 

The gloffo-phangeal nerve is not a diftin&t trunk in fithes, but 
arifes trom the anterior part of the firft branchial nerve ; it 
furnifhes a great number of filaments, which are expended 
upon the tongue and furrounding parts. The trunk is 
loft\in the ‘inferior part of the throat, before and betweea 
the piils. 

The Aypoglofal nerwes, as before mentioned, do not exilt 
in fifhes. 

The cervical vertcbre cannot always be diftinguifhed 


ye from 


FISH. 


from the dorfal, Cuvier afferts that there are never more 
than four {pinal nerves, which deferve to be called cervical ; 
and frequently there are none to which this name can be 
applied. ‘The firft nerves of the fpine, however, furnifh 
thofe of the pectoral member in offéous fifhes, as will be 
hereafter defcribed, and likewife a nerve which is diftributed 
to the feptum that divides the branchial from the abdominal 
eavity ; and which, therefore, may be confidered analogous 
to the phrenic nerve of other animals. 

The dorfa/, lumbar, facral, and caudal, nerves of fifhes re- 
femble each other in their courfe and diftribution, with the 
exception of thofe which fupply the pectoral fins of the ray 
kind, and thole that are fent to the abdominal fins of fifhes ; 
generally all the fpinal nerves pafs out of the vertebral 
eanal, and are immediately diftributed to the mufcles and 
integuments adjoining. The nerves of the fpine anafto- 
mofe with the great fympathetic, but do not produce a feries 
of ganglia, as in other animals. 

The iatercofial, or great fympathetic nerve, comes out of 
the cranium, by the canal of the firlt vertebre ; it is but a 
{mall filament extended along each fide of the fpine, without 
any fenfible enlargements or ganglia. It dittributes branches 
round the principal arteries of the vifcera, which fupply the 
place of the different plexufes of the /planchnic nerve of 
mammialia. 

The brachial nerves, or thofe which fupply the peGoral 
fins of ofeous fithes, are furnifhed by the two firft vertebral 
nerves. ‘lhe anterior of thefe is fituated fo near the eighth 
pair in fome fifhes, that it might be miftaken for a branch 
of the latter; it paffes out, however, through a foramen 
peculiar to itfelf. The fecond vertebral nerve lies more be- 
hind the celophagus, and more towards the middle line of 
the body. Thefe two nerves proceed direétly to the in- 
ternal lamina of the {capulz, where they are conjoined with- 
out being intermixed. ‘The firft vertebral then forms two 
branches, which fend off filaments that anaftomofe with 
cach other, and are diftributed to the adduGor mufcles of 
the fin. One of the branches of the firft vertebral nerve is 
fent tothe feptum of the branchial and abdominal cavities. 
This filament is confidered by Cuvier as analogous to the 
phrenic nerve. 

The two cords, formed by the vertebral nerves, pafs 
through the hole fituated before, and on the outer fide of 
the articulation of the fin with the fhoulder, where they 
unite and produce an irradication of nervous filaments, 
feveral of which are loft in the external furface of the 
fhoulder, and in the oblong articular capfule which receives 
the {mall carpal bones. One of thefe filaments runs under 
the {kin that covers the rays of the fio. 

The brachial nerves are remarkably large, ,and are formed 
ef a great number of nerves, from the fpinal marrow in the 
fiat cartilaginous fifhes (genus raja). There is firft a thick 
cord produced by the union of twenty vertebral nerves. 
This cord paffes through the middle of the cartilaginous 
bar upon which the rays of the wing or great pectoral fin of 
thefe fifhes are articulated ; it then proceeds forwards along 
this cartilaginous bar, and fends off a number of branches 
which run outwards along the rays of the anterior part of 
the fin, fupplying the mufcles placed between thefe rays, 
and the integuments, as far as the external edge of 
the fin. : 

A fecond cord is thus formed by the four or five next 
vertebral nerves, which divides at the roots of the rays of 
the middle part of the fin into feven or eight filaments; 
thefe are diftributed in the fame manner as the branches of 
the firft cord. 


3 


Afterwards each two vertebral nerves, as far as the fortye 
fourth, are united into cords, which penetrate the cartilagie 
nous bar, and fupply the pofterior portion of the fin. 

Thefe different cords, which refult from the iun&ion of 
the vertebral nerves, may be confidered as reprefenting the 
brachial plexus of other animals. 

The pelvic nerves, or thofe which fupply the wentral 
fins of the flat cartilaginous fifhes, are difpofed in the 
fame manner as thofe of the pettoral fias. Four or five 
vertebral nerves unite to form a fingle cord, which penetrate 
the cartilage that fuftains the rays of the fin, and is ex 
panded ia filaments, in the mufcles of the fin. There 
are ufually four more vertebra! nerves fent to the pofterior 
part of the ventral fia, upon which they are diftributed in 
the fame manner as the preceding cord. 

The nerves of the ventral fin in offous fifhes are filaments 
ef the vertebral pairs, which are diftributed to the intere 
coftal fpaces. Thefe filaments fupply the mufcles of the 
rays, and may be traced upon the fkin.to the edge of 
the fin. 

The nerves of fithes are diftinguifhed from thofe of other 
animals by the want of ganglia, and their great magnitude 
in proportion to the bulk of the brain, and of the whole 
body. Monroe has defcribed the coats of the nerves of 
fithes alfo as being covered by a number of {pheroidal 
bodies. 


Organs of Touch. 


Fifhes are unprovided with any members capable of ene 
compafling external bodies, and confequently poflefs the 
fenfe of touch in but an imperfeét degree. The only parts 
in which any peculiar feeling appears to refide, are the cirri, 
the tentacula, and the extremity of the /nout. 

The cirri are fituated upon the lips or about the mouth ; 
they are commonly pointed taper procefles, which in fome 
inftances appear to be compofed chiefly by the common 
integuments ; in the cod (gadus morhua), however, there 
o a very firm cartilage, and perhaps the fame in other 

ecier. 

: Thefe parts are not better fupplied with blood veffels or 
nerves than the adjacent parts, and their furface is {mooth and 
without papille ; from which circumitance it is probable, that 
they do not enjoy any peculiar feeling or fenfe of touch except 
what they derive from their form and prominent fituation. 
Cuvier mentions only one procefs of this kind in the genus 
gadus, in which he differs from other naturalifts, who allow 
to fome fpecies three, four, and five cirri. There are two 
long cirri in the /urmullet (mullus). Un the gudgeon (cyprinus — 
gobio) there are two, in the carp (cyprinus carpio) there are 
tour fhort cirri, and in the barbel (cyprinus barbus) there are 
four, two from the fides of the mouth and two from the 
fummit of the head, 

There are feveral cirri in the pogge or armed bull-head, 
(cottus cataphra@us) which appear like a beard; there are fix 
or eight in the genera cobitis and filurus ; in the latter two are 
placed before the eyes, like the antenne of infects, and four 
project from the under lip, which the animal is faid to caft 
every year. 

The cirri are numerous around the mouth in the frog- 
(lophius pifcatorius,) and the gadus taru. f pla 

The tentacula appear better calculated than the cirri, from 
their figure, for receiving the impreflions of external bodies, 
In the gattorugine and crefted blenny there are two tentacula 
on the top of the head, which form tufts, or are fetaccous 
at the end. 

The tentacula are moft remarkable in the genus /ophius ; 

the 


FISH, 


the anterior tentaculum of the /sphius hiftrio is divided at 
the extremity into two branchee, the ends of which termi- 
nate in flefhy maffes ; the other tentacula are very Jong and 
conical, and end in filaments. 

The lophius pifcatorius has fome long tentacula on the 

head, which it has the power of moving in different direc- 
tions, It is fuppofed by fome naturalitts, that it employs 
thefe tentacula in angling for its prey, and hence it derives 
the {pecific name pifcatorius. 
' The principal feat of the fenfe of touch appears to be the 
end of the fnout ; the fenfibility of this part, however, does 
not depend upon any peculiar organization of its furface, 
but ariles entirely from being Jarzely fupplicd with nerves. 

The ophthalmic branch of the fifth pair of nerves in the 
thornback and /eaie, after diftributing branches to other parts 
in its courfe, as already defcribed, runs along the fide of the 
cartilage which forms the middle of the fnout, and fends off 
a great number of fhort filaments which are loft upon this 
eartilage, and the gelatinous fubftance on the fide of it, as 
far as the very point of the {nout, where thefe nerves termi- 
nate in fome fine fibrille: the laft branch of the /uperior 
maxillary nerve of the fifth pair exhibits, in thefe fithes, a 
fimilar diftribution along the fides of the cartilage inferiorly. 
According to Cuvier, the ophthalmic and fuperior maxillary 
herves terminate in {mall branches, which are fent to the 
hooks of the fnout in the /acu-/bark (/qualus priflis), and in 
the {pines or tubercles of the {nout in the ray genus. 

Tn the defer dog-fi/h (/qualus catulus) the ophthalmic nerve 
goes on to the end of the fnout, where it terminates in fe- 
veral fhort branches. 

In off/ous fithes the {nout is alfo fupplied in a fimilar man- 

er by large nerves. 

The above account fhews, that the fnout of fifhes ftrongly 
refembles the bill of birds, as far as regards its fenfibility and 
its funGtions as an organ of touch; through its means the ani- 
mal’ will be advertifed of the approach of any foreign body, 
but it is by no means calculated to take cognizance of the 
qualities of fubftances applied to it. 

In Plate VII. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. exhibits 
the diffribution of the ophthalmic nerve in the {nout of the 
thornback (raja clavata) ; x, indicates the origin of the nerve, 
J» its ramification in the fnout. 

Fig. 3. of Plate VIII. thews the ophthalmic nerve as it 
appears in the pike (c/ow /ucius); f, the nerve paffing to the 
fnout ; g, an artery derived from the internal carotid, which 
accompanies it. ~~ 

{n Plate 1X. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 2. exhibits the 
external part of the fnout of the frog-fi/b (lophius pifcatorius) ; 
¢, ¢, ¢, numerous branched cirri around the lower jaw; 
4, d, long tentacula from the front of the fnout, with which 
this fith is fuppofed to angle. 


Integuments. 


Fifhes are covered by fkin like other animals, in addition 
to which they have a peculiar integument formed by the 

tales. 

Although fifhes inhabit the fame element as the cetacea, 
they are not provided with a fubcutaneous layer of fat. 
This feems to arife from the flandard of their animal heat 
approaching fo near the temperature of the water, that they 
do not ftand in need of defence againft the latter. It is to 
be obferved, however, that fome fifhes have a confiderable 
quantity of oil diffuled among{t their mufcles and under the 
integuments, examples of which are found in the genera 
slupea and falmo, &c. 

he only fifh which appears to have really an integument 
of fat is the moon-fi/b (tetraodon mola). Thereis {pread under 


the fkin of this fpeciesa layer of a fatty looking fubhence, 
of about two inches in thicknefs. Upon examination this 
matter is found, however, to poffefs all the chemical pro- 
perties of albumen. The ufe of {uch a covering on this fifh 
Is not underftood. 

It cannot be properly faid that filhes poffefs a panniculus 
caraofus, or mufcular integument; in many {pecies the {kin ad- 
heres to the mufcles of the body, which feem in fome places 
to be inferted into it; by this conneGtion the fin more 
exa€tly complies with the motions of the body, but we 
doubt whether any fifh is capable of moving the fkin dif- 
tinétly or independently of the body. Cuvier deferibes a 
fubeutancous layer of mufeular fibres in the carp (cyprinus 
carpio), and fome other fifhes with large feales. ‘It adheres 
to the inner furface of the fkin, and is divided into two por- 
tions by a longitudinal line correfponding to the fituation of 
the vertebral column. At this place there are impreffions 
made by the tendons inferted into the fkin. They defcribe 
curves, the convexity of which is towards the tail. Thefe 
mufcular fibres feem to perform the office of conftri@ting the 
fkin, and thus regulating, in adegree, the pofition of the 
{cales, 

The /ein of fithes confifts, as in mammalia, of the cusir, 
or true fein; the colouring fubftance, or rete mucofum; and 
the infenfible integument or epidermis. 

The cutis feems to poflefs eflentially the fame ftru@ure 
in fifhes as in mammalia, but more particularly refembles 
the cutis of /izards and ferpents. 

The fkin adheres commonly very firmly to the external fur- 
face of the mufcles by means of a web of aponeurotic fibres, 
which appear in fome f{pecies, as the /ale (pleuroneGes folea), the 
common eel (murena anguilla), &c. a3 a complete integument. 
The fkin, or the aponeurotic fibres under it, adhere to the 
mufcles chiefly at the parts where the latter are divided into 
longitudinal maffes ; the middle portions of thefe maffes are 
at liberty, and lie enclofed by this means in a fort of fheath. 

The {kin appears to vary in thicknefs according to the 
ftrength of the feales; it is very thick in the ray and Jeark 
genera, the ec/s (murena), &c. aod thin in thofe f{pecies 
that poffefs large fcales, as the carp and bream (cyprinus 
carpio and c, brama), hence in preparing thefe fithes for the 
table, the former are deprived of their {kin, and the latter 
of their fcales. 

The rete mucofum is very palpable in this clafs. It adheres 
to the furface of the fcales, and produces all thofe brilliant 
colours, and varying metallic tints, for which the bodies of 
fifhes are fo remarkable. It poffeffes, in general, confider- 
able firmnefs, and in fome inftances has a fmooth mem- 
branous appearance, :which, however, we believe does not 
depend upon a fibrous texture, but the compreffion of the 
mucous pigment. 

The whole of the external furface of fifhes is covered by a 
foft mucous coat, which correfponds to the epidermis; it 
forms a thicker layerin the filhes that have fmooth fkins, 
than in thofe with large feales. The epidermis is fo foft 
and pulpy that it does not deferve the name of a membrane; 
it is very eafily rubbed off the fkin, and is alfo fpontaneoufly 
fhed ; in both cafes, however, it is {peedily removed. 

The furface of the fkin of fifhes is more or lefs bes 
{meared with a flimy fubftance of a peculiar nature. The 
apparatus by which it is fecreted is one of the mot 
curious parts of the anatomy of this clafs of animals. 
Beneath the integument there. are a number of du&s, or 
tuber, which open by many orifices upon the ékin, more 
particularly about the head, and thofe parts of the furface 
of the body which are the moft expofed to friction, 
Their duéts are largeft. and molt nomerous ip the 

fifhes 


PSs i. 


Fthes with ‘foft fkins, but we believe they exif in every 
fpecier, even thofe with large {cales, and with offeous in- 
teguments. ‘They are moft remarkable in the /haré and ray 
genera, in which they have an arrangement, not the fame 
as in the offeous fithes. 

In the date (raja Latis) there is, on the outfide of the 
branchial apertures, a duét under the fkin, about the thick- 
nefs of a crow’s quill, whic h is coiled or ref ected in a waving 
line towards the head ; One extre mity of it is fhut, and ends 
at the anterior edge of the head; the other paffes round to 
the upper furface of the head, where it fends off upwards 
of thirty fmaller duéts, that term*aate by open ends upon 
the fkin; other branches are expended upon the inferior 
furface of the fnout, dividing and re-uniting to form 
feveral curves and zig zags, without being materially di- 
minifhed in their diameter; from one of which a large 
du& goes tothe upper part of the fnovt. There are not, 
according to Monroe, above fix or eight outicts on the infe- 
rior furface of the fifh’s body. 

On each fide of the fifh, a little farrher forward than the 
foremolt of the five breathing holes, there isa central part, from 
which feveral fafciculi, compoted of a great number of duds 
of a fubordinate order or magnitude, go off in d-ficrent d'- 
reétions, to open upon the greateft part of the furtace of 
the body. Thefe centres prefent the appearance of an 
irradiation of membranous ceils. A very confiderable 
branch of the fifth pair of nerves, already deferibed, after 
forming an enlargement, refembling a ganglion, is inflarta- 
neoufly loft in filaments upon the parictes of this ftructure, 
with which they become fo inextricably united, that it 13 
impoffible any longer to diftinguifh them. Monroe {uppofes 
that the nerves difappear in confequence of changing their 
ftruéture, but it fhould rather be faid that they become im- 
perceptible by abruptly terminating ; for how can they be 
called nerves after they ceafe to poffefs the characters of 
fuch? This affords the moft ttriking example of the fudden 
termination of a nerve with which we are acquainted in the 
whole animal economy, and illuftrates what we have obferved 
lefs evidently with refpeé&t to the nerves that go to tae 
pulps of feathers and bulbs of hairs, &c. 

In the barks, the principal fubcutaneous dués about 
the head are fo Jarge, that they would admit a goofe’s quill. 

In the tope (/qualus galeus), according to Cuvier, there is 
but one centre of communication for the duéis, which is 
fituated in the fnout. : ¢ 

In the offous fifhes the du@s are lefs numerous than in 
the chondropterygii; they are likewife unprovided with centres 
of communication. The principal ducts are fituated upon 
the fides of the head, or over the jaws; where they fend off 
feveral fhort duis to terminate upon the furface. ‘The dués 
of each fide communicate with one another on the top of the 
head, and. with one which extends along the fide-of the body 
parallel to the lateral abforbent veffel. 

The pores by which the ducis open upon the fkin of 
the head are very vilible in the common pike (c/ox lucius), and 
the fea pike (e/ox belone.) Cuvier ftates them to be more 
dittin@ upon the head ot the chimera mon/lrefa than in any 
ocher fifh. 

The {ubftance contained in the fubcutaneous duéte of 
fifhes has not yet been ftriétly analized as far as we are 
informed. It isa fem*fluid tranfparent jelly. It refembles 
very much the matter found in the cells of the electric organs 
of fithes, and that which furrounds the ova of frogs. It 
appears to be a combination of albumen and gelatine, in 
which the proportion of the former is fo great, that m- 
fread of being diffolved by water it is flightly coagulated, 
by coming into conta with it; we have {ubmitted it to 


the ation ‘of tannin, with which it combines like common 
gelatine. It however refea bles in no refpe@t mucus ; there- 
fore, Dr. Monroe very improperly calls the tubes containing 
it, mucous duds. See his Phyhology of Fithes. 

There can be no queltion, both from the parts of the 
body upon which this gelatinous fubftance is principally 
fhed, and its being moft «bundant in-thofe {pecies which are 
not protected by hard integuments, that it is a defenfive 
fecretion againit the continual fri€tion and wafhing of the 
water to which ffhes are expofed. Cuvier however, and 
other anatomilts, are difpofed to thi: k that the fubcutaneous 
duds eve ina degree analogous to the ele¢tric organs of fifhes, 
which opinion ix rendered not improbable trom the great 
fize and fingular termination of the nerve fent exclufively to 
the centres of the duéts in the ray kind. Perhaps delicate 
experiments might detect a degree of this ele€tric property 
in all fifhes ; if fo, this faculty muft asfwer other purpofes 
in their economy thzn to preferve them from the attacks of 
the larger {pecies of their own kind. We do not pretend to 
decide upon thofe quetlions, which can only be determined 
by micer inveltigauous, that have yet been made vpon the 
fubj: &. 

The diftribvtion of the albumino-gelatinous duéts is repre- 
fented in Plates X. and XL. of the Anatomy of Fifhes. In 
Plate X. tue upper furface of a /Rate (raja batis) is thewn 5 
a, the centre of the dects on the left fide; J, fafciculus of 
duets going towards the {pine; c, c, other fafciculi fent to 
the anterior parts of the hth; d, d, falciculi proceeding to 
terminate spon the outer and back part of the great fins 
e, a long fafciculus running backwards to terminate near the 
tail; f, a large branch of the fifth pair of nerves paffing out- 
wards {rom the cranium; g, its fingular termmation on the 
comimon centre of the duéts of the right fide; 424, the 
beginning of the large duct of the under furface of the {nout 
Jj, the fame duc feen through thefnout; m, the du& which 
is reflected from the anterior furface of the fnout; n, 2, my 
feveral branches of this duct which open upon the fkin, on 
the fide of the fnout. 

Fig. 1, of Plaie XY. exhibits the anterior quarter of the 
under furface of the /kate (raja batis) ; a, the large ferpen- 
tine du@t reflected upon atielf on the external fide of the 
branchial apertures ; J, 4, 6, branches of the ferpentine du& 
that open upon the infertor furface of the body; c,c, the 
branches that furround the nafal cavity ; d, d, anaftomofes 
with the duct of the oppofite fide; ¢, the point from which 
a large branch is fent to the upper part of thefnout; f, the 
extremity of the ferpentine duét which turns round to the 
upper furface of the fifh; g, the biind extremity of the fer- 
pentine dué; 4, 4, parts of the correfponding duéts of. the 
oppofite fide of the fifh; #, the centre of the duéts on one 
fide; £,2,2,%, 4, &, fafciculi going off from the centre in 
different directions to open upon the under furface of the 
body of the fifh, 

Fig. 2. of Plate XI. is a lateral view of the head and 
part ot the body of the cod, (gadus morhua); a is the 
anterior portion of an albumino-pelatinous duét, which runs 
upon the fide of the fifh, and has numerous fhort branches 
terminating by open mouths on the furface; 4, the fupe- 
rior branch of this dud, which unites with the corref{ponding: 
one of the other lide, upon the top of the head, as feen at c, 
and termipates in a blind extremity on the end of the fnout, 
as indicated by d; ¢, thews the interior branch of the lateral 
du&, running along the upper jaw; fj fi fy &e. ere its 
branches opening upon the fkin; g is another large dué& 
lying on the Jower jaw, which has no communication with 
the others ; 4,4, 4, &c. are the faort branches it fends off 
to terminate upon the furface. , 

The 


Shh Ho. 


The integument which furnifhes the molt effeAual defence 
to filhes is produced by the /cales, and the other offeous 
pieces, which grow on their fkin, For the defeription of thele 
parts, fee the article Scates, in this dictionary. 

Orzan of Smelling. 

The apparatus for receiving the fenfation excited by odor- 

ous fubltances is more complicated in fifhes than other ani- 
mals, although the organs are lefs oftenfible. 
~The nafal cavity, except rarely, as in the frog Afb, (lophius 
pifcatorius,) does not form any external projection ; the organ 
of [melling, therefore, from not ftriking the eye, received 
little attention from anatomifts, and no ful! or accurate d-- 
feription of it was given before the publication of Scarpa’s 
book De Auditu & Oifadtu; it waseven formerly miflaken 
for the organ of hearing ; and Blumenbach fays, this abfurd 
opinion has been revived in modern times, but we are unic- 
quainted with any anatomift at prefent who entertains fuch 
an opinion. 
_ Inthe chondropicrygeous fifhes the organ of fmelling is fitu- 
ated on the under furtace of the fnout; but in the offous filhes 
on the upper and fore part of it; it is contained in an oval 
er round fhallow cavity, which in the rays end fharfs, and 
in fome offeous fifhes, as the gurnard, &c. is formed by an 
excavation of the cartilage or bones of the head, butin mot 
offeous fifhes it is partly compofed of bone, and partly of 
membrane. * 

The nafal cavity has no internal communication with the 
fauces, nor is it conneéted with any finufes or hollow parts 
zn the bones of the facc; in the chondropterygii, however, 

_ there is a groove or hollow, leading from the edge of the 
organ of {mell, under the operculum, to the angle of the 
mouth, : 

The apertures of the nafal cavities, or external nares, of the 
genera raja and /gualus, are in a great meafure covered by 
an operculum, compofed of two irregularly-formed cartila- 
ginous flaps conneéted and covered by the common integu- 
ments. ‘The operculum is elevated at the pleafure of the 
animal, according to Scarpa, by a number of fine mufcular 
fibres which arife from the end and fore parts of the fnout, 
proceed obliquely backwards towards the angle of the 
mouth, and are inferted into the operculum. The nares are 
clofed by fome fibres which aét like a fphin@er. We con- 
fefs we have not been able to difcern either of thefe mufcles, 
although we have examined very large /Rates for the purpofe. 
As the opercule is opened or fhut, the water flows in and 
out of the nafal cavity with more or lefs force, and thus the 

’ odorous matter is expofed to the furface of the organ. 

In the offéous, and moft other filhes, the apertures of the 
nafal cavity are croffed by a flexible f{eptum or bar ; in fome 
fvhes this ligament is narrow like a cord; in others it is 
broader, and formed with irregular edges: each aperture is 
thus divided, fo as to prefent the appearance of two nares 
on each fide, an anterior and pofterior; the former always 
continues open, and preferves the fame figure, but the latter 
varies in fize, in proportion as the cord is drawn outwards or 
recedes into the cavity of the nofe. 

The feptum of the naresis drawn outwards by a fafciculus 
of mufcular fibres which arifes from the bones of the fnout, 
and is inferted into the middle of the feptum, When this 
mufcle is not in action, the elafticity of the parts, and the 
impulfe of the water, are fufficient to deprefs the feptum, and 
force it within the nares. Under thele circumftances the 

fterior aperture is contra&ted into the figure of a chink. 
Some fifhes, as the carp, (cyprinus carpio,) have the power 
-of elevating the feptum fo much, that the aperture of the 


Bares is drawn out as a tube.. 


The frog fifo (lophius pifcatorius) hes the nares, and in- 
deed the whole nafal cavity of each fide, elevated upon the 
top of the fnout, in the thape of two drinking glaffes, which 
are moveable in every direétion, 

The external integuments are refleted into the nafal 
cavity ; on arriving at the bottom cf which they feem to 
form the pitnitary or olf2€tory membrane. 

The immediate organ of fm-liing confiits in all fifhes of a 
number of fine lamin, upon which the olfaGtory nerves ere 
diftributed. Tne varieties in its ftructure depend upon the 
different arrangement of thefelaminz, and the form and mode 
of vamification of the nerves. 

In the ray kied (raja) there are two feries or rows of 
laminz, feparated from each other by a ligament which 
extends through the middle of the nafal cavity, from one 
end tothe other. ‘The leminz are round upon the fuperior 
edge, and falciform upon the inferior margin, They are 
broader in the middle of the cavity than towards each end 
of it, correfponding to its oval shape. 

The furfaces of the lamin that are applied to each other 
farnifh a number of thin narrow lamine, which are arranged 
in a radiated manner. 

The difpofition of the pituitary membrane is fimilar in 
the /hark genus (/qualus.) 

The other cartilaginous, and the ofleous fifhes have the 
internal lamine of the nafal cavity arranged in radii, 
around an elevated tubercle. In the furgeon (acipenfer /turio, 
the lamine ramify or divide upon their free border into 
thinner plates. The carp (cyprinus carpio), and fome others, 
have the ceatral tubercle approaching an oval figure, which 
gives the organ a good deal of the appearance it has in the 
ray and fhark. 

The pituitary membrane is abundantly befmeared with 
mucus in fifhes, as is ufual in other animals ; the glands which 
fecrete it are evident on the membrane of the ray and /Lark ; 
it is generally covered with red veffels, and fometimes with 
black, as in the pike (cfox lucius.) 

The olfadory nerves, after arifing from the brain in theman- 
ner already defcribed, proceed a confiderable way forwards,, 
either in a canal left in the bones of the head for the pur- 
pole, or in the continued cavity of the cranium, as the cafe 
may be, during which courfe they ufually acquirea greater 
fize than when they left the brain. 5s 

After the olfaétory nerves pafs out of the cranium, and 
arrive at the organ of {melling in the ray, they become en- 
larged and fofter in their texture, and proceed tranfverfely 
outwards along the middle of the fuperior furface of the 
orgaa, inclofd in a firm fheath, which is perforated by a 
number of foramina on each fide: through each of thele fora- 
mina a branch of the olfaftory nerve pafles, and foon after 
divides into a tuft or bunch of fibrille, which are diflributed 
in a beautiful manner upon the lamine already. de- 
{eribed. 

Tn the tope (/qualus galeus) the olfa&tory nerve is-at Grit 
very flender, it pafles out of the cavity of the cranium 
through a particular foramen, and foon after forms a round 
ganglion, from which two fafciculi of nerves are produced : 
thefe fend branches to the olfaétory lamine on each fide of 
the ligament which divides the ergan into two por- 
tions. 

The olfactory nerves of oféous fifhes ufually begin to di- 
vide into branches on approaching the back of the organ 
thefe again divide into others, which are diftributed in a very 
palpable manner on the olfactory lamin. 

The carp (cyprinus carpio), the filurus glanis, the had: 
dock (gadus aglefinus), aud the cod (gadus morhua), bave 
each of the olfactory. nerves enlarged into a remarkable round: 


FIS H. 


ganglion juft before they penetrate the back of the organ of 
{mell; from this ganglion a bundle of branches go imme- 
diately off to be difperfed upon the olfaftory laminz. It 
is probable that ganzlia alfo exift upon the olfactory nerves 
of the other fpecies of gadus, cyprinus, aud filurus. 

It would feem, from the greater extent and fubedivifion of 
the olfa&ory membrane, that the ray and /haré genera have 
a more acute fenfe of {melling than the ofeous ffhes. All this 
clafs of animals poff-fsit in a high degree, which is fhewn by 
their nicety with refpe& to the different baits employed in 
catching them; thus, a worm which has loft its flavour by 
maceration will be refufed by a fifh; but the fame worm, 
having its {mell revived by incifions made on it, will be taken 
greedily ; we cannot, however, determine exactly the degree 
of excellence of the fenfe of {melling in fifhes, asthe medium 
through which they receive the impreflion of odorous matter 
is different from that by which it is applied to other animals 5 
but we may fuppofe their perception of odorous fubftances 
to exceed that of mammalia, as the latter have no difcern- 
ment of odour when diffufed in water, and brought into con- 
tact with their organs of {melling in that ftate. The ftruc- 
ture of thefe organs in fifhes would alfo lead us to make the 
fame conclufion ; for the magnitude of the nerves of {melling, 
and the furfaces upon which thefe nerves are {pread, are pro- 
portionally greater in fifhes than inany quadruped. 

In fig. 10. of Plate VI. of, the Anatomy of Fifhes, will 
be feen the external parts of the organ of {melling on the 
under furface of the fnout of the thornback (raja clavata) ; 
aa, the operculum, partially covering the nafal cavity, ex- 
hibiting a thin layer of mufcular fibres running obliquely 
from before backwards ; J, d, the dudts containing gelatinous 
matter, feen faintly through the mufcular fibres of the oper- 
culum ; c, c, the cartilaginous folds placed around the nafal 
cavity, and forming the interior part of the operculum ; d, 
the conjunétion of the cartilaginous folds feen through the 
mufcle; ¢e, the ligament of each fide which divides the ol- 
factory lamine ; f, f, ff the membrazous plates or lamine 
arranged on each fide of the ligament; g, g, the hollow 
folds by which the nafal cavity communicates with the angles 
of the mouth. : 

Fig. 1. in Plate VII. of the Anatomy of Fi/bes, exhibits 
a difl:@ted view of the upper part of the organs of {melling 
in the fame fihh; n, n, the olfactory nerves enlarged, previous 
to their entering the fheath ; 0,0, the bulbs of the olfeGtory 
nerves feen pafling acrofs the nafal eavity, the fheath being 
laid open on one lide, and remioved on the other, the branches 
that arife from the bulb are expofed; f, p, the fuperior or 
convex edges of the lamine covered with membrane; 9, 
the ramification of the olfatury nerve brought into view by 
removing the membrane on the back of the organ. 

Fig. 5. in Plate VII. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, is a tranf- 
verfe fection of the organ of {melling in the thornback ; a, the 
bulb of the olfaGtory nerve ; bb, the ligament which rune 
through the centre of the olfactory laminz ; c,c, the mem- 
branous lamin of the fecond orderthat arife from the fides 
of the others. 

Fig. 6. of the fame plate, fhews about the half of the 
organ of {melling in the ¢hornback, magnified; aa, the liga- 
ment; 2, 4, the laminz of either fide; c, one of the nerves 
given off trom the bulb; ddd, the ramification of the 
nerve upon the duplicature of the olfactory membrane ; ¢, 
the membranes of the fecond order. 

Fig. 7. of the fame plate, reprefents the diltribution of the 
elfaGory nerve in the /ope (/gualus galeus); a, a, the olfac- 
tory lamin from above ; 4, the trunk of the olfactory nerve ; 
ec, the bulb or ganglion; d, the falciculi of nervous fila- 
ments; ¢, the divifion of thefe into two parts, indicated by 


SH 5 8 8s Sr J the double feries of branches of the olfattory 
nerve diltributed to the two fets of lamine. 

Fig. 1. of Plate VILL. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, exhibits 
a difl:G@ed view of the olfactory nerves in the pike (¢/ow 
lucius); s, s, the olfa€tory nerves when they firtt bezin to 
break into filaments; 7, #, the Glaments diftributed to the 
bottom of the nafal cavity; uu, the anteror aperture of 
the nares; vv, the polterior aperture; x x, the bar or 
bridge acrofs the nares; y,y, branches of the fifth pair of 
nerves fent to the organ of fmelling for common fvnfa- 
tion. 

Fig. 3. of Plate VIL{. thews the external parts of the 
organ of fmelling in the pike; a, the pofterior opening of 
the nafal cavity; 5, the anterior opening; cy the bar or 
bridge between them; d, mufcular fibres for elevating the 
bar or feptum of the external opening of the nafal cavity ; 
the bar being removed, the bottom of the nafal cavity is 
expofed, in which are feen the radiated membranes or laming 
of the organ indicated by the letters e, 


In fg. 4. of the fame plate, the diftribution of the olfactory 
nerves is expofed in the carp (cyprinus carpio); d, d, the 
trunks of the olfa@tory nerves; e, e, the trunks becoming 
fafciculated or compofed of filaments; ff, the bulb or 
ganglion of the olfactory nerves; g. g, branches fent off 
from the ganglia, and diltributed upon the olfa¢tory mem~ 
branes; 4, foramen left on one fide, through which the 
branches of the olfaétory nerve pafs to the organ 6f 
{melling. 


The difle@ted head of the frog fib (lophius pifcatorius} 
in fig. 1. Plate 1X. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, exhibits the 
cou fe and termination of the olfactory nerves 3 x, the ol- 
fatory nerve paffing through the cranium; y, the fame 
nerve continued along a canal inthe f{nout; z, the nerve 
{preading into filaments, previous to its diftribution upon 
the laminated ftru€ture of the organ, indicated by *. 

The fecond figure of the fame plate reprefents the exter- 
nal part of the fnout of the frog fi/b; a, the organ of {mell- 
ing as it appears elevated upon a tootftalk; 4, the organ of 
the other fide with a part of it cut out, to bring into view 
the olfactory laminz. 


Organ of Tafle. 


There is every reafon tor denying the fenfe of tafte to the 
tongue of ffhes. This organ in them wants almoft all the 
peculiarities of itruéture which fit it for receiving the im- 
preffions of fapid fubftances. The integuments are without 
papille, and do not poffefs greater vafcularity, or a larger 
fupply of nerves, than the covering of the other parts of the 
mouth, and ia mary [pecies the furiace of the tongue is 
befet with teeth. ‘Che movements of the tongue of fifhes 
are alfo limited to elevation, depreffion, and a very flight 
degree of lateral motion; it is incapable of flexion or exten- 
fion, which are the a€tions moftly employed in tafting ; the 
extent of furface the tongue affords is ufually very inconfider=. 
able in fifhes, as this member projects but a livtle way into: 
the cavity of the mouth; andin the chondropterygii there is 
no prominence of the parietes of the intenor part of the 
mouth to be difcerned. Laftly, the whole furface of the. 
mouth in fihes being befmeared with a thick tenacious 
mucus, mu{t very much obfcure the perception of fapid 
fubftances. : ea 

In the ray genus there are two flaps of the integuments: 
upon the edge of the mouth, fomewhat of a triangular fha eae 
with the free border denticulated, or rather fringed. Thefe 
parts appear to us better adapted for receiving the impref-_ 
fions of tafte than the tongues of fithes. Si 


r, 


FISH. 


It is moft probable, that the fenfe of tafte is extremely 
imperfeG, if it exifts atall in this clafs of animals; indeed, 
it could feldom be called into aétion, as moft fifhes choofe 
their food by the affiftance of the fenfes of feeing and of 
imelling. 


Organ of Hearing. 


As found is always conveyed to the ear of fifhes through 
the medium of water, they do not require an external 
concha, or any projecting parts for colleGing the fonorous 
vibrations. The whole of the organ is, properly {peaking, 
internal, or within the head, in thefe animals. 

Anatomills difagree with refpe& to there being any 
Meatus auditorius externus, or external opening leading to 
the interior of the orgar. Itis only contended for in the 
cartilaginous fifhes with free branchie. Both Monroe and 
Hunter affumed the merit of difcovering this part. The 
former defcribed it in the Rate (raya batis) in thele words : 
®¢ In the back part of the occiput, near the joining of the 
head withthe fpine, two holes, not larger than to admit the 
head of a fmall pin, are found at the ditance of an inch 
from each other; ina large fiih each of thefe leads into a 
capacious winding canal o- concha, which defcribes nearly 
a complete.circle ; the two conche are feparated from each 
other by a thin partition; each concha terminates in a 
funnel, from which a {mall cylindrical canal, or meatus 
auditorius externus, is continued; the meatus is lodged in a 
hollow left between two thick cartilages; and as there is 
no membrana tympani, it opens, he fays, into a large fac, 
which contains a white or opaque matter, with a quantity of 
clear watery-looking, but vifcid matter.” 


This fac is the part upon which the auditory nerve is 
fpread, as will be afterwards defcribed. 

He further fays, ‘* that generally fome portion of a 
fimilar white matter is found in the meatus auditorius ex- 
ternus and concha, as if part of it paffed off by the meatus, 
or was fomehow neceffary for communicating the impref- 
fion of found to the bottom of the ear.”’ 

In another place Doétor Monroe conjzGtures this ** mea- 
tus auditorius externus performs the office ofthe Euftacluan 
tube, at leaft fo far as that tube may be fuppofcd to ferve 
the purpofe of difcharging ufelefs or hurtful matter.” 
Monroe’s Phyfiology of Fifhes, p. 48, 49. 

Mr. Hunter does not give any particular defcription of 
the external opening of the ear in the ray or /hark genera, 
but frequently mentions it as a part he had difcovered, and 
notices a paflage in Willoughby’s Hiftory of Fifhes, in 
which there is fome account given of an external opening 
on the head of the /Raie, in the neighbourhood of what 
Willoughby fuppofed to be the organ of hearing in that fith. 

The exiftence of any opening into the interior of the ear 

from the external part of the body has been denied by a 
number of highly refpeCtable anatomilts, 
’ M. Geoffroy, who defcribed the organ of hearing before 
either Mr. Hunter or Doétor Monroe, mentioned an exter- 
nal opening, which he {tates as being difficult to find; he 
fays it is concealed by the mufcles, and fituated near the 
condyles at their lateral external part ; and in another place 
he {peaks of the auditory, foramen being covered with the 
mulcles and the fat. This account is different from the 
one given by Monroe and Hunter, that it adds no cenfirma- 
tion to their opinion. 

Camper pofitively denies an external opening to the ear 
of the fkate. He fays, “ L’organe de Pouie ce la raye 
n’a donc aucune communication avec lair de Patmofphere ; 
mais jl eft enfermé,? &c. Camper, Mem. de Math. 
tom. vii p. 194. - 

Wor. XIV. 


Vicq d’Azyr entertained the fame opinion; in fpeaking 
of the cartilaginous fifhes with fixed branchiz, he faya, 
* Lorgane de Pouie n’a point chez eux d’ouverture ex- 
terieure.”? Vic. d’Azyr, tom. 7. p. 20. 

To thefe authorities we may add that of Scarpa, who 
afferts, inthe moft pofitive manner, that there isno external 
opening to the ear of either the flat or round cartilaginous 
fithes ; he fuppofes, that the foramina which Doéter Monroe 
difcovered were the openings of fome of the duéts containing 
gelatine, which are found in this fituation; he even treats 
Doétor Monrae’s account with derifion ; and confiders it 
abfurd to fuppofe that there fhould be a communication 
between the external element and the immediate feat of 
the fenfe of hearing. 

Scarpa, in denying an external opening, admits the exiftence 
of a conduit from the integuments into the veltibulum or 
fac containing the amylaceous fubf{tance. 

In this Cuvier agrees with him, and we may add, that we 
have frequently and carefully diffe€ted the organ of hearing 
in the ray and /hark genera, but have never been able to 
difcover the openings mentioned by Monroe and Hunter. 
What we have obferved agrees almolt exactly with the de- 
{cription given by Scarpa. 

Behind the occiput, where it is articulated with the firt 
vertebrz of the neck, the fkin is {mooth and a little depreffed ; 
if it be raifed at this place two oval membranes prefent them- 
felves, one on each fide. Thefe are pellucid, but at the 
fame time denfe and unyielding ; they adhere ftri@ly to the 
edges of two foramina, from cach of which a funnel-fhaped 
dué& leads dire&tly into the veftibulum. Scarpa contiders 
thefe foramina analogous to the feneffre ovales; the membrane 
which coversthem, however, has fome of the properties of 
the membrana tympani, and may have fome efic& in regu- 
lating or increafing the impreflion of found; we perceive 
then that the cavity of the labyrinth is perfeétly clofed at 
every point, as well in the chondropterygii as in che ofleous 
fihes: indeed, a different ftructure would bea departure 
from the plan of the organ in all other animals. 

The membranous labyrinth in the cartilaginous filhes with 
Jixed branchia is fitvated in a correfponding excavation of 
the fides of the back part of the head ; it is fo much wider 
than the part it enclofes that they would not preferve their 
places, but from their connection with veffels, nerves, and 
proceffes of cellular fubftance, which pafs to them in dif- 
ferent diretions: the cartilaginous labyrinth has no com- 
munication with the cavity of the cranium, except through 
the foramina, for tranfmitting the nerves to the ear. It is 
compofed of very tranfparent, and much fofter cartilage, 
than the other parts of the head. 

In the fifhes with free branchie, whether cartilaginous or 
offeous, the greateft part of the membranous labyrinth is com 
tained in the fides of the fame cavity which holds the brain ; 
there are, however, fome depreffions on the infide of the 
cranium for receiving parts of the ear, and fome portion of 
the femicircular canals is fituated round the projecting 
columns of bone, or in fhort offeous canals. 

According to Cuvier, the large lateral depreffion of the 
cranium in the moon fib (tetraodon mola), containing the ear, 
is divided by only two {mai cartilaginous columns, one of 
which is horizontal, and furnifhes a pulley to the pofterior 
femi-circular canal; the ether is vertical, and affords one to 
the horizontal canal ; but as the interval between thefle co- 
lumns and the parietes of the cranium is ten times greater 
than the diameter of the canals, they are fufpended in thar 
{pace by veffels and cellular fubltance, The anterior verti- 
cal canal has even no column of this kind, and there is no 
depreflion for the fac in the bafe of the cranium, 


3U 


la 


FISH. ' 


In the frog i/o (lophius pifcatorius) the cartilaginous 
columns are broader, and approach more to the parietes 
of the cranium, and form two pulleys, through which the 
potterior and horizontal canals pals. pte 

In the ofeous filhes there are larger columns or divifions 
of the cavity of the ear than exilt in the branchioflegous 
fifhes, and the pulleys are lengthened into fhort canals, which 
include a certain portion of the membranous femi-circular 
canals, more efpecially the polterior and horizontal ones. 
The anterior femi-circnlar canal 1s fometimes uncovered, 
In the pike (cfox /ucius), the cel (murena anguilla), the reach 
(cyprinus rutius), and the mackarel (fcomber fcombrus), 
there is only a {mall cffeous piilar correfponding to the fpace 
within the anterior canal. In the dory (xeus faber) this 
canal refts in a furrow. In the cod (gadus morhua), and 
the carp (cyprinus carpioy, the anterior canal is partly in- 
clofed in one of bone, and the pifterior and horizontal 
canals are almoft concealed in the bones of the cranium. 

When the fac which contains the ofliculum is.at a diftance 
from the finus, the depreffion which receives it is deep. 
The cod affords an example of this, but it is more remarkable 
in the carp and herring. 

In thele fifhes the cell for holding the fac furrounds it, 
feaving an opening only for the narrow canal which joins the 
fac and finus together. 

In every inftance amongft the ofeous filhes, in whatever 
way the fac and canels may be inclofed, the finus and extre- 
mities of the canals remain in the cavity of the cranium; the 
nerves therefore, in pafling to thefe, do not go through any 
foramina inthe bones. But in the /furgeon (acipenfer fiurio) 
there is an approach to the ftruéture delcribed in the cartila- 
ginous fifhes with fixed branche ; each of the canals is 
entirely enveloped in a tube, confiderably larger however than 
the one it inclofes ; the fac lies clofe to the fide of the cra- 
nium,, from the common cavity of which it is feparated by a 
very thick membrane, fecured there by feveral ligamentous 
proceffes. ‘Lhe nervesgare tranfmitted through holes in this 
membrane left for that purpofe. 

The parts which immediately conftitute the organ of 
hearing are effentially the fame in all the orders of filhes ; 
they confilt of membranous femi-circular canals, and certain 
dilated parts or facs, which contain calcareous fubflances, 
either hard or foft, and upon which the nerves of hearing are 
chicfly fpread ; all thefe parts are further completely filled up 
with a gelatinous fluid, or tranfparent pulp. 

The ftru@ture of the canals and fac is nearly the fame in 
all fifhes, they are as thin as membrane, but tranfparent and 
clattic, like cartilage, of the nature of which they fhould pro- 
bably be confidered : when thefe parts are cut aiunder, they 
do not co!lapfe, but prefent open mouths, like the fection of 
an artery. 

All fihes azree with refpe& to the number and diregtion of 
the canals; they are always three, an anterior, pofferior, and 
Aorizontal ; the firft is Gtuated forwards, 13 inclined outwards, 
and ftands nearly upright ; the fecond is dire&ted backwards 
and outwards, and its pefition is alfo nearly vertical; and the 
third makes its circuit outwards, and in a_ horizontal 

lane. ~ 

Each of thefe canals forms an ampulla or {pherical dilata- 
tion atone of its extremities; the ampulla of the anterior 
canal is placed at its anterior or inferior extremity ; that of 
the horizontal canal at its anterior extremity, therefore, near 
the preceding ;, the ampu'la of the polterior canal is fituated 
at the inferior extremity. 

The antePior extremity of the pofterior canal, and the 
potterior extremity of the anterior canal, form a junGion 
before they. terminate in the face ‘The other extremities of 


thefe canals, and both the extremities of the horizontal: canal, 
have diftin@ terminations, There are therefore five openings 
from the three femi-circular canals. ¥ 

As far as refpeéts the form and diftribution of the femi- 
circular canals, the organ of hearing in fithes will be per- 
ceived to refemble the membranous labyrinth in the higher 
clafles of animals: the circumftance in which it moft mates 
rially differs is the exiftence of the fac containing the eale 
careous bodies. 

_ Inthe cartilaginous fifhes with fixed branchie, the fac is 
triangular im its form; the internal angle, or that next the 
brain, commusicates with the duét jeading from the feneftra 
ovalis. ‘I'he part correfponding to the fecond angle is round 
or oval, and fituated pofteriorly. The third angle has an 
anterior and external direétion. 

Tn thefe fifhes there are three calcareous mafles, a /arge oF 
principal one; and two f{maller, of which one is fmaller than 
the other, and therefore they are called the /e/fér and leaft 
bodies of this kind. The confiftence of thefe fubftances is 
foft, refembling a mixture of plafter of Paris before it is 
ufed for making a caft more nearly than any other fubftance 
with which we are acquainted: they have been likened to a 
foft mixture of chalk, and to ftarch, and hence they are 
called the cretaceous and amylaceous bodies. The large cre- 
taceous body has fomewhat the figure of a bivalve fhell ; 
one fide is convex, and the other a little concave, with a 
groove along its broadeft margin ; the lcfler cretaceons body 
is triangular; and the leaft has the izure of a kidney bean, 
but tsa vait deal {maller in fize. 

Thefe bodies are not allowed to float at liberty in the fac ; 
fome of their furfaces are applied clofe to the membrane, 
and the others adbere to the gelatinous pulp, which is 
moulded to their fhape, and they are further retained in their 
fituation by the ramifications of the auditory nerves. 

In the fi/aes with free branchie, there is confiderable varietx 
in the ftru€ture of the dilated parts, for containing the cal- 
careous bodies, and in the form of thefe bodies. : 

Vhe fac in the moon-fi/h (tetraodon mola) is cone-fhapeds 
the pointed end is turned towards the brain, and the bale 
receives the femi-circular canals. 

In the /lurgeon (acipenfer flurio) the fac is a broad flat 
difk, placed 1n a vertical dirc Gion. 

In thefe, the frog-fifh (lophius pifcatorius), and as far as it 
has been obferved in all the cartilaginows filhes with free 
branchiz, the fac is an undivided cavity ; but in the ofous 
fithes, the coalition of the extremities of the femi-circular 
gana produce an intermediate cavity between thefe and 
the fac. 

Scarpa calls this part /iaus utriculliformis, or the bottle /baped 

Jinus. Ut might with great propriety be confidered as ana- 
logous. to the membranous yeltibulum of other animals,. 
although confiderably different irom it in fhape. The finus 
is ufually elongated, and tubular in its appearance, and 
diftinguilhed trom the fac by a contration > it contains the 
third officulum or calcareous body. ‘ 

The fac of ofeous jibes is generally oval in its figure, and: 
placed on the lower furface of the cranium, fo as frequently 
to approach the one of the oppofite fide ; fometimes there is a 
hollow in the bafe of the cranium for its reception, asalready- 
mentioned. Cuvier confiders the facs analogous to the 
cochlez, on account of there being a feptum formed. withia 
them by the'r internat membrane and contained parts, 

In the pile (c/ox lucius), there is a {mall oval cavity lying. 
behind and below the finus, to which it is connected by a 
{mall canal. 
femicircular canals by Scarpa and others; but it fhould rather 
be called an additional fac. It has not yet been obferved 

. wB 


This part has been called the appendix of the- 


/ Fils wH. 


in any other fith except the pite; but there is nothing pe- 
culiar in the general anatomy of this fpecies, which would 
lead us to fuppofe that it is confined to it. The appendix 
receives a branch from the firft fpinal nerve. 

Amonglt the cartilaginous fifhes with free branchia, the 
Frog-fifh (lophius pifcatorius), has three calcareous bodies : 
a large one and a {mall behind it are contained in the fac; 
the third is very {mall, and is fituated in the cavity formed 
by the junétion of the anterior and horizontal femicircular 
canals, juft below the ampulla of the former, It is trian- 
gular in its figure. 

In the flurgeon (acipenfer furio) there is only one cal- 
careous body: it is triacgular, and confilts of a hard nucleus, 
which is partly furrounded by foft cretaceous matter. 

The fubfances found in the fac of the moox ji/b (tetraodon 
mola) zppear more like mucus than chalk. 

Probably many more varieties would be difcovered in the 
cartilaginous fifhes with free branchiz, if their anatomy were 
better known. 

In all the offons fifhes there are three calcareous bodies, 
which have commonly been called offcw/a: their compofition 
is, however, different from that of any other bones; they 
are extremely hard, of a pearly white colour, and almott 
tranfparent in their thinner parts. ‘They appear to confift 
of pure calcarecus matter, without any mixture of an‘mal 
{wbftance, and more nearly refemble the enamel of the teeth 
than any other part of the offeous fyftem. 

There are confiderable varieties ia the bulk and form of 
the officula, refpe€ting which we are indebted to Cuvier for 
fome details. 

The principal officulum is ufually placed obliquely in the 
fac. It is commonly an oval figure in the genus gadus ; it 
is nearly round, with an angle internally, in the genus 
filurus, and in the, fpecies of cyprinus that have been exa- 
amined, as the carp (C. carpio), the bream (C. brama), the 
tench (C. tinca), and the roach (C. rutilus). In the genus 
falmo, the pike (efox lucius), and the ffurgeon (acipenfer 
Jlurio), it is nregularly triangular. 

The officulum is {mall ia the ce’ (murena anguilla), the 
tar gazer (uranofiopus feaber), the flat fifb (pleuroneétes), 
the dory (zeus faber), and the pike (efox lucius); of a middle 
tize in the herring (clupea harengus) ; and large in the genus 
gadus, particularly the cod, in the carp (cyprinus carpio), and 
a number of the thoracic fifhes. 

‘The chief officulum 1s convex on one fide, and concave on 
the other; the external furface is rough; the internal is 
fmooth, except a furrow which appears to form, with a 
produGtion of the internal membrane of the fac, a {mall 
canal which pafles through the interior of the fac. "Dhiis 
furrow is commonly longitudinal; fometimes it is fhaped 
like a horfe-fhoe. In the carp (cyprinus carpio), it is nearly 
circular; in the cod (gadus morhua), its place is fupplied by 
an elevated ridge. 

The anterior end of the officulum has frequently fome 
projections from it. There are two of them in the pile 
(cfox tucius), the mackarel (feomber fcambrus), and the herring 
(clupea harengus). The officulum of the carp (cyprinus 
carpio) has three ; the one in the middle projets like a Ityle. 
The end of this bone is round and without points in the 
genus gadus and labrus, the roach (cyprinus rutilus), &c. 

The edges of this bone are ufually notched or denticulated, 
‘and. the fuperior margin is moft fo. ‘The denticulations are 
‘nearly equal all round the edge of the officulum of the cod 
and carp; in the former they are blunt, in the latter they 
are pointed, They only exift om one edge in the genus 
Jalmo and the genus perca, ‘There are but three which are 
on the fuperior margin in the conger eel (murena conger). 


Some ftriz are almoft always obferved to extend tranf- 
verfely from the furrow to the edge of the principal offi- 
culum: thefe are intended to lodge the numerous fibrillz of 
the auditory nerves. Thefe impreffions are particularly re- 
markable in the carp genus (cyprinus);"in which they have a 
radiated appearance. 

The fecond or middle fized officulum is commonly fituated 
behind the large bone, but fomewhat more externaliy: its 
moft ufual form is femilunar, the concave fide being an- 
terior. Its-fize varies, but it is always much lefs than the 
principal officulum. Its figure is peculiar in the carp, in 
which it refembles that of the head of a fpear. 

The third officulum, as already mentioned, is fituated in 
the finus utriculliformis: it is fometimes fo near the prin- 
cipal bone, that it is apt to efcape obfervation ; its figure 
varies. Inthe genera gadus, fcomber, &c. it is triangular ; 
in the gurnards (trigla), it is lenticular; in the pike, it is 
rounded and unequal. It is larger proportionally tn the carp 
than in any other genera, and its furface is feabrous, and 
the edge ferrated. 

By thefe hard or extraneous fubftances being placed in 
the gelatinous pulp, and in contaé with the nerves, it is 
evidently defigned to ircreafe the impreffions of found upon 
thefe parts: they thus compenfate for the want of an 
offeous labyrinth, which molt probably in mammalia and 
birds has the effe& of rendering the concuffion of found 
more fenfible. Camper has ingenioufly obferved, that to 
be convinced that a hard body floating in a gelatinous fub- 
{tance is affe€ted by the flighteft external motion, it is only 
neceflary to introduce fome hard body into a glafs of jelly, 
when the motion of this body will be fenfible to the fingers 
holding the glafs, on fhaking the jelly, or giving the glafs a 
little fhock with the finger of the other hand. He men- 
tions another fimple but iliuftrative experiment, which con- 
fills in putting fome hard body into a bladder containing a 
fluid, the flighte!t motion of which will be communicated to 
the hard fubftance, by which a ftrong fenfation will be 
excited in the finger h-Iding the bladder. 

Two nerves, which correfpond to the portio dura and 
portio mollis of the feventh pair, are found in fifhes. The 
latter has a peculiar origin, not being a dittin@ trunk, but 
conjoined at its root with the fifth pair of nervss, of which 
it 13 ufually reputed a branch, alchough, with more pro- 
priety perhaps, the fifth pair fhould be confidered a branch 
of the portio mollis. 

Inthe cartilaginous fifhes with fixed branchie, the auditory 
branch, or portio mojhs of the fifth pair, after pafling 
through the foramen, which tran{mits it fram the cavity of 
the cranium into that of the ear. bends round behind the 
external partetes of the vettibulum, and divides into two 
principel branches, one of which is vattly larger than the 
other. The defer branch is ditributed in a retiform manner 
upon the pofterior furface of the fac, containing the {meller 
cretaceous body, and fends off two longer branches. which 
proceed to the ampulle of the antertor and horizontal canals, 
in which they are expended. The /arge or principal auditory 
nerve forms a fafcicujus, the filaments of which divide, fub- 
divide, and re-unite upon the polterior furface of the fac 
containing the large cretaceous body, fo as to produce an 
intricate and clofe plexas, from the petterior fide of which 
a nerve goes off to be diilribured upon the fac of the {mallet 
cretaceous fubftance. A branch, aifo farnmifhed from tlre 
pofterior fide of the plexus, coalefces with one belonging to 
the portio dura, which pafies through a particular foramen: 
from the cranium, and arrives bebind the large fac.e From 
this anaftomofis a branch, which {upplics the ampulla of the 
polterior femicireular canal, is given off, The nerve afterwards 


3 Use proceeds 


“Ff 1S Hi: 


proceeds to the external part of the head, and is diftributed 
immediately under the integuments about the occiput, and 
the beginning of the neck. ‘ ; 

The portio mollis in” offeous fifhes, which alfo is a branch of 
the fifth pair of nerves, almolt immediately divides into two 
branches, of which one goes to the ampulla of the anterior 
caral, and the other paffes under the finus to the ampulla of 
the horizontal canal. ‘The fecond branch of the portio 
mollis further gives off a longer branch, which goes to the 
potterior part of the head, behind the fuperior margin of the 
cavity for lodging the fac, and divides into many filaments, 
which are difperled in a net-work upon the portion of the 
fac next the brain. From the upper and poiterior part of 
this reticulation a nerve is joined by a branch of the fortio 
dura, and proceeds to the ampulla of the pofterior canal, 
In the oféous, therefore, as well as the cartilaginous fifhes, 
the ampulla of the pofterior femicircular canal ts fupplied by 
an anaftomofis of the portio dura and mollis. 

Dr. Monroe and Mr. Hunter thought that the auditory 
nerves did not pafs through the parietes of the membranous 
labyrinth in fifhes; but, after running a little way upon the 
furface of the facs and canals, became pellucid and difap- 
peared: the termination of thefe nerves is very differently 
deferibed by Scarpa and Cuvier; the former traced the 
branches into the ampullz of the femicircular canals, in 
which they become foft and pulpy, and with the affiftance 
of the membrane produce a feptum which nearly interrupts 
the half of the cavity. Cuvier {tates that the nerves of the 
fac penetrate into the interior of the cavity, and are diftri- 
buted immediately upon the calcareous bodies contained 
therein. As we have not at prefent examined this matter, we 
quote the authorities. See Hunter in Phil. Tranf. vol. ixxii. 
part 2. Monroe’s Phyfiology of Fifhes, p. 50. Scarpa 
de Auditu & Olfa&u, p. 15... Cuvier’s LeGtures on Com- 
parative Anatomy, tranflated, vol. 11. p.468 and 546. 

Hunter and Monroe have made fome experiments to de- 
termine the poflibility of hearing under water, which were 
very unneceflary, as it was well known that fifhes were fenfi- 
ble of founds produced even in the air. In fact, found ts 
communicated with greater or lefs facility according to the 
denfity and elafticity of the medium through which it paffes ; 
confequently it will be more readily propagated through 
folid {ubftances and water than through air, and hence we 
find the organ of hearing lefs complicated in thofe animals 
that receive impreffions of found from the earth or water, 
than in thofe that inhabit the air. The ear of fifhes is ad- 
mirably conftruéted for receiving fonorous vibrations in a 
denfe medium; the great extent and elafticity of the fac and 
canals ; the exiltence of calcareous bodies, more efpecially 
when they are hard, and the large plexus of nerves, ali feem 
calculated for this purpofe. If the ear of fifhes were pro- 
vided with a tympanum, it would probably be of no ufe, un- 
lefs it were filled with fome fluid as denfe, at leaft, as water. 

In. Plate VIL. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, fig. 1. exhibits a 
view of the organs of hearing in the thornback (raja clavata) in 
fitu ; g, anterior femicircular canal ; 4, polterior femicircular 
canal; i, horizontal femic'rcular canal; j, the ampulla of the 
horizontal canal; 4, cavity of the veitibu!um, which contains 
the large fac laid open; on the other fide, at /, is feen the cel- 
lular reticulation of this part; m m, the membrane of the 
feneftra ovalis on each fide. 

Fig. 2, of Plate VII. of the. Anatomy of Fifkes, fhews the 
organ of hearing of the right fide of the ¢hornback, ab- 
{traQed from its fituation, and viewed from the fide next the 
brain, the cavity of the veftibulum and the cartilaginous 
tébes which enclofe the membranous canals being laid open; 
g, the anterior femicircular canal ; 4, the pofterior femicircu- 


lar canal ; ¢, the horizoutal femircircular canal ; the ampulle 
of each of the canals is fufficiently evident without letters of 
reference; d, the membrane of the fene(lra ovalis feen on the 
fide of the veftibuium ; e, fulcus leading from the membrane 
of tbe feneftra to the interior of the veftibulum; f, the portion 
of the fac containing the large cretaceous fubftance; g, that of 
the leffer; 4, the fituation of the fmaileit cretaceous body; 
i, the coalition of the anterior and horizontal membranous 
canals ; 7, the branch of the auditory nerve diftributed to the 
ampulla of the anterior femircircular canal; 4, branch of the 
auditory nerve to the ampulla of the pofterior canal; /, braneh 
of the auditory nerve to the ampulla of the horizontal canal, 

In fig. 3. 0f Plate VIL. of the Anatomy of Fi/bes, an op- 
pofite view is given of the organ of hearing in the thornback, 
by which the pofterior furface of the fac and the diftribution 
of the nerves upon the immediate feat of hearing are expofed; 
a, the anterior femicircular canal ; 6, the pofterior femicircue 
lar canal; c, the horizontal femicircular canal; d@, auditory 
nerve; ¢, branch of the auditory nerve to the ampulla of the 
anterior canal ; f, branch of the auditory nerve to the ampulla 
of the horizontal canal ; g, nervous plexus upon the capfule of 
the large cretaceous body; 4, nervous plexus upon the capfule 
of the leffer cretaceous body ; i, plexus upon the capfule of 
the {mallett cretaceous body ; 4, portio dura; /, anaftomofis of 
the portio dura with the auditory nerve; m, nerve furnifhed 
by this anaftomofis to the ampulla of the potterior femicir- 
cular canal; n, continuation of the trunk of the portio dura; 
p: part of the cavity of the cranium; g, a part of the tranf- 
verle cartilage which pafles outwardly to fuftain the jaws; 
r, the firft vertebra of the neck. 

Fig. 8. of the fame plate reprefents the thin cretaceous 
bodies of the ear of the thornback; a is the large cretaceous 
body viewed upon the anterior furface; 4, the groove that 
runs along it; c, the fame fubftance viewed pofteriorly ; d, the 
lefler cretaceous body ; ¢, tke {malleft cretaceous body. 

Fig. 4. of Plate VII. exhibits the ampulla of one of the 
membranous femicircular canals magnified and laid open to 
expofe the diftribution of the auditory nerve in its interior ; 
aa, the enlarged part, or ampulla opened; 4, the branch of the 
auditory nerve, becoming gradually broader and feparated into 
filaments ; ¢c, the nervous feptum of the ampulla; dd, femi- 
circular canal above and below the ampulla. 

In the diffeted head of the pike (c/ox /ucius), reprefented 
in fig. 1. of Plate VIII. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, there is 
a view of the organ of hearing on each fide feen from aboves 
e, the anterior femicircular canal entirely feen; f, its ampulla ; 
g the pofterior femicircular canal partially expofed; 4, its 
ampulla feen below ; #, the courfe of the horizontal femicir- 
cular canal; j, its ampulla; 4, finus utriculliformis of the 
femicircular canals ; /, appendix of the finus, which isa part 
peculiar to the pike; m, the fituation of the {malleft officu- 
lum. No. 5 is the trunk of the fifth pair, and any other 
nerves feen in this figure arifing from the brain are indicated 
by correfponding numbers; a, the branch of the auditory 
nerve fent to the ampulla of the anterior femicircular canals 
o, the branch of the auditory nerve fent to the horizontal 
canal; /, the branch fent to the ampulla of the pofterior canal; 
q, branches of the auditory nerve expended upon the fac con- 
taining the principal officuium ; r, nerve going to be inferted 
behind the finus, where the fmalleft officulum is contained. 

Fig. 2. of Plate VIII. fhews the three officula of the pites 
a, the principal one; 4, the leffer officulum ; c¢, the fmallef 
officulum ; d, the fame magnified. 

In Plate IX. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 3. exhibits a 
lateral view of the organ of hearing in the pide; a, the cavity 
of the cranium ; 4, {pinal canal; c, anterior femicircular canal 4 
d, its ampulla; ¢, the ampulla of the horizontal canal; f the 

other 


FI 


other extremity of the fame canal ; x, the ampulla of the pof- 
terior canal; 4, the other extremity of the pofterior canal ; 
é, the utriculliform finus of the femicircular canals; 7, appendix 
peculiar to the pike; &, the fmalleft officulum feen through 
the finus; /, the fac containing the other two officula,. No. 5 
indicates the trunk of the fifth pair of nerves; m, the audi- 
tory nerves; a, the branch of the auditory nerve to the 
ampulla of the anterior canal; 0, the branch of the audi- 
tory nerve to the ampulla of the horizontal canal; p, nerves 
derived from the auditory going behind the fmalieit officu- 
lum; g, the branch of the auditory nerve fent to the am- 
pulla of the pofterior canal; r, auditory nerves diftributed 
upon the fac on the fide next the brain; s, nerve analogous to 
the par vagum or portio dura; #, the anaftomofis of the pre- 
ceding nerve, with a branch of the auditory or portio mollis, 
from which the ampulla of the pofterior canal is fupphied ; 
w,anervou3 filament fent from the firft {pinal nerve to the 
bottom of the appendix. 

Fig. 4. of the fame plate explains the different cavities of 
the bones of the cranium, in which parts of the labyrinth 
are enclofed; a, the cavity of the cranium; 4, a hollow, 
in which the fac with the officula is lodged; c, a finuofity 
for containing the ampulla of the anterior femi-circular canal; 
d, the aperture leading into the paflage which holds the 
horizontal femi-circular canal; ¢, the common foramen to 
the horizontal and pofterior canals; f, the other opening, 
through which the polterior femi-circular canal paffes ; 
g, the foramen, by which the portio dura goes. oxt of the 
cranium; 4, canal of the fpine; i, i, foramina for the exit 
of the fifth pair of nerves; £, foramen for the firft {pinal 
nerve. 

In Plate 1X. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. is a feGtion 
of the head of the frog-fi/b (lophius pifcatorius) ; a, the ante- 
rior femi-circular canal, J, its ampulla; c, the horizontal 
femi-circular canal; d, its ampulla; ¢, the polterior femi- 
circular canal; /f, its ampulla; g, the conjunction of the 
anterior and pofterior femi-circular canals; 4, a large canal, 
into which all the others open; i, principal fac containing 
the large officulum; &, the facculus of the leffer officulum ; 
J, the third or fmalleft officulum feen through the membrane 
below the ampulla of the anterior canal; m, the nerve going 
to the ampulla of the anterior canal; », the nerve of the am- 
pulla of the horizontal canal; o, nervous filaments fent 
behind the feat of the third officulum; », filaments of 
nerves diftributed to the capfule of the large officulum ; 
qa filament which goes to be expended upon the capfule 
of the leffer officulum; r, a long nerve fent to the ampulla 
of the pofterior femi.circular canal; s, the portion of the 
fifth pair of nerves that go out of the cranium ; #, the fourth 
pair of nerves; u, the third pair of nerves; v, the fecond 
or optic nerves; x, the firft or olfactory pair of nerves. 


Organs of Vifion. 


The eyes of fifhes are ufually fituated on the fides of the 
head, in which cafes the animal only beholds objects with 
one eye at atime; fome remarkable exceptions exilt, how- 
ever, with refpe& to the pofition of the cyes in this clafs ; 
they are turned dire@tly upwards in the flar-gazer (uranof- 
copus). All the genus p/euroneées have both eyes placed on 
one fide of the head, which, from the pofition the fifh ob- 
ferves, is always the uppermoft. In the callionymus and the 
ray genus the eyes have an oblique afpect. 

The figure of the eye in fifhes ufually approaches that of 
a femi-{phere, the flat furface of which belongs to the 
cornea. In the ray genus the eye is flat alfo fuperiorly, 
and has, confequently, the form of a quarter of a fphere. 
Some fifhes have the cornea gibbous, and the eye of the 
fame fizure that it poffefles in thofe animals which inhabit 


7 


S H. 


the air; the gadus /ota affords an example of this fhaped 
eye. 

The /clerotic coat is denfe, elaftic, and cartilaginous in 
its Aruéture; and although fometimes thin, it preferves the 
fizure of the eye. In fome fpecies, more particularly 
amongft the cartilaginous fifhes, it is thick. This is ree 
markably the cafe in the /turgeon (acipenfer flurio) ; in this 
fith the fclerotic compofes the greater portion of the eye- 
ball, the cavity for containing the tranfparent parts bearing 
but a {mall proportion to the reft of the globe. This coat 
is thin in the pofterior part of the eye of the /almon (/almo 
falar), and hard aud unyielding as bone on the fore part. 
The induration of the front of the {clerotic is alfo found in 
feveral other fpecies. 

The fclerotic of the ray and /hark genera forms a tubers 
cular projeGtion at the back of the eye; this is articulated 
with a piece of cartilage which is conneéted at the other 
extremity to the bottom of the orbit. The eye in thefe 
animals, therefore, is fuftained upon a footftalk, upom 
which it is moveable only to a certain extent. 

The cornea, as before mentioned, is commonly flat in 
fifhes. 

The diftin@tion between this coat and the fclerotic is par=- 
ticularly plain in the tope (/gualus galeus) ; thefe two coats 
are conjoined by oblique edges, between which is inter- 
pofed fome compa cellular fubftance, which appears to 
be a production of the conjun¢tiva that paffes into the eye 
to be united to the ciliary ligament. 

The conjundiva is refleQed ov-r the external part of the 
globe of the eye in fifhes as in other animals. This is fatif- 
fatorily fhewn in the ee/ kind (murena), in which it adheres 
fo lightly at this place, that it is removed in ftripping the 
fin off the reft of the body. 

The choroid coat, and membrana ruy{chiana, are very diftin® 
from each other in this clafs. 

In the genera raja and /qualus the choroides poffeffes the 
ufual vafcular ftru@ture, and is of fome thicknefs and con- 
fiftency ; the ruyfchian membrane is very thin and tranf{pa- 
rent, and between the two membranes there is {pread a 
filvery pigment. 

But in other fifhes the choroides is very thin and little 
vafcular. It is a white filver or gold colour. The ruyf- 
chiana has more confiltence, and is compofed of an infinite 
number of veflels interwoven together. It is a black co- 
lour. There isinterpofed between thefe coats a remark- 
able body called the choroid gland, which is not found in the 
chondropterysii. 

The choroid gland has ufually the fizure of a thick flat 
ring ; it encircles the optic nerve, but not entirely, as there 
is always a {mall deficiency in the ring. 

In the cod (gadus morhua), the falmon (falmo falar), and 
the moon-fi/h (tetraodon mola), it has been obferved to form 
not a true circle, but to be irregularly bent; and in the 
perca labrax it is compofed of two pieces placed om oppo 
fite fides of the optic nerve. 

The choroid gland is very compact in its ftructure; it 
receives a multitude of fine veflels which pafs through the 
membrana ruyfchiana ; they are covered by a white opaque 
mucus, analtomofe with each other, and feem to terminate 
in an infinite number of ramifications in the fubllance of the 
gland, which thereby acquires an uniform, vivid, red cos 
lour at every point, appearing more lke a dyed body than 
one coloured by blood-veffels, in which circumfiance, and 
the ob{curity of its texture, it bears a flrong refemblance to 
the vafcular bodies found in the {wimming bladder of fithes, 
The circulation of the bleod through the choroid gland ap- 
pears to be flow and embarraffed, as the colour remain in 

the 


BE} 1eS) H, 


the part in a.confiderable degree after it is macerated and 
preferved in.fpirits. 

The choroid gland likewife receives a number of nervous 
filaments from the ophthalmic branch of the fifth pair »which 
proceeds for fome way in the fame fheath with the optic 
nerve. 

Anatomifts are not agreed with regard to the ufe of this 
fingular part : fome have fuppofed it to be a mufcular ap- 
paratus, intended to alter the figure of the eye when be- 
holding objects at different dittances ; others, among whom 
is Cuvier, confider it as a gland which fecretes fome of the 
humours of the eye; this latter opinion is moft confiltent 
with the form and ftrudture of the part, which are very 
unlike thofe ofany other mufcle; but, on the otber hand, its 
fituation on the outfide of the ruy{chiana, and the want of 
any excretory opening, are difficulties in the way of its fur- 
nifhing any of the tranfparent parts of the eye; it appears 
to us to fupply the place of the vafculer ftructure of the 

_choroides, which membrane is always thin and deficient in 
blo sd-veffels in thofe fifhes that poffefs the choroid gland. 
The funétions of the choroid coat are not, we conceive, yet 
fully underftood; it enjoys a degree of vafcularity greater 
than is neceflary for its fuppofed offices of fecretion; we 
have examples of the fame circumftance in feveral other 
organs in the body, but the moft ftriking are the choroid 
gland ard the vafcular bodies of the {wimming bladder of 
fifhes. 

The membrana ruyfchiana, near the front of the eve, 
fends off, in fome fifhes, a triangular procefs, which paffes 
through the vitreous humour, and is attached to the fide of 
the capfule of the cryftalline lens, in the manner of the 
marfupium of birds. Some very evident veflels which come 
through the vitreous humour, are tran{mitted along this 
procefs. On the oppofite pole of the capfule of the cryital- 
line we have obferved in the dory (zeus faber), and others, 
the mark of an attachment which appears to be produced 
by a veffel. This mode of conncétion between the ery ttal- 
line and the internal coats of the cye appears perfeAly 
analogous to the pecfen or mar/upium in the eye of birds, and 
no doubt anf{wers a fimilar purpofe. 

The ciliary procefis have not been obferved to exift in any 
fith except the tope (/qualus galeus), in which the laminz, 
according to Cuvier, proje&t as much as in birds, and after 
forming a fhort point, which joins the capfule of the cryf- 
talline, they are continued with the ftrie of the uvea. 

Fifhes want that colouréd appearance of the bottom of 
the ruyfchiana, which is called the ¢apetum ; this membrane 
is black at every part, except in the ray kind, which have 
it tranfparent at the bottom of the cye, and therefore ad- 
mitting the filver colour of the choroides to be feen through 
it. 

The iris is in general a very fine membrane in fifhes, and 
fo tranfparent that the uvea is vifible. 

The uvea has commonly a brilliant metallic colour, which 
makes the eyes of fifhes fo ftriking. 

The form of the pupil is round in this clafs, with the ex- 
ception of the genus raja, in which a very remarkable curtain 
or veil is continued from the fuperior edge of the pupil. It 
ia nearly a triangular fhape; the bafe is conne&tcd above, 
and the two fides hang down. Thefe are notched, or 
rather divided into fhort ftripes or fhreds along the edge: 
they appear gilded externally, but are black on the infide. 
When the eye is unmoved, the veil is turned up between the 
fuperior edge of the pupil and the vitreous humour; but if 
it be depreffed, either by external force or the will of the 
animal, the veil comes down and entirely covers the pupil. 
The torpedo has been obferved to let down its veil in this 


manner always at the moment of communicating an electric 
fhock, 

In the ray and /hark kinds, the carp genus, and a number 
of other fifhes, the optic nerve has been obferved to enter the 
eye bya round hole, and to produce a tubercle on the inner 
fide, from which the refina goes off in a radiated manner. 
In the rey genus, the tubercle of the optic nerve is irregular 
in its figure, or papillated. 

Cuvier has obferved in feveral of the genera /almo, 
clupea, fcomber, perca, gadus, zeus, and tetraodon, that the 
opuc nerve, afler entcring the eye, and traverfing che ruyf- 
chiana, forms two ftreaks or tais: thefe tails are parallel, 
but not contiguous, a production of the ruylchiana pafling 
between them. The refina is produced from the oppofite 
edges of thefe ftreaks, in the fame manner as it arifes in birds 
from the fingle white line. 

The aqueous humour is very {mall in quantity, or totally 
wanting in fifhes; it isalfo of a different confiftence than in 
the animals which do not inhabit the water. It is vifcid and 
filamentous. 

The cry/falline lens has generally in fifhes very nearly the 
fpherical torm, and in fome inftances it is a perfeét {phere. 
It is more denfe and hard, efpecially in the nucleus or in- 
ternal part, than it isin any other animal, except the cusile 
JSi/b (sepia). As the aqueous humour is fmall, the cryttal- 
line is in the fame degree large in this tribe of animals. 

The vitreous humour of fifhes is lefs in proportion to the 
other parts, and has more confiftence than in the animals 
living out of the water. ; 

Cuvier has furnifhed us with fome tables, partly the refult 
of his own obfervation, and partly derived from other 
fources, exhibiting the proportions that exift as to the form, 
magnitude, denfity, &c. of the trani{pareat parts of the eye 
in different animals. We fhall extract the following parti- 
culars, as ferving to explain the optical properties of the 
humours of the eye in fifhes. 

‘he degree of convexity or approximation of the cryftal- 
line to a {phere is determined by comparing the axis with 
the diameter. In the human fubject, the axis is to the 
diameter as I to 2. 

In the following fifhes as below: 


Salmon ( falmo falar) - 9 to 10 
Sword fifb (xyphias) - = 25—26 
Shad (clupea) - - 10— ITI 
Pike (cfox lucius) - I4— 15 
Bartel (cyprinus barbus) - 1I—12 
Carp (cyprinus carpio) - 14 — 15 
Whiting (gadus merlangus) - 4—15 
Mackarel (fcomber fcombrus) 12 — 13 
Shark (/qualus) - - 2t— 2 
Ray (raja). - - 2I— 2 
FHferring (clupea harengus) - 10 — 15 
Lench (cyprinus tinca) - 7— 8 
Eel (murena anguilla) - - I1—i12 
Conger (murena conger) - Q9— 10 


The portion of the axis occupied by each of the three 
tran{parent parts of the eye are reprefented by fractions, the 
length of the axis being confidered the unit. 


Aqueous Cryttalline Vitreons 

‘ humour, lens. humour. 
nm man . a ef 4 . a5 
In the erring é oA a 
7 a + a 7 


(clupea harengus) 


The following table has been given by Monroe, of the 
comparative {pecific gravity of the humoars of the eye in 
a seed 


FIS H. 


the cod (gadus morhua’) and the ox (40s) ; diftilled water. 
being fuppofed a thoufand, 


Tn the ox, In the cod. 
Of the aqueous humour - 1000 - Tooo 
Of the vitreous humour 1016 - 1013 
Of the whole cryftalline 1114 * 6 1165 
Of its external part = - 1670 \‘« 1140 
Of its nucleus - 1160 - 1200 


We have not proved the accuracy of this table, but it 
appears to be incorreét, particularly with refpect to the 
denfity of the aqueous and vitreous humours, which are pro- 
bably greater than are here reprefented. 

We have not a fufficient number of experiments to deter- 
mine accurately the refraStive power of the different humours 
ofthe eye. All that have been made, however, as weil as 
common obfervation, fhew that the refrangibility of the hu- 
mour is much greater in fifhes than ia terreftrial animals, by 
which means they are enabled to perceive objeéts through fo 
denfe a medium as water. 

The eye in fifhes is moved by fix mufcles, as in the human 
fubje@. The one analogous to the #rochlearis does not, 
however, pafs through a pulley. 

Fifhes are not provided with moveable eye-lids. in the 
Salmon (falmo), and the mackarel (/comber), there is at each 
angle a vertical and immoveable veil, which projedts a little 
way over theeye. Mot offéous fifhes have fomething of the 
fame {tructure, 

In the moon fib (tetraodon mola) there is a very fingular 
apparatus for covering the eye. This animal can entirely 
coverits eye by alid, which contains a circular perforation. 
This aperture is fhut by atrue {phinéter mufcle, and is opened 
by five mufcles which arife at the bottom of the orbit, and 
proceed in a radiated manner to be inferted into the eye- 
hid. 

Fifhes, from the nature of the mediuvm in which they 
refide, do not require any aqueous fecretion for keeping the 
furface of their eyes moilt ; we therefore do not find a lacry- 
mal gland in any fpecies of this clafs. 

The figures which illuftrate the ftruéture of the eye are 
contained in Plate IX. of the Axatomy of Fifhes: fig. 5 
exhibits a lateral view of the eye of the /kate (raja batis) ; a, 
the eye, flat above and anteriorly ; 4, the tubercle of carti- 
lage; c, the cartilaginous peduncle or footftalk upon which 
the tubercle is articulated; d¢, a portion of the cartilage of 
the orbit to which the footftalk is connected... Fig. 6.13 an 
anterior view of the eye of the /éa‘e, with the cornea re- 
moved, to bring into view the veil which is feen at a, covers 
ing the greatelt part of the pupil. Fig. 7. isa feétion of the 
eye of the /furgeon (acipenfer flurio); a, the thick mafs 
formed by the {clerotic coat} 4, the cavity of the eye. 
ig. 8. exhibits a portion of the ficin taken from the fide of 
the head of the ee! (murena anguillay including the {pot 
covering the globe of the eve which correfponds to the 
conjunctiva. ig. 9, fhews the choroid gland in the carp 
(cyprinus carpio); a, the gland; 2, the optic nerve; c, the 
ruyf{chiana, the choroides being removed. Fig. ro, exhibits 
the choroid gland as it exiltsin the cod (gadus mor/ua) ; 
a, the gland fomewhat irregular in its figure; 4, the opffc 
nerve ; c, the ruy{chiana ; d, d, veflels pafling into the gland. 
Fig. 11. expofes the internal~parts of the eye inthe dory 
{zeus faber); a, the vitreous humour; 2, the cryttalline 
lens; c, velfel pafling through the vitreous humours, diltri- 
buting branches to this humour and the lens; d, produc- 
tion of the ruyfchiana attached to the capfule of the cryf- 
talline ; 4) the other. point of the capfule which feems to 
have a particular connection with the adjacent parts. 
Fig, 12,18 intended to contraft the {pherical form of the 


cryflalline of a fifh at a, with the flattened appearance of 
the anterior part of the lens ina bird, asfeen atb. Fig. 13. 
reprefents the tubercular termination of the optic nerve in 
the kate (raja batis) ; a, the optic nerve; 5, the irregular 
or papillated tubercle formed within the eye; c, the retina. 
Fig. 14. fhews the termination of the optic nerve in two 
ftreaks, as it exifts in the gadus, and many other genera; a, 
the optic nerve; 4,5, the ftreaks or tails; ¢, the retina. 


Bones. 


Fifhes have been divided by all nacuralifts into two great 
tribes, according to the ftru€ture of their feleton; thofe of 
the one have been called the cartilaginous, and thofe of the 
other the off/ous fifhes. This diftinétion, although juttified 
by the difference in the compofition of their bones, and 
proper as being confiftent with natural habits and ftruéture, 
is neverthelefs not ftri@tly correét ; for the fk-leton of the 
cartilaginous fifhes poffeffes fome calcareous matter, and 
the bones of the offeous fifhes contain in general a much 
fmaller quantity of earth than is found in thofe of other 
animals: if they were compared with the bones of mamma- 
lia, or of birds, they would themfelves deferve the epithet of 
cartilaginous. The compofition is not uniform in the different 
bones of a fifh’s body ; fome contain a greater quantity of 
phofphate of lime than others; the cranium, {pine, and the 
thick bones, are hard, white, and opaque in the offeous 
fifhes, but the thin bones are flexible and tranfparent ; and in 
the cartilaginous tribe, although we can as readily cut with 
a knife many parts of their fkeleton as we could common 
cartilage, yet their cranium and fpine give confiderable 
refiftance, ef{pecially inthe larger {pecies, and prefent more 
of a fibrous texture. 

The ftruGture of the fkeleton is more purely ‘cartilaginous 
in the fifhes with fixed branchiz, as the ray and feark genera, 
than in the order of cartilaginous fifhes called branchio/= 
teste 

The colour of the bones of fifhes does not appear'to be 
fubject to much variety"; one fpecies, however, the gar f/h 
(e/ox belone), is- remarkable by having the whole fkeleton 

reen, 

The fkeleton of a fifh is, in its general form and mecha 
nifm, fo very unlike that of other animals, that a perfon at 
firft view would net fuppofe there exitted the mott diftant 
analogy between them ; but after examining the parts in de- 
tail, and comparing their relations to each other, we are 
attonifhed by the correfpondence which prevails between 
them, and the pieces of the fkeleton of mammalia. Nature 
isalways economical in her means, and never deviates from 
the type, or creates a new part, until ail the modification$ 
which the organ is capable of receiving be exhaufted. The 
combination of fimplicity of defign with diverfity of ef-@, 
cannot be more ftrongly illuftrated than in comparing the 
anatomy of the fkeleton of fifhes with that of the other 
claffes. 

The fkeleton-of the chondropterygii, and of the genus ray 
in particular, differs as much mn form as in compolition front 
that of the offeous tithes ; it likewife bears lefs analogy to the 
fkeleton of other animals: we fhall therefSre poitpone ite 
defcription until we have given an account of the bones of 
offeous fifhes, for which purpofe we fhall take in general the 
dory (zeus faber), as affording one of the belt examples of 
the ofteology of this tribe of fivhes.: 

The bones which compofe the cranium are all united by a 
fpecies of {quamous future; they not merely overlap each 
other, but the edge of each bone forms a great number of 
irregular, fharp, thin proceffes or fpicule, which are inferted 
into one anothers the union thus produced does not admit 

of 


Fis O. 


ef any motion of the feveral parts, and the cranium appears 
to be compefed of a fingle piece. Cuvier fays that the bones 
of the cranium are anchylofed with each other ; but we have 
not only found the ufual number of bones to be diftin& in the 
cranium of even old fifies, but the portions of which each 
bone is originally compofed to be feparable from each 
other. To be fatisfied of this fa& it is only neceflary to exa- 
mine the fkull of a fifh that has beenthoroughly cleaned and 
bleached by long maceration in the fea, and expofure to the 
weather, many of which are frequently found lying on our 
fhores: thefe fkulls we have been enabled to feparate into 
portions, correfponding to the frontal, parietal, temporal, 
Jphenoidal, and occipital bones, and to divide again the frontal 
and occipital bones tnto two pieces each. 

The external form of the cranium is very irregular, and 
varies in different fihes. Inthe dory it has two flat fides, 
which have an oblique direction, like the roof of a houfe ; the 
top or part correfponding to the ridge is an irregular 
hollow or groove ; the potterior part of the cranium is much 
larger than the anterior; it 1s truncated or flat, except two 
thin proceffes correfponding to the occipical ridge; the an- 
terior portion of the cranium is flender, elongated, and 
Slightly arched, fomewhat refembling the fuperior mandible 
of abird: under this part there 1s a very large vacancy, 
through which moft of the nerves pafs out. The inferior 
part of the cranium is depreffed on each fide, and then forms 
a remarkably ftrong procefs, which is analogous to the 
bafillary, and extends from the condyle, with which the {pine 
is articulated, to the bone analogous to the vomer, of which 
more will be faid hereafter. The parietes of the cranium, 
correfponding to the fituation of the organs of hearing, are 
thin, cellular, and exhibit an irregular foffa externa ly ; in 
many fifhes the fides of the cranium are not flat and floping, 
but fpread out into a thin edge, nearly on a plane with the 
f{uperior part: there is often alfoa fharp thin {pine extended 
talong the medial line of the {uperior part of the cranium, 
which, in fome {pecics, {tands high, and projects confidera- 
bly from the back of the head, in order to give attachment 
to the mufcles and ligaments of the fpine. The lower part 
of the cranium is moft commonly, in offeous ffhes, enlarged 
on each fide of the bafillary procefs. 

The cavity of the cranium, as before obferved, is much 
larger than the brain; it is extremely irregular upon the 
internal furface, furnifhing a number of craggy and f{picu- 
lated procefles, impoffible to defcribe: it is not, therefore, 
adapted, as in other animals, to the form of the brain. It 
is more nearly ovular than any other figure. 

In the account given by Cuvier of the ones of the face, 
he does not appear to us to have named the different pteces 
according to their true analogy, or hkenefs to the parts com- 
pofing the face of other animals. In the dory, from which 
we take our defcription, the bones of the face are large and 
very difting. 

There is no cfeous feptum to the orbits ; the eyes are fepa- 
rated from each other only by membrane. In the genus 
anarrhichas, however, the orbits are divided by bone. 

The zygoma is formed by a chain of very thin bones, ex- 
tended from the temporal to the malar bone; it makes the 
inferior margin of the external part of the orbit; thefe, in 
fome fifhes, are incomplete in the middle ; Cuvier confiders 
them as fupplying the place of the /acrymal bone. 

The bones which appear moft analogous to the /acrymal 
are two irregular-fhaped, {mall, thin pieces, fituated at the 
anterior part of the os frontis, on each fide of the nafal 
bones. 

The bones which fupply the place of the ethmoidal of 
ether animals are fituated before the os frontis, immediately 


below the laft mentioned ; they defcend obliquely from the 
frontal to the malar bones, with which they are articulated ; 
they form the anterior margins of the orbits. 

The naful bones are fupplied by a ftrong procefs of an 
arched figure, which is continued from the middle of the 
anterior part of the os frontis, under the pofterior ends of 
the inter-maxillary bones, which move over it; from this 
bone there arifes a thin plate, which is analogous to the 
offeous feptum of the nafalcavity, and which is united to the 
yomer. 

The vomer is a bone of a firgular form, it is long, and 
paffes in a {traight line from the bafilary procefs of the occi- 
put, with which it appears to be really anchylofed, along 
the fuperior part of the palate, and ends anteriorly ina thick 
broad extremity, fomewhat refembling in figure a horfe’s foot, 
which is commonly armed with tecth: this bone ferves as 
the bafe to the feptum of the orb'ts. 

The bones we have called the ma/ar, Cuvier appears to 
contider as analogous to the palatine ; t>ey are thick, fhort, 
and irregular in their fhape ; they are articulated with the 
zygomatic bones, with thofe analogous to the ethmoidal, 
witb the fuperior maxillary, and with the articular bones, 
which will be hereafter defcribed ; they {end procefles back- 
wards and inwards, which contribute to form the vault of 
the palate. 

The /uperior jaw is formed of four pieces, which are con- 
neéted to each other, and to the adjoining bones, by liga- 
ment, in fuch a manner as to permit a confiderable degree 
of motion ; the two external pieces correfpond to the fupe- 
rior maxillary bones; the intermediate ones to the inier- 
maxiligry bones. 

The maxillary bones axe two arches placed with their con- 
vexity outwards ; they are broader and thinner at their ex- 
tremities than in the middle; near their fuperior end they 
furnifh a thick procefs, which projeéts anteriorly like a fmall 
cone, and prefents on the furface next the mouth a 
rounded ridge; from entering into the compolition of the 
roof of the mouth, fome perfons would perhaps confider 
them analogous to the palatine bones. They are conneéted 
by ligament with the malar bones fuperiorly, with the coro- 
noid proce{s of the lower jaw inferiorly, and anteriorly with 
the inter-maxillary bones. 

The part of the upper jaw that correfponds to the inter- 
maxillary bones forms the fuperior margin of the mouth, and 
is commonly furnifhed with teeth; it is compofed of two 
pieces, which are united to each other by ligament and 
cartilage ; each of thefe fends off pofteriorly two thin plates, 
and one long round procefs; the firft flide under the max- 
illary bones, and the round proceffes are tied together by 
ligament, and move in a fheath which is thus formed upon 
the nafal bone: a free motion of thele parts on each other 
becomes neceflary in the protrufion, the opening, and the 
fhutting of the mouth. 

The inferior jaw confifts of two triangular fhaped pieces, 
which are united to each other by ligament at their an- 
terior part: the angle of thofe pieces that is placed upwards 
correfponds to the coronoid proce/s ; the articulation is fituated 
near the polterior angle, and this lait correfponds with what 
is called the angle of the jaw in mammalia. The middle 
part of the pieces compofing the lower jaw is either of ex- 
tremely thin cartilage or membrane. 

_ The lower jaw 1s articulated with a bone analogous to 
that to which Cnvier has given the name of the /guare bone, 
(/'0s quarré,) but which we have preferred calling the articular 
hone 1 the defcription of the anatomy of birds, from the 
circumitance of its being interpofed between the articulation 
of the jaw and the cranium. n'y 

The 


FS H. 


The articular bone is compofed of feveral pieces firmly 
united together; they produce a confiderable extent of fur- 
face on the fide of the head in the dory : one piece, which is 
of fome ftrength, is articulated with the under furface of 
the temporal bone, from which it proceeds downwards and 
forwards in a curved manner, declining in thicknefs as it 
defcends: this piece fuitains the thin bone of the operculum, 
and receives the horn of the os hyoides: over this piece there 
is another thinner one laid ; they are apparently anchylofed 
with each other, and the external one commences a {hort 
cittance from the cranium, by a tharp diftin@ point, and 
goes onto the articulation of the lower jaw: another offecus 
piece is articulated below, and anterior to the orbit with 
the inferior end of the malar bone, from which it proceeds 
directly downwards to join the anterior end of the other 
piece, and forms with it the articular furface for the joirt 
with the lower jaw. The intermediate {pace left between 
thefe pieces, which is very confiderable and of a triangular 
figure, is filled up with a very thin plate of cartilage, which 
is in’ parts offiied. ‘The articular bone in fifhes is evidently 
formed to carry the iower-jaw forwards, and thus to facilitate 
the protrufion and dilatation of the mouth, and fer 
affording a furface for the attachment of the mufeles of 
the jaw; it is therefore found much larger in this clafs than 
in birds. 

The part correfponding tothe os hyoides is formed by 
two flat ofleous plates, which meet together anteriorly upon 
the bone which fuilains the tongue, and feparating from 
each other pofteriorly encompafs the gills: a {mali round 
branch goes off from the external end of each plate; thefe 
are analoyous to the horns of the os hycides, and become 
attached to the internal furface of the articular bone by 
ligaments, which allow the hyoides to move nearer or farther 
from the cavity of the mouth: each plate of the hyoides is 
compofed of f.veral pieces, the edges of which are in a 
csriain degree anchylofed with each other: there are fix 
pieces oblervable on each fide in tbe dory. Cuvier {tates 
three to be the vfual number. 

There isa very thin offeous plate fituated between the 
anterior ends of the two fides of the hyoides, and the 
jui Ction of the fccpule ; it is connefled by pieces of liga- 
ment to each fide of the os hycides, to the lingual bone, 
and to the feapulz, where they meet : this bone has almoft 
exaGtly the ourline of a heart, it has been therefore called the 
cordiform or heart foaped bene; itis peculiar to fifhes, but 
does not appear to have any other ule, than to afford 
attachment to the {trong mufcles fituated at this place. 

There are a number of bones that are peculiar to the 
organs of refpiration and of degiutition in this"clafs of 
animals, which requirea connected defcription: thefe are the 
branchial arches, the pharyngeal bones. and the bones which 
fuflain the operculum or gill cover, with thofe of the mem- 
brana branchioftega. 

In deferibing the organs of reipiration we have fated 
that each of the gilla is fuftained upon an arch of bone: 
each branchial arch is compofed of two pieces or limbs, two 
of the ends of which are conjoined by ligament in fuch a 
manner, that the other extremitizs can be moved nearer or 
farther afunder, and thus the arch rendered narrower or 
wider: the f{uperior limb, or that next the cranium, meafnres 
about one-third of the whole arch, and the inferior about 
two-thirds of its extent. ‘The branchial arches are placed, 
with refpe@ to cach other, obliquely in fucceffi o; they are 
commonly flender, thin bones, and have four fides, or ra- 
ther two edges and two fides: the convex edge is directed 
outwards and backwards: it is upon this the lamine of the 
gills are planted ; the concave edge is turned forwards and ‘a- 


Vor, XIV. 


wards, towards the mouth. Along the external or anterior 
fide there are ufually a number of {mall offeous eminences, 
placed at fhort diftances from each other, which proje& a 
little beyond the concave edge : thefe do not commonly arife 
from the bone, but the membrane covering it: they are 
furnifhed with teeth, which are thence called the branchial 
teeth, as already defcribed. The inferior extremity of the 
branchial arches are attached in fucceffion along the fides of 
fome offeous pieces, which are fituated in the lower part of 
the mouth, and appear as the continuation of the lingual 
bone: thefe bones vary in number in the different fpecies, 
but they are firm'y united to cach other, fo as to form a fort 
of fternum, to which the branchial archcs are effixed like nbs. 
The fuperior furface of thefe bones is {mooth, but inferiorly 
they furnifh fome proceffes, through which lome of the 
branches of the branchial artery palsto the gills. 

_ From the pofterior extremity of this fpecies of fternum 
there arife two flender branches, which feparate from each 
other in the manner of horns, and foon term inate tn flattened 
furfaces or difks: thefe are the inferior pharyngeal bones, and 
are, as before obferved, commonly covered with teeth. 

The fuperior extremities of the branchial! arches are 
indire@ly cosneGted with the bafis of the cranium; 2 flendce 
footitalk is articulated at one end with the fupericr extremity 
of the pofterior arch, and at the other with the bafe of the 
cranium ; the fuperior extremities cf the three antcrior 
arches of each fide terminate upon two flattered bones, 
which are called the /uperior pharyngeal bones ; from the upper 
edge of which a fecond fvotltatk goes off, ard 's attached 
to the cranium, ou the inner fide of the one fi & mentioned. 

In confequence of this fort of conneétion between the 


branchial arches and the cranium, two additional joints are 

created, by which the flexion of the arches, and the approxi» 
i F the fupenior pharyngeal bones to cach other, ard 

mation o¢ the iuperior pharyngeat bones to cect ner, an 


to the inferior pharynpeal bones, are more cemplctely per- 
formed; the mufcles hkewife which move thefe parts gaia 
confiderable power by their whole force cperating upon the 
pointe at which they are inferted. 

Cuvier ftetes the conneétion between the branchial arches 
and the cranium of ofleous fihhes in a manner fomewhat 
differently than we have deferitbed it above. He fays the 
fuperior extremities of all the four arches are attached to 
the fuperior pharyngeal bones, when thefe exift; the two 
polterior arches by an articulation, which admits of a {ee- 
{aw motiox ; and the two asterior arches more loofely: for 
this purpofe, the firfl arch bifurcates and [eads to the pharyn- 
geal bone a ftrong licament from pe of its branches, while 
the other is immed ; joined to che cranivem. 

In the fidurus an ris, which has but one large pharyn- 
geal plate falened under the fuperior extremity of the lait 
arch, this extremity unites with that of thethid arch, and 


converges with thofe of the two frit towards the bafe of 
the craniym. 
In the pike (efox lucius) the two lak arches unite at 


nc, which, as well as 


t 
their fuperior extremitics to the fc 
the firft, is articulated with the crar 


are approximated and art:culated with a common piece, which 
is united to the cranium. 

In the trout (faimo fario ) the fuperior extremitics of the 
fix arches are united by feveral pieces, the poferior of 
which bears a {mall plate covered with teeth, at the place 
where it is joined with the extremity of the Jatt arch. 

The boves which form the operculum are generally two. 
The principal one hasa triangular figure; it is very thin at 
every part, except at the fuperior angle, at which place it 

3.4 forms 


FISH. 


forms a fort of neck, and a little prominence or head, in being conftructed of fhort pillars, with regular fpaces be- 
which there is a depreffion that is joined to a correfponding tweenthem. ‘This {tructure diminifhes very confiderably thé 
procefs, on the back of the fuperior end of the articular weight of the {pine, without fubtraéting from its 
bone. This bone of the operculum has a degree of rotatory ftrength. 
motion, in addition to thofe of elevation and depreffion. The fpinous proceffes of the vertebre are commonly long, 
The other bone of the operculum is long, narrow, and thin, fleader, fharp-pointed bones ; they arife from the fuperior _ 
and refembles the blade of a knife; it lies pofterior to, and fides of the bodies of alithe vertebra, and from the inferiot 
nearly parallel with, the articular bone ; it is not joinedto any fides of the caudal, and fome of the laft dorfal or abdominal 
bone byarticulation, but is conne&ted byligaments pofteriorly, vertebra. They originate in the lower furface of the caudal 
with the triangular bone of the operculum, and the back vertebrz we believe always as two procefics, which coalefce, 
per of the os hyoides, and anteriorly to the angle of the and form a triangular fpace, in which the blood-veffels of 
ower jaw. The ufe of this bone feems to be chiefly to the tail pafs along the fpine. They are double at their roots 
fuftain the integuments which are extended over this inthe p/ewronedes and other fifhes, along the fuperior part of 
place. the fpine alfo. ~ . 

The offous rays which fupport the membrana branchiofega The inferior {pinous procefles of ‘the laft dotfal vertebre 
are attached to the pofterior margin of the broad bones of are fhort, imperfeetly formed, aud have their extremities 
the os hyoides ; they increafe in fize from before backwards. applied and faftened to each other, in order to fuftain the 
‘Phere is an interval between the origin of the firtt three rays, large bone that forms the boundary of the abdominal cavity, 
and that of the four pofterior rays, which, however, doesnot, of which more hereafter; 
caufe any material irregularity in the fucceflion of the points The laft vertebra of the tail has its extremity fpread out 
of the rays. Thefe bones are capable of being elevated and inthe fizure of a-fan, which appears to be compofed’ of a 
Yowered, of being approximated and’expanded. The eleva. number’of offeous rays united to each other. 


tion and expanfion of the pofterior rays are oppofed, beyond 
a certain extent, by a procefs from their roots. 

The vertebre are divided by Cuvier into two clafles ; the 
firft are the abdominal or dorfal, which have {pinous procefles 
from the fuperior fide of the {pine only ; the fecond are the 
eaudal vertebre, which have {pinous proceffes from both the 
upper and lower fides of the fpine: but this diftinétion is 
not quite corre&t, as the pofterior abdominal vertebra fur- 


The ris are {ometimes wanting in fifhes, and, when they 
do exift, are ufvally very fmall, 

The genera filurus, cyprinus, and chetodon, however, fur- 
nifh examples of fifhes wich ftrong ribs, which furround 
the abdominal cavity almoft to its top. , 

In the herring genus (clupea), the zeus vomer, &c. they 
unite ina fort of fternum. . ; 

In many fifhes the mbs divide at their extremities into two 


nifh fhort {pinous proceffes inferiorly ; the caudal vertebre branches; it ia véry common alfo to meet with a fecond row 
may, however, be reckoned with propriety from the large of ribs, which arife above the others ; thefe are ufually fewer 
bone, which forms the pofterior boundary of the abdominal in number than the proper abdominal ribs, and pafs between 


Cavity. 

The bodies of the vertebre vary with refpett to figure in 
different fifhes, being cylindric in fome inftances, and angu- 
Jar or compreffed in others; they are all, however, diftin- 
guifhed by having the furfaces by which they are conjoined 
hollowed out to forma femi-fpherical or conical cavity: 
thefe cavities are oppofed to each other, and thus produce, 
throughout the whole fpine, a chain of cavities, each of 
which is nearly of a fpherical fizure, and alternates in fuc- 
ceffion with the vertebra; thefe cavities are furnifhed with 
concentric layers of cartilage, or rather a peculiar inter-» 
vertebral fub{tance, which fomewhat refembles ligament, but 
is highly elaftic : thefe concentric layers complete the form 
ot each cavity, and conftitute the bond of union between 
one vertebra and another. The interior part of the cavities 
is actually filled by fluid. 

The centre of each vertebra, which is very thin, is per- 


the portions of the lateral mufcles. 

The fernum but rarely exifts in this clafs of animals, as 
the ribs feldom extend as far as the inferior part of the body. 

Inthe dory (zeus faber) there is a {peciesof fternum formed 
by a number of irregularly fhaped offzous pieces, which ap- 
pear to be only conneéted with each other by ligament, and 
the common integuments. They are furnifhed with fharp 
{pines externally, and are hollow next the cavity of the 
body. 

The members which correfpond in fifhes to the anterior 
and potterior extremities of other animals are the peGoral 
and abdominal jinz. 

The peGoral fin is {ultained by a very confiderable bone, 
which, with the correfponding one, furrounds the body im- 
mediately behind the aperture of the gills. Cuvier has, from 
hence, called them the girdle-formed bones ; he likewife con- 


forated with a {mall hole, which is lined by the fame fub- fiders them as analogous to the /capula, in which he is juttified 
ftance that invefts the cavities; acommunication is therefore by their pofition, and fome circumftances in their formation. 
eftablifhed between the cavities, the whole length of the ‘Thefe bones are articulated with the inferior and pofterior 
fpine, which is probably deligned to obviate the compreffion part of the cranium; they pafs backwards and outwards, as 
of the fluidin the different cells or cavities during the motions faras the middle line of the body of the fifh, during which 
ef the fpine. 7 courfe they are narrow, flat on the external furface, and 

By this {pecies of articulation of the vertebra with each have a round ridge along their internal furface. They then 
other feveral advantages are obtained ; ftrength and light- make a turn forwards and inwards, and meet each other a 
nefs are beftowed onthe fpine, and a great facility of mo- hort diflance behind the os hyoides. At the place they tura 
tion, as every vertebra rolls upon a globe compofed of an forwares, they fend a thin, fharp procefs backwards, and 
elaftic fubftance, and of fluid. The fart vertebra is arti- foonafter they receive, in articular deprefiions, the ends of two 
culated with the occiput in the fame manner as’ thofe of the Jong, flender, three-fided bones, which pals from below up- 
{pine are with each other. wards, acrofs the mufcular parietes of the abdominal cavity. 

The external furface of the vertebra are very generally Some anatomilts confider thefe bones as being analogous to 
marked by a number of depreffions or little cavities, in the the clavicles ; Cuvier does not allow it, but without ftating 
longitudinal direGtion of the fpine, which give to the cir- the grounds of his objection. It is fufficiently plain, how- 
cumferenee of each vertebra very much the appearance of ever, from their pofitioa and connections, that there are no 


3 other 


FISH. 


other bones, except the clavicles, or the fork-fhaped bones 
of birds, with which they can be compared. 

It is the inferior half of the fcapula that properly cor- 
refponds with the bone which bears that name in other ani- 
mals; the other portion feems to be a part added in fishes, in 
order to give firmnefs to the whole member, by conneAling it 
with the head, and likewife to carry the peétoral fin far- 
ther down wpon the body. The inferior portion is broad 
and thin, and furnifhed witha thin, foinous procefs, or ra- 
ther plate, which runs along cach fide of the bone, near 
the antcrior edge, which may be compared with the {pine 
that divides the furface of the {eapula in mammalia. 

The offeous rays which compofe the peGoral fin are con- 
neGed to the poftcrior edge of the fcapule by means of a 
number of {mali bones, that feem to perform the office of a 
carpus, and with which it fhould perhaps be confidered to 
correfpond. Each offecus ray, towards the extremity in 
particular, confills of a fucceflion of minute bones, clofely 
united to ezch ether: thefe might be compared to the 
joints of the fingers. 

The above defeription of the peGtoral member has been 
takenfrom the dory (zeus faler) ; it is neceflary, there- 
fore, to mention fome varieties of firu€ture that exilt in 
other fithes. 

The peGoral fin does not exift in fome fifhes, as the genera 
murena and cecilia. 

The angle, which is formed by the union of the two infe- 
rior extremities of the feapulz, is very acute in thofe fifhes 
that have the body compreffed vertically ; but in thofe with 
a deprefled or flattened body, the {capulz turn inwards, and 
meet each other nearly in a ftraight line. 

The number of carpal bones varies ; Cuvier ftates, that 
there are four large bones of this kind in the cvo/f fi/b (anar- 
rhichas lupus), the red gurnard (trigla cuculus), and inthe 
armed and flying trigle (trigla cataphrada and trigla volitans) ; 
four {mall bones in the genus plenroneces, and the whiting 
(gadus merlangus); eight {mali bones, in two rows, are 
found in the dory (zeus faber) ; three {mall cylindric bones in 
the flurus, and fivein the chetodons, perches, Ke. 

When the firft rays of the petoral fin are fpinous, they 
are compofed of fingle fharp-pointed bones ; they are attached 
immediately to the fcapule. 

In fome of the genera filurus and gafleroffens the articula- 
tion with the fcapula is fo contrived, that the fifh can at 
pleafure lay the {pine clofe to the body, or place it ere&, 
and keep it fixed in that pofition: there is a cylindric tuber- 
cle formed on the feapula, in the front of which there is a 
hole. The fpine of the fin is articulated with this cylinder 
by adepreffion, which has a projecting procefs before and 
behind it. When the {pine is extended, the anterior procels, 
which bas the figure of a hook, enters the above-men- 
tioned hole, and the [pine turning a little on its axis, the 
procefs is hooked upon the edge of the hole in fuch a man- 
ner, thatthe {pine cannot be infle@ed until it makes a turn 
upon its axis in a direGtion oppofite to the former. 

The ventral fins which correfpond in fifhes to the pofte- 
rior extremities are fometimes wanting, or fituated at different 
parts of the inferior furface of the body. They do not 
exift emongft the cartilaginous fithes, in the genera pefromyzon 
and /jgnathus ; and in fome {pecies of baliffes, offracion, tetra- 
odon, &c. 7 

The orders of the offeous fifhes are determined by natu- 
ralifts from the abfence or pofition of thefe fins ; thus all the 
apodal order want the ventral fins, The jugulares have them 
fituated under the throat, and before the peétoral fins. 
In the shoracici they are placed below the pectoral fins, and 
in the abdominal order of fifhes the ventral fins are found under 


’ 


the belly, which is their proper fituation, or that which their 
name implies, 

The bones analogous to the felvis,; and which fuftain the 
rays of the ventral fins, are various in their figure and pefition, 
with ref{pe& to each other.. They are molt commonly fiat, 
and have the internal edges applied to one another in the 
jugular and thoracic fifhes; but their inner furfaces and ex- 
ternal or inferior edges are more or cfs feparated, in order 
to accommodate the mulcles which approximate and retra& 
the rays of the fin. 

In the dory (zeus faber), the pelvic bones are triangular 
plates, flightly concave on the furfaces nex’ each other, and 
furnifhed with a fpinous ridge on both the furfaces; one 
angle, which is very acute, is direéted obliquely inwards 
and forwards, towards the cavity of the body; the pofs 
terior angle produces a long ftyloid procefs, and the an- 
terior angle is blunt or a little rounded: both the anterior 
and pofterior angles are connected by a ligament to the 
chain of bones forming the fternum in this fifh. The rays 
of the fin are articulated to the middle of the inferior furface, 
and not tothe anterior angle, as ftated by Cuvier. 

We are indebted to this anatomnift for fome details of the 
ftruture of the ventral fins in feveral fithes. 

Inthe weaver (trachinus), and the ftar-gazer (uranofcopus), 
the pelvic bones are foldered together at their internal edge; 
their inferior furfaces are oppofed-to: each other; and leave 
between them an oval {pace. - The angle of their junétion 
projects within the cavity of theabdomen, 

In the genera cotius, fciena, chetodon, and perca. the bones of 
the pelvis are alfo united at their internal edge ; they are flat 
and long, and their external edges are direéted downwardsy 
fo as to form a fofla. : 

In fome of the flicklebacks (gafterofleus) the pelvic bones 
are feparate, extremely long, and receive near their middle 
a moveable f{pine, which occupies the place of the fin. 

The zeus vomer has thefe bones {mall and cylindrical. 

The pelvic bones are not conneéted to the inferior points 
of the fcapulz in the abdominales, as they are in the jugular 
and thoracic fifhes. 

In this order of fithes the bones of the pelvis are alfo, ace 
cording to Cuvier, generally unconneS&ted with each other, 
and are preferved in their fituation by lizaments. . 

in the carps (cyprinus) they are long, and only touch 
about one-third from their lower end. ; 

In the herrings (clupea) they are very fmall, clofe together, 
and form an addition to the litt!e bones that fupply the place 
of the fternum. 

The pelvic bones in the pike (cfox /ucius) are broad and 
triangular ; they are clofe together at the anterior extremity, 
but diverge at the pofterior end, which is broader and res 
ceives the rays of the fin. 

In the anableps thefe bones are very far afunder, ‘and bear 
upon. their external border a very long f{pine, which afcends 
towards the vertebral column, and is infle&ed in the direc- 
tion of the ribs. 

In the genus /iurus the pelvic bones are united to each 
other; they have the fhape of an efcutcheon, round in the 
middle, and often fpinous infront. The rays of the fia 
are attached to their external and pofterior edge. 

Thefe bones are offified into one piecerin the genus Jeri- 
caria. The fins are conjoined tothe outward edge. 

The offeous rays of the ventral fins are fimilar to thofe 
of the peétoral fin, but in general fhorter ; the ventral fins are 
capable of being-moved forwards or upwards, and of having 
their rays expanded, and of being brought backwards, clofer 
together, and of having their rays approximated and folded. 

The dorfal, caudal, and anal fins are members fuperadded 

: 3X2 te 


to fifhes, to affit in the motions of fwimming 3 they vary in 
aumber and extent in different {pecies, which peculiarities it 
is the province of the naturalift to point out. They confit 
ef a number of offeous rays which refemble thofe of the 
pectoral and ventral fins, The firfl rays of the dorfal fin 
are, however, frequently fingle fpinous bones, and thofe 
of the tail are generally larger, exhibit more of a jointed ap- 
pearance, and are more frequently bifurcated at the extre- 
mities than the other fins of the body. 

The rays of the caudal fin are fuftained upon the pofterior 
edge of the fan-fhaped extremity of the laft caudal verteb z, 
with the intervention of fome {mall bones, which refembie 
the carpal bones of the peGoral fin. 

The rays of the dorfal and anal fins are fupported upon 
the extremities of long, flender, fpine-fhaped bones: the 
other extremities of thefe bones alternate with the extremi- 
ties of the fuperior and inferior fpinous procefles of the 
vertebrz, to which they are attached by ligament. 

Thefe additional fpinous bones are intended to increafe 
the lateral furfaces of fifhes ; we therefore find them, as well 
as the real {pinous proceffes of the vertebrz, long in propor- 
tion to the breadth of the body; in the flat fithes (plezra- 
weéies) they are particularly long. 

The additional fpines, in {ome inftances, as the dory 
(zeus faber), are united to each other by thin cartilaginous 
laminz, and fuftain fimilar lamine in a vertical pofition with 
refpeét to the fpines, by which means regular fheaths are 

roduced on each fide for the mufcles of the potterior part 
of the dorfal and the anal fins, 

It remains, to complete the account of the fkeleton of 
offeous fifhes, to defcribe the bone which forms the boundary 
of the abdominal cavity: this bone is not unufually the 
ftrongeft in the whole body ; it isof an elongated fhape, and 
flightly bent, rounded, and very {mooth on the fide next the 
cavity. of the abdomen; it appears in mary fifhes hke a 
large inferior fpinous procefs of the vertebre, but it is in 
reality a bone interpofed between fome of the {pinous pro- 
ceffes of the dorfal vertebre, and fome of the additional 
{pines of the anal fin, with both of which it ia united by a 
fort of fquamous future, which appears like an anchylofis. 

This bone is extremely ufeful in bieding together and 
giving firmoefs to the ofleous febric of the tail, which other- 
wife would not be able to fuftain the impulfe of the waiter 
during the aétons of fwimming. It likewife effords a 
{mooth and fecure boundary: to the abdominal cavity. 

The fkeleton of the fut cartilaginous fihes differs fo much 
from thofe above deicribed, that it is almost impeoffible to 
difcover any analogy between many of thefs parts. 

The fubje&ts we fhall chufe as examples of this genus of 
fithes are the thornback and feate (raja clavata and raja batis.) 

‘The cartilaginous pieces which compofe the cranium are 
fo intimately united, that itis difficult to recognize them: 
futures, however, are difcoverable, which mark out pieces 
that cerrefpond to the temporal, occipital, and parietal 
bones. 

Tne jorm of the cranium is: nearly that of an oblong 
fquare, fomewhat enlarged, and irregular potteriorly. 

The internal furface correfponds with the external form, 
except where the organs of hearing are contained, at which 
places the cavity of the cranium is proportionaliy di- 
mintfhed, 

The cavity of the cranium is alfo prolonged anteriorly, or, 
more properly {peaking, is continuous with the cavity of 
the fnout, which renders the difproportion between it and 
the brain even greater than in other fifhes. 

The foramina for tranimitting the olfa@ory and optic 
acrves are at oppofite fides of the cranium. 


The parts compofing the face in the flat chondropterygii are 
few, and very unlke the bones of the face in other animals, 

The cranium, as before obfe:ved, is continued anteriorly 
into a long, taper, hollow cartilage, which forms the central 
part of the fnout. 

Where this cartilage commences from the cranium, there 
is placed on each fide of it a hollow cartilage or box, nearly 
of an oval fizure, which contains the organ of fmehing. 
The cartilages of the fnout and organs of fmelling might 
be confidered as analogous to the na/a/ and ethmoidal bones, 
the vomer, and offa palati, united together. : 

Upon the external parts of the bones holding the organs 
of {melling, there is articulated a {mall irregular fpur-fhaped _ 
cartilage, which is bent backwards: this appears to fupply 
the place of the malar and zygomatic bones. 

Both the jaws are fituated under the cranium, andare fuf- 
tained upon two elongated cartilaginous pieces, which cor- 
refpond in office, though not in figure, with the articular 
fones: thefe pieces are connected by one of their extremities 
with the lower jaw, clofe to the articulation; and by the 
other extremity with the parts of the cranium which cor- 
refpond to the temporal bones. The jaws are two cartila- 
ginous rims, nearly of the fame fize at every part: each jaw 
hasa moveable articulation at the fymphifis, by which means 
they can be protruded, and the fizures of the mouth altered. 
The jaws are articulated with each other, by a round tubercle 
of the fuperior jaw being received into a focket in the in- 
ferior. 

The tongue is wanting, as before obferved, in the ray 
genus. There is, however, a rim of cartilage extended be- 
tween the two firft branchial arches and under the membrane, 
lining the lower part of the mouth, which takes the place 
of the dingual bone, and when the mouth is widely opened 
forms a proj-ction, which has been miltaken for a tongue in 
thefe fifhes. 

The part correfponding to the intermediate bones which 
fuftain the inferior extremities of the branchiz, are two thin 
pieces of cartilage, which are united in the middle, at the 
pofterior part have a poicted fhape, and terminate before in 
two horn-like proceflés. 

The cartilages which appear molt analogous to the hyoides 
are two branches which arife from the external edges of the 
thin pieces jult deferibed, and two other branches which are 
attached to the fide of the cervical {pine immediately behind 
the lait branchial arches: the branches from the intermedi- 
ate cartilage afcend backwards and outwards: thofe from the 
fpise defcend in the fame direGtion : they are united to each 
other on the anterior part of the fcapula, to which alfo they 
are conneGed at their point of union, 

The branchial arches are very ftiong in this genus. and the 
joints havea freer motion than in other fifhes, by which the 
extremities of the arches can be brought clofer to each other: 
a number of cartilaginous rays alfo arife from the convex fide 
of each arch, which pafs between the rows of the mem- 
branous lamire, as already mentioned. The fuperior extre- 
mities of the arches are articulated with the cartilage, which 
takes the place of the cervical vertebra, and not with the 
cranium, as in other fithes. a ; 

The {pine is articulated with the cranium by two condyles, 
between which the fpinal canal projets a little, and is re- 
ceived into a deficiency of an arehed figure formed on the 
{uperior and inferior fides of the foramen magnum. 

The cervical vertebre are confolidated into one piece ; on 
the fuperior and lateral parts of which cartilaginous plates 
are produced, which correfpond to tranfverfe and f{pinous 
procefles. ae 


The decal and caudal vertebrae are diftin@, as in other 


fihes, 


FISH. 


filhess The former furnith from the fuperior part of their 
bodies fmall, thin, fquare plates, which are conneéted to 
each other by ligament. ‘T'he laft have their lateral furfaces 
encreafed by fimilar proceffes on their fuperior part, and 
fome projections alfo inferiorly; they, however, gradually 
decline, and towards the extremity of the tail are {carcely to 
be difcerned. In the thornback (raja clavata), the fuperior 
proceffes fu‘tain, befides the dorfal tin, a row of hook-fhaped 
bones, which have their points turned backwards. 

The bodies of all the vertebra, except the cervical, which 
form but a fingle piece, are united by elaftic ligament; the 
inter-vertebral joints contain a fluid, and each vertebra is per- 
forated in the centre by a fmall hole, in the fame manner as 
in fithes generally. 

A. favourable opportunity for examining the nature of the 
inter-vertebral articulation occurred to Mr. Home in the dif- 
feétion of the baking fhark (fqualus maximus). Four days 
after the fith was brought on fhore, the inter-vertebral fub- 
ftance being cut into, a limpid fluid rufhed out with fo much 
velocity that it rofe to the height of four feet. At the end 
of twelve days a portion of the {pine was examined, the in- 
ter-vertebral joints of which had been preferved entire ; upon 
fawing through two of the vertebra a fluid was met with, 
of the confiftence of liquid jelly, with clots of different fizes 
floating in it ; fo that in eight days a confiderable tendency 
to coagulation had taken place, although the fluid was en- 
tirely excluded from the air.”’ 

“© The cavity betweeen every two vertebree was found to 
contain, in the da/Ring /hark, about three pints of liquid. When 
this fluid was evacuated, the ela(tic ligamentous fubftance 
which united together the concavé furfaccs of the two con- 
tiguous vertebr, brought the ends of the vertcbre within 
an inch and one-half of each other, in which ftate the inner 
layers of the ligaments, which are lefs firm in their texture 
than the outer, projeét into the cavity, and may be miftsken 
for a part of its natural contents: this portion, when foaked 
in water, {wells out toa confiderable fize, the water readily in- 
finuating itfelf between the layers of which it is compofed.’ 

«Tae whole thicknefs of the ligaments is about one inch, 
the external half of which is compact and elaltic ; the other 
appears to poff=fs a very high degree of elallicity.” 

Mr, Home ftates that the gelatinous fubftance which fills 
the interevertebral joints of other fithes is fluid during life, 
which ta& was afcertained in the /Rate (raja batis). 

Mr. Brodie found that in the Aog and rabbit the central 
part of the inter-vertebral joints contains a cavity with a 
{mooth internal furface, of the extent of half the diameter 
of the vertebra, which is filled with a thick gelatinous fluid ; 
and we have obferved the fame faét in other quadrupeds, 
from which it would appear that the mode of articulation 
in the fpine of fithes is not abfolutely peculiar to them. 

Mr. Home defcribes the Rruéture in the {pine of the urgeon 
{acipenfer fiurio) as being different from that of other fifhes. 
«There is,”? he fays, ‘externally, the common appearance of 
regular vertebre 5 but thefe prove to be only cartilaginous 
rings, the edges of which are nearly in contaét, and are 
united together by elaftic ligaments, forming a tube the 
whole length of the fpine. This is lined, throughout its 
internal furface, with a fire, compact, elaftic fubftance ; 
within this is a foft, flexible fubitance, in a {malldegreeelattic; 
in the c.ntre there is a chain of cavities in the form of lozen- 
ges, containing a fluid, and communicating with one another 
by very fmall apertures. The fpine of the /amprey eel 
(fetromyzon marinus) is found to refemble that of the 
Jturgeon.”* 

_ The above ftructure is not fo different from that of the 
Spine of fifhes in general, asit would at firit feem to be ; fince 


; 


- 


we have difcovered the communication between the intere 
vertebral cavities to exift both in the cartilaginous and 
offeous tribes of fifhes. 

Cuvier ftates that there are no ribs in the chondropterygit ; 
but we find on the fides of the bodies of the dorfal vertebrz 
anumber of fhort-pointed proceffes, which might be conf- 
dered as rudiments of thefe parts. 

The pectoral member of the ray genus is peculiar in its 
form and dirc€t’on, and ts of prodigious magnitude. The 
pieces which fuftain the rays of tke fin are analogous to the 
JSeapule; they are conneéted with the back part of the dorfal 
{pine by means of two thin, flat cartilages. They pafs out- 
wards, enlarge, and form two wide foramina on each fide, 
through which the nerves and veffels pafs to the fin. The 
{capuia next produces two branches, one of which pafles back- 
wards nearly parallel with the fpine, and the other goes for- 
wards as far as the anterior part of the head; thefe branches 
have feveral joints in them, by which they can be moved 
nearer and farther from the bedy. 

The f{capule are united onthe under part of the fifh by a 
ftrong cartilaginous bar, which fuppFes the place both of 

JSiernum and clavicles. . 

The rays of the fin arife from the external fide of the 
branches, which is flightly concave; they are exceedingly 
long, particularly in the middie of the fin, and each com- 
pofed evidently of many joints. Itis upon the great number 
and extent of the rays of the pedioral fin that the peculiar 
{quare figure of the fat chondropterygti depends. 

The pectoral fins of the /barks are conftru&ted upon the 
fame plan as in the genus raja, but are much {maller, and 
are not connected to the fpine. 

The ventral fins are {upported upon the extremities of a 
tran{verfe piece of cartilage in the chondropterygii, which is 
fituated at the pofterior part of the abdomen ; it is not at- 
tached to the fpine, but held in its place by its conneétion 
with the mufcles. 

The external rays of the ventral fin in thefe fithes are 
ftronger than the others, and are compofed of fome pieces 
articulated to each other in fucceflion, which very much 
refemble the joints of the digiti in other animals, and which, 
therefore, form the analogy which exifts between the rays of 
the fins of fifhes in general, and the fingers or toes of digi- 
tated animals. 

Fig. 1. Plate X11. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, exhibits a late- 
ral view of the fkeleton of the dory (zeus faber); a is the 
cranium; 4, the vacancy left between the twoorbits; c, the 
zygoma; d, the part correfponding to the lacrymal bone ; 
e, the piece which appezrs analogous to the ethmoidal bone ; 

fi the nalal bone; g, the offeous ftalk which comes from the 
occiput to join the vomer; A, the bone analogous to the 
malar, or the palatine; z, the {uperior maxillary bone; 4, 
the inter: maxillary bone; /, the inferior jaw; m, the arti- 
cular bone by which the lower jaw is conne&ed to the head ; 
n, the os hyoides, on the edge of which are feen the rys of 
the membrana branchioftega; o, the lingual bone; p, the 
principal bone of the operculum; g, the other bone of the 
gill-cover; 1, the fuperior pharyngeal bone; 2, the bran- 
chial arches; 3, the inferior pharyngeal bones; 4, the 
cordiform bone. As thefe lait parts are fituated internally, 
they are feen but imperfe@ly; rr, the fcapula; s, the 
bone analogous to the clavicle ; #, the carpus, on which are 
arranged the rays of the pectoral fin; uw u, the chain of 
bones formed under the integuments, in the manner of a 
{ternum; v, the pelvis, on which are feen the rays of the 
ventral fin; x,x, x, the cervical, dorfal, and caudal divifious 
of the {pine ; from the two firft of which long, fpinous pros 
cefles are feen to proceed upwards, and to fuftain the rae 
tion 


FISH. 


fional fpinous bones on which the dorfal fins are articulated, 
From the inferior part of the caudal, and fome of the lat{t 
dorfal vertebrz, {pinous proceffes are feen to arife, which be- 
come connected with the additional {pines fupporting the 
anal fin, and of which fome are united to the extremity of 
the bone that bounds the abdominal cavity. The extremity 
of the tail produces the fan-fhaped bone, which bears the 
caudal fin; y, the true or abdommal ribs; 2, fome fuper- 
numerary ribs which are defigned to pafs amongtt the mufcles 
of the fpine, 

Fig. 2. of the fame plate, fhews the cavity which exifts 
hetween the vertebre of an offeous fifh; a, a, two of the 
vertebre of the turbot (pleuronetles maximus), divided longi- 
tudinally ; 4 4, ligamentous (ubftance by which they are 
united; c, the inter-vertebral cavity. 

Fig, 3. of Plate X11. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, gives a view 
of the cavity in one vertebre ; a, the body of the bone ; 
, {pinous procefs partly cut away ; c, the canal for holding 
the {pinal marrow ; d, the concavity of the inter.vertebral 
joint ; e, the foramen, or rather fhort canal, by which the 
inter-vertebral cavities communicate with each other, 

Fig. 1. ot Plate X11. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, reprefents 
the inferior parts of the fkeleton of the thornback (raja cla- 
vata); a, the cranium; 4, the cartilage which forms the 
middle of the fnout; c, c, the ovular cavities for containing 
the organs of fmelling, d, d, the branches articulated upon 
the external part of thefe cavities ; ¢, ¢, the two jaws; f, f, 
the cartilages analogous to the articular bones by which the 
jaws are connected to the cranium; g, the rim of cartilage 
that fupplies the place of the lingual bone; 4, the interme- 
diate cartilage to which the lower extremities of the bran- 
chial arches are united; 7, ¢, the inferior branches which 
feem to {upply the place of the os hyoides; 4, 4, the fuperior 
branches of the fame; /, /, the branchial arches; zm, the 
cervical portion of the fpine, confolidated into one piece ; 
m, the dorfal portion, of the {pine ; 0, the caudal divifion ; 
Pp; ps thort proceffes from the fides of the dorfal vertebrae, 
that correfpond to the ribs; g, the tranfverfe bar that 
anfwers for clavicles and fternum; 7,7. r, r, the branches of 
the {capule ; the bodies of the {capule, and the connetion 
of thefe parts with the fpine, are ina great meafure con- 
cealed from view; s,5,5,5, the rays of the pectoral fins ; 
g, the tranfverfe cartilage which bears the ventral fins, laid 
acro{s the {pine in its proper fituation; u, w, the rays of the 
fin which more particularly’ refemble, in their figure and 
mode of articulation, the digiti of other animals; v, v, the 
f{maller rays of the fame fins. ‘The rays of the other fins, 
having no peculiarity of itru€ture, are indicated by their 
potition. 

Fig. 2. of Plate XIII, exhibits a view of the articular fur- 
face of one of the dorfal vertebre of the thernback; a, the 
body of the vertebry; 4, the canal for lodging the medulla 
{pinalis ; c, the fpinous procefs ; d, the concavity oppofed 
to that of the adjoining vertebrae; e, the perforation in the 
centre of the vertebrae, by which the inter-articular cavities 
communicate with each other. : 


Mufeles. 


The mufcles which move the jaws of fifhes are commonly 
large, and calculated for powerful and extenfive ation. 

They are more numerous and complicated in the cartila- 
ginous than the offeous fifhes. We fhall firft defcribe them in 
the ray genus, 

The principal depreffor of the pofterior jaw is a finale, 
flat, {quare mufcle, which arifes from the tranfverfe bar 
that is analogous to clavicles, and is inferted into the*pof- 
terior margin of the jaw. Cuvier alfo defcribes two {mall 


mufeles, one on each fide of that jult mentioned, which 
contribute te the depreffion of the jaw: they arife from the 
tranfverfe bar and the fin, and are.inferted near the come 
miffure of the lips. Thefe three mufcles retraét the mouth, 
as well as deprefs the lower jaw. 

Three mufcles clofe the jaws: the firft arifes from the exe 
ternal part of the bafe of the cranium; it pafles over the 
fuperior jaw, and is loft in the aponeurofis which covers the 
principal mufcle, at the external part of the mouth. The 
fecond mufcle is a thinner flip; it arifes from the fore-part 
of the lower jaw, pafies in a circular manner round the 
angles of the mouth, fomewhat like the orbicularis -oris 3 
then over-the upper jaw, to the fuperior part of the end of 
which it is inferted. Both thefe mufcles.fvem to have the 
power of bringing the jaws forwards on the head, as well as 
of fhutting them. The third mufcle is a large round-fhaped 
mafs, which encompaffes the articulation and the ends of the 
two jaws: it appears externally like one muf{cle, but confilts 
internally of three parts; one is inferted into the ring-like 
procels at the end of the lower jaw; another into the ex- 
ternal parts of both jaws, at their joint ; and the third pafles 
round the upper jaw, and is inferted by a tendon into the 
crucial ligament which goes to the lower jaw. 

There are two very long mufcles which come from the 
{pine, and pafs between the palate and the cranium, in or= 
der to be inferted into the fuperior jaw. Thefe ferve to 
bring the mouth forwards, as both jaws, from their connec 
tion with each other and the neighbouring parts, are pro- 
truded and retraGled together. ; 

A pair of very thick muf-les arife from each fide of the 
fternum; their fibres are dirc€ted obliquely forwards and 
outwards, and unite upon a {trong tendon, which is inferted 
into the inferior extremity of the articular cartilage that 
fultains the jaw. They draw that extremity backwards aod 
inwards, and confequently enlarge the angle this cartilage 
forms anteriorly with the bafe of the cranium: they carry 
both jaws downwards, and by bringing their extremities 
nearer to each other, thruft out or protrude the middle 
parts of the mouth. hefe mufcles likewife maintain the 
articular cartilages in the above-mentioned pofition, and 
furnifh fixed points for the jaws to move upon, when they 
are projected from the head. 

Two other mulc'es, which are fmall, commence by ten- 
don from the middle of the articular cartilage; ~- proceed 
backwards, inwards, and downwards, in order to fpread 
their flefhy fibres on the aponeurofes behind the lower jaw. 
They affilt the preceding mufcles in bringing the articular 
cartilage inwards and downwards. 

The mufcles of the jaws in the /hark ( /gualus) refemble 
thofe of the ray genus. 

Inthe flurgeon (acipenfer furio) the mufeles for protruding 
and retracting the jaws are very fimple. The one which 
brings the mouth forwards comes from behind the eye: it is 
very ftrong, and pafles backwards to be attached to the ar- 
ticular cartilage. The retra€tor is a much {maller mufcle : 
it is.fituated between the cranium and the fuperior part of 
the articular cartilage. 

The other mufcics of the jaws of the furgeon refemble 
thofe of the ray and /hark genera. , 

The mutcles of the jaws in the genera balifles, tetraodon, 
diodon, and fygnathus, are defcribed by Cuvier as having a 
complicated action. The bones of the face are extremely 
prolonged in thefe fifhes, in order to form a prominent 
muzzle, at the extremity of which the two jaws are placed, 
and perform their movements. ‘ 

One mufcle, which fills the fuperior part of the foffa 
the fide of the muzzle, arifes from a ligament which coke 


pletee 


FISH. 


pletes the anterior border of the orbit: its flefhy fibres, in 
paffing from behind forwards, terminate in part upon the 
pofterior border of the defcending branch of the fuperior 
je, but are chiefly loft on a tendon which furrounds the 
extremity of that branch, and proceeds to the lower jaw, 
on which it 1s inferted above the articulation. "This mufcle 
moves the two jaws in oppofite directions, and approximates 
the one to the other. In drawing backwards and upwards 
the extremity of the defcending branch of the fuperior jaw, 
it depreffes the portion of that jaw which is beyond the 
point of fupport. The fame mufcle likewile raifes the lower 
aw. 
: A fecond mufcle filis the inferior portion of the foffa that 
is on the fide of the muzzle, from the furface of which its 
fibres arife: they proceed obliquely forwards and-inwards to 
an aponeurofis, which extends along the internal edge of 
the foffla, and of which the extremity goes to be affixed to 
the internal furface of the lower jaw. This mufcle has the 
fame a€tion as the firft. 

The preceding mufcle covers a third, which is fmeller. 
Tt arifes likewife from the furface of the fofla, and fends a 
flender tendon nzar to the pofterior edge of the defcending 
branch of the fupericr jaw. This mufcle co-operates with 
the two others. 

The inferior jaw is depreffed, in thefe genera, by three 
mufcles. The firf is a fingle mufcle, which is analogous to 
the mylo-hycideus : it arifes from the fide of the hyoides, be- 
tween the rays of the operculum, and is inferted into the in- 
ferior border of the lower jaw; the fibres converge, and go 
forwards to be inferted into the inferior edge of the lower 
jaw. The next two mufcles are {mall: they arile from a 
foffla under the orbit; their tendons are inferted into the 
pofterior ede of a cartilaginous plate, which is conneGed to 
the bafe of the cranium, behind the articular bone. This 
plate is attached to a long cartilaginous filament, which ad- 
vances on the isfide of the articular bone or cartilage, as far 
as the inferior and internal part of the lower jaw. In draw 
ing the plate upwards and backwards, thefe mufcles alfo 
bring the filament backwards, and thus deprefs the lower 
aw. 

The moon fib (tetraodon mola) has three mufcles, fimilar 
to thofe lait defcribed, anda {econd cartilaginous plate. 

In the genus dali/ies there is a mufcle which ferves to 
elevate and drawwebackwards the piece analogous to the 
articular bones; sit arifes from the lower edge of ‘the vomer, 
or the vault of the palate, and dcfcends obliquely forwards 
to be inferted into the upper edge of that piece. 


In offous fithes, the lower jaw is deprefled by a long _ 


flender mufcle, but which, neverthelefs, from its attach- 
ments and ufe, mo be confidered analogous to the mylo- 
Ayoideus: it arifes from both fides of the os hyoides and 
rays of the gill-cover, in two broad, thin, flefhy flips; thefe 
unite under the throat, and are inferted at the fymphifis of 
the lower jaw ; it {preads the membrance of the gill-cover 
when the jaw ts fixed, 

The lower jaw is elevated by two very flrong portions of 
mulcle, which in a-degree overlap and intermix with each 
other; they occupy all the fpace correfponding to the 
articular bone, from which, and from the cranium at the 
back of the orbit, they arife: thefe two portions, which 
Cuvier confiders as but ove mufele, are inferted into the 
coronoid proce{s of the lower jaw, into the ligament which 

ffss from one jaw to the other, and in fome fifhes we 

obferved into a ligament which goes forwards to the 
intersmasillary bones: befides, therefore, raifing the lower 
jew, thefe mufcles deprefs the fuperior maxillary bones, 
and deprefsand retract the inter-maxillary bones, which form 


the fuperior margin of the mouth, or what is called the 
upper lip in fithes. 

Cuvier deferibes in the ee (murena anguilla) two layers 
of mufcle which lie under the preceding, and are nearly 
inferted into the fame point of the lower jaw: they arife 
from the orbitar fofla. He deteG&ted fimilar mufcies in the 
carp, but did not find them in the pike (c/ox lucius), the 
trout (falmo fario), or the falmon (falmo falar); we have not 
obferved them in any other fifh. 

There isafmall mufcle which is attached to almof the 
whole of the internal furface of the fide of the lower jaw, 
and covers the vacancy which exifts in the maxillary bone; it 
furnifhes a ftrong tendon, which is fixed internally to the 
lower and anterior part of the articular bone; it affilts 
the other mufcles in raifing the lower jaw, but if the 
mouth be previoufly opened widely, it feems to have the 
power of keeping the lower jaw in the deprefled pofition. 

The articular bone is moved by two mufcles on each 
fide; one arifes from the cranium at the back and upper 
part of the orbit; its fibres pafs obliquely downwards 
and forwards, and are affized upon the external furface of 
the thin part of the articular bone, near its upper edge: 
the effe& of its ation is to elevate the articular bones and 
bring them outwards, by which the capacity of the mouth 
is encreafed, and the jaws retraéted. The other mufcle 
arifcs from the vomer, membranous feptum of the orbit, 
znd the middle line of the cranium: its fibres defcend in a 
dircct manner to the upper part of the thin portion of the 
articular bone, which it has the power of bringing inwarda, 
and thereby abridges the cavity of the moutb,:and protrudes 
the jaws. 

Cuvier defcribes two mufcles in the carp (cyprinus carpio), 
intended to retraG the lips in this fpecies, which bas the 
bones of the face formed for carrying the mouth farther 
forwards than other fifhes. The firft of thefe mvfcles is 
fhorter than the fecond; it arifes partly from the anterior 
extremity of the articular bone, and in part from the pofte- 
rior end of the maxillary bone: it afcends a little obliquely 
to be inferted into the moft elevated point of the inter. 


“maxillary bone by a flender rovnd tendon, which crofles 


the tendon of the next mufcle. The fecond retra@or of 
the lips is much larger than the preceding: it is fituated 
nearly horizontally, in the fpace comprifed between the 
inferior edge of the orbit, and the concavity of the arti- 
cular bone, from which it arifes: it is inferted by a long 
flat tendon to the middle and potterior procefs of the inter- 


maxillary bone, which it draws dire@ly backwards. 


From the preceding defcription it will be perceived, 
that in addition to the motions of the jaws, by which the 
mouth is fhut and opened, they are alfo fufceptible of 
projection and retraGtion, and that the cavity of the mouth 
is altered with refpect to its width or its length in the 
performance of thele motions. Thefe effe&s are not only 
convenient to fifhes in the a& of taking their food, but are 
neceffary alfo for conveying it into the efophagus. The 
mufcles, however, moft immediately concerned in deglu- 
tition, are thofe which move the branchial arches and pha- 
tyngeal bones, as will appear when thefe mufcles come to 
be defcribed. 

The tongue of fithes fearcely appears to perform any 
motions diitin& from the other parietes of the mouth. 
Cuvier, it is true, has defcribed two mufcles on the tongue 
of the conger (murena conger), which are analogous te the 
Ayongloffi ; they arife from the extremities of the os hyoides, 
and go forwards upon each fide of the lingual bone, to 
which they are inferted: if thefe mufcles a@ in conjunétion 
they deprefs the tongue, but, if feparately, the tongue is 

drawa 


FITS H. 


drawn toeither fide. Cuvier likewife flates that the tongue 
of the conger is contrafted in its breadth by fome tranverfe 
fibres, which pafs from the edges to the middle part: we 
have not obferved any mufcles for moving the tongue in 
thofe fpecies we have diffe€&ted, but we have often feen 
tendinous fibres pafa from the os hyoides to the fides of the 
lingual bone. 

The mu/cles intended to move the branchial arches and the 
pharyngeal bones in offvous fifhes are fo numerous and compli- 
cated, that we almolt defpair of giving the reader a clear 
conception of them. 

"They may be divided into three fets or orders, befides fome 
diftinG mufeles; the firft is compofed of a clufter of mufcles, 
which conneét the fuperior ends or ezbutments of the bran- 
chial arches, and the {uperior pharyngeal bones to the batfis of 
the cranium. The fecond fet confilts of fome mufcles placed 
over the joints of the inferior ends of the arches, and the 
inferior pharyngeal bones, with the intermediate bones that 
are continved from the lingual bone ; the third fet is made 
-by mufcles which furround the pofterior tide of the laft bran- 
chial arches, the pharyngeal bones, and the origin of the 
cefaphagus. 

In the firft fet there are feven mufcles; all thefe, except 
one, arife together from the fide of the head, immediately 
‘behind the orbit, at the joint of the articular bone. 

"The fick mufcle comes from thé common origin already 
mentioned, and ts iaferted into the pofterior fide of the bafe 
of the fhort branch of the firft branchial arch ;.it bends 
the joint of the arch, and brings the whole arch for- 
wards. i 

The fecond arifes from the fame point, and goes to be 
attached to the pofterior fide of the fhort branch of the 
fecond branchialarch. It has the fame effet as the preced- 
Ing. 

“The third mufcle arifes from the bafe of the cranium, be- 
tween the articulations of the fcapula and articular bone, 
and isinferted into the pofterior edge of the fhort branch of 
the laft arch. It elevates the laft arch, and thereby aflifls in 
opening the cefophagus. 

The fourth comes from the common point of attachment, 
and terminates upon the footftalk of the three la{t_ branchial 
arches, and the {mall anterior pharyngeal bone; it tends to 
draw'thefe bones outwards, and thus dilate the opeming into 
the efophavus. 

The fifth mufcle arifes with the others, and proceeds to 
‘be affixed to the external edge of the principal pharyngeal 
bone. Its operation is‘fimilar to that of the laft mentioned 
mufele. 

The fixth arifes from the common footftalk of the three 
laft arches, and goes on to the excernal edge of the fhort 
branch of the fecond arch near its bafe. It contraéts the 
arches, by bending the joint at the concavity or tu,p of the 
arch, and that at the footitalk; it therefore tends to clofe 
the gills, 

The feventh mufcle has the fame origin as the preceding ; 
it 13 aftronger mufcle, and '!s {pread equally upon the ante- 
rior furtaces of the two laf branchial arches; 1t concurs 
‘to produce the effect aferibed to the lalt mentioned 
mufcle. 

The fecond fet of branchial mufeles is made up of four 
pair, or eight flips on each fide; four of thefe are longer 
than the others, and fituated more obliquely and fuper- 
‘ficiaily. 

The firft arifes from the ligament which conneéts the con- 
joined proceiles of the two polterior arches to the lower end 
of the firft intermediate bone; it proceeds obliquely back- 
‘wards, and is affixed to the inferior end or abutment of the 


fecond branchial arch. The next three arife together from 
the conjoined proceffes of the two laft arches already men- 
tioned, one goes to be implanted into the inferior end of the 
third branchial arch, the next is inferted into the fourth 
branchial arch, and the fourth flip of mufcle paffes acrofs 
the pofterior furface of the laft arch, and is inferced irto the 
inferior pharyngeal bone. 

The four other mufcles of this fet are fhort, lie in an 
obliquely tranfverfe dire€tion, and are in a great meafure con= 
cealed by the preceding mufcles; they are extended from 
the inferior ends of the branchial arches to the adjoining parts 
of the intermediate bones. 

The eff-€ of the aGion of each of thefe mufcles is the 
fame ; they all tend to deprefs the lower part of the mouth, 
if the branchial arches be rendered fixed ; and if not, they - 
feparate the arches from each other, and lower them, thus 
opening the gills, and widening the aperture of the cefophagus. 

The circle which is made round the entrance into the cefo- 
phagus by the left branchial arches end the pharyngeal bones 
of each fide, has on its polterior furface a chain of fmall 
mulcies. 

‘The two firft arife from the jun@tion of the footfalks of 
the inferior pharyngeal bones, and areinferted into the molt 
external points of thefe bones. ‘[sey approximate the pha- 
ryngcal bones, and bring them downwards, 

The next pair arife from the outfide of the termination of 
the preceding mufcles, and are inferted near the middle of 
the pofterio- furface of the latt arch. They approximate the 
two laf arches by means of their conneétion with the inferior 
pharyngeal bones. 

The third pair of mufcies are extended acrofs the joint of 
the laft arches, and confequent'y, when they act, bring the 
branches of the arch more rogether. 

The fourth mufcles anfe from the footftalks of the fupe- 
rior pharyngeal bones, and are inferted into the points of 
the fuperior abutments of the lalt arches. They make 
thefe abutments appreach the fuperior pharyngeal bones, by 
which the arch is clofed, 

Befides thefe four pairs, there are fingle flips of mufcle, 
which pafs from the pharyngeal bones of one fide to.the 
other. The muicle connectingithe fuperior pharyngeal bones 
isvery ftrong. Thefe complete the circle, and diminifh it by 
approximating thefe bones. : 

There are further, a number of mufcvlar fafciculi fur. 
rounding the orifice of the cefophagus in the manner of a 
fphin@ter. Thefe fafcicul: are ttrongelt upon the fider, where 
they have alfo nearly a ftraight direction, by which they 
have the effect of contraéting the joint of the laft arch. 
There are likewife fome fibres extended from the mulcle that 
lies between the fuperior pharyngeal bones, to the {phingter 
of the efophagus. 

When all the mifales of this fet co-operate, the opening 
into the cefophagus is abridged; or, if the animal wih ir, 
entirely clofed ; from the conneétion between the lait arch 
and the others, they areall brought clofe together, and the 
denticulated furfaces of theinfide of the arches, and of the 
puaryngeal bones, are made to approach fo nearly, as to 
prevent the efcape of the prey which the fifh mzy be in the 
act of {wallowing. 

There are four diutin@ and remarkable mufcles on each fide, 
which are materially concerned in the =.otious of the gills 
and pharynx. ; 

‘The firit are very thick and mafly : they take their origin 
from the anterior edge of nearly the lower balf of the {ca- 
pul, and are inferted upon the fides of the broad, 
heart-{haped bone which 1s fituated under the throat of the 
fith. By means of the conneétion of this bone with the 


hyoidean 


FISH. 


hhyo'dean branches, intermediate bones, &c. thofe mufcles 
will open the pharynx, by deprefling the tongue and 
branchial arches. If thefe parte, however, be kept fixed, 
they will bring the peCtoral member forwards; they will alfo 
deprefs the lower jaw, in confequence of the conneétion the 
heart-fhaped bone has with that part. Cuvier confiders 
thefe mufcles as analogous to the /flerno-hyoidci. 

The fecond mufcles arife on each fide from the anterior 
edge of the fcapula, oppofite to the middle of the mufcles 
for raifing the peétoral fins. They are thin flips; they pafs 
through the (ubftance of the mulcles laft defcribed, and go 
to be‘inferted in the loweft part of the inferior pharyngeal 
bone. They deprefs the branchial arches, and thereby 
widen the pharynx. 

The third pair of mufcles arife by a {mall tendon from 
the anterior part of the fcapula, oppofite to the articulation 
of the clavicle with that bone, and proceed for fome way 
before they reach the point of their infertion, which is the 
loweft part of jun@ion of the inferior pharyngeal bones. 
They draw the pharyngeal bones downwards and backwards, 
and thereby contribute, with thofe laft defcribed, to open 
the pharynx, and render it of a round fhape. 

The tourth mufcles arife from the fecond vertebra from 
the head, diverging a little in their courfe, as they pro- 
ceed a confiderable way forward, and are attached to the 
infide of the fuperior pharyngeal bones. They have the 
power of retraéting thefe bones, and thus co-operate with 
the other mutcles which dilate the entrance into the cefo- 
phagus. They likewife turn the {uperior pharyngeal bones, 
fo as to oppofe to each other their rough or denticulated 
furfaces. ‘lhefe mufcles are ftrong, and remarkable alfo 
on account of their length: they arife as far back, in the 
whiting (gadus merlangus), as the fifth vertebra from the 
eranium. 

The preceding defcription of the branchial and pharyngeal 
mufcles contains what we have obferved in the dory (zeus 
faber). The ftru€ture of other ofeous fithes, in this refpect, 
does not appear to be materially different. In fome ot them, 
the bundle of mufcles, by which the branchial arches and 
the pharyngeal bones are fufpended to the cranium, is com- 
pofed of a fewer number; and thofe for contraéting the 
paflage into the cefophagus are lefs diftingt and ftrong. The 
mott remarkable variation is met with in the carp (cyprinus 

carpio), in which the pharyngeal bones are contlructed for 
breaking and dividing the food. In this fih, the inferior 
pharyngeal bones are not, as ufual, attached to the lait 
branchial arches, but are elevated behind thefe near to the 
cranium, to which they are fufpended by a number of 
mulcles, of which Cuvier has given the following defcrip- 
tion. 

There are firlt two exceedingly flrong mufcles attached 
to the tides of the bafe of the cramum, behind the adductor 
of the operculum, and inferted ihto the fuperior extremity 
of thefe bones. They elevate the bones, and draw thema 
little outwards. 

Two other mufcles arife from the external angle of the 
glenoid cavity, which receives the {operior pharyngeal bone, 
and go to be inferted along with the firft mufcles. They 
bring the fuperior extremity of the pharyngeal bone in- 
wards. 

Two ftrong mufcles are aflixed by their anterior extremity 
to the middle part of the pharyngeal bores, acd’ proceed 
obliquely backwards and inwards to be inferted into the 
occipital apophyfis. They draw the pharyngea bones back- 
wards, 

The pharyngeal bones are approximated by a very {trong 
fingle mufcle, which Cuvier, both from confidering its 

Vou. XIV. 


ftru€ture and ufe, calls the digafric addudor. The two 
bellies of which it is compofed arile from the middle part of 
each of thefe bones, and are inferted into a common tendon, 
placed in the interval of the anterior portion of thofe bones, 
and is there conneéted to the aponeurotic fibres which fill up 
that interval, affifted by fome tranfverfe fibres of the pha- 
rynx, which go from one pharyngeal bone to the other. 
This mufcle is able to approximate the bones with much 
force, and to urge their teeth againft the fuperior plate. 
The operation of thefe mufcles belongs rather to the fune- 
tions of maftication and deglutition than to thofe of the 
ills, 

? Two ftrong mufcles arife from the internal furface of the 
{capula, and are inferted by a very ftrong tendon to the an- 
terlor extremity of the pharyngeal bones. Thefe may 
bring the fcapula forwards and inwards ; or if it be fixed, 
they bring the two pharyngeal bones at the fame time back- 
wards and downwards, 

Two other mufcles, attached at one part to the inferior 
fide of the anterior part of the pharyngeal bones, and at the 
other to the internal furface of the fcapula, may likewife 
approximate the inferior extremities of the fcapula from the 
middle line; but they can more eafily f{eparate the pha- 
ryngeal bones the one from the other. 

Finally, there are two long flender mufcles, which are 
extended from the inferior and anterior extremity of the 
pharyngeal bones to a procefs, which correfponds to the 
intermediate bone of the lait arch. Thefe bring the pha- 
ryngeal bones forwards. 

The branchial mufcles in the flat chondropteryzii, and, as 
it would appear, in all the fithes with fixed branchia, are few 
and fimply arranged. The clufter of mufcles which conneéts 
the branchiz with the bead, and the {mall mufcles which 
go from the branchial arches to the intermediate bons, do 
not exif in thefe ffhes. 

The flender mufcles which go from the clavicle to the 
arches, in ofleous fifhes, are fupplied in the rays by two very 
ftrorg mulcles, which arife pofteriorly by two thick tendons 
from the tranfverfe cartilage, and proceed obliquely for- 
wards and inwards, under the middle cartilage of the 
branchiz, into which they are inferted. In drawiaz th’s 
cartilage downwards and backwards, they will open all the 
branchial arches. 

There are other mufcles conftruéted to open and fhut the 
branchiz, which are peculiar to the rays and /haré kind, 

Between the asterior feries of laminz and the rays of the 
branchiz, a mufcle is found, the fibres of which feem to 
feparate on each fide from the middle ray, being directed 
towards the others, but particularly towards their ex- 
tremity, fo that the effect of their aGion is to approximate 
the extremities of the rays, and confequently to feparate and 
open the two ends of the arch. The ation of this mufcle 
is limited by feveral ligaments, which go from the bafe of 
the ray, neareit the extremity of the arch, towards the ext 
tremity of the fucceeding ray. 

This arch is clofed by another mufcle, which is fhort, 
thick, and cylindric. tus fituated tran{verfely on the angle 
that is formed by the two pieces of the arch, where there are 
d-preflions of fome depth, in which the two extremities of 
the mufcle are implanted. 

There is further, in thefe genera, a very ftrong mufcle, 
which envelopes the gills, covering every part of them ex- 
cept that next the mouth: it has the effet of comprefling 
ot approximating the whole at once, The fibres are pa- 
rallel, and have an oblique dir Gin from before backwards. 
Vive tendinous interfeCtions are to be feen, which correfpond 
to the external furface of the mufcles already deferibed, 

2 ¥. which 


PIS Ho. 


which lie between the lamine and rays of the branchiz. 
The contraétion of this fac-like mufcle has the eff:& of 
expelling the water from the gills with confiderable force. 

The branchie of the moon-//h (tetraodon mola) are inclofed 
between two mufcles; the one upon the external, and the 
other upon the internal fide. Thefe are analogous to the 
mufcular fac of the ray and /hark kind. 

The operculum of the gilis in offeous fifhes is raifed by one 
pair of mufcles, and brought down upon the branchial aper- 
ture by two mufcles on each fide, and one common to both 
fides. 

The elevator or abduétor of the opereule arifes from the 
external part of the bafe of the cranium, at the root or joint 
of the articular bone: it is a fhort, taper mufcle, and is in- 
ferted into the head of the triangular bone of the gill-cover, 
which is joined to the articular bone. This mufcle atts 
under the difadvantage of being inferted as far as poffible 
from the edge of the bone that is to be raifed: it mutt, 
however, be aided in producing its «ffeéts by the elevation 
of the articular bone, 

The two mufcles which fhut the operculum are deferibed 
by Cuvier as only one: they arife from the bafe of the cra- 
nium, almo{t immediately behind the preceding mufcle, than 
which they form a thicker mafs; they are inferted into the 
neck, or anterior part of the fuperior edge of the triangular 
bone. 

The common mulcle is attached internally to the rays aed 
offeous plates of each gill-cover, betweea which the fibres 
crofs from one fide to the other. The effects of this mufcle’s 
motion are the approximation of the rays and the fhutting 
down of both opercules. 

The rays of the gill-covers are expanded, and the mem- 
brane branchioftepw railed and {pread out, by the mylo- 
hyoideus mufcle which is attached to the offeous rays, and 
by a mufcle compofed of two portions, which Cuvicr de- 
fcribes 2s being particularly plain in the trout (/almo fario): 
one portion arifes from the lower edge of the polterior part 
of the os hyoides; the other arifes from the internal furface 
of the five anterior rays, and is attached to the other rays by 
Jong tendinous filaments. Both portions unite in one ten- 
don, which pafles under the anterior extremity of the oppo- 
fite branch of the hyoides, and is expanded under the lingual 
bone. 

Befides thefe mufcles, the moon-fi/h (‘etraodon mola) has 
the operculum itfelf compofed of feveral mufcles.. The 
principal one, which forms almoft the whole of the opercule, 
is made by feveral layers of parallel fibres, which pafs from 
one part of the fcapula to another, and become very thin 
towards the free edge of the opercule. Two {mali mufcles 
arife from each fide of the thin edge of the opercule: they 
afcend upon the internal furface of the fcapula, the one be- 
fore and the other behind. Thefe ferve to lay down the 
gill-cover. ; 

The very limited motions of the head, upon the {pine of 
offious fifhes, are effected chiefly by the great lateral mufcles ; 
but the flat chondropterygii have mufcles exclufively deftined 
to raife and deprefs the head. 

The principal elevator of the head is a long {mall mufcle, 
which arifes fiom the back of the fhoulder, on the top of the 
cartilage which correfponds to the fcapula, and the adjoin- 
ing tranfverfe procefs of the cervical fpine: it fends a long 
tendon through a pulley on the fide of the eye, which is 
loft in the anterior part of the {nout. 

~ On the lower part of the head there is a pair of mufcles, 
fimilar to thofe for raifing the head: they arile from the 
tran{verfe cartilage, analogous to clavicles and fternum, at 
which place the mufcle of each fide is united; they proceed 


forwards on each fide of the mouth, and furnifh tendons 
which pafs in the gelatinous fubftance of the fnout, at the 
anterior extremity of which they terminate. Thefe mufcles 
deprefs the head. Cavier gives a fomewhat different des 
fcription than we have given of the foregoing mufcle?. 

A third pair of mufcles arife from the f{pinal column, and 
the anterior portion of the arch which fuftains the large 
wings, and are inferted into the poiterior-extremity of the 
head. hey raife the head. 

The {pinal mufcles, except in the flat chondropterygii, are 
the moft remarkable in’ the fifh’s body, whether wé*view 
th-m with refpeé to their bulk or their flructure. 

Thefe mufcles are analogous to thofe which lie along the 
{pine of other animals ; but, from the form of the fkeleton in 
filhes, they are fituated upon the fides of the bedy, and have 
coufequently received the name of /aleral mufeles, 

The fize of the lateral or fpinal mufcles exceeds, in an ex- 
traordinary proportion, that of all the other mufcles of a 
fil: they make the principal buik of the animal, as they 
conftitute, with the offeous fabric which fultains them, 
almoft the whole of the organs of motion. — . ; 

It is almoft impoflible to convey a clear idea of the com- 
potition of thefe mufcles by defcription alone, it is fo ex- 
tremely complicated, and fo different from the ordinary 
ftruéture of the mufcles in other animals. 

The great fpinal mufcles of fihes in general confilt of 
three portions, which, from their ficuation, deferve to be dif- 
tinguifhed into the /uperior or dorfal, the middle or vertebral, 
and the inferior or ventral, portions. 

The mofcular fibres of which each of thefe maffes is 
compofed, are formed into fucceflive /ayers or rows, by 
means of the interpofition of thin aponcurofes. Thefe 
tendinous interfections merely exhibit, on the external fur- 
face of the lateral mufcles, the appearance of lines placed 
at fhort and determined diftances from cach other, and 
thus fubdividing each portion into a number of regular 
compartments. The fubdivilfions or compartments have dif- 
ferent forms or direCtions in each portion, which will be after- 
wards pointed out. The fhort rows of mufcle that fill up 
the compartments appear, when viewed upon the external 
furface, to be all arranged in a longitudinal dire¢tion, or to 
follow one another in the line of the fifh’s body; but if ac- 
curately examined, they wiil be found to confift of flakes or 
pieces of mufcle, which partake of the figure of a wedge 
and the bowl of afpoon, being thick at one edge and thin at 
the other, and concave on one fide and convex on the other. 
The figure of the flakes is well exhibited by the application 
of heat, particularly in the genus gadus: in cooking the 
whiting ( gadus merlangus) fome attention and dexterity are 
neceffary to prevent tne mufcular fubftance of the fifh break- 
ing into its primary flakes. The flakes are generally placed 
obliquely with refpe& to the line of the fith’s body; that 
is, with their convex fide next the head, and their thin 
edge next the [pine ; they overlap, or are received into each 
other; the mufcular fibres compofing the flakes appear, 
however, to be difpofed io a longitudinal direétion. i 

From the above account it will be feen, that the ultimate 
fibres of the great {pinal mufcles of fifhes are extremely fhort 
and infinitely multiplied. 

The lateral mufcles are further difinguifhed from the 
others by being almoit entirely deprived of red blood: this 
circumitance feems to depend entirely upon their limited 
action; as at their attachments to the head and tail, where the 
parts have a more extenfive motion, the fubftance of the 
lateral mufcles receives more red blood than at any other part. 

The attachments of the fuperior or dorfal portion of the 
lateral mufcles, are fixed at the anterior extremity to the 

baiis 


FISH. 


bafis of the cranium; fecondly in the middle, to the fuperior 
{pines of the vertebrix, and the addisional {pines that fuftain 
the dorfal fins; and laltiy, at the polterior extremity, to the 
fuperior part of the rcot of the caudal tin. The layers of 
mufcle which compofe this portion are narrower than thofe 
of the other portions; they form gentle curves, or S like 
plexufes, in the longitudinal direGion, which nearly coin- 
ciding with the courfe of their mufcular fibres, gives them 
a good deal the appearance of common mulcular fafciculi in 
other animals. ‘lhe dorfal portion of the lateral mufcles is 
unconneéted along its {uperior margin, but the lower edge is 
flightly joined next the fkin to the vertebral portion; and 
towards the tail thefe two portions become intimately con- 
neéted, and concur to produce the tendons which are inferted 
into the bafe of the caudal fin. 

The dorfal portion operates upon the tail in conjunGion 
with the other lateral mufcles of the body; it alfo moves 
the head backwards and upwards with its fellow of the op- 
polite fide. : 

The middle or vertebral portion of the lateral mufcles 
lies a little obliquely along the fide of the fpine; it 1s at- 
tached below the laft-mentioned mufcle to the back ef the 
cranium ; it then winds along the vertebrz of the trunk, to 
the bodies cf which it is flight:y connected, but trmly to 
their fuperior {pines : it is next attached to the bodies and 
inferior {pines of the caudal vertebrae, and then pafles over 
eight or nine of the la(t caudal vertebra, to which it is con- 
nected by aponeurofes, and becomes confounded with the dor- 
fal portion, and with it is inferted into the fuperior half of 
the bafe of the caudal fin. 

The aponeurotic interfeGtions of the vertebral portion of 
the lateral mufcles are difpofed in waving or curved lines, 
which tend obliquely backwards, and meet the correfponding 
interfeGtions of the dorfal portion, with which they form 
angles that have their points directed backwards, and become 
more acute towards the tail, at the extreme part of which 
the interfections become parallel, and form diftinét tendons, 
which are inferted into the caudal fin. 

Where the vertebral portion arifes from the cranium, there 
are fome thin ftripes of mufcular fafciculi, which run back- 
wards, croffing therefore the rows of the lateral mufcle which 
they cover. 

The cffeét of the a€tion of the vertebral portion is nearly 
the fame with that of the dorfal. The former mufcle is, how- 
ever, from its greater connection with the vertebra, more in- 
mediately concerned in the flexion of the fpine. The {mall 
longitudinal ftripes of mufcle from the cranium have but 
little power; they afliit the principal parts of the lateral 
mufcle in bending the head towards the fide. 

The ventral portion of the lateral mufcle covers the one- 
half of the fide of the fish, and with the correfponding 
portion of the other fide entirely encompaffes the cavity of 
the body. It is attached anterioriy to the back of the cra- 
nium under the feapula; to this bone itfelf; it is connected 
to both fides of the clavicle; it is attached inferiorly to the 
ligament or bones which fupply the place of the fternum, 
and polteriorly to the large {pine which forms the polterior 
boundary of the ventral cavity. The edge that lies over 
‘the row of bones which fuitain the anal fin is unattached on 
the fide of the fpine; but the mufcle is attached to the 
ribs which pafs in the courfe of its interfection ; therefore 
this part of the ventral portion is analogous to the intercoftal 
mufeles: it is then attached to the inferior {pines of fome of 
the caudal vertebrx next the ventral cavity, and to the 
bodies of about eight or nine of the moft pofterior caudal 
vertebra ; and laftly it produces a number of tendons, which 
are inferted into the lower half of the bones of the caudal ha. 


The interfeGions of the ventral portions of the lateral 
mufcle dcferibe very faint curves on the fore part of the 
body, at which place alfo they are rather indiltic@, but 
towards the tail they form V fhaped lines, which come gra- 
dually clofer to each other, until at length they compofe pa- 
rallel tendons, in the fame mauner as the conjoined vertebral 
and dorfal portions. 

This portion of the lateral mufele, befides being a power- 
ful flexor of the tail, compreffes the ventral and branchial 
cavities, and is therefore analogous to the intercoftal and ab- 
dominal mufcle of other animals, 

The preceding defcription is taken from the dory (zeus 
Jaber); a fifth which has the lateral mufcles particularly 
dittinét and ftrong. In the other {pecics we have difleéted, 
we have found the ftruéture fo fimilar, that the dory may be 
given as a general example of the clafs. 

In fome of the flat fifhes (pleuroneéies), the ventral portion 
of the lateral mufcle appears to be double, or to be compof-d 
of two parts which join each other in the line of the angle 
of the interfeGtions, and therefore correfpond to the dorfal 
and vertebral portions. Mr. Carlifle, in the Croonian Ic@ure 
for 1806, defcribes the ventral portions as being always 
of two maffes, which he calls the ventral and abdominal 
feries. 

In the mackarel (fcomber feombrus), the herring (clupea 
harengus), and fome others, we have obferved a layer of 
mufcle of a dark colour, extended along the middle line of 
the body; if this layer be cut tranfverfely, it exhibits the 
figure of a compreffed triangle. It is lodged in a correfpond- 
ing vacancy, which is formed along the junétion of the 
other portions of the lateral mufcle over the {pine of the 
fifth: this long ftripe of mufcle has probably no peculiar 
aGtion, as the ivterfeGions of the adjoining parts are 
continued through it in the fame direGion as in other 
fifhes. 

The lateral mufcles of the genus ofracion differ in fome 
circumf{tances from thofe of other fifhes. As the offracions 
have the body rendered immoveable by being inclofed in a 
hard horny fhell or cafe, thefe mufcles are not conneied 
to the {pine, but to the head and the tail only. Tecir tex- 
ture alfo is not fo complicated as in other inftances, their 
fibres being principally longitudinal. 

The internal furface of the cafe of the ofracions is lined 
with an aponeurofis only. 

Cuvier defcribes an additional pair of mufcles that are 
peculiar to the tail of thefe fifhes; they are of a pyramidal 
figure; they arife from the inner fide of the cafe, on the 
lower or abdominal fide of the body, and are inferted by 
{mall tendons into the inferior part of the fides of the three 
laft caudal vertebre. ‘They carry the tail to either fide, 
and’ deprefs it. 

The motion of fwimming confifts almoft entirely in the 
flexion and fubfequent extenfion of the {pine of fifhes; in 
the production of both which effeéts, the lateral mufcles are 
the fole agents, by the one fide or pavt ating alternately, or 
in oppofition with another. The peculiar compofition and 
arrangement of thefe mufcles are defigned to beftow extra- 
ordinary power and-velocity of a&tion, combined with a 
limited operation as to extent and duration. The weight of 
the column of water difplaced by every impulfe of a ith, 
during the a€& of {wimming, and the celerity with which 
fome ipecies move through water, (not even exceeded by that 
of the flight of birds in fo rare a medium as air,) prove the 
powerful and rapid operation of the {pinal mufcies, while 
the limited capacity of flexion of the tail of fithes, and the 
exhauition thefe animals experience when their mofcular 
efforts are protracted, thew that the {pinal mufcles are 

“je : pable 


inca 


FIS H. 


pable of an extenfive or long continued a&tion. Mr. Car- 
lifle has very ingenioufly attributed the phyfiological proper- 
ties of the lateral mufcles to the arrangement of their fibres, 
and the minute ramification of their blood-veffels, which do 
not admit the red particles ; and he contrafts this ftruciure, 
and the kind of mufcular power confequent upon it, with 
the organization and funétions of the mufcles of tardigrade 
animals. See Phi!. Tranf. part 1. 1806. 

It has been already obferved that the {pinal mufcles of the 
flat chondropterygii, or the ray genus, are excepted from the 
defcription of the general ftructure of thefe parts in other 
fihhes. They are formed more upon the plan of the mufcles 
of the tail of certain quadrupeds, than like thofe of their 
own clafs. 

Cuvier defcribes the lateral mufcles of the ray genus as 
being compofed of two layers, and each layer confifling 
of two mufcles. As we have not particularly diflecied them, 
we fhall adopt his defcription. 

The fuperior lateral mufcles arife from the middle of the 
vertebral column above the abdomen, by a flefhy head, 
covered with {trong aponeurofes: this portion extends as far 
as the pelvis, and then detaches little tendinous branches, 
which pafs through parallel fheaths, and proceed fucceflively 
towards the middle line, where they are inferted into the 
upper part of each of the vertebra of the tail. Flefhy fibres 
accompany thefe tendons to fome diftance, after their fepa- 
rations from the common fafciculus. 

In the inferior part of the tail the fuperior lateral mufcles 
receive acceffaries from cach fide, but thefe are fimple ten- 
dons, which feem only intended to guard again{t too violent 
an extenfion, either to one fide or the other. 

Each tendon of the fuperior lateral mufcles pulls the 
vertebra of the tail, to which it is attached, in the direction 
of its own a@ion, and the flexion, or general curvature of 
the tail upwards, is the refult of their common contrac- 
tion. 

The inferior lateral mufcles arife alfo from the lumbar 
vertebra, like the preceding, but more externally. ‘Tbeir 
arrangement alfo is fimilar, with this difference, that their 
tendons make a kind of turn, and run under the tail, where 
they are inferted into each of the vertebrae. They alfo receive 
acceffary tendons. They produce motions in an oppofite direc- 
tion to thofe of the fuperior mufcles, that is to fay, they bend 
the tal downwards. Their tendons are more flender 
than thofe of the former. ‘They divide into two branches 
at their extremities, and each bifurcation affords a paflage 
for that of the next vertebra, fo that they mutually ferve 
as fheaths; and are all, except the laft, both perforating 
and perforated. 


The {pinal mufcles confift of flakes, and are pale, as in the 
ofleous fifhes, although their form is diff:rent in this 
genus. 

The dorfal, anal, and caudal fins are moved by a great 
number of {mall mufcles. In the interval left between the 
dorfal portions of the lateral mufcles, along the back, there 
are found fome long flender mufcles, extended from the 
neck to the firft ray of the dorfal fin, and between the dor- 
fal fins, where there exift more than one, and from the dorfal 
tothe caudal fin. By means of the infertion of thefe mnf- 
cles into the firft ray of each of the fins they tend to raife 
and fpread them. 

The number of thefe mufcles varies according to the 
exiftence or number of the dorfal fins, In the gymuotus, 
and fome others which want the dorfal fin, there is only 
a finzle pair, which extends from the neck to the caudal 
fin. Ina the {pecies which poflefs one dorfal fin, there are 


two pairs, and in thofe that have two dorfal fins there are 
three pairs. 

There are muf{cles correfponding to the above, placed 
upon the lower or ventral edge of fifhes, intended for the ex- 
panfion of the anal and caudal fins. Cuvier defcribes two 
pair of thefe in the carp (cyprinus carpio). The’ one arifes 
from the junétion of the bones which {uftain the pe@oral 
fins, and 1s inferted.on each fide into the ligamentous tiffue 
which unites the two ventral fins; the little flefhy bellies, 
of which this pair of mufcles is compofed, are four or five 
in number, in form refembling beads, and placed at {ome 
diftance from each other. 

The other pair extecd from the anal fins to the firlt rays 
of the caudal fin. Thefe flefhy portions are {till thinner, 
and their tendons much longer than thofe of the former 
pair. 

The other motions of the dorfal and anal fins are accom- 
plifhed by means of a number of flender mufcles, refembling 
in their form and.pofition the interoflei of the hand. They 
lie upon thefe fpinous bones, which are added to the fpinous 
proceffes of the dorfal and caudal vertebre, for the purpofe 
of fuftaining the dorfal and anal fins. There are two fets 
or feries of thefe mufcles, a fuperficial and a deep-feated ; 
the firlt arifes from an aponeurofis which lines the fkin, and 
furnifhes fepta to forma fort of fheath to each of thefe 
mufcles, and which, by adhering along the roots of the 
additional vertebral fpines, makes a degree of fheath alfo 
for the free margins of the lateral mufcles ; thefe mufcles are 
inferted into the bafes of each of the radiiof the fins. The 
immediate effet of their” action is to bend the rays of the 
fin la‘erally, if thofe of one fide only are employed ; but, if 
both fides aét, the rays are brought clofer to the body ; if 
already inclined that way, but if ftanding in a right angle 
with the body, thefe mufcles may ferve to futtain them, or 
keep them fixed in that pofition. 

The fecond fet lie under the preceding mufcler, and are 
enclofed in the fame {heath with them ; they are each attached 
to two of the additioval {pinous bones for almoft their whole 
length, and at their roots to the inter-mufcular apo- 
neurofis, already mentioned: their tendons are inferted into 
the fides of the bafes of each ray, by which means they 
draw the rays of the fin out of .a right line, and thus tend to 
expaud the fins as well as bring them to cither fide of the 
body. 

Cuvier defcribes a fet of fhort oblique mufcles for clofing 
the rays of the fin, which we have not feen except on 
the caudal fins, 

The flexion of the caudal fin is effe@ted at the faine time 
with that of the whole tail, by means of the great lateral 
mufcles already defcribed; but the rays of the caudal fin 
are expanded and contra€ted by particular mufeles for the 

urpofe. 

Thofe that fpread the caudal fin are concealed by the la- 
teral mufcles ; they arife from {ome of the lalt vertebra, 
f{pread in a fan-like manner, and are inferted into the roots 
of the rays: the outermott fafciculi come from the three ver- 
tebre preceding the laft, and terminate upon the five or ix 
of the external or longelt rays ; thofe of the intermediate rays 
arife from the two laft vertebra. Z 

The mufcles which ferve to approximate the rays of the 
caudal fin appear like a row of beads or barley-corns, 
lying obliquely over the joints of the rays and inter-articular 
bones, with the broad, thin termination of the Jaft vertebra. 
Thefe mufclee of one fide of the tail appear to pafs in a differ- 
ent direction from thofe of the other fide, or to decuflate 
each other. 

The tingle fins are evidently intended to increafe the late- 

ra) 


FISH. 


ral furfaces of fifhes, during the a& of {wimming, and there- 
by communicate a greater impulfe to the water. They are 
alfo ufeful in turning the fifh, and particularly the caudal 
fin muft a& like the helm of a fhip. Mr. Carlile made the 
experiment of cutting off the different fins of living fifhes 
in fucceffion, with the view of determining their feparate 
offices ; he obferved, that after the removal of the fingle fins 
there was an evident tendency in the fith to turn round, 
and the peGtoral fins were kept conftantly extended to ob- 
viate that motion. 

The fingle fins may alfo be confidered as inftruments of 
defence to fifhes, more efpecially when the rays of the dor- 
fal fins terminate in fharp fpines, which they do in a great 
number of fpecies, and in thofe cafes the mufcles for ereét- 
ing the rays are peculiarly ftrong. 

In offous fithes, the great lateral mufcles fupply the place 
of the abdominal mufcles, as well as thofe which arife from 
the fpine ; but in the ray genus we find fome mufcles, which 
correfpond a good deal with the abdomioal mufcles. The 
inferior parietes of the abdomen in thofe fifhes are compofed 
of fome layers of mufcles which are attached to the tranf- 
yerfe cartilages and the potterior branches of the fcapulz, and 
to the pieces compofing the pelvis ; thefe fibres take a fimilar 
direction to that of the ftraight and oblique mufcles of the 
belly, and thofe ofeach fide are diftinguifhed by an aponeu- 
rotic line, analogous to the linea alba. They tend to de- 
prefs the wings, and bring the pelvis forwards and downwards. 

The fuperior parietes of the abdomen are formed by two 
thin, broad mnfc'es; one arifes from the aponeurofis, under 
the fin of the back, and is inferted into the back of the 
pofterior branch of the fcapula; the other arifes from the 
aponeurofis cf the mufcles of the dorfal {pine, and the back 
of the pelvis, and is inferted along the middle of the potte- 
rior branch of the fcapula; thefe mufcles are concerned in 
the elevation of the wings. 

The mufcles of the peétoral fin are fimple in both the car- 
' tilaginous and the offeous fifhes. 

In the offeous fifhes there is, in fome fpecies, a {mall, 
fhort mufcle, fituated on the internal and back part of the 
portion cf the fcapula, where that bone is connected to the 
cranium. It has the effect of bringing the {capula clofer to 
the head. 

There is likewife a {mall taper mufcle which arifes from 
the front of the clavicle, and is inferted into the pofterior 
fharp procefs of the feapula; it brings the fcapula back- 
wards, and the clavicle forwards and inwards. 

There are two fets of mufcles fituated upon the broad 
and thio portion of the fcapula for moving the rays of the 
pectoral fin. The external fet confilts of three mufcles, 
two of thefe are partially covered by the other; the two 
wppermoft may be divided into a great number of fafciculi, 
which fend tendons to the bafes of the rays of the fin; the 
mott inferior of the external fet fends tendons only to fome 
of the moft inferior or external rays of the fin. The inter- 
nal fet contifts of two mufcles much refembling the two firtt 
that are placed externally ; they fend tendons into the roots 
of the rays on the infide. By all thefe mufcles the rays of 
the fin are raifed from the body and brought clofer to it, 
turned forwards, and the edge prefented to the water. 

In the genus ray, befides the mufcles already mentioned 
in defcribing other parts, which a& upon the petoral mem- 
ber, there is a very fhort mutcle which goes from the lait 
tranfverfe procefs of the cervical {pine to the top of the 
fhoulder; it appears to raile the fcapula, There is alfo a 
mufcle extended along the concave fide of the poiterior 
branch of the {capula; its ftbres arife from a tendon which 
is ftretched from above the joint to the point of that branch; 


they are inferted into tle edge of the fin. The vfe of this 
laft appears to be to bring the polterior branch of the {ca- 
pula nearer the body ; this motion is attended with the ex- 
panfion of the rays of the fin. 

The mufcles which a&t immediately upon the rays of the 
wings in the flat chondropterygii are as numerous as the rays 
themfelves; they altogether compofe two great layers of 
fafciculi, fomewhat refembling the mufcles of the fingle fins 
of offeous fifhes ; one layer is placed upon the fuperior fur- 
face of the wings. the other upon the inferior; they thus 
cover the whole fin, arifing from the external fide of the 
feapula, and extended to almolt the very edge of the fin. 
Their office is to raife and deprefs the wings. 

The mufcles which move the rays of the ventral fin in 
offeous fifhes are fituated upon the external and internal 
furfaces of the pelvic bones. On the exterral furface there 
are three or more fafciculi, which in approaching the bafes of 
the rays form leffer fafciculi, one of which is inferted into 
each ray ; the external mufcles elevate the fin, and from 
their oblique direétion and mode of attachment they alfo 
tend to clofe the rays. There is but one mufcle ufually 
on the internal furface of the pelvic bone ; with its fellow, 
it fills up all the fpace left between the two flat furfaces of 
the bones of the pelvis. ‘Thee mufcles have the eff@ of 
deprefling the rays of the ventral fia, and at the fame time 
of expanding them, fo as to prefent a broader {urface to the 
water, 

In the chondropterygit the external rays of the ventral fia, 
more efpecially the outermoft, have their mulcles in dif- 
tin fafeiculi, which are capable of drawing the rays in 
all dire¢tions. Thefe mufcles might be compared with thofe 
that a@ upon the lower extremities of mammalia: the {mall 
rays of the ventral fins have fafciculi clofely applied to them 
in the fame manner as thofe of the peCtoral fin in thele 
fifhes. 

The chief ufes of the pe€toral and ventral fins are to turn 
and ftop in fwimming, and to preferve the p fition of the 
fifth; therefore we obferve, they are always employed 
when the animal wifhes to continue nearly in one place. 
When the motion of the fith alfo is very gradual through the 
water thefe fins are fometimes the only in‘trument employed 
infwimming. From the experiments made by Mr. Carlifle 
of cutting off the fins in a living fifh, it would appear that 
the pectoral fins are ufeful in afceuding, and that they ferve 
to keep the head uppermolt: when both the peétoral and 
abdominal firs were removed, he found that the fih had a 
tendency to roll and could not afcend at ail. 


Air Bladder. 


This fingular organ is peculiar to the clafs of fihes. Ana- 
tomifts have aferibed various functions to it; we have, how- 
ever, chofen to place it amongit the inftruments of motion, 
for reafons which will be given hereafter. 

The air bag is wanting ia feveral fpecies of fikhes, and has 
been fuppofed to be abfent in fome others, in which it 
really exilts. It is not met with in any of the chondrop- 
terygii, in the genus /ophius, in the moon-fjb (tetraodon mola); 
it is fuppofed to be wanting in the ammodytes tobianus, the 
Atromateus paru, the callionymus dracunculus, the blennius 
Superctliofus, and blennius viviparus, &e.; in the genera 
cepola, echeneis, and cottus. It is abfent in the fat fithes 

(pleuroncées), and in the mackarel (/comber fcombrus); we 
have not found it in the qweaver (trachinus draco)- Bloch 
appears to have extended the lilt of filhes in which this 
organ is abfent farther than is right ; he denies its exiftence 
in the ele@rical eel ( gymnotus ele@ricus), although Mr. Hunter 
defcribed it in that fh, ~Redi alfo itated it to be wantiog 

i 


Fis H. 


im the uranoftopus fcaber, in which Cuvier has found.anair- 
bag refermbling that of the carp (cyprinus carpio.) 

The air-bag is always fituated upon the inferior furface 
of the dorfal vertebrae ; fometimes, as in the genus gadus, it 
adheres firmly and intimate to the fpine. At other times, 
asin the genera fimo, e/ox, &c. it fends procefles to the 
ribs and the {paces between them. 

In the dory (zeus faber) it is conneéted to the {pine by 
Kgaments which anfe from the bag, buc ia not continuous 
with it. 4 

In the carp (cyprinus) the anterior portion of the bag 
only is attached to a defcending procefs of the fecond dorfal 
vertebre. In the furgeon (acipenfer flurio), the eel (murena), 
the herring (clupea), and many other fiihes, the bag is un- 
conneGted with the {pine, and preferved in its praper pofi- 
tion by its pe itoneal coat, and the du& which communicates 
with the cefophagus or ftomach. 

The ftru€iure of the parietes of the air-bladder is ex- 
tremely curious. It has two proper coats and a peritoneal 
covering ; the mternal proper coat 1s in general a fice deli- 
cate membrane, which, in many cafes, is not clofely adhe- 
rent at every part to the other coat; it appears to be double, 
and. the innermott layer to be, in fome places, loofe, and 
capable of being moved upon the furface of the other. 

The external proper coat isin many. cafes incomplete or 
wanting in fome parts of the air-bag: thus, in the genus 
gadus there is only the membranous tunic along the upper 
furface of the bladder, which correfponds to the bedies of 
the vertebrae; the intimate conneétion with the external 
parts of the {pine rendering a {tronger integument in this 
place unneceflary.; this coat alfo appears to be wanting in 
the. pofterior bladder of the carp (cyprinus carpio). It is 
abfent.alfo upon the .pofterior end of the air-bag in the 
sory (xeus faber), but in this:inftance it is {upplied by a thick, 
foft, flefhy-looking tunic, which has confiderable ftrength. 

The external proper coat has a moft peculiar ftruéture : 
it is very clofe in-its:texture, refembling, when cut through, 
the hgamentum -nuche of. mammalia; it is of a beautiful 
filvery white colour, and the juner furface gliftens like 
polithed metal; from thefe chara&ters we fhould with to give 
it the name of the argentine coat; it is tough, but pofleffes 
very little elaiticity, which it appears to lofe entirely upon 
being ftretched. his coat is generally thick, but does 
not icem to be {trong in proportion; it tears with the appli- 
cation of a much flighter force than would be requ'red to 
rupture atendon or ligament of the fame degree of thick- 
nefs. Cuvier ftates its confiltence ito be fo confiderable in 
the offracions as not to fhrink when the bag is emptied of its 
air; it is alfo very ftrong in the genera filurus and gadus; in 
other inftances, as in the pike, herring, eels, carp, &c. it is 
as thin as a membrane: in the Jichir (polypterus niloticus) 
this coat exhibits fome oblique fibres, which Cuvier is dil- 
pofed to confider mufcular; it is the argentine coat which 
is fo intimately united to the external parts of the vertebra 
in the cod. 

An opinion prevails that it is unwholefome or dangerous 
to eat the air-bag of fifhes, which probably arifes from the 
tudigeftible nature of the external coat. 

The cobitis fofflis is diftinguithed by having the parietes 
of the air-bag compofed of bone; the ofleous covering ap- 
pears tofupply the place of the external proper coat in this 
fith, and is lined like it by membrane. 

The peritoneal coat does not always entirely cover the air- 
bladder; in thofe inftances, when the ‘latter adheres to the 
fpine, it only pafles over the inferior furface of it. 

In certain fifhes the air-bladder contains.a remarkable va{- 
cular apparatus; this is always fituated on the inner fide of 


the inferior or abdominal-parietes of the bladder, itappears 
to be inclofed between the duplicatures of the internal proper 
coat of the bag, the innermoft of which is extremely thin 
where it covers the furface of the vafcular apparatus. 

There is great variety inthe figure of -the vafcular organ 
in the cod (gadus morhua); it is a broad patch, fomewhat 
of. a heart-fhape, compofed of a number of fhort foliated 
procefics ftanding clofe.to each other. In the -cuditing 
{ gadus merlangus) thefe procefles are finer, lefs regular, and 
not fo clofe together, and look like the vafcular fhreddy 
membrane produced by the depofition of lymph on an in< 
flamed furface. 

In the mullet (mugil cephalus) there area number of granular 
vafcular bodies {pread aver an oval furface, about two inches 
Jong and one inch anda half broad; thele are fed by an as- 
tery of fome fize, which, after entering the .bag, fends 
branches to each of thefe little. maffes. 

In the ¢e/ and conger (murene, anguilla and ammrena conger) 
there are two {pheroidal vafcular bodics placed at a little 
diftance from each other. 

In the dory (zeus faber) there are four vafcular bodies, 
fituated near!y at equal diftances from each other; they ace 
narrow, rounded upon the furface, and are eompofed of 
{mailer irregular-fhaped maffes, which give them a granular 
appearance ; each body is coiled or twilted like a piece of 
intefline, and they are all conneéted together by the blood- 
veflels which pafs through a hole formed in the lower pae 
rietes of the bag for the purpofe, and on entering the 
bag branch off regularly to fupply each of the vatcular 
bodies. , 

In the gadus polachius, Cuvier ftates that the inner furs 
face is entirely covered with long and numerous vafcular 
filamente. , 

Whatever may be the form and arrangement of the vai- 
cular bodies, they agree in one circumftance: they receive 
fo great a fupply of red blood that every point is coloured, 
the whole appearing of an uniform crimfon colour, as if it 
were dyed. ‘There is no other organ of the animal body, 
with which we are acquainted, that pofleffes the fame ipecies 
of vafcularity, except the choroid gland of the eye of fihes ; 
but even this part falls fhort in the degree of vafcularity. 

It may be ftated in a general way, that in thofe fithes 
which want a diftinét vafcular apparatus, there is either a 
communication between the air-bladder and the ftomach or 
ccfophagus, or the internal membrane of the bag receives a 
confiderable number of blood-veffels. In fome cafes, how- 
ever, when thefe provifions exilt, the inner fu:face of the 
air-bladder is abundantly fupplied with blood-veffels. In 
the dichir (polypierus niloticus), for inttance, the veflels form 
innumerable itriz, which colour a great part of the furface 
of the bag. 

It has been commonly fuppofed that the vafcular bodies, 
and the veflels diftributed upon the inner furface of the 
bladder, are deftined to fecrete the air with which it is filled. 
This fat, which has been called in quetlion by fome phy- 
fiologiits, is fully proved by the ftructure obferved in the 
vafcular bodies of eels (murena), and the fea perch (perca 
labrax). In the former, the vefcular bodies exhibit on their 
furface a fine net-work of veflels containing air; and in the 
fea perch, befides the ufual vafcular body on the inner part 
of the bag, there are two others placed externally on each 
fide, and extended from the bafe to the point of the cone- 
thaped bladder of this fith. There arife from thefe a great 
number of little air-veflcls, which unite into feveral principal 
trunks that penetrate the parietes of the bladder, and open 
into its cavity by thirty or forty orifices on each fide, ar- 
ranged in a line, 


4 Ae 


FISH. 


As the offices of thefe fingular organe are fo fatisfaGorily 
demonftrated, they might with propriety be called air- 
glands. The circumfance of the vafcular bodies fecreting 
air is a moll interefting fa@ in phyfiology, and ferves to ex- 
plain the produétion of gafcous matter from the fecreting 
furfaces in other claffes of animals. 

The communication which the air-bladder has, in feveral 
fies, with the itomach is one of the moft curious circum- 
ftances in the hiftory of this organ. It has been fuppofed, 
by fome anatomifts, to be intended to difcharge the coa- 
tents of the bag; but we are more difpofed to think that it 
is d-figned to admit air, which is furnifh-d by the furface of 
the alimentary canal. In no inftance has any fifh been ob- 
ferved to expel air by the mouth or anus; and if it were ree 
tained in the ffomach, the fp-cific gravity of the animal would 
rema'n the fame, and confequently the fuppofed purpofe 
would not be anfwered, On the ether hand, the fecretion of 
air from the furface of the ftomach is a well afcertained fact, 
with refpe& to many other animals, and may be prefumed 
by fair analogy to take place alfo in fifhes. Avother argu- 
ment may be drawn from the furface of the air-bag being 
commonly found Jefs vafcular in thofe inftances where this 
communication exilts. 

The dud, which ferves to convey the air from the al}- 

mentary canal into the bladder, has been obferved to exif 
in certain fpecics of the genera acipen/ér, murena, perca, 
falmo, efox, cyprinus, clupea, filurus, and polypterus. It 
varies with relpe& to its fize and figure, and the places at 
which it arifes and terminates. In the eel (murena anguilla), 
the conger (murena conger), and the murena helena; it palles 
from the anterior part of the ftomach to the middle of the 
bladder, between the two air-glands: it becomes wider as it 
approaches the bladder. Inthe pike (e/ox /ucius), the trout 
(falmo fario), the falmon (falmo falar), and the jeurgeon 
(acipenfer jlurio), the opening into the bag is fituated near 
its anterior extremity. In thefe fifhes it is fhort and wide, 
particularly in the pite and ffurgeon: in the latter it is fo 
wide, that a finger will pafs through it; and fo fhort, that 
it appears like a ring rather than a duct. It arifes from the 
eefophagus in the /a/mon, and from the beginning of the 
flomach in the flurgeon. It opens into the anterior third of 
the bag in the jilurus. The duG& is extremely long and 
{mall in the carp (cyprinus carpio), and paffes from the ter- 
mination of the aiophagus to the anterior part of the pof- 
terior portion of the air-bag. Inthe herring (clupea haren- 
gus) the pofterior or fuunel-fhaped extremity of the {tomach 
gives origin to a flender du€&, which enters the air-bag at 
about one-third from its potterior extremity. 

The orifice into the celophagusis not furnifhed with any 
valves to prevent the admiffion of xtraneous fubltances ; but 
when it is wide, it 1s encompafled by fome mufcular fibres, 
which perform the office of afpinéter. This ftruéture is 
well feen in the flurgeon and the bichir (polypterus niloticus) : 
in the former, the fhort de@ has a mufcular coat of circular 
fibres; and in the latter, the orifice is furrounded by a 
iphingter. When the dué is very fmall, the contraCtion. of 
‘the ordinary mufcular fibrés of the alimentary canal feems to 
be adequate to the fhutting of the orifice. 

In whatever manner the orifice of the air-du& be con- 
ftrut<d, its opening or clofing 1s unquettionably regulated 
by the will of the animal, . 

‘Having ftated the general ftruéture of the air-bag, and 
the parts connected with it, we fhall enumerate the peculi- 
arities of its form which jhave been obferved in different 
fifhes. 

: "Phe air-bladder in fome inftances confilts of two parts or 
chambers, communicating with each other, In the dichir 


( polypterus niloticus, Geoffroy), it forms two large cyliadrie 
facs, of which the one is much longer than the other, 
extending the whole length of the abdomen; they only 
unite when they communicate with the cefophagus; the 
tetrdodon oblongus allo has the baz of two portions, but of 
the fame figure and magnitude; they lie together, and unite 
at their anterior extremity. In the gadus polachius the 
two portions of the bag are of unequal fize, they are fituated 
parallel to each other, aed are conjoined in their middle, 
In the carp (cyprinus), and the urang copus feaber, the bag 
confifts of two facs, the one pléced behind the other, and 
feparated by a contraét’on, which leaves a fmall apertuie of 
communication between them. 

The air-bladder is fingle in all other fifhes, except the 

foregoing examples, and exceedingly various with refp-& to 
ita form, even in {pecies of the fame genus. It has the 
figure of an elongzt d cone, with the bafe turned forwards, 
in the furgeon (acipenfer furic), the falmon end trout (Jalna 
Jalar and falmo fario), tie pike (cfox), the dory (zeus faber), 
&c. 5 it is long, conical, and fringed pofteriorly in the /almo 
eperlanus ; fhort and oval inthe murena helena, narrow and 
more elongated in the common eel, the conger, and the /ys 
acus ; it is long and pointed at both’ ends in the Aerrin 
(clupea harengus). a the cod (gadus morhua), it is pointed 
poltertorly, notched or divided into a number of lobules 
along the fides, ftraight at the anterior part, from the corners 
of which two vermiform proceffes go off, which are cor fi- 
derably convoluted. Cuvier defcribes thefe procefles as two 
dus, leading into the cefophagus, but they terminate in bliad 
extremities ; it is bifurcated anteriorly in the Jing (gadus 
molva), long and flcnder in the hake ( gadus merlucins): it is 
oval in many of the genus /adrus. In the anableps tetropthalmus 
it is {mail anteriorly, and enlarged belind; in the oftracion 
cubicus, it is irreguiar, flightly notched before, and a litrle 
contrated in the middle; the ofracion quadricornis has’ the 
fame fizure, with two proceffcs on the fides. In the genus 
Jfillurus the air-bag has the form of a heart, and contains 
internally a number of tranfverfe fepta, which are incomplete 
upon the fides. Jn many of the genus diodon alfo fimilar 
partitions have been obferved to exift. ~ 

The air-bag in fome fihes poflefles two mufeles ; they are 
fhort thick layers, which pafs downwards on each fide of the 
anterior pert of the bag. In the dory (zeus fader) they have 
an oval form, and have no foreign attachments, bat belong 
entirely to the parietes of the bag. In the cod (gadus morliua) 
there are two mufcles on each fide, which are affixed to the 
two firft lobules, or facculated portions of the air bladder, and 
have their fuperior extremities inferted into the fpine. 
Cuvier ftates that thefe mufeles exif in the mormyrus ry 
and in the offracion cubicus, in which laft {pecies they are 
extremely thick. He fuppofes that the ufe of the mafcles is 
to comprefs the air-bag, and, by diminifhing the bulk of the 
air it contains, encreafe the {pecific gravity of the fh. 
They appear, however, to be incompetent to fuch an effe&, 
as they can only aét upon the anterior portion of the bag ; 
they are, thercfore, probably deitined to urge the air from 
the fore- part of the bladder, when the animal has occafion to 
defcend in the water. 

Tt is to be regretted that the different experiments, which 
have been inftituted to afcertain the chemical properties of 
the air contained in this organ, have afforded fuch coutra- 
di@tory refults: f{carcely any two of them coincide with 
each other. Thus, La Cepede has ftated that he difcovered 
hydrogen gas in the air-bag of the éench (cyprinus tinea). 
Fourcroy found azotic gas in that of the common carp (ty- 
prinus carpio), Ficher met with carbonic acid gas. Dr. 
Brpadbelt, in examining the ar-bag of the /word_ 72 (xi- 

phias 


FISH. 


phias gladius), fometimes found it to contain oxygen, and 
at others fixed air. Others have ftated thet the air-bag of 
the carp, &c. is filled with atmofpheric air. Some later 
experiments on the fubje& have been communicated to the 
French National Inftitute by M. Biot. He afcertained that 
the contents of this organ varied from pure azote to 8/jths 
of oxygen; but there exifted no hydrogen. He ftated that 
frefh-water fifh, which frequently {wim near the furface, 
afforded the leaft proportion of oxygen; and he thought 
that this gas was in greater quantity, according to the depth 
of water from which the fifh came. 

Biot’s experiments are very interefting, as they go fome 
way towards reconciling the contradictory accounts of other 
phyfiologifts, and may perhaps be confidered as explaining 
the different degrees of purity obferved at different times in 
the air of the bag in the fame individual. 

Anatomifts are as much at variance with refpe&t to the 
ufes of the air-bag, as they differ in their accounts of its 
contents. Needham fuppofed that the air produced in the 
blood was depofited in the bladder, and afterwards carried 
into the ftomach, in order to flit digeltion. Vicq d’Azyr 
adopted a fimilar opinion: he thought the bladder was fub- 
fervient to digeftion, and that it received the finer kinds of 
food. Ficher imagined this organ an_acceffory one to the 
gills, befides forwarding the motion of the animal in its ele- 
ment: he conceived that the fifh came to the furface for the 
purpofe of {wallowing atmofpheric air, which afterwards 
pafled through the pneumatic du& into the bladder, and, 
when fpoiled by remaining in conta with the vafcular 
bodies or. blood-veffels, was expelled through the fame 
channel. ‘ 

It is impoffible to conceive f{peculations more abfurd 
or more eafily overturned, than the preceding. Each of 
thefe opinions fuppoles that there is always a communication 
between the air-bag and the alimentary canal, which, as be- 
fore ftated, is afcertained to exift in but a {mall number of 
fithes: but if this obftacle did not exift, both the theories 
of Needham and Vicq d’Azyrare ftill extremely improbable. 
The admixture of atr with the alimentary fubftances would 
iaterrupt, inftead of promoting their digeftion, It would be 
utterly impoffible for any procefs fimilar to refpiration to 
be carried on ina clofe fac; as the air could not be reno- 
vated, its operation would ceafe, and to fuppofe the fecretion 
of oxygen into the air-bag, and the abforption of the carbonic 
acid gas produced there, is perfe€tly prepofterous ; as well 
might an animal refpire in a clofe veffel. 

The trne and only ule of the air-bladder appears to be to 
diminfh the gravity of the filh in relation to its bu'k, and 
thereby enable it to continue buoyant, or afcend in the 
water with little or no mufcular effort: this is the popular 
potion; and bence the common name of /wimming bladder 
or fwim are ufed ; in corfimation of which opinion it may 
be remarked, that thofe fithes have the largeft air-bags which 
{wim rapidly, and frequently afcend and defcend in the water; 
that when it is wanting we can almoft always difcover fome 
other modification or conditionsin the organs of locomotion 
which are adapted to fulfil the fame purpofcs, and that when 
fuch provilions do not exift, the filh commozly grovels at 
the bottom of the water. Thus the /bark genus is furnifhed 
with a long and powertul tai!, and the pctoral fins are in 
general of fome fiz. In the mackarel ( fcomber /combrus) 
the fkeletow and mulcular fubftance are both light, and the 
tail is particlarly ftrong ; the gar fi/b (¢/ox lucius), which has 
a light fkeleton, and mufcular fubitance very like the macka- 
rel, has an extremely {mall air-baz. "The flat fifhes fwim by 
means of a continual beating or flapping of the water with 
their broad furfaces, in a manner exactly analogous te flying. 


Laftly, the /amprey (petromyzon), which wants the air-bag 
and hae a tail badly formed for fwimming, generally lies 
buried in the mud at the bottom of the water. 

To thefe obfervations we fhall add fome experiments we 
made upon one occafion on living fifhes, the goach and gudgeon 
(cyprinus rutilus and cyprinus gobio), which, in our opinion, 
put it beyond all doubt that the air-bladder is an organ of 
motion. A knife was plunged paft the {pine into the air- 
bladder; upon the air rufhing out, the fifhes defcended to 
the bottom of the veffel of water, and there remained. In 
order to afcertain whether the infliction of fuch a wound 
could have any effeét, a fimilar one was made upon other 
living fifhes, taking care not to penetrate the air-bladder, but 
they afterwards afcended and defcended as ufual: an air- 
bladder was next removed from the body of one fifh, and 
attached to the external part of the body of another fifh, 
which had previoufly funk to the bottom in confequence of 
the air being extra&ed from its bag by a wound; it now be- 
came as unable to defcend in the water as it was before to 
rife, and was detained at the furface in defpite of all its 
efforts to efcape to the bottom of the veffel. 

Two conclufions are to be drawn from the foregoing ex- 
periments: rft, that the air-bag is abfolutely neceflary to 
the locomotion of thofe fifhes, to which it naturally belongs; 
2dly, that in the body of the living fifh fome change is pro- 
duced in the bulk or quantity of the air contained in the bag 
to enable the fifh to defcend. 

Some anatomifts have accounted for the diminution of the 
volume of airin the bag, by fuppofing it to be carried into 
the ftomach or cefophagus, and thence expelled, but this 
could only teke place in thofe few fifhes which have a du& 
of communication between thofe parts. 

Others have fuppofed that the air-bag is diminifhed by 
being compreffed at the will of the animal, either by the 
great lateral mufcles, or thofe fituated at the anterior part of 
the bag: it feeme, however, very doubtful whether the 
aétion of either of thefe mufcles can materially affeG& the 
whole bag; butif this were granted, it might be ftill ob- © 
jeGted, that in fome inftances the air-bag is fo thin as not to 
be able to fuftsin much compreffion without danger of being 
ruptured, and that in other inftances its parietes are fo thick 
as to refilt a moderate degree of compreffion, and in the 
cobitis foffilis, it being an offeous fac, it is incompreffible. 

Shall we fuppofe that the gafeous contents of the bag are 
encreafed and diminifhed, as occafion may require, by fecre- 
tion and abforption? ‘There appears but one obje&tion to 
this fuppofition, which is the rapidity that would be necef- 
fary in effeGting thofe changes in the quantity of the air. 
It may be remarked, however, that air is fecreted, under 
fome circumftances, in the human ftomach almoft inftanta- 
neoufly; the fecretion of faliva and the tears is, perhaps, 
equally rapid: the vafcular aétion which conveys the flufh 
to the cheeks furpafles in velocity any of the voluntary 
motions of animals; it is, therefore, rot inconfiftent with 
fome of the well known phenomena of the vafcular fyf- 
tem to fuppofe that the volume of air in the {wimming blad- 
der of fithes may be regulated according to neceffity, by 
the veflcls diftributed to the parietes of the bag, or, per- 
haps, by thofe of the ftomach, when thefe two parts com- 
municate. It would be improper, however, to adopt this 
opinion upon the mere ground of ita being poffible: future 
experiments muft determine what really are the means em- 
ployed bv fifhes to alter their gravity. 

Plate XIV. of the Anatomy of Fifbes; contains the 
illuttrations of the ftruQure of the air bag. Fig. 1. repre- 
fents the air-bladder of the dory, (zeus faber) turned infide 
out, in order to bring into view the internal coat and air 

I glands, 


FISH. 


giends, &c.; a, the anterlor part of the bag; 4, the pof- 
terior part: the argentine Cvat is feen through the internal 
membrane, and at é the fiefhy looking coat which fupplies 
its place ; the inner membrane adheres moft loofely at this 
part; c,¢,¢,c, the four air-glands or vafcular bodies; d, the 
blood .veffel which is diftributed to them with the accom- 
panying vein; e, ce, the mufcles feen through the inner 
coat. 

Fig. 2. exhibits the air-gland of the cod (gadus morhua); a, 
the furface prefented to the cavity of the bag. 

Fig. 3. the ws the air bladder of the ee/, (murena anguilla ) 
ditided longitudinally, and the parictes {pread out; a, the 
argentine coat; 5444, the internal membrane with its 
blood-veflcls ; c, c, the two air-glands ; on the left fide the 
inuier membrane is raifed to uncover the gland, and briog 
into view the network of the air veffels upon it at d; e ¢, 
portion of the du€& which goes to the ftomach. 

Fig. 4. reprefents a portion of the eefophagus and ftomach 
of the furgeon (acipenfer flurio) laid oper, with a part of the 
air-bag attached to it; a, the cefophagus; J, the ftomech ; 
e, the air-bladder; d, the du& leading from one into the 
other, furrounded by an annular mulcle ; e, the orifice of 
the duct. ! : 

Fig. 5. is the double air-bag, with its du& in the carp 
(cyprinus carpic) inflated and dried; a, the anterior pertion 
of the bag 5 0, the pofterior chamber with thinner parietes ; 
c, the du&t p-flixg fome diftence before 1t terminates in the 
alimentary canal, a portion of which is preferved at d. , 

Fig. 6. exhibits the ftomach and air-bag of the serring 
(clufea harengus) ; a, the anterior part of the ftemach ; b, 
the potterior or infundibular porvon, from the extremiry of 
which a du& is {een going off to the air-bag c, which is 
Jonz and pointed at both ends. : 

Fig. 7. is a view of the air-beg in the /lurus felis, cut 
open to fhew the partitions of the interior, which produce 
a cellular appearance. 


Eledric Organs. 


Thefe parts, and the very fingular faculty they beftow, 
have been obferved to exift but in a very {mall number of 
{pecies ; there are only five fifhes which are at prefent known 
to poflets the ele&tric property. The torpedo (raja torpedv), 
a eleiirical ecl (gymnotus eleciricus), the filurus eleéiricus, 
the Jedian eel (trichiurus indicus), and the tetraodon eledri- 
cus. ) 
The parts which produce the ele&ric phenomena have 
been deferibed by feveral naturalilts in the ¢orpedo and gym- 
notus, but moft minutely and correctly by the late Mr. 
Hunter ;-and the eleétric apparatus of the filurus eledricus 
has been defcribed and delineated within thele late years by 
M. Geoffroy the French naturalift, but no account has yet 
been given, as far as we know, of thefe organs in the electric 
fpecies of trichiurus and telraodon, 

Beiore entering upon the confideration of the phenomena 
exhibited by the electric fifhes, we thall give a defeription 
of the organs by which they are produced in the sorpedo, 
the ele@ric eel, and the filurus elecricus ; and with refpect to 
the two firlt, as the fubject is peculiarly interefting, we 
fhall copy the detailed and accurate account publifhed by 
Mr. Hunter in the Philofophical ‘Tran factions. 

“ The el@ric organs of the torpedo are placed on each 
fide of the cranium and gills, reaching from thence to the 
femi-circular cartilages of each great fin, and extendiog lon- 
gitadinally from the anterior extremity of the animal, to the 
tran{verfe cartilage which divides the thorax from the abdo- 
men ; and within thefe limits they occupy the whole {pace 
between the fkin of the upper and of the under furfaces ; 

Vou. XIV. 


they are thickef at the edges near the centye of the fifh, and 
become gradually thinner towards the extremities. 

“Each eleGtric organ, at its inner longitudinal edge, is 
unequally hollowed, being exaGly fitted to the irregular 
projections of the cranium and gills. The outer longitudi- 
nal edge is a convex elliptic curve, The anterior extremity 
of each organ makes the fe@ion of 2 {mall circle ; and the 
eae extremity makes nearly aright angle with the inner 
edge, 

“« Each organ is attached to the furrcunding parts by a 
clofe cellular membrane, and alfo by fhort and {trong tendi- 
nous fibres, which pafs dire@tly acrofe, from its outer edge, 
to the femi-circular cartilages. 

** They are covered, above and below, by the common 
fkin of the animal; under which there is a thin fafcia {pread 
over the whole organ. This is compofed of fibres, which 
run longitudinally, or in the direétion of the body of the 
animal. T'hefe fibres appear to be perforated in innumera- 
ble places; which pives the fafcia the appearance of being 
fafeiculated ; its edges all around are clofely conneéted to 
the fia, and at lait appear to be loft, or to degenerate into 
the common cellular membrane of the fkin. 

“ Immediately under this is another membrane, ex2Gly 
of the fame kicd, the fibres of which in fome meafure de- 
cuffate.thofe of the former, p:ffing from the middle line of 
the body outwards and backwards. The inner edge of thie 
is loft with the firft defcribed; the anterior, outer, and 
pofterior edges are partly attached to the femi-circular cat- 
tilages, and partly loft in the common cellular membrane. 

‘« This inner fa{cia appears to be continued into the clece 
tric organ by fo many proceffes, and thereby makes the 
membranous fides or fheaths of the columus, which are pre- 
fently to be defcribed; and between thefe proceffes the 
fafcia covers the end of each column, making the outer- 
moft or firft partition. 

“« Ezch organ of the fifh under confideration is ahout 
five irches in length, and at the anterior end three in breadth, 
though it is but little more than half as broad at the pof- 
terior extremity. 

** Each confifts wholly of perpendicular columns, reaching 
from the upper to the under furface of the body, and vary- 
ing in their lengths, according to the thickoefs of the parts 
of the body where they are placed, the longeft column being 
about an inch and an half, the fhorteft ebout one-fourth of 
an inch in length, and their diameters about two tenths of an 
inch. 

« The figures of the columns are very irregular, varying 
according to fituation and other circumftances. The 
greateft number of them are either irregular hexagons, or 
irregular pentagons; but, from the irregularity of fome of 
th«m, it happens that a pretty regular quadrangular column 
is fometimes formed. Thofe of the exterior row are either 
quadrangular or hexagonal; having one fide external, two 
lateral, and either one or two internal. In the fecond row 
they are moftly pentagons. 

** Their coats are very thin, and feem tranfparent, clofcly 
conne@ed with each other, having a kind of loofe net-work 
of tendinous fibres, paffing tranfverfely and obliquely 
between the columns, and uniting them more firmly 
together. Thefe are moftly obfervable where the large 
trunks of the nerve pafs. The columns are alfo attached 
by ftrong inelaftic fibres, pafling direét!y from the one to 
the other. 

‘© The number of columns in different torpedos of the fize 
of that now offered to the fociety, appeared to be about 
470 in each organ, but the number varies according to the 
ize of the fith, Thefe —— increafe, not only in fize, 

3 but 


FISH. 


but in number, during the growth of the animal, new ones 
forming perhaps every year, onthe exterior edges, as there 
they are much the {malleft. 'Phis procefs may be fimilar to 
the formation of new teeth, in the human jaw, as it in- 
creafes. 

‘¢ Each column is divided by horizontal partitions, placed 
over each other, at very {mall diflances, and forming nume- 
rous interltices, which appear to contain a fluid. Thefe 
partitions confit of a very thin membrane, corfiderably 
traufparent. Their edges appear to be attached to one an- 
other, and the whole is attached by a fine cellular membrane 
to the infide of the columns. They are not totally detached 
from one aroth-r; [have found them adhering, at different 
places, by blood veffels paffing from one to another. 

‘« The number of partitions contained ina column of one 
inch in length, of a torpedo which had been preferved in 
proof {pirits, appeared, upoy a careful examination, to be one 
hundred and fity ; and this number in a given length of 
column appears to be common to ail fizes in the fame ftate of 
humidity, for by drying they may be greatly altered; 
whence it appears probable that the increafe in the length of 
a colimn, during the growth of the animal, does not en- 
large the diftance between each partition in proportion to 
that growth; but that new partitions are formed, and 
added tothe extremity of the column from the fafcia. 

«©The partitionsare very vafcular; the arteries are branches 
from the veins of the gills, which convey the blood that has 
received the influence of refpiration. They pafs along with 
the nerves to the ele&tric organ, and enter with them ; 
then they ramify, in every direétion, into innumerable foal 
branches upon the fides of the columns, fending in from the 
circumference all around upon each partition {mall arteries, 
which ramify and anaftomofe upon it; and pafling alfo from 
one partition to another, anaftomofe with the veffcls of the 
adjacent partitions. 

‘© The veins of the eleGtric organ pafs out, clofe to the 
nerves, and run between the gills, to the auricle of the 
heart. 

‘© The nerves inferted into each ele@ric organ, arife by 
three very large trunks from the lateral and potterior part of 
the brain. The firft of thefe, in its paflage outwards, turns 
round a cartilage of the cranium, and fendsa few branches 
to the firft ill, and to the anterior part of the head, and 
ahen paffes into the organ towards its anterior extre- 
mity. he fecond trunk enters the gills between the firft 
and fecond openings, and, after furnifhing it with fmall 
branches, pafles into the organ near its middle. The third 
trunk, after leaving the fkull, divides itfelf into two branches 
which pafs to the electric organ through the gills ; one be- 
tween the fecond and third openings, the other between the 
third and fourth, giving {mall branches to the gill itfelf. 
Thefe nerveshaving entered the organs, ramify in every di- 
rection between the columns, and fend in {mall branches 
upon each partition where they are lott.” Phil. Tranf. vol. 
63, p. 481. 

Plate XV. of the Anatomy of Fifhes, exhibits a view of the 
upper or back furface of the torpedo, on which the eletric 
organ of each fideis uncovered by raifing the integuments, in 
order to fhew the extenfive portion of the body of the fifh, 
which thefe parts occupy : 4, a, the integuments turned 
back, difplaying on their infide an hexagonal net-work, 
which was the continuation of the columns into the fkin ; 
3, 2, 5, b, the ends of the column applied to the integu- 
ments. An exactly fimilar appearance prefents itfelf on 


raifing the ‘kin of the inferior or oppofite furface of the body 
of the faith. 


In Plate XVI. of the Anatomy of Fifkes, fig. t+ thews- 


the eleGric organ of the torpedo on the right fide, divided 
horizontally into nearly two equal parts at the place where 
the nerves enter; the upper half being turned outwards. 

aa, bb, cc, dd, the correfponding parts of trunks of 
the nerves as they emerge from the gills, and ramify ia the 
electric organ. 

aa, the firft or anterior trunk arifing juft before the. 

ills. 
a bb, the fecond or middle trunk, arifing behind the fit. 
il. 
g cc, the anterior branch of the third trunk, arifing be sind 
the fecond gill. 

dd, the pofterior branch of the third trunk, arifing behind 
the third gill. 

Fig. 2. of the fame plate, exhibits a perpendicular fec- 
tion of the torpedo, a little behind its mnfpiratory open- 
ings. 

ei the upper furface of the fith. 

b, b, the mufcles of the back, as divided by the feGion. 

c, the medulla f{pinalis. 

d, the efephagus. 

e, the left gill, {plit to expofe the courfe of atrunk. of a. 
nerve through it. 

f. the breathing furface of the right gill. 

& & the fis. 

4, bh, the perpendicular columns which compofe the 
eleGtric organ, with a reprefentation of their horizontal pofi- 
tions. 

i, one of the trunks of the nerves, with its ramifica- 
tions. 

« The gymnotus eledricus m2y be confidered, both anatomi- 
cally and phyfiologically, as divided into two parts; wiz, 
the common animal part ; and a part which is fuperadded, 
viz. the peculiar organ. I fhall at prefent confider it only 
with refpe@ to the lait ; as the firft explains nothing relating 
to the other, nor any thing relating tothe economy of fifh. 
in general. 

« The firft, or common animal part, is fo contrived as to 
exceed what was neceffary for itfelf, in order to give fitua- 
tion, nourifhment, and molt probably the peculiar property. 
to the fecond. ‘The lalt part, or peculiar organ, has an im- 
mediate conneCtion with the firft, the body affording it a 
fituation; the heart, nourifhment; and the brain, nerves, 
probably its peculiar powers. or the firft of thefe 
purpofes, the body is extended in length, being much 
longer than would be fufficient for what may be called its 
progreflive motion. For the real body, or that part where 
the vifcera and parts of generation are fituated, with refpea. 
to the head, as in other fith, is extremely fhort; fo that, 
according to the ordinary proportions, this fhould be 
a very fhort fifth. Its great length, therefore, feems chiefly 
intended to afford a furface for the {upport of the peculiar 
organ ; however, the tail part is likewife adapted to the 
progreflive motion of the whole, and to preferve the {pecific 
gravity ; for the {pine, medulla fpinalis, mufcles, fin, air- 
bladder, are continued through its whole length, 

‘* Befides which parts, there is a membrane pafling from 
the {pine to that fin which runs along the belly or lower 
edge of the animal. This membrane is broad at the end 
next to the head, terminating in a point at the tail. It is 
a fupport for the abdominal fin, gives a greater furface of 
{upport for the organ, and makes a partition between the 
organs of the two oppofite fides. 

“ The organs which produce the peculiar efle@ in the 
eleGric eel conititute nearly one-half of that part of the 
flefh in which they are placed, and perhaps make more than 
one-third of the whole re There are two pair of thefe 


organs, 


FISH. 


ergans, a larger and a fmaller; one being placed on each 
fide. The large pair occupy the whole lower or anterior, 
and alfo the lateral part of the body, making the thicknefs 
of the fore or lower parts of the animal, and run almot 
through its whole length; wiz. from the abdomen to near 
the end of the ta‘l. It !s broadeft on the fides of the fith 
at the anterior end, where it inclofes more of the lateral 
parts of the body, becomes narroweit towards the end of 
the tail, occupying lefs and lefs of the fides of the animal, 
till at Lift ic ends almott in a point. 

‘© Thefe two organs are feparated from one another at the 
upper part by the mufcles of the back, which keep their 
upper o- pofterior edges at a confiderable diftance; below 
that, and towards the middle, they are feparated by the air- 
bag, and at their lower parts they are frparated by the 
middle partition. 

“¢ They begin forwards, by a pretty regulcr edge, almoft 
at right angles with the longitudinal axiz of the body, 
fituated on the lower and lateral parts of the abdomen. 
‘Their upper edge is a pretty ftraight line, with {mall inden- 
tations made by the nerves and blood-veflcls, which pafs 
round it to the fkin. At the anterior end they go as far 
towards the back. as the middle line of the animal: but in 
their approach towards the tail they gradually leave that line, 
coming nearer to the lower furface of the animal. 

«The general fhape of the organ, on an external or fide 
view, is broad at the end next to the head of the animal, 
becoming gradually narrower towards the tail, and ending 
there almoft in a point. The other furfaces of the organ 
are fitted to the fhape of the parts with which they come in 
conta@t; therefore, in the upper and inner furface it is bol- 
lowed, to receive the mufcles of the back. 

‘¢ There is alfo a longitudinal depreffion on its lower edge, 

“where a fubftance lies, which divides it from the {mall or- 
gan, and which gives a kind of fixed point for the lateral 
mufcles of the fin. Its moft internal furface is a plane 
adapted to the partition which divides the two organs from 
one another. The edge next to the mufcles cf the back is 
very thir, but the organ becomes thicker and thicker 
towards its middle, where it approaches the centre of the 
animal. lt becomes thinner again towards the lower fur- 
face, or belly; but that edge is not fo thin as the 
other. 

“Its union with the parts to which it is attached is in 
general by a loofe, but pretty ftrong cellular membrane, 
except at the partition, to whigh it 1s joined fo clofe, as to 
be almoft infeparable. 

“ The {mail organ lies along the lower edge of the ani- 
mal ncarly tothe fame extent as the other. Its fituation is 
marked externally by the mufcles which move the fin under 
which it lies. [ts anterior end begins nearly in the fame 
line with the large organ, and jut where the fin begins, 
It terminates almott infenfibly near the end of the tail, where 
the large organ alfo terminates. 

‘© Tt is of a triangular figure, adapting itfelf to the part 
in which it lies. Its anterior end is the narrowelt part ; to- 
wards the tail it becomes broader ; in the middle of the organ 
itis thickeft; and from thence becomes gradually thinner 
to the tail, where it is very thin. 

«* The two {mall organs are feparated from one another by 
the middle mufcles, aud by the bones upon which the bones 
of the fing are articulated. 

‘© The large and the {mail organ on each fide ate feparated 
from one another by a membrane, the inner edge of which isat- 
tached to the middle partition, and its outer edge is loit on 
the fkin of the animal. 

To expofe the large organ to view, nothing mare is 


neceflary than to remove the fkin which adheres to it by a 
loofe cellular membrane. But to expofe the {mall o-gan 
it is neceffary to remove the long row of {mall mufcles which 
move the fin. 

“ The firudure of thefe organs is extremely fimple and 
regular, confifting of two parts; viz. flat partitions or 
fepta, and crofs divifions between them. The outer edge 
of thefe fepta appear externally in parallel lines nearly in the 
dire@ion of the longitudinal axis of the body. 

“ Thefe fepta are thin membranes, placed nearly parallel 
to one another. Their lengths are nearly in the dirc€tion 
of the long exis, and their breadth is nearly the femidiameter 
of the body of the animal. — They are of different lengths, 
fome being as long as the whole organ. I fhall defcribe them 
as beginning priscipally at the anterior end of the 
organ, although a few begin along the upper edge, and the 
whole, paffing towards the tail, graduaily terminate on the 
lower furface of the organ; the lowermoft at their origin 
terminating fooneft. Their breadths differ in differeat parts 
of the organ, 

“* They are in general broadeft near the anterior end, an- 
{wering tothe thickeft part of the organ,"and become gra- 
dually narrower towards the tail ; however, they are very nar- 
rowat their beginnings or anterior ends. Thofe neareft to the 
mufcles of the back are the broadeft, owing to their curved 
or oblique fituation upon thefe mufcles, and grow gradually 
narrower towards the lower part, which is in a great meafure 
owing to their becoming meore tranfverfe, and alfo to the 
organ becoming thinner at that place. 

* They have an ovtsr andan inner edge. The outer is 
attached to the cin of the animal, to the lateral mufcles of 
the fin, and to the membrane which divides the great organ 
from the {mall; and the whole of their inner edges are fixedto 
the middle partition formerly defcribed, alfo to the air- 
bladder, and three or four terminate on that furface which 
inclofe the mufcles of the back. Thefe fepta are at the 
greateft diftance from one anothei at their exterior edges near 
the fkin, to which they are united; and as they pafs from 
the fin towards their inner attachments they approach one 
another. Sometimes we find two yniting into one. On 
that fide next to the mufcles of the back, they are hollow 
from edge to edge, anfwering to the fhape of thofe mufcles; 
but become lefs and lefs fo towards the middle of the orga, 
and from that, towards the lower part of the organ, they be- 
come curved in the other direGion. At the anterior part of 
the large organ, where it is nearly of an equal breadth, they 
run pretty parallel to “one another, and alfo pretty ftraights 
but where the organ becomes narrower, it may be obferved, 
in fome places, that two join or unite into one; efpecially 
where a nerv- paffes acrofs. The termination of this organ at 
the tail is fo very fmall, that I could not determine 
whether it confifted of one feptum or more. 

“6 The diftances between thefe fepta will differin fithes of dif. 
ferent izes, Ina fifth of two feet four inches in length, I found 
them },th of an inch diftant from oneanother; andthebreadth 
of the whole organ, at the broade!t part, about aninch and a 
quarter, in which fpace werethirty-four fepta. 

* The {mall organ has the fame kind of tepta, in length 
pafling from end to end of the organ, and in breadth 
paffing quite acrofs: they run fomewhat ferpentine, not ex- 
actly in itraight lines. Their outer edges terminate on the 
outer furface of the organ, which is in conta& with the in- 
ner furface of the external mufcle of the fin; and their inner 
edges are in conta& with the céntre mufcles. They differ 
very mach in breadth from one another; the broadeit being 
equal to one fide of the triangle, and the narrowelt [carcely 
broader than the point or edge. They are pretty nearly at 

3 equal 


342 
° 


FES HW. 


equal diftances from one another; but much nearer than 
thofe of the large organ, being only about igth part of an 
inch afunder: but they are at a greater diftance from one 
another towards the tail, in proportion to the increale of 
breadth of the organ. 

“The organ is about half an inch in breadth, and has 
fourteen fepta. Thefe fepta, in both organs, are very ten- 
der in confiftence, being eafily torn. ‘lhey appear to an- 
{wer the fame purpofe with the columns in the torpedo, 
makin» walls or butments for the fubdivifions, and are to 
be confidered as making fo many diftin& organs. 


“ Thefe fepta are interfeGted tranfverfely by very thin 
plates or membranes, whofe breadth is the diftance between 
any two fepta, and therefore of different breadths in dif- 
ferent parts; broadeft at that edge which is next to the 
fkin ; narroweft at that next to the centre of the body, or 


to the middle partition which divides the two organs from 
one another, 


‘“‘ Their lengths are equal to the breadths of the fepta- 
between which they are fituated. There is a regular fcries 
of them continued trom one end of any two fepta to the 
other. They appear to be fo clofe as even totouch. In 
an inch in length there are about 240, which multiplies the 
furface in the whole to a valt extent. 

“The nerves in this animal may be divided into two 
kinds; the firft, appropriated to the general purpofes of 
hfe; the fecond, for the management of this peculiar func- 
tion, and very probably for its exiftence. They arife in 
general from the brain and medulla {pinalis, as in other fith ; 
but thofe from the medulla are much larger than in filh of 
equal fize, and larger than is necefflary for the common 
operations of life, 

“The nerve which arifes from the brain, and pafles down 
the whole length of the animal, (which, I believe, exifts in 
all fifh,) is larger in this than in others of the fame fize, and 
paffes nearer to the {pine. In the common eel it runs in the 
mulcles of the back, about midway between the {kin and 
fpine. In the cod, it paffes immediately under the fkin. 
From its being larger in this fith than in others of the fame 
fize, one might fufpe that it was intended for fupplying 
the organ in fome degree; but this {eems not to be the cafe, 
as I was not able to trace any nerves going from it to join 
thofe from the medulla fpinalis, which run to the organ. 


‘© This nerve is as fingular an appearance as any in this 
elafs of animals; for furely it muft appear extraordinary, that 
anerve fhould arife from the brain to be loft in common 
parts, while there is a medulla {pinalis giving nerves to the 
fame parts. It muit fill remain one of the inexplicable cir- 
cumftances of the nervous fyftem. 


“©The organ is fupplied with nerves from the medulla 
jpinalis, from which they come out in pairs between all the 
vertebrae of the fpine. In their paflage from the f{pine, 
they give nerves to the mufcles of the back, &c. They 
bend forwards and outwards upon the {pine, between it and 
the mufcl-s, and fend out fmall nerves to the external fur- 
face, which join the fkin near to the lateral lines. Thefe 
ramify upon the fkin, but are principally bent forwards be- 
tween it and the organ, into which they fend fmail branches 
as they pafsalong. ‘They feem to be loft in thefe two parts. 
‘Fhe trunks get upon the air-bladder, or rather dip between 
it and the mufcles of the back, and continuing their courfe 
forwards upon that bag, they dip in between it and the or- 
gan, where they divide into fmaller branches; then they 
get upon the middle partition, on which they continue to 
divide into ftill f{maller branches; after which they pafs on, 
and get upon the fmall bones and mufcles which are the 


bafes for the under-fin, and at laft they are Joft on that fin 
After having got between the organ and the above-men- 
tioned parts, they are conftantly fending {mall nerves into 
the organs; firft into the great organ, and then iato the 
{mall one ; alfo into the mufcles of the fin, andvat lait into 
the fin itfelf. Thefe branches, which are fent into the organ 
as the trunk paffes along, are fo fmall, that I could not 
trace their ramifications in the organs. 

“In this Gfh, as weil asin the forpedo, the nerves which 
fupply the organ are much larger chan thofe beftowed on any 
other part fur the purpofes of fenfation and ation ; but 1t 
appears to me, that the organ of the torpedo ts fupplied with 
much the larger proportion. If all tne nerves which go to 
it were united together, they would make a vaitly greater 
chord than all thofe which go to the-organ of thiseel. Per- 
haps when experiments have been made upon this fith, 
equally accurate with thofe made upon the torpedo, the reafon 
for this difference may be affizned. 

‘“« How tar this organ is vafcular I cannot pefitively de- 
termine; but from the quantities of {mall arteries going to 
it, Iam inclined to believe that it is not dificient in vef- 
fels. 

«* The arteries arife from the large artery which paffes 
down the fpine ; they go off in {mall branches hke the inter- 
coftals in the human fubj-€, pafs arourd the air-bladdcr, 
and get upon the partition together with the nerves, and 
dittribute their branches in che fame manner. 

“ The veins take the fame courfe backwards, and enter 
the large vein. which runs parallel with the artery.” Pial. 
Tranf. vol. Ixv. p. 395. 

Plate XVAL. jig. 1. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, exhibits 
the whole of the two organs in the gymnotus e/eG@ricus on 
each fide, the fkin being removed as far as thefe organs ex- 
tend: a, the lower furface of the head ofthe animal; 4, the 
cavity of the belly; c, the anus; d, the fin; e, the back of 
the fifh where the fin has not been removed; ff, the fia 
which runs along the lower edge of the filh; g gg, the flcin 
turned back; 4, 4,4, the lateral mufcles of the above fin 
removed and carried back with the fkin, to expofe the {mall 
organ; 7, part of the mufcle left in its place; £44, the large 
organ; ///, the fmall organ; mmm m, the fubltance which 
divides the Jarge organ from the {mall ; 2, at this place the 
above fubitance is removed. 

In Plate XVIII. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, fig. 1. thews 
a feétion of the whole thicknefs of the gymnotus eledricusy 
near the upper part, a little magnified. The fkin is removed 
as far back as the polterior edge of the organ, and the other 
parts immediately belonging to it, fuch as the medulla fpi- 
nalig. There are feveral pieces or feétions taken out of the 
organ, which expofe every thing that has any relation to it. 
At the upper and lower ends ot the figure, ff, the organ 
is entire, the fkin only being removed; aa, the body of the 
amimal near the back, covered by th= fkin; 64, the belly- 
fia covered alfo by the fikin; ¢, part of the fkin removed 
from the organ, and turned back d,d, the mutclea which 
move the ftu laterally, and which immediately cover the 
{mall organ; ¢, the middle mufcles of the fin, which lay 
immediately between the two {mail organs; ff, the outer 
furface of the large organ, as it appears when the fkin is res 
moved ; g, the fmall. organ, 2s it appears when the lateral 
mu{cles are removed ; 4, 4, the cut ends of the mufcles of 
the back, which have been removed to expofe the deepet 
feated parts; 4, the cut ends of the large organ, part of 
which has alfo been removed to expofe the deeper feated 
parts; &, the cut end of the {mall organ; /, a part of the 
large organ, the reft having been removed; m, the cut end 
of the above feGion; n, a {ection of the {mall organ; 0a 

3 the 


FISH. 


the middle partition which divides the two large organs; p, a 
fatty membrane, which divides the large organ from the 
{mall ; g, the air-bladder; r, the nerves going to the organ ; 
s, the medulla fpinalis; ¢, the fingular nerve. 

Fig. 2. of Plate XVUII. of the Anatomy of Fifbes, isa 
tran{verfe {ction of the eleGric eel, expofing at one view all 
the parts of which it is compofed: a, the external furface of 
the fide of the fih; 4, the under-fin; c,c,c,c, the cut ends 
of the mufecles of the back ; d, the cavity of the air-bladder ; 
¢, the body of the fpine; f, the medulla {pinal is; g, the large 
artery and vein; 4,4, the cut ends of the two large organs; 
i, i, the cut ends of the two {mall organs; 4, the partition 
between the organs. 

The ftruGture of the ele&tric organ is lef{s complicated in 
the filurus cleGricus than in the torpedo or gymnotus. In this 
fih, Geoffroy defcribes it to be extended all round the body 
of the anim:|, immediately below the fkin: itis formed by 
a confiderable colleGtion of cellular tiffue, fo thick and com- 
pact, that onthe ficlt view it might be taken for a ftratum 
of lard; but when clofely infoected, it is obferved that this 
organ is compofed of -reai tendinous or aponevrotic fibres 
interwoven with each other, and which, by their different 
croffings, form a reticulation, the mefhes of which are not 
diftinétiy vifible without the help of a magnifying glafs. 
The {mall cells of this reticulation are filled with an albumino- 
gelatinous matter, exa@ly refembling that met with in the 
other eleG&tric fifhes. All communication is prevented in 
the infide by a very {trong aponeurofis, which extends over 
the whole ecleétric reticulation, and which adheres to it fo 
clofely that it cannot be feparated without tearing it. It is 
further covered by a thick layer of fat, which alfo contri- 
butes to infulate the organ. 

The nerves which are diftributed to the electric organ of 
the fillurus differ from thofe of the torpedo, aud the eleGric 
eel. 

They proceed from the brain ; and are the fame which 
are found in all fithes, under the lateral line of the body ; 
but thefe two nerves of the eighth pair in the /i/urus elefricus 
have a dire&tion and volume which are peculiar to that 
fpecies: they defcend, approaching each other, on their 
iffuing from the craniym, towards the body of the firit 
vertebra, which they traverfe. They firlt introduce them- 
felves through an orifice, peculiar to each other, and 
‘then ifflue on the oppofite fide by one aperture : after re- 
afcending they fuddenly feparate, and proceed under each 
of the lateral lines. They are then found lodged between 
the abdominal mulcles, and the aponeurofis, which extends 
over the ele&tric reticulation. In the lat place, they fend 
beneath the fin large branches, which proceed to the right 
and left of the principal nerves Thefe branches are in 
number twelve to fifteen on each fide; they pierce the 
aponeurofis, which lines the interior furface of the reticular 
tillue, and are loit in the latter. Bulletin de la focieté Phi- 
lomatique, tom. iii, p. 1693 and an extract from Annales 
du Mafeum N° 5, in Phil. Mag. vol. xv. p. 126. 

In Plate XVIL.of the snatomy of Fifbes, jig. 2. 
reprefents the filurus ele@ricus, with the organ expofed, by a 
large portion of the integuments being railed ; a, the 
aponeurofir, which extends under the whole of theveleciric 
organ; 4, the thicknefs of the reticviation ; cc, the nerve of 
the eight’: pair going to the ele€tric apparatus ; d, d, abdomi- 
nal mufcles. 

The /usfance which is found to fill the columns of the 
torpedo, the interftices of the gymnotus, and the muicles of 
the /filurus, is a peculiar combination of albumen and 
gelatine; it is of the fame nature with the contents 
of what Monroe has improperly called the mucous 
duis in fifhes, and that tranfparent fubftance which 


envelopes the fpawn of frogs; it does not diffolve, bur 
becomes more folid when immerfed in water, in confequence 
of the coagulation of its albuminous part; we have fub- 
mitted it to the a&tion of tannin, with which it combines, 
and forms an infoluble compound like gelatine. 

The phenomena exhibited by eleGric fishes are of fo extra- 
ordinary a nature that they have engaged the attention of 
every phyfiologift who has had the opportunity of obferving 
them; but although every occafion has been embraced to 
meke experiments upon the fubj2&, much inveftigation is 
ftill required to arrive at the explanation of the eleGric fae 
culty, and even to determine difputed points of fa&. The 
very rare occurrence of procuring any of thefe animals alive 
in this country prevents us from adding any thing to the 
{tock of knowledge already obtained upon the fubje&, we 
can therefore only quote the obfervations and experiments 
of other phy fiologitts. 

The preceding défcription of the ele¢trical apparatus in 
three [pecies would feem to prove, that a fimilar fyftem of 
organization belongs to all fithes which enjoy the eleGtric 
property. The effets of this ftructure are aifo fimilar, 
and differ chiefly with refpe@& to the degree. All the eleGric 
fifhes are capable of exciting in other animais a fenfation re- 
fembling that produced from the fhock of an ele€-ical jar. 
The gymnotus is endowed with the greateft power of this 
kind; the ¢orpedo next, and the //urus the leatt of the 
three. 

The gymnotus is faid, by Garden, to grow fometimes, in 
Surinam, 20 feet long, and to be able to give fhocks which 
prove inltantaneoufly fatal to any perfoa receiving them. 

Mr. Humbolt ftates, that a torpedo, about 14 inches long, 
communicated fhocks which reached above the elbow, and 
were difficult to bear even by a perfon accuftomed to re- 
ceive fhocks from an eleétrical machine; whillt, on the other 
hand, Walth found, in about 200 fhocks, that only one was 
ftrong enough to pafs beyond theeclbow. Much of the 
force of the fhock depends upon the natural ftrength of the 
animal and its vigour at the moment of the experiment ; it 
is faid to have very little ele@tric power in winter; it is 
always much diminifhed in confequence of the fifh remaining 
for any time out of the water. The fhocks, however, do 
not appear to be leffened in ftrength by repetition, unlefs 
the animal be otherwife exhaufted. Thus Ingenhouz: ob- 
ferved, ‘* that when the fhocks of the torpedo followed each 
other very falt, they were ftronger at laft thao in the 
beginning.” 

EleGric fifhes are capable of repeating the fhocks very 
frequently in a fhort {pace of time. Mr, Walfh reckoned 
fifty in a minute and a balf given by the forpedo; and upon 
another occafion. he calculated, that 100 were delivered ig 
about five minutes. : 

When the forpedo adminifters a fhock it is always ob. 
ferved to deprels the eyes and drop the triangular curtain 
which covers the pupil, and generally to make fome move- 
ment of the lateral fins. The other ele&tric fifhes do not 
accompany thefe fhocks by any vifible mufcular effort. 

The torpedo alfo differs from the others in fometimes be- 
numbing the part which touches it.. Mr, Waalfh accounts 
for the produ€tion.of numbnefs by fuppofing the fhocks to 
be very minute, and fo clofely following each: other as not 
to be diftinguifhable, which may be effected by a fucceflive 
difcharge of the numerous columns of the organ, in the man 
ner of a running fire of mufketry. In this-continued effort, 
as well as the inflantaneous fhock, the eyes.of the sorpede, 
ufually prominent, are withdrawn into their fockets: it is 
from the benumbing property of the serpedo.that it derives 
its name. 

The faculty in thefe filhesa of exciting by the touch, the 

fenfation. 


FISH. 


fenfation of a fheck, or of uumbnefs, in other animals, has 
been naturally and generally referred to the principle of elec- 
tricity ; even the Arabs, (according to Geoffroy) who always 
diftinguifhed every animal by a generic and fpecific name, 
confidering only the extraordinary property of the torpedo 
and filurus eledricus, and comparing it with phyfical eleciri- 
city, called both fifhes by the fame name, rdad or raach, 
which is alfo employed in the Arabian language to fignify 
thunder. 

Mott phyfiologifts have confidered the eleétric organs of 
fihes as refembling exaély the Leyden jar, or rather a 
battery of them ; they have compared the nerves and albu- 
mino-gelatinous fubftance to the metals, and the aponeu- 
rofes to the glafs ; thus feppofing the cleric organ to con- 
fit of conduéting and non-conduGing fubftances, and that 
when the equilibrium is reftored between them, the fhock 
is produced. 

Unqueltionably there are many circumf{tances in which the 
common cleric fhock, and that obtained from fifhes agree, 
but there are other points in which they materially differ. 

The fenfations occafioned by artificial and animal elcétri- 
city are fimilar. 

The fhock from an eleétric fifh is only communicable 
through what are called conduéting fubflances, and is alfo 
intercepted by the non-conduétors ; thus it may be received 
through the medium of wire of different metals, wood, 
water, and the animal fubftance ; while a perfon touching 
it with glafs, fealing-wax, &c. receives no fhock, notwith- 
itanding the fifh gives evidence of the difcharge by the mo- 
tion of the eyes, &c. 


The fhock will be tranfmitted to a number of perfons 
taking hands; thofe at the extremities completing the ring 
by touching the fh. In this manner Walfh has commu- 
nicated a fhock to four or five people at the fame moment, 
who experienced exaétly the feniation of a fhock from an 
eleétric jar, except that it was weaker. Dr. Williamfon 
gave fhocks to ten or twelve perfons at once by an eledric 
eel. 


The effe&t of the eleGtric filhes differs from common’elec- 
tricity in feveral circumftances. However ftrong the fhock 
may. be, it never has been feen to produce the lealt noife or 
luminous appearance. Mott experimentalifts alfo agree, that 
the fhock will not pafs through the [malleft portion of air; 
the conduGting fubftances muit be in aétual contact with 
each other, 

Williamfon {crewed two pieces of wire in oppofite direc- 
tions into a board, leaving an interval between their points 
of the <';th part of an inch, his affiltant and himfelf held the 
oppofite ends of the wire, and eftablifhed a communication 
with the ee/ by means of their other hande, but no fhock 
pafled. On repeating the experiment and {crewing the 
wires fo as to bring their points within the diftance of the 
thicknefs of double poft paper of each other, the fhock 
was felt by both perfons, but {till no {park was difcernible, 
which we conceive renders the accuracy of the experiment 
doubtful. 


Dr. Bancroft indeed afferts, that in Guiana the «/eGric eel 
fhocked his hand at the diftance of fome inches from the 
water; a refult, however, fo very different from the ob- 
fervation of all other experimentalifts appears more than 
queftionable. 

The eleGricity of fifhes has not the effe& of attraCtiing 
floating fubftanees. When a perfon isinfulated, and touches 
the fifh, he receives a fhock as at other times, but gives no 
appearance of excefs of electricity, however long he may 
keep up his communication with the animal. A Leyden 


phial alfo, being put into conta& with an electric fifh, never 
becomes charged. 

The eleGtric organ differs from the Leyden phial, as Volta 
has very properly obferved, by being entirely compofed of 
condu@ting fubftances. The aponeurofes and membranes 
which form its various furfaces are not of an infulating na- 
ture, like glafs, rofin, filk, &c. They cannot be expofed 
to fri€tion, nor difpofed and charged in the manner of the 
{mall plates of Franklin, or eletrophores. Volta, therefore, 
concludes that the ele€tric organs do not aé&t upon the prine 
ciple of a Leyden jar, or an ele€trophore or condenfer, but 
that they entirely refemble the Galvanic pile, in which con- 
ducting fubftances become exciters of eleétricity, hy being 
placed ina particular relation with refpe& to each other. 

It would appear that the eleStric’phenomena of fifhes are 
produced in a manner differently from every {pecies of phy- 
fical eleGtricity. The former are not accompanied with any 
chemical changes, they do not aff: & our organs of fenfe, by 
any difplay of light, extrication of odour, or explofive found. 
Their mode of operation is not regular and uniform, or go- 
verned by external influence, but depends upon the life, and 
even upon the volition of the animal ; forall experimentaliits 
agree in ftating that the eleGtric fifhes regulate the ftrength 
and frequency of the fhocks at pleafure. There is no ap- 
pearance of accumulation or of diminution of the ele@ric 
power, except what arfes from the will of the animal ; the 
laft fhocks which one of thefe fifhes adminifters being oftea 
more {trong and frequent than the firit. 

The nerves feem to be the principal agents in the exercife 
of the electric faculty, as they are always found larger in the 
organs thau would be required in parts of the fame magni« 
tude, for any fpecies of fenfation or voluntary motion. 

The great error of phyfiologifts has always been to account 
for the operations of organized beings, upon the principles 
which regulate the phenomena of inanimate matter. We are 
led to make this obfervation from comparing the eleétric 
faculty of fifhes, with the property of exhibiting Jight in 
fome animals, and the power of generating heat, which is 
found in all living bodies ; thefe three funétions, although 
producing different refults, appear to be very fimilar in their 
nature, and are equally inexplicable by the laws of phyfical 
and chemical attraétions ; the ftrongeft proof of which ma 
be found in the want of fuccefs, which has followed all the 
attempts that have hitherto been made to explain them upon 
thefe principles. 

Of what ufe is the electric property to thofe fifhes which 
poffefs it? Drs. Whilliamfon and Garden ftate, that it is 
employed to kill, or at lealt flupefy other filhes, upon which 
they prey. 

The former relates, amongft his experiments on the ele@ric 
eel, that fome {mall fifhes being thrown into the fame water 
where it was {wimming, it immediately killed and fwallowed 
them ; but a larger fith being thrown in, it was alfo killed, 
although it was too large for the ¢e/ to {wallow ; another fish 
was thrown into the water at fome diltance from the eel, it 
fwam up to the fifh, but prefently turned away, without 
offering it any violence. After fome time it returned, when, 
feeming to view it for a few feconds, it gave the fifh a fhock, 
upon which it inftantly turned up its belly and continued 
motionlefs ; at the fame inftant Dr. Williamfon received a 
fhock in his hand, which had been previoufly introduced ime 
to the water. A third fith wasthrown into the water, to 
which the eel gave fuch a fhock that it turned on its fide, 
but continued to give figns of life ; the eel feeming to ob- 
ferve this as it was turning away, immediately returned and 
ftruck it quite motionlefs, The ce/ never attempted to {wallow 
any of thefe fith after the firft, although he killed many of 


them. 


FISH. 


them. When any of thelarger fihes that had been fhocked, 
although apparently dead, were removed into water in an- 
other veffcl, they prefently recovered. Phil. Tranf. vol. 65. 
; be Garden gives precifely the fame account of the 
eleGtric eel killing or benumbing its prey, and ftates that it 
kills, by repeated fhocks, fifth which are larger than it can 
{wallow. 

It feems, therefore, that the eleétric property is not an 
ufelefs one to thole fishes which poflefs it : befides being the 
means of fecuring their prey, it mutt aifo form an excellent 
detence fo them againft the larger fithes, who might other- 
wife devourthem. For a more detailed account of the tor- 
pedo, and gymnotus electricus, we refer the reader to Franc. 
Redt Exper. Nat. 1666. Obfervazioni interno alle Torpedi- 
ni, de Steof, Lorenzini,16738.— Koempf. Ameen. Exot.1712. 
—A letter from Joo. Walth, efq. to Dr. Franklin, on the 
eleatric property of the torpedo, in Phil. Tranf. vol. 63. 
p- 461.—Experiments and obfervations on the gymnotus elec- 
tricus, or elediriceel, by Dr. Hugh Williamfon, Phil. Tranf. vol. 
65, p. 94.—Account of the gymnotus elediricus, by Dr. Alex. 
Garden, Phil. Tranf. vol 65. p. 102.—Experiments made 
at Leghorn on the torpedo, by Dr. John Ingenhouz, P..il. 
Tranf. vol. 65, p. £.—Bancroft’s Natural Hiftory of Guiana, 
—Hifloire Naturelle des Poiffone, par Lacepede, tom 2.— 
A Letter from Profeffor Volta to fir Juf>ph Banks, on the 
eleGtricity excited by the appofition of different conducting 
fubftances, in Phil. ‘Tranf. for 1800, part.2.—Memoir on the 
Comparative Anatomy of theclcétric organs of the torpedo, 
the gymnotus elediricus, and the /ilurus eledricus by E. Geoftroy, 
im vol. 5 of the Annales de Mufeum National,h—Experi- 
ments on the forpedo, by Mefirs. Humbolde and Guy Lof.- 
fac. in’ Annales de Chemie, No. 166. 

Fisn, Migration of, denotes their departure from fome 
parts of the ocean and their removal to other parts ; 
and alfo to rivers at certain feafons of the year, for the pur- 
pofe of depofiting their {pawn, or of obtaining the means 
of fubfiftence. 

The migration of certain kinds of fift in fhoals and infi- 
nite multitudes, to certain coalts at certain times of the year, 
isa thing of great advantage to mankind, asit gives oppor- 
tunities of taking them with great eafe, and in vatt 
quantities; but the reafon of thefe periodical returns of 
the feveral kinds does not feem much under{tood, though 
a little obfervation would probably clear it up. There is 
a {mall infe& common in many feas, but peculiarly plenti- 
ful on the coafts of Normandy in the months of June, 
July and Auguit, This is well defcribed by Rondele- 
tius, under the name of the fea-caterpillar: and at this time 
of the year it is fo frequent in the place before mentioned, 
that the whole furface of the water is covered with it as with 
a feum. This isthe feafon of the year when the herrings 
come alfo in fuch prodigious fhoals to thofe coafts. he 
fifhermen complain much of thefe nalty vermin, which difturb 
their fifheries ; but they do not confider that it is to thefe 
alone that their fifheries are owing ; for it is evident that 
the herrings feed on thefe creatures greedily, by the vatt 
quantity found in all their itemachs: and it is highly pro- 
bable, nay fearcely to be doubted, that the reafon of thofe 
fifh.coming up in fuch numbers is to feed on them ; pro- 
bably, if obfervation was made, the fame would be found 
to be the cafe-in all the other places where the herrings come 
in the fame fort of plenty. The mackarel come down in 
the fame numbers regularly at certain times of the year, 
and for the fame fort of reafon. ‘Uhis fith is an herb-eater, 
and is particularly fond of that fea-plant called by natural- 
ills the narrow-leaved purple palmated fea-wrack ; this grows 


in great abundance on the eoatts of England, and many 
other places, and isin its greateft perfection in the beginning 
of the {ummer, tuough fome times later thanothers, according 
to the feverity or mildnefs of the winter. The whole occa- 
fion of thefe fifh coming in fuch quantities is to feed on this 
plant; and thofe who would attend to its growing up, 
would know when to expe@ the mackarel better 
than thofe who liften for thunder for the fignal of 
them. The tunnies come at certain feafons to the 
coalts of Provence and Languedoc, in the fame fhoals 
that herrings and mackarel do to other places. This feems 
to be on another eccafion ; the fifh called by the French the 
emperor, and by the fame confounded with the fwerd-fifh, 
is the great enemy of thefe fifth, and in fummer is fo plenti- 
ful in thofe feas, that they find no way of faving themlelves, 
but by flying to the fhallow waters, where the other cannot 
ealily tollow them ; hence they frequent the fhores. The 
pilchards caught upon the coafts of Brittany, and making a 
confiderable article of commerce for that province, are yet 
aftronger proof of the natural means that bring fith in 
fhoals to certain places, than any other. Thefe fifh evident- 
ly come for food, and that not natural to the place, but 
prepared for them by the inhabitants. 

The people of Brittany purchafe trom Norway the offal: 
and entrails of all the Jarge fifh caught in the northern feas; 
this is of late years become a regular and confiderable arti- 
cle of trade; they cut thefe to pieces, and ftrew them in 
vaft quantities over the whole furface of the fea along their 
coafts, at times when the winds do not fit fo as to blow-it 
off. This always brings together the pilchards in as vatt 
fhoal asthe herring and mackarel come in other places ; and 
the fifhermen catch them in fuch quantities, as to be able 
to fupply all the maritime places in the neighbourhood, 
with them, at a {mall price. The falmon, a fifh bred ia 
rivers, yet going at certain times to the fea, is another of 
thofe fith which come up at times in valt fhoals. See Sar- 
mon. We may here add that the defire of food urges fith of 
one fpecies to follow thofe of another, upon which they 
prey, through immenfe traéts of ocean, even from the vici- 
nity of the pole down to the equator. Thus the cod from 
the benks of Newfoundland purfues the whiting, which is 
driven before it even to the fouthern fhores of Spain; and 
the cachzlot, a fpecies of whale, is faid, in the fame man- 
ner, to purfue a fhoal of herrings, and to fwallow great num- 
bers at a mouthful. 

In the Philofophical Tranfa@ions, N° 463. fe&..1. we 
have a method of preparing {pecimens of fifh, by drying 
their fkins, as pradtifed by Dr. Gronovius. 

Fisx, Black. See Perca nigra and Sinurus Anguillaris. 

Fisu, Petrified, in Natural Hiflory. The remains of 
fcabrous or finny fifh inthe flrata, are not very commonly 
found, compared with the vait numbers and variety of fhell- 
fith whofe remains are found; but fome very perfe@ fpeci- 
mens do occur in different itrata. Dr. Townfon (Philof. 
of Mineral. p. 106.’) feemis to confider fifhes as peculiar to 
fome patticular kinds of flrata; in which, however, he is 
evidently miftaken, though often they are found in flaty 
limettone, in the quarries of La Bolca and Pappenheim ; 
fee W. Martin’s Outlines, &e. p. 29, and 79. Mr. Kirwan 
(Geol. Eff. pages 234, 235, 239, 245, and 253.) men- 
tions fifh as having been found in different parts of the world 
in gypfum, in marlite, in argillite, in {fwine-ftone, and in ar- 
gillaceous fand-itone.. Ot the mountains of Cattravan, great 
diverfity of fifhes are found, in a white laminated ftone. And 
in the blue nias, or water limeftone ftrata of England, beau- 
tiful fpecimens ef flattened: fifh are faid to be found, at 
Batvow on Soar, in Leicefteritite, (the other at near 

redo 


FISH. 


Bredon in the fame eounty has quarries of the yellow or 
magnefia limeftone, a circumftance not always adverted to, 
in {peaking of barrow lime,) atid in other pl -2s on its range. 
Mr. Graydon (Irifh Tranfactions, vol. v. p. 310.) {uppofes 
the monte bolca fifh to have been fuddenly interred by be- 
ing inveloped in a diffufion of lime, ariling from immenfe 
mafies of calcareous itone, ejected in a calcined flate, by 
fubaqueons volcanoes. To us it feems more probable that 
thefe {quamal fifh were deltroyed by the original creation of 
the matter which now entombs them, whofe diffufion in the 
water wherein they lived, occafioned their fail to the bottom 
and extenfion on their flat fide when dying, in the pofition in 
which they now appear on the laminaot the lower ftone, before 
the upper one, which entombs them, was produced by the 
precipitation of the itony matter from the fluid that had 
* occafioned their death ; and on fimilar principles, we think 

it eafy to account for all the fofiil reliquia, or relics of the 
primary creation of organized beings, fee Reriqusa ; under 
which title, we propofe to give the heads of Mr. W. Mar- 
tin’s excellent mode of arranging extraieous fofiils, from his 
work above quoted. 3 aang 

Fisu, with regard to commerce, 1s diftinguifhed into dry, 
pickled, green, and red. Dry or falt tith, is that which 
is falted, and dried either by the heat of the fun, or 
by fire. Such principally are the cod, ftock-fith, her- 
ring and pilchard. See FisHery. Green fifth, is that late- 
ly falted, and which yet remains moift: as green cod, &c. 
Pickled fifh, is that boiled and fteeped in a pickle made of 
falt, vinegar, &c. as falmon, cod, herring, mackarel, pil- 
chard, anchovy, and oyfters. ed fith, is fome frefh fifh 
broiled on the gridiron, then fried in oil of olives, and 
barrelled up with a proper liquor, as new olive oil, vinegar, 
falt, pepper, cloves, and laurel leaves, or other herbs. The 
beft fifth thus prepared are fturgeon and tunny. 

Fisu, confidered as a food, makes a conliderable article 
in the furniture of the table; and the breeding, feeding, 
catching, &c. of them, conititute a peculiar art of no {mall 
moment in the economy of a gentleman’s houfe and garden. 
To this relate the ponds, ftews, &c. defcribed in their pro- 
per places. See Fisn-pond, Stew, &e. 

Fisu, Blowing of, isa practice fimilar to that of blowing 
ficth, poultry, aud pigs, and adopted forthe fame deceitful 
purpoles. The method of blowing fifh, efpecially cod and 
whitings, is by placing the end of a quill or tobacco-pipe at 
the vent, and pricking a hole with a pin under the fin which 
is next the gill; thereby making the fifth appear to the eye 
large and full, which, when dreffed, will be flabby, and httleelfe 
than fkin and bones. But this impofition may be difcovered 
by placing the finger and thumb on each fide of the vent, 
and fqueezing it hard ; the wind may be perceived to go out, 
the fkin will fallin, and the fifh appear lank and of little 
value. 

Fisu, Breeding of. See Fisu-ponn. 

Fis, Caffration of, is a method firft practifed by Mr. 
Tull, in order to prevent the exceflive increafe of fifh in 
fome of his ponds, where the numbers did not permit any 
of them to grow to an advantageous fize. But he after- 
wards found, that the caftrated fifh grew much larger than 
their ufual fize, were more fat, and always in feafon. This 
eperation may be performed both on male and female fith ; 
and the moft eligible time forit is when the ovaries of the 
female have their ova in them, and when the veflels of the 
male, analogous to thefe, have their feminal matter in then ; 
becaufe at this time, thefe veffels are more eafily diftinguifhed 
from the ureters, which convey the urine from the kidneys 
into the bladder, and are fituated near the feminal veflels on 
each fide of the {pine ; which, without fufficient attention, 


may be miftaken for the ovaries, efpecially when thefe laft 
are empty. The time leaft proper for this operation, is juft 
after they have fpawned, becaufe the tifh are then too weak 
and languid to bear with fuccefs, fo fevere an operation ; 
however, with fkill and care, it may be performed almoft at 
any time. When a fifh is to be caftrated, it mult be held 
ina wet cloth, with its belly upwards; then with a fharp 
pen-knife, having its point bent backwards, the operator 
cuts through the integuments of the rim of the belly, taking 
care not to wound any of the inteftines. As foon asa {mall 
aperture is made, he carefully inferts ahooked pen-knife, 
and with this dilates this aperture from between the two fore- 
fins, almoft to the anus. He then, with two fmall blunt 
filver hooks, five or fix inches long, and of this form r, by 
the help of an affiftant, holds open tlie belly of the ffh; and 
with a fpoon or fpatula, removes carefully the inteftines 
from one fide. When thefe are removed, you fee the ureter, 
aimall veffel, nearly in the direction of the fpine, and alfo 
the ovary, a larger veffel, lying before it, nearer the inte- 
guments of the belly. This laft veffel is taken np with a 
hook of the fame kind with thofe before mentioned, and, 
after detaching it from the fide farenough forthe purpofe, 
divided tranfverfely with a pair of fharp {ciffars, care being 
taken that the inteftines are not wounded or injured. After 
one of the ovaries has deen divided, the operator proceeds 
to divide the other in the fame manner : and then the divid- 
ed integuments of the belly are fewed with filk, the ftitches 
being inferted at a {mall diftance from one another. Mr. Tull 
obferves farther, that the fpawning time is very various ; 
that trouts are full about Chriltmas; perch in February’; 
pikes in March, and carp and tench in May; and that 
allowance muft be made for climates and fituation, with re- 
gard to the fpawning of fifh. When the fifh are caftrated, 
they are put into the water where they are intended to con- 
tinue ; and they take their chance in common w thother fifh, 
as though they were not caftrated. With tolerable care, 
few die of the operation. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlviii. part ii. 
art. 106. 

Tisu, Eyes of. See Eyes and anatomy of Fisu. 

Fisu, Fecundity of, has been taken notice of by various 
writers, who have furnifhed inftances of it in fome particn- 
lar fpecies that have been thought furprifing. M. Petit ts 
faid to have found in the carp 342,144 eggs; and Lewen- 
hoeck, in a cod of middling fize 9,384,00c. But Mr. 
Harmer has lately purfued the inveftigation of this curious 
fubje€t with peculiar attention and accuracy, and extended 
his enquiries to a greater variety of fpecies than any other 
perfon, The method which he adopted was that of weigh- 
ing the whole {pawn very exaétly ; he then took a piece 
weighing a certain number of grains, and carefully counted 
the eggs contained in it; and by dividing the number of 
eggs by the number of grains, he found, nearly, how 
many eggs there were in each grain. His computation 
of the number of eggs ex‘ended no farther than to thofe 
which he could dittinguifh with his naked eye ; though by- 
this limitation, he omitted many eggs, difcoverable by a 
microfcope, that might juftly have been counted. The 
weights he ufed were avoirdupoife, and he reckoned 4374 
grams to an ounce. 

The following table exhibitsthe general refult of his en- 
quiries: the firit column contains the names of the fifth 
which he examined; the fecond, their weight ; the third, 
the weight of their {pawn ; and the fourth their fecundity ; 
and the fifth the time of the year when each fpecies of fith 
was examined. He has alfo added other columns, exhibit- 
ing the portion of {pawn weighed, and the number of eggs 
found in a grain, and the refult of examming feveral varie- 

ties 


F1S H. 


ties of the fame fpecies of fith of different weights, which 
the curious reader may confult. See Phil, Tranf. vol. lvii. 
fer 1767. art. 39. p. 280. 


Abftra& of the Table. 


: Weight of 7. fc 
Fith. Weight. forage Fecundity. Time 
eS Grains. Eggs. 
aa 25 8 2571 aaouee ae 4. 
od- 12540 3686760 Dec. 23. 
Sorin Z AN 7A ae 1357400 a 14. 
erring _ sie) 480 36960 ees 
Lobfter 36 o 1671 21699 Aug. Ir. 
Mackarel 18 ) 12233 546681 June 18. 
Sie Pa St 795 5 FS eR ANE 
Pike 5 S1Co} 49304 prul 25. 
Prawn (127 grains) 3806 May 12. 
Roach 10 6% 361 81586 May 2. 
Shrimp (39 grains) 7 6807 -May 3. 
Smelt 2 ° 14gt 30275 ,beb. 21. 
Soal 14 & 542! 100362 June 13. 
Tench go 0 383252" May 28. 


* N. B. Part of the fpawn of this fifh was accidentally 
loft, and therefore this number is confiderably too fmall. 
Such an amazing increafe, if allowed to attain maturity, 
would overltcck nature ; andeven the ocean itfelf would not 
be able to contain, much lefs to provide for its inhabitants. 
But this furprifing fecundity is wifely directed to two im- 
portant purpofes; it preferves the {pecies among innumer- 
able enemies, and it ferves to furnifh the reft with fuitenance 
adapted to their nature. 

Fisu, Feeding of. 1. Ina ftew, thirty or forty carps may 
be kept from October to March, without feeding ; and by 
fifhing with trammels, or flews, in March or April, you may 
take from your great waters, to recruit the flews; but you 
muft not fail to feed all {ummer, from March to O&ober 
agaia, as conflantly as cooped chickens are fed ; and it will 
turn to as good an account. 

2. The conftancy and regularity of ferving the fifh con- 
duce very much to their well-eating, and thriving. 

The care of doing this is beft committed to the gardener, 
who is always at hand, and on the fpot. 

3. Any fort of grain boiled is good to feed with, efpecially 
peas and malt coarfe ground ; the grains after brewing, while 
frefh and fweet, are alfo very proper; but one bufhel of 
malt, not brewed, will go as far as two of grains; chippings 
of bread, and orts of a table, fteeped in tap-droppings of 
flrong beer, or ale, are excellent food for carps. Of thele the 
quantity of two quarts to thirty carps, every day, is fufli- 
eient; and to be fo fed morning and evening, is better than 
once a day. 

There is a fort of food for fifh that may be called acci- 
dental, and is no lefs improving than the bet that can 
be provided ; and this is when the pools happen to receive 
the wafh of commons, where many fheep have palture ; 
the water is thus enriched by the foil, and will feed a 
much greater number of carps than otherwife it would 

_ do; and farther, the dung that falls from cattle ftanding 
in water in het weather, is alfo a very great nourith- 
ment to fifth. See farther onthe method of feeding carp, 
and the advantages refulting from it, under the article 
Pisn-ponps. 

The beit food to raife pikes to an extraordinary fatnefs 
is eels; and without them it is not to be done, but in a 
long time. Setting thefe afide, fmall perches are the beit 
meat. Breams put. into a pike-pend breed exceedingly; 

Vox, XIV. 


and are fit to maintain pikes ; which will take care mney do 
not increafe over much; the numerous fry of roaches and 
rudds, which come from the greater pools inte the pike 
quarters, will likewife be good diet for them. 

Pike in all ftreams, and carp in hungry {pring waters, being 
fed at certain times, will come up and take their meat al- 
mott from your hand, 

The bett feeding place is towards the mouth of the pond, 
at the depth of about half a yard; for by that means the 
deep will be kept clean and neat, the meat thrown into the 
water, without other trouble, will be picked up by the fifh, 
and nothing will be loft; yet there are feveral devices for 
giving them fod, efpecially peas; as a fquare board like a 
trencher, f{upported by four ftrings, one at each corner, with 
leads at the bottom for finking it, on which the food may be 
let down into the water. 

When fith are fed in the larger pools or ponds, where their 
numbers are great, malt boiled, or frefh grains, is the beft 
food... Thus carps may be fed and raifed like capons, and 
tench will feed as wel; but perch are not fora ftew in 
feeding-time. 

Fisu, Generation of. The general opirion of the world 
as to the generation of fifh, is, that the female depofits her 
{pawn or eggs, and that the male after this ejeéts the {perm 
or male femen upon it in the water, by which it ts fecun- 
dated. The fuppofed want of the organs of generation in 
fh, has given an apparent probability to this; but Lin- 
neus is very decided againft it. He affirms that there 
can be no poflibility of the impregnation of the eggs of 
any animal out of its body. 

To confirm this, the general courfe of nature, not only in 
birds, quadrupeds, and infeG&s, but even the vegetable world, 
has been called in to his affiftance, as proving that all im- 
pregnation is performed whilft the ova are in the body of the 
parent, and he fupplies the want of the organs of genera- 
tion by a very ftrange procefs, affirming that the males eje& 
their femen always fome days before the females depofit 
their ova or fpawn, and that the females {wallow this, and 
have their eggs by that means impregnated byit. He fays, 
that he has often feen three or four females at this time fre- 
qiiently gathered about the male, and greedily fnatching up 
into their mouth the fermen he ejects: he mentions fome of 
the efoces,; fome, perch, and fome of the cyprini, in whick 
he had feen this procefs. Mr. Tull afferts, that he has fre- 
quently feen fifth in actual copulation, and that this is gene- 
rally done before the ova arrive at maturi il. Tranf. 
vol; xlviii. part ii, art. 106. p. 873. See Anatomy of Fisx. 

Fifhes have different feafons tor depofitix eir fpawn ; 
fome, that live inthe depths of the ocean, are faid to chonie 
the winter months’; but, in general, thofe with which we are 
acquainted choofe the hotteit months in fummer, and prefer 
fuch water as is fomewhat warmed by the beams of the fun. 
They then leave the deepeit parts of the ocean, which are 
the coldeft, and fhoal round the costts, or fim up the fref 
water rivers, which are warm, as they are comparatively fhal- 
lew. When they have depofited their burdens they retura 
to their old ftations, and leave their progeny to { for 
themfelves. The fpawn continues ia its ege-ftate in fome 
fith longer than in others, and this in 
mal’s fize. 


2 to the ani- 


by their minutenefsand agility. They rife 
more readily than grown fifh, and they can efcape into fhal- 
low waters when puriued. But with all thee advantages, 

é aA {carcely 


FIS 


' 
fearcely one in a thoufand furvives the imminent perils of its 
youth. 

Fisn, Generical names of. See Genertcar Name. 

Fisu, Gilding of. See Giivine. 

Fis, Hearing of. See dnatomy of Frsx. 


Fis, Jfinglafs. See Huso. 
Fisu, Mand. See Isianv-fi/h. 


Fisn, Milt of. See Mitt. 

Fisu, Needle. See Neepur-p/h 

Fisu, Noffrils of. See Anatomy of Frsu.’ 

Fisu, Royal, See Rovar Fisues. 

Fisu, Shell. See Suevt and ConcHoroey. 

Fisu, Stealing of, by perfons armed and difuiled, is felo- 
ny without benefit of clergy by 9 Geo. I. cap. 22. Sve 
Brack a& And by 5 Geo. III. cap. 14. the penalty 
of tranfportation for feven years is infliéted on perfons 
itealing or taking fifh in any water, within a park, pad- 
dock, orchard, or yard; and on the receivers, aiders, 
and abettors; and a forfeiture of five pounds to the 
owner of the fifhery is made payable by perfons taking 
or deftroying, (or attempting fo to do) any fifh in any river 
or other water within any inclof.d ground, being private 
property. 

Fisu, Sevimming of. See Swimmine of fi/b, Air-blad- 
der, and Anatomy of Fisu. 

Fisu, Teeth of. See Anatomy of Fish. 

Fisn, in Afronomy. See Pisces. 

Fisx-days. See ABSTINENCE. 

Fisu, in Heraldry. See Heraropry. 

Fisu Bay, in Geography, a bay on the S. coaft of Africa. 
S. lat. 34° 30'. E. long. 22° 39'.—Alfo, a bay on the W. 
coaft of Africa. S. lat. 16° 40'.—Alfo,a bay on the N.E. 
coatt of the ifland of St. Matthew, in the Mergui Archi- 
pelago. ’ 

Fisn, Little, a bay on the W. coaft of Africa. S.lat 15° 

o'. 
5 Fisu Creeé, a river of Virginia, which runs into the Ohio. 
N. lat. 39° 31’. W. long. 81° 5’—Alfo, a river of Mary- 
land, which runs into the Chefapeak. N. lat. 38° 38'. W. 
long. 76° 49!. 

Fisu River, a river of Weft Florida, which runs inte Mo- 
bile bay. N. lat. 30° 30’. W-long. 87° 50’. 

Visi River, Great, Ria I’ Infanta of the Portuguefe, a 
river of Africa, which rifes in the country of the Hotten- 
tots, beyond the Snowy mountains, and, in its long courfe, 
colle&s a multitude of itreamlets, moft of which are con- 
Raatly fupplied with water. On each fide of its mouth isa 
rocky and open fhore, but the proje&ing cheeks form 
a fmall cove or creek, which was frequented by the Portu- 
guefe fhortly after their difcovery of the Cape; though 
rance of the fea wpon the bar that 
evidently crofies the entrance of the river, it is difficult to 
conceive how they could truft their fhips ia fuch an ex pofed 
fituation ; vol fs, indeed, they were fo mall asto beable, at 
high warer, to crofs the bar, ia which exfe they might lie, 
at all feafons, in perfect fecurity. Great oth river is now 
confidered as the eaftern boundary of the Cape colony. 

FISHBORN Creex,a river onthe N. fide ofthe fle of 
Wizht, which runs iato the fea. N. lat. 59° 44’. W. long. 
x ‘ 

FISHER, Joan, in Biography,a worthy Englifh Catholic - 
prelate, was bora at Beverly in Yorkfhire in the year 1450. 
His father dying when he was very young, he was placed 
under the inftruétions of a prieft of the collegiate church in 
his native town. In the year 1474 he was entered a ftudent 
at Michael houfe, Cambridge, a college that is now incor- 
porated into Trinity-college. He took his degrees in the 


FIS 
year 1488 and 149t. In 1495 he was appointed one of 


the proctors of the univerfity, and in a few monthis afterwards 
he was chofen matter of Michael houfe, and entered into holy 
orders. He foon became diftinguifhed on account of his 
great learning ; and attained the high office of vice-chancellor 
of the univerfity. Scarcely had he performed the duties 
of chancellor two years, when he was feleéted as chaplain 
and confeffor to Margaret countefs of Richmond, the king’s 
mother. He fo entirely gained the confidence of this lady 
that fhe committed herfelf and family to his government 
and dire@tion. By his advice fhe eftablifhed a divinity pro- 
fefforfhip at Oxford and one at Cambridge ; and founded 
Chritt’s and St. John’s colleges in the latter univerfity, 
In 1501 he was admitted doétor in divinity, and in the 
following year the lady Margaret’s firft divinity profeflor 
in Cambridge. In 1504 he was raifed to the bifhopric of 


Rochefter, and was afterwards frequently offered more” 


valuable fees, which he refufed, obferving, that “« though 
others have larger revenues, I have fewer fouls under my 
care, fo that when I fhall have to give an account of both, 
which muit be very foon, I would not defire my condition 
to have been better than it is.’ Fifher was now chofea 
chancellor of the univerfity of Cambridge, and was much 
engaged in fuperintending the building of Chrifl’s and 
St. John’s coilege, being the moft aétive agent and executor 
of the late countefs of Richmond. When St. John’s college 
was finifhed Fifher went to Cambridge, and opened it with 
due folemnity, and was commiffioned to draw up a body of 
ftatutes for its government. The bifhop afterwards proved 
a valuable benefactor to the college, and ‘was the means of 
the appointment of that illuftrious man, Erafmus, to lady 
Margaret’s profeflorfhip of divinity, and afterwards to the 
Greek profeffor’s chair. To the innovations propofed 
by Luther, bifhop Fifher was decidedly hoftile: he not 
only endeavoured to prevent the propagation of Lutheranifm 
in his own diocefe, and in the univerfity of Cambridge, 
but wrote and preached with the utmoft zeal againft it, 
He is generally thought to have hada principal fhare in 
the compofition of the work afcribed to Henry VIII. and 
publifhed with his name, in defence of the * feven facra- 
ments,’’ againft Luther, though Burnet and others are not 
difpofed to give it tothe bifhop. Fifherat this period was 
very high ia favour with the king, and fo zealous in his 
oppofition to the tenets of Luther, that he formed a defizn 
of going to Rome to concert meafures with the pope for 
oppofing their progre{s; bat he was diverted from his defign 
by cardinal Wolfey’s convocation of a fyned of the whole 
clergy of England for the fame purpofe. In this affembly 
he appeared in the charatter of a zealous advocate for 
reformation in the manners of the clergy ; and fome of his 
{peeches on this and other important occations are preferved 
in the Biographia Britannica. About the year 1527 the 
king applied to him for his opiaion on the fubject of his 
marriage with Catherine, his brother’s widow. This was 
the rock on which he foundered. So long as his fentiments. 
were congenial with thofe of the monarch he was in the 
higheft elteem ; bat now he gave a deterinination which did 
not correfpond with his paffions: he declared honeftl;, 
and without any referve, ‘that there was no reafon to- 
queftion the validity of the marriage, fince it was good and 
lawful from the beginning? The bifhop had made up, 
his mind on the bufinefs, and nothing could divert him- 
from an avowal of it on all proper occafions, though he 


probably forefaw that his own ruin would be the con-. 


fequence of his unyielding: integrity. When the divorce 


came to be argued before the two legates, Campeggi and” 
Wolfley, bishop Fisher, who was one. of the queen’s coune. 


5 ail, 


— 4 


Fs 


cil, exerted himfelf with much zeal in her behalf, prefenting 
‘the legates with a book which he had written in defence of 
the marriage. The bifhop did not ftop here ; he oppofedthe 
‘king in fome other of his projeéts, and refifted a motion 
made for the fuppreffing of thefmaller monafteries, and grant- 
ing their revenues tothe crown. The fpeech which he de- 
livered on this occafion was received with great applaufe 
by thofe who adhered to the papal church, and with equal 
difapprobation by the advocates of the reformation. Some 
expreffions which he ufed fo much offended the houfe of 
eommons, who complained to the king of the refleCtions 
which the bifhop had caft on the reprefentatives of the 
people, that the king fent for the prelate, and having 
heard his defence, difmifled him with an admonition, “ to 
be more temperate in future.” In the year 1530 he was 
twice in imminent danger of his life. His firfl efcape was 
from poifon which a man by the name of Roufe threw into 
fome gruel preparing for the bifhop’s dinner; his fecond 
was froma bullet fired into his library where he ufually 
fat. After this the bifhop retired to Rochefter, where he 
{pent moft of his time. In 1531 the queftion was agitated 
as to giving Henry VIII. the title of {upreme head ef the 
ehurch of England: the bifhop took the negative fide of 
the queltion, and oppofed the projeét with all his zeal. He 
next offended his fovereign by giving credit, or at leait 
liftening to the enthufiattic vifions of Elizabeth Barton, 
the pretended holy maid of Kent. ‘This woman, who was 
only an inftrument in the hands of defigning perfons, carried 
on her impoftures with a view of alienating the affeGtions 
“of the people from the king, and exciting infurrections 
againft his goyernment, The bifhop, it was very evident, 
had no ill defign in the part he took ; but finding the pro- 
phetefs, as fhe was then denominated, was devoted to the 
interefts of the queen; and having heard much of the fanGity 
of her manners, of the vifions which fhe faw, and of the 
predictions which fhe uttered, and which were faid to be 
realized, he conceived fhe was defigned by providence to 
-difplay and make triumphant the doétrines and authority of 
the church of Rorre, over the principles of L.utherani{m, 
which were rapidly fpreading in England. Fifher accor- 
dingly liftened to her prophecies, and concealed one of them 
-which feemed to affeé the king, or at leait to {trike a blow 
at bis authority. She announced to her adherents, that 
if Henry fhould proceed in his divorce, and marry another 
owife; he would not be king feven months afterwards. The 
woman was apprehended, and in the hope of pardon con- 
-fefled the particulars of her impofture, and named all thofe 
who had encouraged herdelufions. The bifhop was urged 
to make fubmiffions to the king as the only way of 
afluaging his anger ; he refufed, and in 1534 a bill of at- 
tainder was pafled againft Elizabeth Barton and her ac- 
_-complices. Bifhop Fither {till refufed to fubmit, and was 
adjudged guilty of mifprifion of treafon, and condemned to 
forfeit all his goods and chattels to the king, and to be 
imprifoned during his majeity’s pleafure. It is not certain 
that the act was enforced againit him; but when the a& 
was pailed to annul the king’s marriage with Catherine of 
Arragon, and to confirm that with Anne Boleyn, and 
enjoining all to take the oaths accordingly, bifhop Fither, 
Gntead of uniting with his brethren, left the capital. Op- 
ortimity was, however, given him again and again ta con- 
ider the oath, till at length he abfolutely refufed ; and was 
attainted in the parliament which met in 1534, and his 
‘bifhopric was declared void. ©The bifhop was thrown into 
the Power, where he was @reated with much feverity, and, 
“as it fhould feem, from fome of his letters, fearcely allowed 
the common heceffaries of life. Here he would probably 


FIS 


have been permitted to have ended his days, had not a cardi- 
nal’s hat been conferred on him by pope Paul III. which fo 
enraged tie king, that he fwore it fhould never be per- 
mitted to enter his dominions ; and if Fifher were determin- 
ed to wear it, it fhould be on his fhoulders, for he would 
not leave him a head for the purpofe. 

From this time his deftru€tion was refolved on, and the 
tyrant fent the folicitor-general, Rich, whofe name is ren- 
dered infamous by undertaking the bufinefs, to pump out 
of him his fecret opinions with tegard to the fupremacy, 
declaring he had the king’s authority to fay that no ill ufe 
whatever fhould be made of the communication, which he 
fought merely on account of the high opinion he enter- 
tained of his judgment and integrity. The bithop gave an 
unreferved decifion on the fubjeé&t, which the folicitor car- 
ried to his mafter; and on the inftant a fpecial commiffion 
was iffued for trying him for high treafon. Rick was the 
chief and indeed the only evidence that could affect the life 
of the venerable prifoner, and yet a jury, as infamous as the 
evidence, found him guilty. The bifhop pathetically ap- 
peaied to tke court on the occafion, “I pray you, my lords, 
confider that by all equity, juftice, wordly honefty, and 
courteous dealing, I cannot be dire@tly charged with trea- 
fon, though I had fpoken the words indeed, the fame not 
being {poken malicioufly, but in the way of advice and 
countel, when it was requefted of me by the king himfelf; and 
that favour the very words of the ftatute do give me, being 
made only againft fuch as fhall malicioufly gainfay the king’s 
{upremacy, and none other: wherefore, although by the 
rigour of the law you may take occafion to condemn me, 
yet I hope you cannot find law, except you add rigour to 
that law to caft me down, which hereby I hope I have not 
deferved.”” To Rich he addrefled himfelf, « Mr. Rich, 
I cannot but mervail to hear you come in to bear witnefs 
againft me of thefe words, knowing in what fecret manner 
you came to me.’’ He then affured the court that he 
(Rich) had told him, the king wifhed him to declare, that 
on the honour of a king, whatever he fhould fay by this 
his fecret meflenger, he fhould reap no peril or danger there- 
from, nor fhould any advantage be taken againft him for 
the fame. Still the court gave fentence, and, notwith- 
ftanding the honour of a king was oppofed to it, Henry 
confirmed the bloody decree, and the worthy prelate was 
beheaded on Tower Hill on the 22d of June 1535, at the 
age of feventy-fix. Erafmus reprefents him as aman of the 
greateft integrity, of deep learning, incredible fweetnels of 
temper, and grandeur of foul. By friends and by enemies 
he was regarded as a pious and charitable man, not only 
learned himfelf, but a great encourager of learning. His 
ehief work was a ‘¢Cummentary on the feven penitential 
Pfalms.” Biog. Brit. 

Fisner, in Zoology. See Mustera Zihellina. 

FISHERMAN’s Cove, in Geography, a harbour on the 
S. coat of Pitt’s Archipelago, within Nepean’s found. 
N. lat. 53° 18! E. long. 230° 53’. 

FISHERROW, a town of Scotland, in the county of 
Edinburgh, at the mouth of the Efk, in the frith of Forth, 
oppolite to Muffelburgh. 

FISHER’S Canat, a branch of an inlet leading from 
Fitzhueh’s found, on the W. coait of North America, fo 
called by Capt Vancouver in 1793. At the entrance N. 
lat..51° 57'. E. long. 232° 7'. 

Frsuer’s Zfland, an ifland in the Atlantic, in Long ifland 
found, near the §. coaft of Conneticut. It is about 
ten miles in length and two in breadth, with a good foil, 
favourable for rearing fheep and producing wheat and other 
grain, Jt ig annexed to the townthip of South-hold, in 

4A2 Suffes 


Suffex county, on Long ifland. N, lat. 41° 12’. W. 
long. 72°. 

FISHERSFIELD, a townfhip of America, in the 
fate ef New Hampfhire and county of Hillfborough, in- 
corporated in .763, containing 526 inhabitants ; about 16 
miles eafterly of Charleftown. 

FISHERY, acommodious place for fifhing ; ora place 
wherein great quantities of fifh are caught. 

The principal fifheries of Europe for falmon, herring, cod, 
and mackarel, are along the coafts of Englarid, Scotland, 
and Ireland; for cod, on the banks of Newfoundland; for 
whales, about Greenland ; for pearls, in the Eaft and Welt 
Indies, &c. 

Fisuery alfo denotes the commerce of fifh; more 
efpecially the catching of them for fale. The fithery makes 
a principal branch of the Britifh commerce. A great 
quantity of veflels and feamen are employed therein ; and 
befides what is {pent at home, large {ums are yearly returned, 
merely for herring, cod, and pilchards, exported to Spain, 
Italy, and feveral parts of the Mediterranean, and the 
iflands of the Archipelago. 

Yet are our countrymen reproached, and witha good 
deal of juftice, for their remiflnefs in this branch of trade. 
The advantageous fituation of our coats might be of im- 
menife benefit to us, did we not let our neighbours over- 
reach us therein. The Dutch, French, Hamburghers, &c. 
have been accuftomed to come yearly in large thoals, and 
not only take the fifh from our own coatts, but fell them to 
us fer our money, when they have done. 

Scotlatid fuffers incredibly on this feore: no country in 
Europe can pretend to rival itin the abundance of the 
fineft ifh, wherewith its numerous harbours, loughs, rivers, 
&c. are ftored. In the river Dee, it-is faid, an hundred and 
feventy head of falmon-is not very extraordinary for a fingle 
draft of anet; and the pickled falmon fent hence is al- 
lowed the beft in Europe. ‘The Scottifh iflands, efpecially 
thofe on the weftern fide, do certainly lie the moft commo- 
dioufly for carrying on the fifhing trade to perfeétion. 

King Charles I. directed his attention to the Scottifh 
fifheries in 1630 and 1633, in conjunétion with a company 
of merchants-under his royal commiffion and patronage, and 
enceuraged by his bounty. With this view he ordered 
Lent to be more ftrictly obferved ; prohibited the importa- 
tion of fifh taken by foreigners, and agreed to purchafe 
from the company his naval {tores, and the fifh for his fleets: 
‘but the civil wars foon fet this plan afide. The company 
had built two ftorehoufes or magazines; one on the {mall 
ifland ot Hermetra, on the north fide of North Uift, and 
the other upon a {mall ifland in Loch Madie, a celebrated 
bay of the above-mentioned North Uilt. . King Charles II. 
in 1661, made a like attempt; and was joined in it by the 
duke of York, lord Clarendon, and feveral other perfons of 
rank and fortune. In profecution of the defigm the moft 
Malutary laws were enaéted by the parliaments of England 
and Scotland, in virtue of which all materials ufed in, or de- 
pending upon, the fifheries, were exempted from all duties, 
excifes, and other impofts. In England the company was 
authorized to fet up a lottery, and to make a voluntary col- 
jeétion in all parifh churches; and other encouraging mea- 
‘fures were adopted. Some Dutch families were invited, or 
permitted, to fettle at Stronaway:; but whil{t the plan ap- 
peared to be judicioufly formed andlikely to fucceed, the 
king having a prefling oceafion for money, was perfuaded to 


withdraw what he had employed in the fifhery, at which . 


the merchants joined with him, being difpleafed, did the 

like themfelves. In 1677, a new royal company was elta- 

blifhed in England, at the head of which were the duke of 
4 


FISHERY. L-@ 


York, the earl of Derby, &e. Befides all the priviléfes 
which former companies had enjoyed, the king granted this 
new company a perpetuity, with power to purchafe lands ; 
and alfo 2o/. to be paid them annually out of the cuftoms 
of the port of London, for every dogger or bufs they fhould 
build and fend out, for feven years to come. A ttock of 
10,980/. was immediately advanced, and afterwards 1600/, 
more. ‘This {mall capital was foon exhaufted in purchafing 
and fitting out bufles, and other incidental expences. The 
coinpany, however, made a fuccefsful beginning, and one 
of their buffes or doggers took and brought home 32,0ce 
cod-fifh ; other veflels had alfoa favourable fifhery. But 
mott of the bufles, having been built in Holland, and man- 
ned with Dutchmen, the French, then at war with Hol- 
land, took fix out of feven veflels, with their cargoes and 
fifhing tackle; and the company, being in debt, fold, im 
1680, the remaining flores, &c. A company of merchants 
raifed a new fub{cription of 60,000/. under the privileges and 
immunities of the formercharter. But this attempt proved 
abortive by the king’s death and the troubles of the next 
reign. Soon after the revolution the bufinefs was again 
relumed on a mere extenfive fcale, the propofed capital 
being 300,000/.: but this fcheme failed. Since the Union, 
feveral efforts have been made to retrieve it; and in 175¢ 
there was a corporation fettled on that footing by parlia- 
ment, called “the Scciety of the Free Britith Vifhery,”” 
for the term of twenty-one years, under the direétion of 
a governor, prefident, vice-prefident, council, and other 
officers, who were empowered to make bye-laws, &c. and 
to raife a capital of 500,000/., and the Scotch fifhery, 
encouraged by fifhing-chambers, ereéted in feveral cities, 
which eftablifhments promifed a more permanent duration, 
See Herring Fisuery. 
FisHery, Anchovy. See ANcuovy. 


Fisuery, Cod. The cod ts a fith of paflage, pretty 
large, with a great head, and teeth in the bottom of the 
throat ; its flefh white; its fkin brownifh on the back, 
white under the belly, and covered with a few thin, tranf- 
parent {cales. 

It is excellent food when frefh ; and, if well prepared and 
falted, will keep a long time. The fifh, thus prepared, is 
commonly eaten among us in Lent, &c. under the denomi- 
nation of /alt-fi/h, or /tock-fi/p. ; 

There are two kinds of falt cod; the one called green, 
‘or white ; and the other dried, or cured ; though it is the 
fame fith, only differently prepared. 

They are alfo diftinguifhed by the places from whenee 
they are brought, as well as by the manner of curing, into 
Aberdeen-fifh, Iceland-fith, green-fifh, ftock-fith, North-fea 
cod, poor Jack, and barrelled cod. 

Green cod.—Vhe chief fifheries fer green cod are in the 
bay of Canada, on the Great and Little Bank, near the 
coaft of Newfoundland, the ifle of St. Peter, or Pierre, 
and the ifle of Sable ; and thither veffels are yearly fent 
from divers parts both of America and Europe. 


The veffels ufed herein are from a hundred to a hundred 
and fifty tons burden; and thefe will bring thirty or thirty- 
five thoufand fifh a-piece. 

The moit effential articles in this fifhery are the perfons 
who, know how to open the fifh, to cut off the heads, and 
to falt them; upon the ability of which laft the fuccefs of 
the voyage chiefly depends. ; 

Several authors will have it, that the Bifeayans, in purfu- 
ing their whales, made the firft.difcovery of the Great and 
Little Banks of cods at Newfoundland, Canada, &e. a 
handred years before Columbus’s time; and that it was a 

Bifcayan 


FISHERY. 


Bifcayan Newfoundlander that gave the firft intimation 
thereof to Columbus. 

Others fay, that the Great Bank was difcovered by a 
native of St, Malo’s, named Cartier. England claimed an 
exclufive right to the North American feas, in virtue of the 
difcovery oF thofe feas by Sebaftian Cabot, in the fervice 
of Henry VII. But be the difcoverer of what name or 
nation he may, the difcovery is certainly highly valuable ; 
there is not a trading nation in Europe but allows the 
eommerce of cod-fifh to be one of the moft fecure and gain- 
ful that is known. 

The belt, largeft, and fatteft cod are thofe taken on the 
feuthern and weftern fides of the Great Bank, which is a 
Kind of fubmarine mountain, ftretching from N.E. to 
&.W., one hundred and fifty miles long, and fifty broad, 
end at the diftance of twenty-five leacues from Newfound- 
Tand: thofe on the north fide are generally much {maller. 
The water on the bank is from 22 to 50 fathoms; on the 
outfide from Go to 80; on the leffer banks much the 
fame. A great {well and thick fog generally mark the 

lace of this bank. The chain of lefler banks lies between 
Raprosidisict and Cape Cod in New England; as the 
Green, French, Porpoife, and Sable Banks, and alfo 
Brown’s and St. George’s. Befides thefe banks, the 
whole coaft of Newfoundland, New England, Nova Scotia, 
and Labrador, is one continued fifhery. 

The beft feafon for this fifhery is from the beginning of 
February to the end of April; at which time the cod, 
which, during the winter had retired to the deepeft part of 
the fea, return to the Bank, and grow very fat. 

Thofe caught from March to Juae keep well enough ; 
but thofe taken in July, Auguft, and September, foon 
fpoil. The fifking is fometimes done in a month, or fix 
weeks ; and fometimes it holds four or five months. As 
Lent draws on, if the fifhermen have but half their cargo, 
they ftrive who fhall make homeward the firft ; the market 
being then the beft. 

Some will thus make a fecond voyage, before others 
have got loading for the firft. Each fifher only takes one 
cod at atime ; and yet the more experienced will take from 
three hundred and fifty to four hundred per day ; but this 
is the moft ; for it is very fatiguing work, both on account 
of the weight of the fifh, and of the extreme cold which 
reigns on the Bank. 

The wages ufually allowed the captain and failors is one 
third of the cod they bring home found. 

They falt the cod on board. The head being cut off, 
the belly opened, and the guts taken ont, the falter ranges 
them in the bottom of the veffel, head to tail; and having 
thus made a layer thereof, a fathom or two fquare, he 
covers it with falt; over this he lays another layer of fifh, 
which he covers as before : and thus he difpofes all the fith 
of that day, taking care never to mix the fith of different 
days together. 


* By that time the cod has lain thus to drain three or four” 


days, they are moved into another part of the veflel, and 
falted afrefh. After this they are no more to be touched, 
till the veffel has its burden. 

Sometimes they put them up in barrels, for the conyeni- 
ency of carriage. Ay 

Dry Cod.—In the fifhing of dry c od,veffels of all fizes 
are uled; though fuch are generally chofen as have large 
‘holds, becaufe this fort of fifh incumbers more than it 
burdens. * 

As cod is only to be dried by the fun, the European 
veffels are obliged to put out m March or April, to have 
the benefit of the fummes for drying. Indeed, we fend 


veffels for cod in June and July ; but thofe only buy what 
had been fifhed and prepared by the inhabitants of 
Newfoundland, and the neighbouring parts; in exchange 
for which, we carry them meal, brandies, bifcuits, pulie, 
molafles, linen, &c. 

The principal fifhery for dry cod is along the coaft of 
Placentia, from Cape Rofe to the Bay des Experts; in 
which compa{s there are divers commodious parts for the 
fifh to be dried in. , 

The fith intended for this ufe, though of the fame kind 
with the green cod, is yet much fmaller; whence it is the 
fitter to keep, as the falt more eafily penetrates it. 

The method of fifhing is much the fame in both; only 
this latter is the more expenfive, as it takes up More time, 
and employs more hands; and yet {carce*half fo much falt is 
{pent in this as in the other. 

When feveral fifhing veflels meet, and intend to fifh in 
the fame port, he whofe fhallop firft touches ground, be- 
comes entitled to the quality and privileges of admiral; he 
has the choice of his ftation, and the refufal of all the wood 
on the ceait at his arrival. (10 & 11 W. III. c. 25.) 

As faft as the captains arrive, they unrig all their 
veffels, leaving nothing but the fhrouds to fuilain the matts ; 
and in the mean time the mates provide a tent on fhore, 
covered with branches of fir, and fails over them ; with a 
feaffold, fifty or fixty feet long, and about one-third in 
breadth. 

While the fcaffold is making ready, the crew are fifhing ; 
the procefs of which, as it is defcribed by Mr. Penaast in 
his ** Arétic Zoology,”’ is as follow: 

The boats or fhallops are 40 feet in the keel, rigged with 
a main-matt and fore-matt, and lng-fails; furnifhed with 
four oars, three of which row on ore fide, and the other 
(which is twice as large) belays the other three, by being 
rowed fideways over the ftern, by a man who ftands up for 
that purpofe, with his face towards the rowers, counteraG@- 
ing them, and fteering at the fame time as he gives way to 
the boat. Each of the men in this boat is furnifhed with 
two lines, one at each fide of the boat, each furnifhed with 
two hooks; fo that fixteen hooks are here conitantly em- 
ployed, which are thought to make a tolerable good day’s 
work of it, if they bring in from five to ten quintals of fifh, 
though they have ftowage for, and fometimes bring in 
thirty. Two hundred quintals are called a faving veyaze, 
buat not lefs: The bait is*fmall fith of all kinds: herring, 
capaline, lance, tom cod or young cod; the firft of which 
they falt, and keep for fome tme, in cafe of feareity of the 
reft ; but thefe are much lefs eagerly taken by the ah when 
falted. In cafe fmail tith cannot be gotten, they ufe fea- 
fow], which are eafily taken in vait numbers, by laying nets 
over the holes in the rocks where they come to root in 
the night. If neither fmall fifh nor birds are to be pros 
cured, they are forced to. ufe the maws of fihh which they 
catch; but this is the worlt bait of any. 

When the fifth are taken they are carried to the Mage, 
which is built with one end over the water, for the conve- 
niency of throwing the offals into the fea, and for their 
boats being able to come clofe to difcharge their fifh. As 
foon as they come on the ftage, a boy hands them te the 
header, who ftands at the fide of a table next the water, 
and whofe bulinefs it is to gut the ti and . ut off the 
head, which he does by prefliag the back of the hea 
againft the fide of the table, which is made fharp for that 
purpofe, when both head and gets fall through a hole in 
the floor into the water. He then fhoves the fith to the 
{plitter, who ftauds oppofite to him; his butinefs is to fplit 


the fifth, beginning at the head, and opening it down to the 
tail ; 


FISHERY. 


‘tail; at the next eut lie takes out the larger part of the 
back-bone, which falls through the floor into the waters 
He then fhoves the fifh off the table, which drops inte a 
kind of hand-barrow, which, as foon as it is filled, 1s carried 
off to the falt-pile. The header alfo flings the liver into a 
feparate bafket, for the making of train oil, ufed by the 
curriers, which bears a higher price than whale oil. 

In the falt-pile the fifh are fpread upon one another, 
with a layer of falt between them. Thus they remain 
till they have taken falt, and then the falt is wafhed 
from them by throwing them off from fhore in a kind 
of float, called a “* pound.”? As foon as this is completed, 
they are removed to the laft operation of drying them ; 
which is done on ftanding flakes, made by a flight wattle, 
juft ftrong enough to {apport the men who lay on the fith, 
fupported by poles, in fome places as high as twenty feet 
from the ground; here they are expoled, with the open 
fide to the fun; and every night, when it is bad weather, 
piled up five or fix in a heap, with a large one, his back or 
fkinny part uppermolt, to be a shelter to the relt from rain, 
which hardly damages him through his fkin, as he refts 
flanting each way to fhoot it off. When they are tolerably 
dry, which in good weather is in a week’s time, they are 
put in round piles of eight or ten quintals each, covering 
them on the top with bark. In thefe piles they remain 
three or four days to {weat ; after which they are again 
{pread, and, when dry, put into larger heaps, covered with 
canvas, and left till they are put on board. 

When prepared they are fent to the Mediterranean, 
where they fetch a good price; but are not eftcemed in 
England, for which place another kind of fifh is prepared, 
called by them ‘* Mud-tith,’? which, inftead of being fplit 
quite open, like their dry-fifh, are only opened down to 
the navel ; they are falted and lie in falt, which is wafhed 
out of them in the fame manner with the others; but 
inftead of being laid out to dry, are barrelled up ina pickle 
of falt boiled in water. 

The train oil is made from the livers ; and it is fo called 
to diftinguith it from whale or feal oil, which they call fat 
oil, and is fold at a.lower price (being only ufed for lighting 
of lamps) than the train oil, which is ufed by the curriers. 
It is thus made: they take a half-tub, and, boring a hole 
through the bottom, prefs hard down into it a layer of 
f{pruce boughs, upon which they place the livers, and 
expofe the whole apparatus to as funny a place as poflible. 
As the livers corrupt, the oil runs from them; and, ftraining 
itfelf clear through the fpruce boughs, 3 caught in a veffel 
fet under the hole in fhe tub’s bottom. 

The founds and tongues are falted at the fame time with 
the fifh, and barrelled up: the roes or eggs, being falted and 
barrelled up, ferve to caft into the fea to draw fith to- 
gether, and particularly pilchards. 

By the definitive treaty between Great Britain and France 
in 163, the French, who are allowed to fifh in the gulf of 
St. Lawrence, are now abfolutely deprived of the powerful 
fortifications of Cape Breton, and of the poffeffion of Canada 
and all its dependencies; and are entitled to no poffeffions 
contiguous to Newfoundland, except the {mall iflands of 
St. Peter’s, or Pierre, and Miquelon, ceded by the fixth ar- 
ticle of the faid treaty to his moft Chriftian majefty as a 
fhelter for the French fifhermen ; and his meft Chriftian ma- 
jefty engages not to fortify the faid iflands, to erect no 
buildings upon them, but merely for the convenience of the 
fifhery, and to keep upon them a guard only of fifty men 
forthe police. And by the eighteenth article of the fame 
treaty, it is exprefsly ftipulated between Great Britain and 
Spain, that his Catholic majefty defiits, as well for himfelf 


as for his fucceffors, from all pretenfions which he may have 
formed in favour of the Guipufcoans and other his fubjeéts, 
to the right of fifhing in the neighbourhood of Newfound- 
land. 

The French, by the treaty of 1783, were to enjoy their 
fifheries on the northern and wettern coafts; the inhabitants 
of the United States having the fame privileges as before 
their independence: and the preliminaries of October, 18c1, 
confirm the privileges granted to the French. 

By 43 Geo. III]. c. 154. a bounty of 3s. per quintal 
fall be paid on the importation of pickled falmon and dry 
cod from the ifland of Newfoundland ; the malter and mate 
of every fhip fo importing making oath, at the port of ims 
portation, that fuch fifh was taken and cured by Britifh 
fubjects carrying on the fifhery at Newfoundland or La- 
brador ; and fuch fifh may be exported without repayment 
of the bounty. For other regulations of this fifhery, fee. 
10 & 11 W. III. c.25; 26 Geo. III. c. 26; 27 Geo. ILI. 
c. 19; 29 Geo. III. c. 53. 

Of all the migrating fithes, herrings excepted, the cod is 
the moft valuable to mankind. This fifh, we may here 
obferve, is fond of cold climates, and is fuppofed to refide 
chiefly between the latitudes of 66’ and 45°. Thofe that 
are taken north and fouth of thefe latitudes.are either few in 
number, or badin quality. They are found as far north as 
Greenland, but they are fmall and emaciated. In Europe 
they chiefly frequent the coafts of Iceland, Norway, the 
Baltic, the iflands and main land of Scotland. After pafl- 
ing thefe latitudes, they decreafe in number. The Englifh 
fifhermen take them on the Dogger-bank, the Well-bank, 
and the Cromer, lying on the eait fide of the kingdom, op- 
pofite to Norfolk, Lincoln, and Yorkfhire. Of thefe the 
Dogger-bank is the moit extenfive and valuable for white 
fifh in general, as we learn from the account tranfmitted to 
Mr. Pennant by Mr. Travis, furgeon in Scarborough. 
The Degger-bank lies 12 leagues from Flamborough-Head, 
and 16£ from Scarborough: the north fide of the 
bank ftretches off E.N.E. between 32 and 40 leagues. 
The fithermen feldom find aay cod, fry, or other round fifh 
upon the bank itfelf, but upon the floping edges and hollows 
contiguous to it. The fhifting fand on the top of the 
bank affords them no fubfiftence; and the fhallow agitated 
water allows them no reft. It is in the hollows between 
the Dogger and the Well-bank that the cod are taker 
which fupply the London market. The fhore along the 
coaft on the one hand, and the edges of the Dogger-bank 
on the other, like the fides of a decoy, give a direction to- 
wards our fifhing grounds to the fhoals of cod, and other 
fifh, which migrate annually from the northern ocean into 
our feas; and the great variety of fifhing grounds near 
Scarborough, extending upwards of 14 leagues from the 
fhore, afford fecure retreats and plenty of proper food for 
all the various kinds of fifh, and alfo fuitable places for each 
kind to depofit their {pawn in. 

The beft bait for all kinds of fifh is frefh herring cut in 
pieces of proper fize; and next to thefe, the leiler lam- 
preys, {mall haddocks cut in pieces, fand-worms, mufcles, 
and limpets; and, in defeét of thefe, bullock’s liver. The 
hooks are {maller than thofe ufed in Iceland and Newfound- 
land; being 24 inches long in the fhank, and near an inch 
wide between the fhank andthe point. The line is made of 
{mall cording, and is always tanned before it is ufed. "The 
beft weather for fueceeding in fifhing is a half calm, when 
the waves are juft curled, with a filent breeze. 

In our feas the cod-fifh begin to fpawn in January, and 
depofit their eggs in rough ground among rocks. Some 
continue in the roe till the beginning of April. Thefe 

_  fifhes 


Eshoat tk. Y. 


fifhes in general recover fooner after fpawning than any 
other; and, therefore, it is common to take fome good 
ones all the fummer. Thofe of a middling fize are mott 
efteemed for the table, and are feleted by their plumpnefs 
and roundnefs, efpecially near the tail; by the depth of the 
pit behind the head, and by the regular cordulated eppear- 
ance of the fides, as if they were ribbed. The cod, and 
other fifh of this genus, are in higheft feafon in the winter ; 
but even then, the glutinous parts about the head lofe their 
delicate flavour after the cod hath been 24 hours out of the 
water. The general weight of thefe fifh on the Dogger- 
bank is from 14 to 40 pounds. 

The Scottifh white fifhery, comprehending cod, ling, 
hake, tufk, coal-fith, haddocks, and whitings, and flat 
fith, as turbot, fate, foals, and flounders, abound fo uni- 
verfally around the Scottifh fhore, that the whole northern 
fea, from the Dogger-bank in lat. 54° to the northern ex- 
tremity of Iceland in lat. 67°, and from the coaft of Norway 
eaftward to unknown latitudes on the weft, may be con- 
fidered as one great fifhery, in which Scotland, as lying in 
the centre, has manifeftly the advantage over all other na- 
tions. The white fifhery may be fuppefed to comprehend 
the eaftern coaft fifhery from Berwick to the Pentland 
firth, the Shetland or N.E. tifhery, and the Hebride or 
N.W. fifhery. The mott confiderable of the banks in the 
eattern fifhery, called by way of pre-eminence the ‘¢ Long 
Fortys,’’ ftretches in a parallel line with the eafl coaft, from 
the county of Durham to Kinnaird’s head, at the entrance 
of the Murray firth; thus affording an uninterrupted line 
of fifheries almoft from one extreme of the kingdom to the 
other, and in fome parts at a very inconfiderable diftance 
from the fhore. The Shetland fifheries are carried on by 
two different methods; viz. by boats accompanied with 
decked veffels, and by boats only. Thofe of the firft clafs 
go out of fight of land, where, in go, 100, and 140 fa- 
thoms water, they get the largeft fifhh. When they arrive 
on the fifhing grounds, they fet their long lines, each line 
of 56 fathoms having 15 hooks; and thefe lines are joined 
to one another, till the number of hooks amounts to from 
600 to 120. In the fifhery by boats of 2 tons burden, 


' and 6 men each, they fifh in fummer at the diftance of 7 to 


15 leagues from land, and in winter at the diltance of 3 
leagues. The fummer fifhery is carried on from the 1ft of 
June to the 1ft of Auguit: the boats go out three times a 
week, and continue 24 hours each time. The large boate 
carry from 100 to 120 lines; each line being from 54 to 60 
fathoms in length, and hung with 15 hooks at 20 feet 
diftance from one another. In winter they ufe hand lines, 
when long ones cannot be managed. They bait with a 
{mall fith called pollocks, when at fea; and if thefe cannot 
be procured, they ufe cod, turbct, haddocks, or any other 
fih. The Hebride or N.W. fifhery extends from the head 
of the Solway firth to the coaft of Iceland, lying at the 
diftance of 400 miles N.W. from the Long ifland in the 
Hebrides. ‘The principal bank in the fifhing grounds, ly- 
ing between the Hebrides and the main land, begins near 
the mouth of Gureloch in Rofs-fhire, and is fuppofed to 
ftretch in a N.W. diredtion, towards the Butt of the 
Lewis, aud poffibly beyond that cape. This abounds in 
all the varieties of white fifhh. A chain of finall banks 
ftretches along the eaft fide of the Lewis, from 3 to 6-miles 
off the fhore, and is carried on by the natives both in fum- 
mer and winter. ‘The whole coaft of Sky is.alfo one con- 
tinued fithery; and the feas of the South Hebrides prefent 
a number of fifhing banks, which our limits will not allow 
us to recite. But the mo extraordinary and valuable bank 
is.called by the old natives the ‘ Mother-bank,”’ and lies 


between Mull on the eaf, and Barraand South Uift on the 
weft. There is a bank between the iflands of Coll and 
Colland Tirey, in the direction of the {mall ifland of Ganna, 
which lies in the centre. A valuable bank lies between the 
iflands of Mull, Coll, and Ardnamurchan, on the main land 
of Argylefhire. In the jound of Mull there is a {mall bank, 
which itretches from Aros to Scalarda’e bay. There is an 
inexhautllible fifhery along the coait of Argylethire, called 
the Inner Sound; a bank lies between Loch Tarbat in Jura, 
and the ifle-of Colonfa, 16 miles long and 1 broad. An- 
other lies in the channel between Jura and Ilay on the weft, 
andthe main land of Knapdale on the eaft. Thofe which 
we have enumerated are the principal banks of the He- 
brides, on the weft fide of the Mull of Cantire. On this 
fide of the cape, within the firth of Clyde, there is a good 
fifhing ground around the craig of Ailfa; from whence a 
large bank ftretches from Ballintrae in Ayrfhire, and thence, 
along the coaft, to the Mull of Galloway, where it is loft 
in the Irifh channel. Another bank ftretches in a N.W. 
direGtion towards Sunda ifland, and from thence towards 
Knapdale, off the north fide of Arran, Such is the im- 
menfe fcene of improvements, with regard to the Scottifi 
white fifheries, that prefents itfelf to thofe who are anxicus 
to promote the Buitifh fifheries. In fome re{peéts the 
Scottith fifherics have the advantage of thofe of Newfound- 
land. The banks of Newfoundland lie at the diltarce of 
2500 to 3000 miles rrom London, Brittol, Liverpool, 
Dublin, Cork, and Glafzow; and can only be frequented 
during the months of February, March, April, May, and 
June: whereas the Scottifh fifheries, when the propofed 
navigations fhall be opened, will, upon a medium, be within 
a week’s failing of thele commercial emporiums, which 
they can fupply in feafons when the Newfoundland fifhery 
cannot be carried on. 

The Irith white fifheries are chiefly cod, ling, hake, 
coal-fifh, and haddoek. In thefe fifheries the Lrifh are very 
expert, being trained to the bufinefs by their fifhing on the 
banks of Newfoundland, as well as the bays of that ifland ; 
to which fifheries fome thoufands of Irifhmen refort every 
feafon, and from whence they return with a {mall pittance 
to their families. White fith abound on the weit coat of 
Treland; but noregular fifhery has yet been eftablifhed with 
fuccefs. See more on this fubje&t in Knox’s View of the 
Britifh Empire, &c. ; 

Fisrery, Coral. See Corar. 

Fisuery, Herring, The herring is a {mall falt-water 
fifh, with a blueifh back, and a white filvered bells, not 
unlike a little fhad fith; whence it is called in Latin alofa 
minor. Rondeletius calls it harengus. * 

It is a popular error to believe the herring to be the halec 
of the Romaus.. The Aalec was no particular fifth, but a 
kind of fauce, made of any kind of falt-fih. The modern 
herring feems to have been unknown to the ancients: it is 
neither the Ae/ec,. ner alex, nor menis, nor Mncomeni, nor 
the gerres, of Pliny. See Rondelet. de Pifcib. Marin. 
lib. v. cap. 13. and Voffius de Idolel. See Herrinc. 

Herrings are chiefly found in the North fea. In thofe 
inacceffible feas, that are covered with ice during a great 
part of the year, the herrings find a quiet and fafe retreat 
from all: their numerous enemies: there neither man, nor 
their fill more deftruGive enemy,,the fun-tih, or the cacha- 
lot, the moft voracions-of the whale kind, dares to purfue 
them. It is true, there are fifheries elfewhere, but none fo 
copious. 

They ufually make two fithing feafons for herrings; the 
firft in June, July, and Augult; the fecond in autumn. 
The latter of thefe is the more confiderable, on account 


of 


FISHERY. 


of the fogs, which are very favourable to this kind of 
filing. 

The herrings ufually keep at fome diftance from the 
eoalt in July and Avguft; and it is at this time only that 
the fifhers follow them in the open fea. About the end of 
Auguft, and until the middle of September, they come into 
thallow water, where they remain for fome time in the bays 
and inlets of the cca}; and this is termed the ground draw. 
It hath been obferved, that the arrival cf the herrings on 
the coaft of Shetland is certain, and almott to.a day, on or 
before the 22d of June. As they invariably follow a 
fouthern courfe, after leaving the Shetland iflands, they 
reach the Hebrides in July, and kcep prefling forward till 
the beginning of September, when they go into deep 
water. 

Frefh fhoals appear in November, and continue till Ja- 
nuary ; but whether thefe herrings be the remains of the 
former fhoals, in their return from the circumnavigation of 
Britain and Irland, or a new migration from the frozen 
regions, is a matter of uncertainty. 

It is commonly faid, that nobody ever faw a herring 
alive, and that they die the minute they are taken out of 
the water; but there are initances to the contrary. 

The herring is a fith of paffage; fo that it is allowed to 
catch them on holidays and Sundays; in the Decretal there 
is an exprefs chapter to this effect. They go chiefly in 
‘fhoals, and are fond of following any fire, or light; and 
in their paffage they refemble a kind of lightning them- 
felves. 

The winter rendezvous of the herrings is probably the 
icy fea, within the arétic circle ; as this fea {warms with in- 
fect food in greater abundance than in our warmer latitudes. 
From this fea the great colony of thefe fifhes fets out about 
the middle of winter; and this colony is compofed of fuch 
numbers as to exceed the power of imagination. But they 
have no fooner left their retreats than they have to encounter 
with a multitude of enemies. The fun-fifh and cachalot 
devour them in great abundance ; and befides, the porpus, 
the grampus, the fhark, cod-fith, haddocks, pollocks, and 
the numerous tribe of dog-ffh find them an eafy prey, and 
defift from making war upon one another. ‘To thetfe ene- 
mies we may add innumerable flocks of fea-fowl that chiefly 
inhabit the northern regions towards the pole, which watch 
the ourfet of their perilous migration, and {pread among 
them extenfive ruin. Tn this ftate of danger, the defencelels 
emigrants crowd clofer together, as if they could thus fe- 
cure themfelves againit the attacks of their enemies. ‘The 
main body begins to feparate, at a certain latitude, into 
two great divifions; one of which moves to the weit, and 
pours down along the coalts of America, as far fouth as 
Caroliua, and becomes fo numerous in the Chefapeak bay 
as to be a nuifance to the fhores. The other divifion 
takes a more eaftern direGtion towards Europe, and falls in 
with:the great ifland of Iceland about the beginning of 
March. Upon their arrival on that coa(t, their phalanx, 
which. hath already fuffered confiderable diminution, is 
- peverthelefs found to be of fuch extent, depth, and clofe- 
nefs, as to occupy a furface equal to the dimenfions of 
Great Britain and Ireland; but fubdivided into columns of 
5 or 6 miles in length, and 3 or 4 in breadth; each line or 
column: being led, according to the ideas of fifhermen, by 
herrings of more than ordinary fize. The herrings {win 
ear the furface, finking occafionally for 10 or 15 minutes. 
The forerunners of thofe who vifit the Britifh kingdoms ap- 
pear off Shetland in April er May, and the grand body 
begins to be perceived in June. Their approach is known 
te the fithers by a fmall rippling of the water, the reflection 


of their brilliancy, and the number of folan geefe, or gan- 
nets, and other aerial perfecutors, who are eager to devour 
them, and who, with the marine attendants, may ferve to 
drive fhoals of them into bays and creeks, where many 
thoufands of them are taken every night from June till Sep- 
tember. Although the Shetland iflands break and feparate 
the grand body Bis herrings into two divifions, they fill 
continue their courfe towards the fouth, One divifion pro- 
ceeds along the eaft fide of Britain, and pays its tribute to 
the Orkneys, the Murray firth, the coafts of Aberdeen, 
Angus, and Fife, the great river Forth, the coaft of Scar- 
borough, and particularly the projeCting land at Yarmouth, 
the ancient and only mart of herrings in England, where 
they appear in October, and are found in confiderable quan- 
tities till Chriftmas. The other divifion purfues its courfe 
from the Shetland iflands, along the weit fide of Britain; 
and thefe are obferved to be larger and fatter than thofe on 
the ealt fide. After paffing the Shetland and the Orkney 
ifles, they crowd in amazing quantities into the lakes, bays, 
and narrow channels of the fhires of Sutherland, Rofs, and 
Invernefs ; which, with the Hebride ifles, efpecially. the 
Long ifland, form the greateft flationary herring fifhery in 
Britain ; that upon the coaft of Shetland excepted. Some- 
times this fhoal, in its fouthern progiefs, edges clofe upon 
the extenfive coaft of Argylehire; fills every bay and 
creek ; and vifits, in fmall detachments, the firth of Clyde, 
Lochtfine, and other lakes witsin the entrance of that river ; 
the coaft of Ayrfhire, and of Galloway, to the head of the 
Solway firth. This fhoal proceeds from the weftern fhores 
of Scotland towards the north of Ireland; where, meeting 
with a fecond interruption, they are again divided into two 
brigades. One fhoal pafles down the Ivifh channel, viiits 
the ifle of Man, and affords an occafional fupply to the eaft 
coaft of Irland, and the weft coaft of England, as far as 
the Briftol channel. The other fhoal firts along the weft 
coait of Tieland, where, after vifiting the lakes of Done- 
gal, it gradually difappears, and is finally loft in the im- 
menfity of the Atlantic. Herrings, it is obferved, are not 
feen in quantities in any of the fouthern kingdoms, as Spain, 
Portugal, or the fouth parts of France, on the fide of the 
ocean, or in the Mediterranean, or on the coatt of Africa. 

«© Were we inclined,”’ fays a well-known writer, * to 
confider this partial migration of the herring in a moral 
lizht, we might refleét with veneration and awe on the 
mighty power which originally impreffed, on this mofk ufe- 
ful body of his creatures, the infliné& that direéts and points — 
out their courfe, that bleffes and enriches thefe iflands, 
which caufes them at certain and invariable times to quit 
the vat polar deeps, and offer themfelves to our expecting 
flects.”’—“ This impreflion was given them, that they 
might remove for the fake of depofiting their fpawa ia 
warmer feas, that would-mature and vivify it more afluredly 
than thofe of the frigid zone. It is not from defe of 
food that they fet themfelves in motion, for they come to 
us ful! of fat, and on theirreturn are alinoft univerfally ob- 
ferved to be Jean and miferable. What their food is near 
the pole, we are not yet informed; but in our feas they 
feed much on the onifeus marinus, a cruttaceons infeét, and 
fometimes on their own fry. They ave in full roe to the 
end of June, and continue in perfeétion till the beginning of 
winter, when they begin to depofit their fpawn. Though 
we have no particular authority for it, yet, as very few 
young herrings are found in our feas during the winter, it 
feems moft certain that they return to their parental haungs 
beneath the ice, to repair the vaft deftruGtion of their race 
during fummer, by men, fowl, and fifth”? 

It has been generally fuppofed that the Hollanders were 

: the 


FISHERY. 


a 


the firfl who began the herring-fifhery, and obferved the 
feveral feafons of their paflage. Their firft regular fifhing 
is fixed to the year 1168- It is recorded, however, in the 
Batavian annals, that the Scots fold their herrings to the 
inhabitants of the Netherlands as early as the ninth century. 
This traffic laid the foundation of a commercial alliance be- 
tween the two countries, which fubfifted, to their mutual 
advantage, during many zges. Although many laws were 
enacted during the reigns of James III. IV. V. and VI. 
for recovering the fifheries of the eaftern fide of the king- 
dom, which the Dutch had engroiled, greatly to the pre- 
judice of the rightful owners; yet it is well known, that 
fince the firfl eitablifhment of the herring fifhery, the Dutch 
have enjoyed the principal part of it, aud it has very much 
contributed to their advancement and profperity in former 
times Our feas were their ‘original mines,’’ as they them- 
felves have acknowledged. 

In the year 13143 we have an aceount of the feizure of a 
fhip of Lynn, m the port of Bergen, which had been fifh- 
ing on the Norway -coaft for herrings. (Rymer’s Feed. 
vol. ili. p. 400.) And as ladings of herrings carried to a 
diftance muft have been felted, it is plain that falted her- 
rings, either wet or elfe dried, called red herrings, were in 
thofe times a merchantable commodity in foreign parts. 
And in 1338 we have an account of fifty lafts BF ngs 
fhipped from Portfmouth for the ufe of the army and fleet 
of Edward IIf. in Gafeogny, which muft have been falted, 
either wet or dried. (Feed. vol vil. p. 12.) And they were 
barrelled and falted at the port of Whitby in Yorkthure, in 
1394. Feed. vol. vii. p. 778. 

But the prefent method of pickling them was not difco- 
vered till the year 1416, though others date it from the 
year 1397. Willughby, in his Hiftory of TVithes, ob- 
ferves, that Will. Buekelfz, or Bachalen, a native of Bier 
Uliet, near Sluys, who died in 1397, rendered his name 
immortal by the difcowery of the fecret of curing and pick- 
ling herrings, which he might probably have learned from 
the people of Yarmouth, and other parts of England, where 
herrings were not only falted and dried for red-herrings, but 
falted and barrelled up wet, at different times, from the 
year 1306 to 1360. Willughby fays, that the emperor 
Charles V. coming to the Low Countries, made a journey 
to the ifle of Bier Uliet, with the queen of Hungary, on 
gs to view the tomb of this firft barreller of herrings. 

t may be allowed, however, that Bachalen, or Ben- 
kelen, might have made fome improvement in the prac- 
tice; which his countrymen afterwards contributed 
to perfeét. By their ingenuity and perfeverance they re- 
duced the whole bufinefs of the fifheries into a regular fyitem, 
which it would be the intereft of other ftates to follow. 
‘They have likewife been wifely aided from time to time by 
their refpeétive provincial legiflatures, not only in every 
privilege and fupport, but alfo a well digefted body of laws 
and regulations, extending to the moft minute circumttance, 
from the commencement of the out-iit to the export of the 
herrings. 

Yarmouth has been long famous for its herring-fair, which 
was regulated by an act, commonly called the ftatute of 
herrings, in the thirty-firft year of Edward III. , 

This politic monarch, with a view of promotivg the 
herring trade, became a purchafer of their fifh; and, 
in 1358, fifty lafts of herrings were fhipped at Portfmouth 
for the ufe of his army and fleet in Fiance. This prac- 
tice was adopted by his fucceffors down to queen Eli- 
zabeth, who alfo enforced the ecclefiattical laws refpeting 
the obfervance of Lent in favour of the fifheries. Indeed 
Yarmouth owed its.rife to the fifhery, for the place where 

Vor. XIV. 


it now ftands was only a fand-bank in the fea, which in 
procefs of time became dry land, and drew thither fifher- 
men from various parts of England, and alfo from France 
and the Low Countries, for the purpofe of catching herrings. 
The commencement of this fifhery appears, from feveral con- 
curring circumftances, to have taken place foon after the 
landing of Cerdic, the Saxon, in 495. (See Yarmouru.) 
The Yarmouth herrings maintained their reputation, and 
the inhabitants were reckoned the belt curers in Europe, fo 
that the Dutch were in the number of their foreign cuftomers. 
The Yarmouth people have greatly the advantage over the 
Dutch, in being nearer the herring fhoals, and aifo in being 
plentifully fupplied with wood; whereas the Dutch are 
obliged to {moke their herrings with turf or firaw. The 
fithing commences here about the twenty firlt of September, 
and continues til! the twenty-fifth of November. "Ihe fifh- 
ing grounds are from 10 leagues N. ot Yarmouth to the 
South Foreland. Their {macks or veffels carry from thirty 
to fifty tons, and each is equipped with go or 10> nets, 
which are replaced about the nuddle of the feafon by 
a freth fet, of the fame quantity and dimenfions. Each veffel 
is furmifhed with a well, into «hich the fifh are conveyed by 
a fort of machine, as foon as they are difengaged from the 
nets; the bottom of the well being full of holes, through 
which the blood and water are difcharged. There are two 
apartments called wings, one on cach fide of the well, isto 
which the men throw the herrings with fcoops; a third 
throws in the falt, while a fourth and fifth throw up the 
herrings to the furtheft part of the wings. By thefe means 
they are preferved till each veflel hath got in 1o or 12 
lafts, when the veffel returns to Yarmouth road, and the 
fifth is removed afhore in {mall boats, and conveyed to the 
fifh-houfe. Here they are falted on the floor, in which 
ftate they lie for two days; they are then wafhed in large 
vats of frefh water, put on the fpits, and dried with many 
fires of billet-wood. If the herrings are intended for export- 
ation, they are kept in this ftate from four to fix weeks, 
when they are packed in cafks of 32 gallons; each cafk con- 
taining 1000 herrings. One lait of falt cures three laits of 
herrings. This ancient fifhery is now much on the decline; 
and the town has fuffered much on this account. 

The Dutch began their herring-fifhery on the twenty- 
fourth of June, and employed no lefs than ten or eleven 
hundred veffels therein. Thefe veffels area kind of barks, 
called dufes, carrying from forty-five to fixty ton, and twe 
or three {mall cannon. 

Before the eftablifhment of the Society’of the Free Bri- 
tifh Fifhery, the number of Dutch veflels employed inthis 
fifhery was more confiderable, and amounted to fifteen hun- 
dred or two thoufand. 

None of them were allowed to ftir out of port without a 
convoy, unlefs there were enough ot them together to make 
eighteen or twenty-pieces of cannon; in which cafe they 
were allowed to go in company. _ Before they fat out, t 
made a verbal convention; which had the jame force as if 
it were in writing. - 

Thefe regulations of the admiralty of Holland were 
partly followed by the French, and other nations; and 
partly improved and augmented with new ones ; as, that 
fifher fhould calt his net within an hundred fathoms of 
another boat ; tliat while the nets were cait, slight thould 
be kept on the hind part of the veilel; that when a boar 
was by any accident obliged to leave off iifhing, the light 
fbould be catt into che fea; that when the greater part of 
a fleet left off fifhing, and calt anchor, the reit fhould do 
the fame, &c. 

By the a& for encouraging the Britith white herning-ffh- 

4B ery, 


FISHERY. 


ery, in 1750, it is requited, that the buffes employed in this 
fifhery, entitled to the bounty of 30s. per ton, fhall be 
decked veffels, built in Great Britain, after the com- 
mencement of the aét; and that each ot them fhall carry 
twelve Winchefter bufhels of falt, for every laft of fifh 
which fuch veffel is capable of holding, and as many more 
new barrels as fuch a fhip is capable of carrying, and two 
fleets of tanned nets; i. ¢. every veffel of feventy tons fhall 
have one fleet of nets, each thirty yards full on the rope, 
and feventeen fathoms deep, and others in proportion; and 
be provided with one other fleet of fifty like nets, on board 
a jagger or tender, which is to attend the faid fifhery. 
Every fuch bufs properly mannéd and furnifhed, thall pro- 
ceed either to Braffey’s Sound in Shetland; and be at the 
rendezvous of the faid fifhery there, on or before the 
eleventh day of June, but fhall not fhoot their net till the 
thirteenth, and fhall continue following the fhoal and fithing, 
as they move fouthward, to the firft of Otober; or to 
Campbeltown in Argylefhire, and be at the rendezvous of 
the faid fifheries on or before the firft day of December, 
unlefs they fhall have fooner completed their loading of 
fh. 

By 26 Geo. III. c. 8r. continued by a fubfequent a&t, a 
bounty of 20s per ton fhall be paid annually to the owner 
of every decked veffel, not lefs than fifteen tons burden, 


manned and navigated according to law, employed in the | 


Britifh white herring-fifhery under certain regulations, and 
with the alterations made by 42 Geo. III. c. 79. Every 
bufs or veffel to be entitled to the above bounty fhall be 
built in Great Britain, and have on board (in new barrels) 
twelve bufhels of falt for every laft of fifth, which fuch thip 
can carry, and alfo 250 fquare yards of netting, and not 
lefs than five men for the firft fifteen tons, and one addi- 
tional man for every additional five tons ; and fhall clear out 
from fome port in Great Britain between June 1ft and No- 
vember z2oth in the fame year, and proceed immediately 
to the faid fifhery, and coztinue fifhing three months, unlefs 
its cargo be completed. On its return the officer of the 
cuitoms hall examine the condition and lading of the ship ; 
and after other documents being produced the commiffioners 
of the cuftoms in England, or the commiffioners of the 
cuftoms or excife in Scotland, fhall caufe payment to be made 
to the owner or owners, or his or their affigus, the fum of 
20s. per ton, according to the admeafurement of {uch bufs 
or veflels, Tor every barrel of herrings twice packed and 
completely cured, which fhall, during one year, be landed 
from any veflel entitled to the aforefaid bounty of zo:. per 
ton, there fhall be a bounty of 4s. But if the number of 
barrels of herrings imported fhall, in one year, exceed the 
proportion of 2+ barrels of herrings, packed and cured as 
‘aforefaid, for every ton burden of fuch veflel, then there 
fhall be paid for every barrel foexceeding the faid proportion 
a bounty of 15. only. For all herrings which {hall be 
landed from any boat or veffel not entitled to the bounty 
of 20s. per ton, and whieh fhall afterwards be properly 
falted and cured, there fhall be paid a bounty of os. per 
barrel. For the encouragement of the fifhery, calied the 
Deep fea fifhery, over and befides the bounties before 
granted, there fhall be paid the following premiums; i. e. 
Jor the greateft quantity, of herrings caught by the crew of 
any one veflel, entitled: to the forementioned bounties of 
20s. per ton, and 4s. and rs. per barrel, and imported by 
fuch veffel between June 1 and: November 31ft in any 
one year, the premium of eighty guineas; for the next 
greateft quantity ixty guineas; and for the next forty gui- 
neas.; and for the next twenty guineas. By 36 Geo. III. 
e. 81, the curers of fith in Great. Britain were allowed to 


take falt, for the purpofe of curing fifh, but by the 38th 
of Geo. III. which fubjeéts falt to the excife duties, and. 
enacts new regulations, this a€t may be confidered as virtu- 
ally repealed, at leaft as to its principal claufes. There are 
other provifions included in the flats. 27 Geo. III. c. 10. 
35 Geo. III. c. 56, all which provifions and powers con- 
tained in preceding acts are revived by ftat. 42 Geo ITI. 
c. 79, except as to the bounties, which bounties by this aét, 
are‘as follow: From the 5th of April 1803, one-half of 
the bounty of 2os. per ton, and one-half of the bounties 
granted by the preceding aéts for every barrel of herrings. 
landed from any raft or veffel, in refpeét of which a bounty 
of 205. per ton is granted by the faid aéts, fhall ceafe and 
determine. For other regulations of the herring fifhery, 
fee Herrinec. 

The manner of fifhing has nothing particular in it. The 
nets wherein the fifh is drawn fhould regularly have their 
mefhes an inch fquare, that none of the lefler fry may be 
taken. 

The commerce of herring, both white, i.e. pickled, and 
red, is very confiderable ; but there are fo many different 
forts, prepared in fuch different ways, and different places, 
that it is hard to fay any thing precife thereupon. 

The white herrings cured by the Dutch ufed te be in the 
greate‘t repute; they were diftinguifhed into four kinds, 
according to their fizes. The geodnefs of this commodity 
confifts in its being fat, flefhy, firm, white; being never 
caught but when in feafon, chiefly in the month of July 
being taken alive out of the nets; being falted the fame day 
it is taken, and with good falt, and well barrelled. 

The Irifh herrings have been efteemed the next in value 
after thofe of Holland; and principally thofe of Dublin, 
which are fcarce inferior to the beft herrings of Rotterdam 
or Enkuyfen. ; 

It was about the year 1764, that the Irith parliament 
began to frame fuch laws, and to grant fuch aids as the 
nature of the fifheries fuggelted, ‘The principal fifheries 
of this country are in Loch Suilly, the Roffes, Killebegs, 
and Inverbay, on the coaft of Donegal; and an inferior 
kind of herrings is occafionally taken on the coaft of Sligo 
and Mayo, as far fouthward as Broadhaven. The fifhery 
at Inverbay begins in July, and continues till the beginning 
or fometimes the end of September. The other fitheries 
commenee in November, and end in January. Toe herrings 
taken by the Britith veffels are preferred; on account of 
their being gutted, and cured in barrels of 32 gallons. 
The Irifh ungutted herrinys, on the other hand, are in fome 
parts of the coat falted in holes dug in the earth, till the 
fifhers have an opportunity of felling them to the buffes ; 
they are then packed or piled up in the hold of the veflel, 
and are thus carried to Cork, and other ports, when the 
are put ito barrels of 25 gallons, and exported to the Weit 
Indies. Of the winter herrings taken in Loch Suilly, 5co 
will fill a barrel; and of the early herrings, 800. The 
buffes are from 20 to 100 tons burden, and are under 
certain parliamentary regulations, refpecting netting, and 
the number of men. ©The nets are tanned witha mix- 
ture of tar and fi/h oil, in the proportion of five parts of tar 
and one of oil; and improvements have been made in the 
method of working the nets. ; 

The Scotch herring is not fo well prepared, gutted, 
falted, or barrelled, as the Dutch ;- and yet its talte is 
excellent, that of thofe caught on the weftern coait efpe- 
cially ; nor is it to be doubted, but that if the Scots were 
as careful in thefe circumftances as their neighbours, their 
herrings would be the beft in the world. ait ; 

The whole coaft of Scotland may be cannes as one 

continued 


~~ 


.weftern or Hebride fithery. 


- benefit. 
.nefs to Berwick is the occafional refort of herrings, in their 
‘autumnal voyage fouthward, yet in this courfe of 300 miles, 
(including the Murray firth,) there is not a fixed or ftation- 


EES 'Y. 


continued fithery, diftinzuifhed, however, by the names of 
the Shetland, or northern fifhery, that on the eaft fide of 
the kingdom from the Pentland firth to Berwick, and the 
The principal town on the 
Shetland iflands is called Lerwic, fituated on a narrow 
channel of the Main-land, called Braffa or Brafley-found. 


Hither the Dutch and other foreigners have been accuftomed 


to refort to the fifheries at the appointed feafons, when 
Lerwic hath had all the appearance ofa continued market or 
fair. The eaftern fifheries along the eaftern fhores of Scot- 
land, though lefs confiderable than thofe on the coatts of 
Shetland, might with proper attention be of great national 
But though the whole line of coaft from Caith- 


ary fifhery, fuch as that at Yarmouth, Donegal, and Got- 


_tenburgh, where the herrings arrive almott toa certainty, 


explored, and that have produced the greateit quantity of 


that populous, though remote part of the kingdom. 


and geierally at the fame period of time. The fhores on 
the eaftern fide of Scotland, that have been moft generally 


herring, are thofe of the Forth and the Murray firth. ‘The 
herring fifhery in the Forth was conduéted formerly by open 
boats, which amounted to the number of 6 or 800, and 
many thoufand barrels of herrings were annually exported, 
befides fupplying the home demand. The coatt fifhing on 
the Murray firth was conducted on the fame plan, governed 
by the fame regulations, and proportionally beneticial ig 
t 
employed from 5 to 700 boats. Thefe fifheries, at prefent 
in a low ftate, might be extended to any degree; and alfo 
the deep water fifhery, to the diftance of 20 miles from the 
coaft, where the herrings are larger and fatter than thofe 
taken inthe Forth, or near the fhores, and are nearly equel 
to the herrings taken in decp lochs of the Weft Highlands. 
This deep water fifhery fhould be carried on by builes or 
decked veffels, from 20 to 80 tons burden, which onght to 


‘be at the Shetland iflands early in the feafon, and the pro- 
_duce fhould be fpeedily carried to the proper markets; 


whilft the buffes may continue the fifhery down the channel 
till the end of the feafon. In this manner the markets 
would be conftantly fupplied, greatly to the benefit of the 
merchant, the fifhers, and the labouring poor, along the 


. whole coaft, The Hebride, or weftern fithery, was fre- 


quented in very early times by the French and Spaniards, 


‘who trafficked there with the natives for fifh; whence we 


may conclude that the natives were fifhers, and that foreign- 
ers were the carriers. It is probable that the fithery was 
then carri¢d on by little open boats, or berlins, fach as the 
Highlanders generally ufe at the prefent day. This tifhery 
was the thoroughfare, as we may call it, of the great weftern 


‘ fhoal of herrings, in their annual tour frem the Shetland 


iflands to Ireland, which, in the opinion of fome writers, 
they environ, and from whence they return by the oppofite 


- channel, in the fame manner as the ealtern fhoals environ 
_ Great Britain, and return north by the weltern channel. 


This Hebride fifhery, confidering the manner in which it 
was conducted, may be juttly flyled the fchool of naviga- 


«tion; and on this account, as well as for its produce, de- 


-ferves Britifh encouragement. 


Asa nurfery of feamen, the 


pboat ‘ifhery will exceed that of the bufles with regard to 


numbers of perfons employed ; but, on the other hand, it 


¢annot be put into competition with the buffes in vefpe& of 
nautical knowledge. 


bein 


The herring fifhed in England is inconfiderable ¢ the fith 
too dry for the market. However, at Yarmouth 


and Leoftoff they have in former times taken and cured 


about 50,0co barrels of re@-herrings in a year; and very 
large quantities are alfo caught at the mouth of the Thames 
by the fifhing-fmacks of London, Folkftone, Dover, Sand- 
wich, &c. for the London markets, and wear the fea-coait 
of Kent and Suffex for general confumption. Some fhoals 
are alfo forced, by the great fwell of the Atlantic, into the 
Briftol channel, and particularly into the bay of Barnftaple, 
where they have been fometimes taken and cured for expor- 
tation, in very confiderable quantities. 

Curing and preparing herrings.—1, For white or pickled 
herrings : as {oon as the herrings are taken out of the fea, 
one of the crew, appointed for this office, cuts them open, 
and takes out the guts, and every thing but the milts and 
roes, which are always to be left in the body of the filh. 
Then wafhing them in frefh water, they are left the {pace 
of twelve or fifteen hours in a tuh full of ftrong brine made 
of frefh water, and fea-falt. 

When they are taken out, they drain them; and whea 
well drained, put them up in barrels; taking care to dif- 
pofe and range them evenly, in rows, or layers, prefiing 
them well down, and ftrewing a layer of falt both at top 
and bottom. 

When the barrel is full, they ftop it up very clofe, that 
no air may get in, ner any brine out; either of which is 
very prejudicial to the fith. 

The Dutch, after opening and gutting the herrings, cure 
and falt them by lining or rubbing their infide with falt ; 
they are then packed, with handfuls of falt between each 
row, and {topped up clofe. 

2. For red-herrings : the fith being caught, they proceed 
to wafh, gut, and lay them in brine, as for pickled her- 
rings ; only they let them lie double the time in brine, wiz. 
twenty-four hours ; inafmuch as they are to take all their 
falt here, whereas the other kind takes half its falt in the 
barrel. 

When the herrings are taken out of the brine, they {pit 
them, i.e. ftring them by the head on little wooden {fpits, 
and thus hang them in a kind of chimney, made for the 
purpofe ; and when the chimney is as full as it will hold, 
which lefs than ten or twelve thoufand feldom effeéts, 
they make a little fire underneath, of brufh-wood, which 
yields a deal of fmoke, but no flame. > 

Here the herrings remain till fufficiently fmoked and 
dried; which ordinarily is in twenty-four hours. Ther 
they are taken down and barrelled up for keeping. 

Their goodnefs confifts in being large, frefh, fat, oily, 
foft, and pliable, their outfide of a yellow, golden colour ; 
their having roes, or milt, within them, and being well 
falted- and barrelled. See Hersixe. 

Fisnegy, Ling. This fifh abounds near the Scilly ifles, 
and on the Yorkfhire coait. In the latter fituation they are 
in perfection from the 1 of February to the 1f of May, 
and fome till the end of that month. In June they fpawn, 
depofiting their eggs in the foft oozy ground of the mouth 
of the Tees. At that time the males feparate from the 
females, ard refort to fome rocky ground near Flambc rough 
Head, where the fithermen take great numbers without ever 
finding any of the female or roed fil among them. While 
a ling is in feafon its liver is very white, and abounds with 
a fine flavoured oi! ; but when the fifh goes out of feafon 
the liver becomes red, like that of a bullock, and affords no 
cil. When the fith is in perfection, a very large quantity 
of oil may be melted out of the liver by a flow fire; byt 
if a violent fudden heat be uled for that purpofe they yield 
very little. Great quantities of ling are falted for exporta- 
tion, as well as for home eonfumption. When it is cut or 
{plit for curing, jt muit meafure 26 inches or upwards from 

4 B 2 


+} 
rae 


-FISHER Y. 


the fhoulder to the tail; iflefs than that, it is rot reckoned 
a fizeable fifh, and confequently not entitled to the bounty 
on exportation; fuch are called drizzles, and are in feafon 
all fummer. The w wal fize of a ling is from three to four 
feet ; but fome have meafured feven feet. 

Fisuery, Lobfer. Lobfters are taken along the Britifh 
channel, and on the coaft of Norway, whence they are 
brought to London for fale; ‘and alfo in the frith of 
Edinburgh, and on the coaft of Northumberland. 

By 10 & 11 W. III. cap. 24, no‘lobiler is to ‘be ‘taken 
under eight inches in length, from ‘the peak of the nofe to 
the end of the middle tin of the tail’; and by 9 G. IT. 
cap. 33. no lobfters are to be taken or deftroyed on the 
coaft of Scotland from the firlt'of June, to the firlt of Sep- 
tember, on pain of 5/. 

Fisuery, Mackarel. The mackarel is a falt-water fifh, 
without fcales. Its body is round and flefhy ; terminating 
almoft in a point, at each extreme. 

Some perfous, well filled in naval archite&ture, hold its 


figure the moft commodious for ‘fwimming of all others, and. 


propofe it as a model for the building of thips. 

It is ordinarily about a foot long; when in the water it 
appears yellow, and when out of it of a filver white, ex- 
cepting four ftreaks, or {peckles, of a deep blue, en the back 
and fides. Its ufual weight is about two pounds. During 
winter a film grows on the eyes of this fifh ; in the {pring 
they are half blind; and in fummer the film is caft. See 
MaAckare.. 

The mackarel is a fummer fifh of paffage, found in large 
fhoals in divers parts of the ocean, not far north ; but efpe- 
tially on the French and Englith coatts. 

The fifhing is ufually in the months of April, May, and 
June, and even July, according to the place. ‘They enter 
‘the Englifh channel in April, and proceed up to the ftreights 
of Dover, and,the mouth of the Thames, as the fummer 
advances; fo that by June they are on the coafts of Corn- 
wall, Suffex, Normandy. Picardy, &c. where the tifhery is 
moft confiderable. An inferior fort is alfo taken during the 

tharveit months. hey are an excellent food, frefh, but 

their tafte and flavour are much impaired a few hours after 
they are taken ; and not to be defpifed when well prepared, 
pickled, and put up in barrels; a method of preferving them 
chiefly ufed in Cornwall. 

Naturalifts have obferved, that the water wherein macka- 
rel have been boiled, often yields a light, after ftirring it a 
little. See Free, and Juminoufne/s of the Sea. 

The fifh is taken two ways; either with a line, or nets: 
the latter is the more confiderable, and is ufually performed 
inthe night time. he rules obferved in the fifhing for 
mackarel are much the fame as thofe already mentioned in 
the fifhery of herrings. 

There are two ways of pickling them: the firft is, by 
opening and gutting them, and filling the belly with falt, 
crammed in as hard as poffible with a flick ; which done, 
they range them in {trata or rows, at the bottom of the 
veffel, ftrewing falt between the layers, 

In the fecond way, they put them immediately into tubs 
full of brine, made of frefh water and falt ; and leave them 
to fteep, till they have imbibed {alt enough to make them 
keep; after which they are taken out, and barrelled up, 
taking care to prefs them clofe down. 

Mackarel are not cured or exported as merchandize, ex- 
cept a few by the Yarmouth and Leoftoff merchants, but are 
generally confumed at home; efpecially in the city of Lon- 
don, and the fea-ports between the Thames and Yarmouth, 
eaft, and the Land’s End of Cornwall, weft. By itat. 
35 Geo. III. c. 54. the curers of mackarel in Great Bri- 


tain may import any quantity of foreign falt, or take any 
quantity of Britifh falt, from any falt-works and falt-pits, 


and remove coait-wife the falt fo imported, or taken for the 


purpofe of curing mackarel (or any cod, ling, hake, or fal- 
mon, being taken in the mackarel fithery) for home cen- 
fumption, duty free, except the cufloms due on importa- 
tion, in as full a manner as the herring and pilchard fifhe 
are enabled to do for home confumption. For every barrel 
of white mackarel, twice packed, and completely cured, 
containing 32 gallons, which fhall be exported from Great 
Britain into any parts beyond feas, (except into any part of 
the Mediterranean) a bounty of 2s. 8d. fhall be paid; and 
for every barrel of mackarel which fhall be landed from any 
boats or veffels, and which fhall be properly falted and cured, 
fhall be-paid a bounty of 15. , 

Fisuery, Qy/fer, is principally carried on at Colchefter, 
in Effex; Feverfham and Milton, in Kent; the Ifle of 
Wight; the Swales of the Medway ; and Tenby, on the 
coaft of Wales. From Feverfham, and adjacent parts, the 
Dutch have fometimes loaded a hundred large hoys with 
oyfters in a year. They are aifo teken in great quantities 
near Portfmouth, and in all the creeks and rivers between 
Southampton and Chichefter; many of which are carried 
about ‘by fea to London and to Colchefter, to be fed in the 
pits about Wavenhoe, and other places. By 31 G. ITI. 
c. 51. if any perfon {hall within any net, traul, dredge, or 
any other engine, take or catch any oyt{ter or oyfter brood, 
within the limits of any oyfter fifhery in this kingdom, or 
ufe any fuch engine for the purpofe of catching oyfters or 
oyiter brood, though none be taken; or drag upon the 
ground of any fuch fifhery with any net er other engine ; 
every fuch perfon, except the owner, leffee, or occupier of 
the faid fifhery, or perfon lawfully entitled to catch oyfters 
therein, fhall be deemed guilty of a mifdemeanor, and may 
be indiéted at the affizes or quarter feffions for the county 
or divifion ; and every fuch siflendek being conviéted by ver- 
diét before the juftices in feffions, or on his own confeffion, 
may be punifhed by fiue and imprifonment, or either of 
them, as the court may think proper; fuch fine not to ex- 
ceed 2</. or be lefs than gos. ; and fuch imprifonment not 
to be for more than three months, nor lefs than one month. 
Offenders may be apprehended by warrant of any juftice, 
who may commit them to the common gaol or other prifon, 
until the next aflizes or quarter feflions, unlefs they enter 
into recognizance with two fureties in 20/. each to appear 
and anfwer to fuch indi€tment, &c. See Oyster. 

Fisnery, Pearl. See Peary fifkery. 

Fisnery, Pilchard, The pilchard is a {mall falt-water 
fifh, bigger than the anchovy, but lefs.than the herring, 
which in other refpects it refembles, Its head is yellow ; 
its belly white ; and its back a fea-green. It isexcellent when 
freth, or lightly falted. See PircHarp. ' 


There are certain featons for fifhing the pilchard ; which, 
like the herring and anchovy, isa fifh of paflage from the 
northern latitudes ; and its arrival is indicated by fimilar figns 
with thofe of the herrings. They are prepared and falted 
much as the anchovy is; with this difference, that the head 
is cut off the latter: but the pilchard is diftinguifhable 
from the anchovy, even though its head were off likewife ; 
the pilchard having a very flat back, and the anchovy'a 
round one, 

The chief pilchard fifheries are along the coafts of Dal. 
matia, to the fouth of the ifland Iffea; on the coafts of Bre- 
tagne, from Belle ifland as far as Breft; and along the 
coaits of Cornwall and Devonfhire ; when they appearabout 
the middle of July, and range between Fowey harbour-and 

the 


_ lofs of the owners. 


FISHERY. 


the Scilly iflands about September; fome few occafionally 
returning after Chriftmas. 

It is a faying of the Coraifh men, with regard to the pil- 
chard, that it is the leaft fith in fize, moft in number, and 
greateft in gain, of any they take out of the fea. This ob- 
fervation is-amply confirmed by Dr. Borlafe’s account of 
this fifhery ; for befides the great number of perfons em- 
ployed by it, the poor are fed with the offals of the cap- 


tures, the land with the refufe of the fifth and falt, the mer- 


chant finds the gains of commiffion and commerce, and the 
fifherman the gains of the fifh. The ufual produce of the 
number of hogfheads exported each year, for tea years, 
from 1747 to 1756 inclufive, from the four ports of 
Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance, and St. Ive’s, amounted to 
29,795 hogtheads. Every hogfhead for ten years latt 
pait, together with the bounty allowed for each hogthead 
exported, and the oil made out of each, has amounted, one 
year with another, at an average, to the price of 1/. 135. 
and 3¢.; fo that the cafh paid for pilchards exported has, 
at a medium, annually amounted to the fum of 49,532/. 
tos. The number taken at one fhooting out of the nets is 
amazingly great. In 1767, there were at one time in- 
clofed in St. [ves’s bay 7000 hogfheads, each hogfhead con- 
taining 35,00 ofifh; inall 245,000,c00/. 

That on the coafts of Dalmatia is fo plentiful, that it 
not only furnifhes all Greeee, but a great part of Tialy. 


_ That on the coafts of Bretagne has employed yearly above 


three hundred floops, and moit of the feamen of the 
country. 

The fith caught on our own coats, though bigger, are 
not fo much valued as’ thofe on the coafts of France; owing 
principally to their not being fo thoroughly cured. 

The feafon is from June to September. 

The pilchards, like the herrings, naturally follow the 
light, and will gather about a boat that bears alight in the 
night time; which coutributes much to the facility of the 
fifhery. 

Onthe coafts of France they make ufe of the roes of cod- 
fifh asa bait; which thrown into the fea makes them rife 
from the bottem, and run into the nets placed for that 
purpofe. 

On our coafts there are perfons, called in Cornwall Ayers, 
polted afhore, who, {pying by the colour of the water 
where the fhoals are, make figns to the boats, to get among 
them, to cait their nets. 

When taken, the fifh are brought toa warehoufe on fhore, 
where they are laid up in broad piles, f{upported by backs 
and fides. . 

As they pile them, they falt them with bay-falt; in 
which they lie foaking twenty or thirty days, and difcharge 
a great quantity of blood, with dirty pickle, and bittern ; 
which lait draws much of the oil from the tifh, to the great 
When taken out of the pile, there re- 
mains a quantity of falt, blood, feales, &c. at bottom, 


which, with frefh falt, ferves for another pile. 


They now proceed to wath them in fea-water to clear off 
the dirt and blood; and, when dry, they put them up in 
barrels, and prefs them hard down to {queeze out the oil, 


“which iffues away at a hole in the bottom of the cafk ; and 


in this ftate they are fit for fale or ufe, : 
Fisuery, Sa/mon. The falmon is a northern fifh, occu- 


_ pying the European feas, the latitudes lying between France 


and Greenland, being unknownin the Mediterranean fea, 


and other warm climates, and, according to fome, breeds in 


the fea: but the opinion of others feems better warranted, 


‘that it breeds in the clear fandy parts of rivers, remote from 


their mouths. They commonly {pawn'in November ; and 


when they have founda place fit for the purpofe, the male 
and female unite in forming a proper receptacle for it in the 
fand or gravel, about the depth of cighteen inches ; in this 
the female depofits her fpawn, and the male his milt, which 
they cover carefully, ‘as it is faid, with their tails ; for after 
{pawning, they are obferved to have no {kin on that part. 
The {pawn lies buried till the fpring. The milter and 
fpawuer, having performed their officey betake themfelves to 
the fea; and if their return be prevented by weirs, or the 
like, they -become fick, lean, and are then called kipper, 
pine away, and die in two years time. If they {pawn in 
the mean time, the produce is a diminutive falmon, called 
JSkegger, which will never arrive at the natural bulk ; it being 
the fea that makes them grow big, and the rivers fat. The 
female is diftinguifhed from the male, in that its nofe is 
longer, and more hooked, its feales not fo bright, and its 
body fpeckled over with dark brown fpots, its belly flatter, 
and its flefh net fo red; more dry, and lefs delicious to the 
taite. In fpawning time, when they repair fromthe fea up 
to the rivers, fearce any thing can ftop their progrefs. 
Many have feen them leap up catara@ts and precipices many 
yards high. They will afcend rivers 500 miles from the 
fea, and force themfelves againft the moit rapid ftreams. 
They are frequently taken in tbe Rhine as high as Bafil 
in Switzerland ; they gain the fources of the Lapland rivers 
notwith{tanding their {trong torrents; and furmount the 
perpendicular fall acrofs the Liffy, at Leixlip, 7 miles above 
Dublin, though nearly 30 feetin height. As foon as they 
come to the bottom of the cafcade, they feem difappointed 
oa meeting the obftruétion, and retire fome paces back ; 
they then review the danger that affails them, furvey it 
without motion, advance, and again retreat; till at lag, 
fummoning up all their force, they take a leap from the 
bottom, with the body quite ftraight, and witha {trong 
tremulous motion ; and they moft frequently clear every ob- 
ftruétion. It fometimes happens, however, that they want 
ftrength to make the leap, in which cafe they are entangled 
in their defcent by bafkets placed on purpofe, from which 
they cannot efeape. The thooting of falmon, in their leap, 
is fometimes practifed for amufement. See Sarmon. 

When the falmon firft enter the freth water, they have a 
number of infeéts, the /ernee falmonee of Linneus, adher- 
ing to them, efpecially above the gills, which are figns 
that the fith is in high feafon: thefe die and drop off foon 
after the falmon have left the fea. About the latter end of 
March the {pawn begins to exclude the young, which gra- 
dually increafe to the length of four or five inches, and are 
then termed {melts or {mouts ; and about the beginning of 
May the Tweed, &c. is full of them; but they are fon 
hurried away to the fea. About the middle of June, the 
earlieit of the fry begin to drop, as it were, into the river 
again from the fea, being about twelve, fourteen, or fixteen 
inches, aad they gradually increafe in number and fize till 
about the end of July (at Berwick thé fith in this ftage is 
called gilfe) ; when they again leffen in number and increafe 
in tize, fome being, in Augutt, fix, feven, eight, or nine 
pounds in weight. 

The chief falmon fitheries in Europe are along the coatts 
of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The fifhing ufually 
begins about the firit of January, and ends by the lait of Sep- 
tember. It is performed with nets, in the places where 
the rivers empty themfelves into the fea, and along the fea 
coaits thereabout. The fith are feen to crowd thither fre- 
quently in fhoals from all parts in fearch ofthe freth water ; 
they ulfo-fith for them higher up in the rivers: fometimes with 
nets, and fometimes with a kind of locks, or weirs, made 
for the purpofe, with iron grates therein, fo sae as 

that 


BLS HE RY. 


that the fith, in going up the fiver, open them with their 
head; but are no fooner entered than the gate claps to. 
‘Thus the falmon are inclofed as in a refervoir, where it is eafy 
totake them. In fome places they fith for falmon in the 
night time, by the light of torches, or kindled ftraw. 
The tifhermen watch when the fith draws towards the light, 
whereof he is naturally a great lover, and ftrikes him witha 
fpear or lifter. In‘ fome parts of Scotland it is 
faid, they ride a fifhing up the rivers, and, when they 
{py them in the fhallow parts, fhoot them with fire- 
arms. 

Salmon form, in feveral countries, a great article of com- 
merce ; being cured in different ways, by falting, pickling, 
and drying. here are ftationary fifheries in Icelané, Nor- 
way, and the Baltic; but thofe at Coleraine in Ireland, at 
Berwick in Great Britain, and in fome of the rivers of Scot- 
land, are the moft confiderable. The capture in the Tweed 
near Berwick, about the month of July, is prodigious; a 
boat load, and fometimes near two, are taken in a tide ; and 

_it is common to take from fifty toa hundred fifh at one hawl. 
At this time the coopers in Berwick begin to falt both fal- 
mon and gilfes in pipes, and other large veffels, and then 

_ barrel them to fend abroad. The falmon barrel holds above 
forty-two gallons, wine meafure. Most of the falmon taken 
before April is fent frefh to London ; and that which they 
fail to fend is boiled, pickled, and kitted. -Frefh falmon 
kas alfo been fent to London in the latter end of September ; 
but then the fith are full of large roes, very thin bellied, 
and are efteemed neither palatable nor wholefome. In the 
month of July a flone of fiefh falmon, of eighteen pounds 
ten ounces and a half, has been fold at Berwick for eight- 

. pence ; but the more common price is between fixteen-pence 
and two fhilliags and fix-pence. The feafon for fithing in 
the T'weed begins the thirtieth of November, though the 
fifhermen work very little till after Chrifkmas, and ends 
on Michaelmas day. There are on this river forty-one cov- 
fiderable fitheries, befide others of lefs value, which former- 

_ ly rented for near 5400/. per annum. 

Scotland poflefles allo great numbers of fine fitheries on 
both fides of that kingdom. The falmon are cured in the 
fame manner as at Berwick; and a great quantity is fent to 
London in the fpring ; but after that time the adventurer 
begins to barrel and export them to forcign countries ; 
though the demand for them is much abated of late years. 
‘They have alfo in Scotland a great deal of falmon, falted in 
the common way, which, after foaking in brine for a com- 
petent time, is well prefled, and then dried in fmoke: this 
1s called Lipper, is chiefly made for home confumption, and, 
if properly cured and prepared, is reckoned very delicious 
food. The great fifheries are thofe of the Tweed, the 
Forth, the Tay, the Dec, the Don, the Devron, the Spey, 
the Findhorn, the Nefs, the Braulie, and thence northward 
to Dungfbay head, the coaft of the Pentland firth, the coaft 
froma cape Wrath-to the Mullof Cantire, all the Hebride 
ilands, and the coatts of Airfhire, Galloway, and the Sol- 
way firth, where the rivers, bays, or lakes areopen. The 
feafon of fithing at Aberdeen is from the goth -of 
November to the 8th of September; but few fifth come 
into the rivers before the 1{t of January, from which time, 
to the middle of May, the falmon are boiled and killed for 
the London market, and fent off almoit every week, by 
{wift failing floops, called fmacks, retained for the purpofe. 
Thofe that are caught through the fummer are falted for 
fareign exportation. No falmon is allowed to be barrelled 
and cured, except by the town’s coopers, who are required 
to put the initial letters of their names on their barrels ; 
nor can they be fhipped for exportation till the letters A. 


B. D. have been burned on each barrel, by an officer ap- 
pointed for that purpofe. No fith that hath been bit by 
feals, none under acertain fixed weight, nor any that have 
been damaged in the carriage from the river, are to be 
put into a barrel, without having the word rebate 
burned on the end of the cafk. The barrels are 
of a fixed fize, containing about 250 pounds of fifh, fo 
carefully packed that they do not differ’ a pound of fifh 
from one another. After they are packed from the vats in- 
which they had been falted, great care is taken to keep 
them brim full of pickle, till the bungs are fixed down, a 
day or two before they are fhipped. By this attention the 
Aberdeen falmon hath acquired {uch a character abroad, that 
it generally fetches the higheft price, and no queftions are 
afked refpeéting the quality. 

The north of Ireland abounds with this fifh: the moft 
coniiderable fifhery is at Cranna, about a mile and a half 
from Coleraine, rented, in 1754, for 620/.a year. It is 
fituated on the river Bann, where they fifh with nets eighteen 
{core yards long, and are continually drawing night and 
day through the whole feafon, which lafts about four 
months ; eight hundred and forty fifh have been taken at a 
fingle draught. There is alfo a weir on the river, which 
takes the fith that efcape the nets. In 1760, three hundred 
and twenty tons were taken in the Cranna fifhery. The 
falmon are cured in this manner: they are firft {plit, and the 
guts and gills, and many of the bones, are taken out, and 
then rubbed with fine falt ; and after lying in pickle in 
large tubs for fix weeks, are packed up onltheas of coarfe 
brown Spanifh falt in cafks, fix of which make a ton. 
Thefe are exported to Leghorn and Venice, &e. at the 
price of twelve or thirteen pounds a ton. Pennant’s Brit. 
Zool. v, ili. p. 284. 294. See a further account of this 
fifhery under CoLerAtne. 

The ftat. 4 & 5 Anne, cap. 21. was made for the in« 
creafe and prefervation of falmon in rivers in the coun- 
ties of Southampton and Wilts, requiring that no falmon 
be taken between the firft of Auguft and the twelfth of 
November, or under fize, &c. And by 1 Geo. I. cap. 18. 
falmon taken in the rivers Severn, Dee, Wye, Were, Oufe, 
&c. are to be eighteen inches long, at leaft; and the nets 
fhall not be lefs than 24 inches in the mefh ; nor fhall any 
falmon be fent to London out of the faid rivers under fix 
pounds weight; or the perfons catching them {hall forfeit 
5/. This ftatate contains feveral other regulations. And’ 
by 30 Geo. II. cap. 21. no falmon is to be caught in the 
rivers Thames and Medway between the eleventh of No- 
vember and twenty-fourth of Augult, or to be: of lefs 
weight than fix pounds. 

Salmon is alfo fifhed for in rivers, after the manner of 
trout, with a line and hook. He bites beft in the after- 
noon, about three, in May, June, July, and Augutt ; the 
water being clear, and a little breeze of wind itirring ; ef- 
pecially if the wind and ftream fet contrary ways. The 
falmon is caught like a trout, with worm, fly, and minim ; 
and efpecially the garden-worm, if well fecured, and kept 
twenty days in mofs. The falmon never ftays long in a 
place, but is continually fhifting to be as near the fpring- 
head as poffible, and {wimming generally in the deepeft and 
broadeft parts of the rivers, near the ground. Put two 
or three garden-worms well feoured on your hook at once, 
as if you were baiting for trout: and be fure to give him 
time to gorge his bait, before you ftrike. Some ufe a wire- 
ring on the top of the rod, through which the line may be 
let run to any length at pleafure, by a reel near the hand. 


Fisuery, Seal, &c. The fifhery for feals is very pro- 
I ductive 


FISHER Y. 


ductive and gainful. The fkin of the feal is tanned and 
made into fhoes, commonly called dog-fkin fhoes; it alfo 
ferves for the bottoms of chairs, and for various other pur- 
pofes. The oil is ufed in chambers, and fells at a much 
higher price than that of the cod-fifh, which is burned in 
ftreet-lamps. The greateft feal fifhery is on the coait of 
Labrador in North America. The boats ufed in the cod- 
fifhery of Newfoundland are about 50 feet in length, decked 
at both ends; they have two mafts, and a fhort bow{prit; 
they are built of fir or f{pruce, and will fail, as the feamen 
fay, in the wind’s eye. In the winter feafon, when the 
Newfoundland cod-fifhery is finifhed, thefe boats, with 30 
or 40 men in each, repair to the frozen fhores of Labrador, 
where the winds and tides often drive immenfe floats of ice 
into the bays, and on thefe floats a great number of feals. 
As the koats belong to different merchants, the float of ice 
is-marked out in equal portions, and each boat’s crew 
are ftriétly limited to the part afligned them. Having 
fettled thefe regulations, they attack the feals in their re- 
fpective departments. ‘The firft man of the party advances 
towards a feal, which he {trikes immediately above the nofe 
with a club; then attacks another and kills it ; and marches 
forward to a third, which he alfo kills. Thus advancing, 
the whole field of ice becomes a fcene of blood, ftrewed 
with dead feals. When the firft feal is killed, the next per- 
fon in rank tears off the fkin, which he leaves on the {pot, 
and advances tothe fecond, and fo on. A third perfon 
takes a layer of fat, with which the feal is covered next 
the fkin, which he leaves on the {pot, and immediately 
follows the two others. Thus the killer, the flayer 
of fcin and ef fat, with the remaining crew, will fome- 
times clear to the value of soo/. within the interval of 
24 hours. When this happens, they return with what they 
calka full cargo, which abundantly reimburfes their em- 
ployers. The feal-fifhing in Scotland is in fome refpecis 
fimilar. The Scottifhfeas are open through the whole 
year, and the feals, being of the amphibious kind, frequent 
the caverns and openings of the rocks upon the fhore, 
where they bring up their young. The Hebrides, and the 
northern fhores of the main land, are the principal refort of 
the feals. On the weftern coaft of North Uift, a part of 
the Lorg ifland, lies the rock Confmil, about a quarter of 
amile in circumference, which is ftill famous for the yearly 
fifhing of feals there the end of Oétober. This rock be- 
Jongs to the farmers of the adjacent lands; one of whom 
furnifhes a boat, to whom a particular fhare is due on that 
account, befides his proportion as a tenant. ‘The minifter, 
tLeward, and fubordinate officers have their fhares by virtue 
of their refpeétive offices. ‘The farmers man their boats 
with a competent number of perfons;-and when the crew 
are landed, a fignal is given for a general attack, the pafles 
being furrounded, and they beat down the feals with their 
ftaves. The feals on this onfet make towards the fea with 
full fpeed, and often force their paflage over the necks of 
the ftouteft affailants, who always aim at the foreheads of 
the feals, giving many blows before they are killed; and 
fometimes the feals lay hold of the ftaves with their teeth, 
and carry them away to the fea. Thofe that are in the boat 
fhoot at them as they run to fea, but few are caught 
that way. Some of the largelt feals lofe their lives by en- 
deavouring to fave their young, which they tumble before 
them towards the fea, and in this act they are cruelly 
knocked on the head with fticks or ftaves. Three hun- 
dred feals, it is faid; have been killed at one time in this 
place. They are attacked in OGober, becaufe in the be- 
ginning of this mouth they bring forth their young on the 
weit fide of thefe iflands; but thofe on the eaft fide are 


of a {maller flature, and bring forth their you*g in the mid- 
dle of June. 

The feals eat no fifh till they firft take off the hkin; 
they take hold of the fifh between their teeth, and pluck 
the fin off each fide with their fharp-pointed nails. The 
natives fay that the feals are regularly coupled, and refent 
an encroachment on their mates at an extraordinary rate. 
It is faid that the feals make their mutual addrefles by falu- 
tations; and the female puts away its young as foon as it is 
able to provide for itfelf, in doing which it recurs to many 
fevere blows. In the fkin of the females there is a hole, 
within which the teats are fecure from injury, as it creeps 
along the rocks and ftones; and on this account nature has 
formed the point of the tongue cloven, in order to enable 
the young to fuck. ‘The natives falt the feals with the 
afhes of burnt fea-ware, and fay they are good food. The 
vulgar eat them commonly in the fpring, and ufe a 
long pointed flick inftead of a fork, to prevent the trong 
fmell which their hands would otherwife retain for feveral 
hours afterwards. This four-footed creature is reckoned one 
of the {wifteft in the fea: and it is likewife faid, that in- 
cold weather it will leap to the height of a pike above water ; 
that the fkin of it is white in f{ummer, and darker in winter ; 
and that its hair itands up with the flood, and falls again at 
the ebb. The natives cut the fkin in long pieces, and ufe 
them as ropes to fix the plough to their horfes when they 
till the ground. 

The dafking fharks ave fuppofed to be migratory fifhes 
from the Arétic circle ; they frequent the coa{t of Norway, 
the Orkney and Hebride iflesy the firth of Clyde, the bay 
of Ballyfhannon in Ireland, and the weft coaft of Wales, 
particularly Carnarvonfhire and Anglefey. ‘They appear 
in the firth of Clyde, near the ifle of Arran, in {mall fhoals 
of feven or eight, but more generally in pairs, fome time in 
Jure, and remain till the end of July, when they difappear. 
Although they are in fize from ro to so fect in length, they 
are fo tame and itupid, that they will fuffer themfelves to 
be ftroaked in the water. They lie on the furface, fome- 
times, on their bellies, and fometimes on their backs, as if 
they were afleep. When the harpooner ftrikes his weapon 
into them, which he does as near the gills as poffible, and 
they perceive themfelves wounded, they fling up their 
tail and plunge headlong into the bottom, 


that their efforts are ineffectual, they fwim away with fuch 


towed away by them aguinit.a frefh gale. They fometimes 
run off with 200 fathoms of line, and with two harpoons in 
the body ; and will contend for 24 hours before they are 
{ubdued. When they are killed, the liver, which is the 
only ufeful part, is taken out and melted in kettles pro- 
vided for that purpofe. A large fith, particularly the fe- 
male, «will yield eight barrels of oil, two of ufelefs fediment, 
and afford a profit of 20/. The oil is of the moft valuable 
kind, being pure and {weet, extremely proper for lamps, 
and much valued by tanners. It isalfo ufed by the fihers 
for curmg burns, bruifes, and rheumatic complaints. 

The catching of /ea-dogs is a kind of defenfive fithery, 
Thefe animals, though {carcely exceeding the fize of a large 
cod, are equally deltru€tive to nets, and to all the {fpecies of 
fith which they can avercome. They had become {fo offen- 
five on the coafts ef Newfoundland and Labrador, that the 
enraged fifhermen made war upon them as a common enemy, 
and with fuch fuccefs, that they have almott extirpated the 
whole {pecies fromthe American fhores. They abound on 
the coait of Shetland, particularly the Hebrides, where they 

are 


FISHER Y. 


are taken in cohfiderable numbers. Being fplit and dried, 
they are conveyed by the women through different parts of 
the country, and fold or exchanged for neceffaries ; thefe 
forming a petty inland commerce. 

Fisuery, Sturgeon. he fturgeon is a large fea-fith, 
which at its feafon runs up the rivers; having a fharp- 
pointed {nout, a flat belly, and blueifh back. Sturgeons, 
as well as whales, are reckoned among the number of royal 
fifhes. ; 

There are flurgeons of all fizes ; and we even read of 
fome twenty feet long; but the middle fize are reckon- 
ed the beit ; though fome prefer the {maller. See Srur- 
GEON. 

It is of the roe or eggs of this fifth that the cavear, or 
kavia, fo much prized by the Italians, &c. is prepared. See 
Cavear. 

Sturgeon, when frefh, eats delicioufly. To make it keep, 
they falt or pickle it in large pieces, and put them up in 
cags, from twenty-five to fifty pounds. 

The greateft fturgeon fifhery in the world is in the 
mouth of the Volga, in the Cafpian fea ; where the Mufco- 
vites find employment for a great number of men. We have 
alfo had a confiderable fupply of fturgeon from North Ame- 
rica, which rivals that of the Baltic. 

They are not caught in nets, but in a kind of inclofure, 
formed by huge ftakes, difpofed in triangles, reprefenting 
the lecter Z feveral times repeated. Thefe kinds of fifheries 
are open on the fide towards the fea, and clofe on the other ; 
by which means the fifh, afcending in its feafon up the 
river, embarrafles itfelf in thefe narrow angular retreats ; 
and not being able to turn itfelf, to go back again, on ac- 
count of its bulk, is eafily ftruck, and killed with a fort of 
harping-iron. ‘They are alfo taken during fummer, in the 
lakes Frifchechaff and Curifchhaff, near Pallau, in large nets, 
made of fmall cord; the adjacent fhores are formed into 
diftrifts, and farmed out to companies of fifhermen; fome 
of which are rented fer fix thoufand guilders, or near 300 /. 
per annum. 

The chief obje& of this fifhery isthe ree or fpawn, which 
is a commodity as much ufed in Mufcovy as butter in Hol- 
land ; and there are fome fturgeons that furnifh each four 
hundred pounds thereof. It is only the leffer and younger 
fturgeon that they pickle for eating. 

Fisuery, Zurdot. The method of taking turbot and 
other fifh by the people of Scarborough is this: when 
they go out to fith for turbot, each perfon is provided with 
three lines; each man’s lines are fairly coiled upon a flat 
oblong piece of wicker-work. The hooks being baited and 
placed very regularly in the centre of the coil, each line is 
furnifhed with 14 {core of hooks, at the diftance of fix feet 
two inches from each other. The hooks are faftened to the 
lines upon {neads of twitted horfe-hair, 27 inches in length. 
When fifhing, there are always three men im each coble, and 
confequently nine of thefe lines are fattened together, and 
ufed as one line, extending im length nearly three miles, and 
furnifhed with 2520 hooks. An anchor and buoy are fixed 
at the end of each man’s line ; in all four anchors, which are 
commonly perforated ftones, and four buoys are made of 
leather or cork, ‘The lines are always laid acrofs the cur- 
yent, and remain upon the ground about fix hours. The 
coble is 20 feet 6 inches long, and five feet in extreme 
breadth : it is about one ton burden, rowed with three pair 
of oars, and admirably conftru€ted for the purpofe of en- 
countering a mountainous fea. When the wind fuits, they 
hoift a fail. 

Fisnery, Whale, or Greenland Fisurery. This huge 
fifth, we have elfewhere obferved, chiefly cash ~t in the 


North fea. Thelargeft fort aye found about Spitzbergen, 
fome of them being there two hundred feet in length. Thofe 
on the coafts of America are about ninety, or a hundred 5 
and thofe on the coaft of Guyenne, and the Mediterranean, 
are the {malleft of all. : 

The firlt perfons that feem to have been employed in the 
whale fifhery were the Norwegians, probably foon after 
their difcovery of Greenland, about the year 837: for 
we find that king Alfred received information from 
Ogher, a Norwegian, -in 887 or 890, that the Norwe- 
gians were employed in this fifhery. He tells the king, 
that he failed along the Norway coaft, as far north as 
the whale-hunters commonly ufed to travel ; but it “feems 
that all knowledge of this gainful employ was loft, at leaft 
in this country, for. almoft feven centuries. The Bifcay- 
ners were alfo concerned in it, for the fake not only 
of the oil, but alfo of the whale-bone, before the Englith 5 
for, though their north-eaft difcoveries in 1553 had 
pointed out the way to the whale-tithery at Spitzbergen, 
they were fo ignorant of the bufinefsin 1575, as to be 
under a ueceffity of precuring information and affiftance 
from Bifcay for this purpofe. The firft mention that 
occurs in the Englith hiltory of whale-fins, or whale-bone, 
is in 1593, when eight hundred fins, part of the cargo 
of fome Bifeay fhips, that had been wrecked three years 
before, were brought to England from the bay of St. 
Laurence in America by an Englith fhip; previous to 
which time, the ladies’ ftays, as Mr. Anderfon obferves, 
muft have been made of {plit or fome other tough. and 
pliant wood; the whale fifhery being carried on for the 
fake of the oil long before the difeovery of the ufe of 
the whale-bone, which was firft brought to England, 
with the blubber or oil, in 1617. The Englith, having been 
accuftomed to the Northern feas, by their repeated trials 
for a north-welt and north-ealt- paflage to China, in 1598 
commenced their fifhery for whales at or near Spitzber- 
gen, where thofe animals refort in greater numbers than 
any where elfe. But the firft Englifh voyage for the 
purpofe of killing whales was undertaken by the Ruffian 
company in 1611, who fent two fhips thither, with fix 
Bifcayners, expert in the bufinefs; the fhips were loft, 
though their men and boats, &c. were faved by a fhip of 
Hull, then at Spitzbergen. In 1618, the Eaft India ad- 
venturers joined {tock with the Ruffian company for pur- 


fuing the whale fifhery, and fitted out thirteen fhips, but - 


the voyage proved unfuccefsful. "The maner of managing 
the whale-fifhing, both by the Englifhand Dutch, was then 
quite different from the prefent mode: the whales, having 
never been difturbed, reforted to the bays near the fhore, fo 
that their blubber was eafily landed at Spitzbergen, where 
they erected cookeries, i.e. coppers, Kc. for boiling their 
oil; and thefe they left ftanding from year to year, ard 
only brought home the purified oil, and the whale-bone. 
The Englifh, having been the firft in that fifhery; kept 
poffeffion of the beft bays; the Hollanders, coming later, 
were ovliged to find bays farther to the north ; the Danes, 
who came later into this trade than the Dutch, got in 
between the Englifh and Dutch; the Hamburghers came 
after the Danes, andafter them came the Freneh, and alfo 
the Bifcayners, the moft ancient whale-fifhers in: Europe, 
except the Norwegians, and purfued the fame method, 
But, fince thefe times, the whales are lefs frequent in the 
bays, and. are commonly among the openings of the ice 
farther from the land ; fo that the blubber is now cut from 
the whales after they are killed, in the manner defcribed in 
the fequel of this article, and brought home to be boiled 
and purified, and the whale-fns are alfo to be cleaned at 

6 home. 


—— 


FISHER Y. 


home, This latter method of fifhing, being dangerous to 
fhipping, difcouraged our Englifh adventurers who traded 
in a company; fo that they foon after, viz. in 1619, 
relinquifhed the fifhery. Some private adventurers pro- 
fecuted the trade with various fuccefs in 1621, 1622, and 
1623, when they were molefted by the Dutch, who were 
then fuperior in number of fhips, and had the prince of 
Orange’s commiffion ; for in :622 the Dutch, for preventing 
of diflurbance in their whale fifnery, had ereéted an ex- 
clefive company, who, by their own power, might protec 
it: however, the fifhery was laid open, in 1643, to all the 
inhabitants of the feven provinces. Asto the claims which 
different European nations have alleged in favour of a 
monopoly of the whale-fifhery at Spitzbergen, it hae been 
urged by the Englifh that they were the firft difcoverers, 
by tir Hugh Willughby, in 1553; by the Dutch, who 
deny his haying been fo far north as Spitzbergen, and main- 
tain their having firft difcovered it in 1596; by the Danes, 
that Spitzbergen is a part of Old Greenland, poffeffed in 
early times by them. But all nations have now wifely 
given up their exclufive pretenfions, and that part of the 
world remains now alike free to all nations for this fifhery. 
In 1636, king Charles I. confirmed by his proclamation 
the Greenland whale-fifhery folely to the Ruffia company, 
who foon relinquifhed it. In 1672 an attempt was made 
for reviving this fifhery, when an a& was paffed for the 
encouragement of it; and thisaét was continued in 1690, 
but without any great effect. A cerporation was eita- 
blifhed by a& of parliament, in 1693, for carrying on this 
fifhery, callei the Greenland Company. 

In 1725, the Englifh South-fea company revived this 
trade: but, after great loffes, were obliged to difcontinue 
it, in1733. At thistime a bounty of 20s. per ton was 
granted by parliament to Britith fhips of two hundred 
tons and upwards, fitted out for the whale-fifhery, which 
bounty was not only continued, in 1740, but an additional 
bounty of ros. per ton was granted during the war with 
Spain, in which we were then engaged; and in 1749 a 
farther bounty, or allowance of 20¢s., over and above that 
of 1733, was granted to all Britifh whale-fifhing fhips, 
and extended to fhips of the Britifh American cclonies ; 
and in 1755 this bounty was extended to fhips under two 
hundred tons burthen ; and, asa farther encouragement to 
this fifhery, foreign proteftants, ferving three years in it, 
were naturalized on certain conditions. See Hackluyt’s 
Coll. Voyages, and Anderfon’s Hiitory of Commerce. 

But, notwithftanding the great importance and numer- 
ous advantages of this trade to England, and the encourage- 
ment which the legiflature has given it, the Dutch carried 
it on with much greater fuccefs than the Englifh; and it 
became one of the principal branches of their flourifhin 
trade. The chief merchants of the feveral provinces af 
fociated themfelves into a body for carrying it on, and fent 
every year a great fleet of veflels to the North feas for 
that purpofe. They attempted to make their firft eftablith- 
ments in Greenland; but not fucceeding, they have fince 
fixed their fifhery about the weftern coaft of Spitzbergen, 
from the latitude of 76 dex. 40 min. to 80 deg. and from 
eait to weft about eighty-nine leagues. 

To give fome idea of the manner and importance of this 
trade, we fhall here fubjoin the difcipline for along time 
ebferved in the whale-fifhery, the method of fifhing ; 
the cargo and equipage of a veflel; and the produce 
thereof. 

The difcipline is adjufted by a landing regulation, confitt- 
ing of twelve articles ; the principal of which are : 

That in cafe a fifhing-vellel be fhipwrecked and the eap- 

+ Vou. XIV. 


tain and crew faved, the next yeffel they mect fhall take 
them in; and the fecond veffel take half of them from 
the firft; but that no veffel fhall be obliged to take any 
of the loading of a veffel fhipwrecked ; that as to the effedts 
of a thipwrecked veffel, which are abfolutely relinquithed, 
and which another captain fhall find, and take up, upon 
his arrival in Holland, he fhall account for one half of 
them to the proprietors of the fhipwrecked veffel, clear of 
all expences; that if the crew defert a fhipwrecked veffel 
they fhall have no claim to any of the effeéts faved, but 
the whole fhall go to the proprietor; but if they be pre- 
fent when the effeéts are faved, and affit therein, they 
fhall have one-fourth thereof; that if a perfon kill a fifth 
on the ice, it fhall be reputed his own, fo long as he 
leaves any perfon with it ; but the minute he leaves it, it 
becomes the due of the firlt captain that comes that way ; 
but that, if a fifh be tied to an anchor, ora rope faftened 
to the fhore, it fhallremain to its tir proprietor, though 
he leave it alone ; that if any perfon be wounded or lamed 
in the fervice, the commiffioners of the filhery undertake to 
procure him a reafonable fatisfaétion ; to which the whole 
fleet fhall contribute. 

Befides this general regulation, to the obfervance of 
which all the captains, pilots, and matters of veflels, were 
obliged to fwear, before they put to fea, there was alfo a 
particular one for each fhip’s crew, which they were all 
{worn to execute, in prefence of one of the commiffioners, 
who went aboard every fhip, to receive the oath. 

This regul:tion was a kind of charter-party, importing, 
that they would attend prayers morning and evening, on pain 
of an amercement, at the difcretion of the captain; that 
they would not get drunk, nor draw their knives, on for- 
feiture of half of their wages; nor fight, ou forfeiture of 
the whole; that no one fhould lay wagers on the good or ill 
fuccefs of the fihhing, nor buy or fell on thefe conditions, 
in cafe they took one or more fifh, on penalty of twenty-five 
florins; that they would be contented with the provifions 
allowed them ; and that they would never light fire, candle, 
or match, by night or day, without the captain’s leave, on 
the like penalty. 

After the readiug of this regulation, the crew were all 
called to receive the cuftomary gratuity betore their fet- 
ting out, with an aflurance of another fum at their return in 
proportion to the fuccefs of the fifhing. 

The captain, on this occafion, received from an hundred 
to an hundred and fifty florins ; the pilot from forty to fixty ; 
each harpooner from forty to fifty florins ; the other officers 
from twenty-fix to thirty-lix florins; the elder failors twenty ; 
and the younger twelve. 

The fleets, which confifted moftly of fluyts from two to 
three hundred tons, and from thirty-fix men to forty-two, 
ufually fet fail about the beginning of April, and took its 
courfe by the ifles of Iceland, from 60 to 61 degrees of lati- 
tude ; after which, leaving them to the welt, it fteered 
northward, through 73, 74, and 75 deg. of latitude, where 
they began to iind the ice. 

It was among thefe huge heaps of ice, wherewith the 
whole quarter is filled, that they firft began to fpy the 
whales ; and there moft of the veffels fxed their abode for 
the hihing. Butas the hth were larger and fatter the farther 
north they went, jome captains would venture as far as 80 
or $2 deg. of north Jat.. Each veffel of three hundred tons 
had fix fhalleops; and each jhalloop bad fix harpooners, 
with five feamen to row it. To every fhalloop there were 
feyen lines, of three inches circumference; five of them 
in the hind part of the veffel, and two before. . The hind 
lines together mide Ax hundred fathoms, and, with the 

a€ addition 


FISHERY. 


addition of the other two, eight hundred and eighty. If 
the whale dived deeper, or rau farther underneath the ice 
than this ftint, the line muft be cut, left the fhalloop fhould 
be drawn after it. 

In the Englith whale-fifhery every fhip has fix or feven 
boats; each of which has one harpooner, one boat- 
fteerer, one manager of the line, and four feamen to row 
it. In each boat there are two or three harpoons, feveral 
lances, and fix lines faftened together, each line being a 
hundred and twenty fathom long. To each harping iron 
is faftened a ftrong flick, about fix feet long, and a foft 
pliable line, about tix fathom long, called the fore-gauger, 
which is faftened to the lines in the boat. When more 
line is wanted, the lines of a fecond boat are faftened to 
thofe of the firft. 

The inftrument, wherewith the whale is ftruck, is a 
harping-iron or javelm, five or fix feet long, pointed 
with fteel, in a triangular fhape, like the barb of an 
arrow. 

The harpooner, upon fight of the fifh, from one end of 
the fhalloop where he is placed, ‘flings the harping-iron 
with all his might again{ft his back ; and, if he be fo 
happy as to make it penetrate the fkin and fat into the 
fiefh, he lets go a ftring faftened to the harping-iron, a 
the end whereof is a d-y-gourd, which {wimming on the 
water, difcovers whereabout the whale is; for the minute 
he is ftruck he plunges to the bottom, commonly fwimming 
againft the wind. : t 

If the whale return to breathe in the air, the harpooner 
takes ‘occafion to give him a frefh wound, tll, fainting 
by the lofs of blood, the men have an opportunity ot ap- 
proaching him, and thrufting a long ileeled lance under 
his gills into his breaft, and through the inteftines, fooa 
difpatch him; and when the carcafe begins to float, they 
cut holes in the fins and tail; and, tying a rope in thefe 
holes, they tow him to the veflel, where he is fattened 
along the larboard fide of the fhip, floating upon his back 
almoit level with the fea. They then begin to take the 
blubber or fat, and the fins, as they are called, or whale- 
bone. ¢ » 

In order to this, feveral mea ftand upon the fifh, with a 
kind of iron calkers, or fpurs, te prevent their flipping ; 
and cut off the tail, which is hoilted upon deck, and 
then cut ont {quare pieces of blubber, weivhing two or 
three thoufand pounds, which are hoifted on board with 
the capitan, where each piece is again cut into {meller 
pieces, each of two or three hundred pounds weight ; 
and thefe are thrown into the hold, and left to drain for 
three or four days. When all the blubber is cut from 
the belly of the fifh, it is turned on one fide, by means 
of a piece of blubber left in the middle, called the cant, 
or turning-piece ; and then they cut out this fide in large 
pieces, called hockies, as before, and alfo the whale-bones 
with the gums, which are preferved entire, and hoifted 
on deck, where the blades are cut and feparated, and 
left till they have time to clean and fcrape them. The 
fih is next turned on its back and the blubber cut out 
from the baek and crown bonef; and laft of all they cut 
the blubber from the other fide as before. .They then 
cut out the two large jaw-bones, fituate in the under- 
lips, which are hoifted on deck, cleanfed and faftened to 
the fhrouds, and tubs are placed under them-to receive 
the oil which they difcharge; this oil belongs to the 
captain, and likewife the tail and fins. The careafe is 
Jeft to float, and fupplies food for Greenland birds, 
ealled mallemucks, &c. In three or four days they hoift 
the pieces of blubber out of the hold, chop them, and 


put {mall pieces through the bung-holes into their cafks, 
A whale, the longeft blade of whofe mouth is nine or 
ten feet, generally fills thirty butts with blubber; but one 
of the largeft fifth will fill feventy butts and more. A 
good large whale is valued at about r1ooo/. fterling. A 
full fhip of three hundred tons is worth, clear of all ex 
pence, at leaft sooo/, There is a premium affigned. to 
every perfon in the fhip for every whale: the captain has 
three guineas; the mate, one; each harpooner, one; the 
furgeen, one; carpenter, one; ceok and boat-fteerers, half 
a guinea each; a common man, acrown; and each boy, 
half a crown. The captain and harpooners have no wages; 
but the captain is allowed twenty-five pounds, and the har- 
pooners, nine guineas each. Ina fuccefsful voyage they 
have fix fhillings for every ton of oil boiled in Greenland- 
dock ; but the reft of the fhip’s company have monthly 
wages, belides the fifh-money, but no oil-mouey. 

Nothing now remains, but to fail homewards, where the 
fat is to be boiled, and melted down into train-oil. 

The whale-iifhery of the Caroline iflands is more eafy and 
agreeable than that of all other places, and, befide the great 
profit, affords a pleafant {peétacle to multitudes of people 
on the fhores. 

There are ten or twelve of thefe ifles difpofed in form of 
a circle, fo that they make a fort of port, in which the fea 
is perpetually calm and pleafant. 

When a whale appears in this gulf, the people all get 
into their canoes, and rowing toward the fea, keep between 
the creature and its retreat, and drive him forwards towards 
the ifles at the bottom of the port. ‘Chey drive him in this 
manner before them into the fhallows, where they plunge 
into the water themfelves, and fome get ropes and chains 
about him, while others dart him with their fpears. Their 
agility and addrefs are wonderful in this. ‘The creature can 
never get away when they have once got him faftened, but 
is foon killed, and got to the fhore. 5 

Fisnery, Produce of one Year’s Whale. ‘To ftate the 
produce, we make choice of the fifhery of 1697, as being 
one of the createft and moft fortunate that ever was known 5 
to which we fhall add that of the year 1725. 

In the year 1697, there were a hundred and eighty-nine 
veflels of divers nations ; whereof a hundred and twenty-one 
were Dutch, forty-feven Hamburghers, two Swedifh, four 
Danith, twelve of Bremen, two of Embden, and one of 
Lubeck; who caught in all 1968 fifh. ; 

In the year 1725, there were two hundred and twenty-fix 
veilels ; whereof one hundred and forty-four were Dutch, 
twelve Englith, forty-three Hamburghers, twenty-three of 
Bremen, two of Berghen, two of Flenfburg. ‘Their cap- 
tures were 349 fifh. 


The Dutch captures in ial 41,344 puncheons of 


produced - - blubber. 
The Hamburghers - 16,414. Ey 
The Swedes - - 540° 
The Danes - - 1710 
The Bremeners - 3790 
The Embdeners - - 68 


The Englifh captures in 1725, produced 1000 puncheons’ 
of blubber, and 20 tons of whale-bone. 
Now, ettimating the puncheon of blubber at thirty florins’ 
Dutch, or 2/. 155. Englifh, the current price in the year 
1697, the total produce of the year’s fifhing amounts to 
175,031/. 10s. fterling. As to fins, or whale-bones, fetting 
them at two thoufand weight fer whale, and an hundred 
weight at 4/. 4s. they will yield 165,312/. which, added to 
the-former fum, rise to 340,943/. Los, cs 
vw. 


FISHERY. 


Mr, Anderfon, in his Hiftory of Comnierce, vol. ii. 
P- 350 obferves, from an account of the Dutch whale- 
fifhing for forty-fix years, ending anno 1721, that in this 
time they had employed 5886 fhips, and caught 32997 
whales, which valued one with another at s5oo/. give an 
amount for the whole value of above 16 millions fterling, 
gained out of the fea moftly by the labour of the people, 
deducting the expence of the wear and tear of fhipping, the 
eafks, and the provifions. 

The whale-fifhery begins in May, and continues through 
themonths of Juneand July; but whether the fhips have good 
or bad fuccefs, they muft come away and get clear ef the ice 
by the end of Auguft; fo that in the month of September at 
fartheit they may be expected home ; but the more fortunate 
fhips may return in June or July. 

The ftatute 26 Geo. III. c. 41. preferibes the conditions 
en which fhips going on the Greenland whale-fithery tha!l 
obtain licences from the commiffioners of the cuftoms. A 
certificate fhall be produced; figned by an officer of the 
cuitoms, after due examination of each fhip, ftating that 
the fhip is legally qualified for the voyage, by being navi- 
gated by a malter and three-fourths Britifh fubjeéts, aad 
having en board a competent number of men, boats, lines, 
provifions, &c. Every thip of the burden of 200 tons, de- 
figned for this fithery, fhall have on board 4o fifhing lines 
of 120 fathom each, 40 harpoon irons, 4 boats with 7 men 
at the leaft, including a harpooner, a fleerfman, and a line 
manager, to cach boat, befides the malter and furgeon, and 
6 months provifion at the leafl for fuch a wumber of men; 
and every {hip of larger burden, an increafe of 6 men, one 
boat, ro fuch lines, and 10 harpocn irons more, for every 
50 tons above the faid 200 tons, together with provifions 
in proportion; and every fhip hall have apprentices inden- 
tured for 3 years, in the proportion of one at the leat for 
every 35 tons burden, and one frefh or green man for every 

o tous burden. On the return of fuch fhip, her condition 
fhall be certified by the proper officer of the cuftoms, to- 
gether with a variety of particulars relating to her voyage, 
cargo, &c. &e.; and then the commiffioners at the port 
where fuch ship fhall arrive fhall affign a bounty or pre- 
mium of 30s. per ton, according to the admeafurement of 
fuch fhip duly certified.. This bounty fhall be reftri€ted to 
fuch fhip as fhall have failed from the port whence fhe 
cleared on or before the roth of April in each year, and 
fhall have continued in the Greenland feas, Davis’s ftraits, 
or feas adjacent, endeavouring to catch whales, and not have 
departed thence before the roth of Auguft next following, 
unlefs fuch fhip, if 300 tons, be laden with 30 tons of oil, 
or blubber in proportion, and 1+ ton of whale-fins in like pro- 
portion to the tonnage, or be forced by accident to depart 
from thefe feas. Each fhip entitled to the bounty muft 
have kept a log-book. ‘The owners may infure the bounty, 
in cafe of the lofs of the fhip. Whiale-fins, oil or blubber 
of whales, feal oil or feal fins, or any ether produce of 
feals or fifh caught in the feas of Greenland, or Davis’s 
ftraits, or parts adjacent, may be imported duty free. No 
harpooner, line-manager, or boat-{leerer, belonging to any 
fhip in this trade, fhall be liable to be imprefled from this 
fervice. The Greenland feas, Davis’s ftraits, and feas ad- 
jacent, fhall be deemed and extend to the latitude of 59° 
30! N., and no farther. The ftat. 29 Geo. III. c. 52. 
C. 53. contains fqme additional regulations. This act is 
continued by 41 Geo. III. c. 97. 

Southern Whale Fifhery. Vhe ftatutes 35 Geo. IIT. 
¢.92. and 42 Geo. III. c. 18. aflign premiums to 16 thips 
employed in this fifhery, under certain prefcribed reitric- 
tions: 12 of which fhall be fitted and cleared out between 


January 1ft and December 31ft, 1802, and between Ja- 
nuary 1ft and Decémber 31ft in each of the three fucceeding 
years, fhall fail to the fouthward of the equator, there carry 
on the fifhery, and return to’ fome port of Great Britain 
before December 1ft in the year fubfequent to that of 
their being cleared out; to 4 of thefe which fhall arrive firft 
within the time limited, with the greateft quantity ef oil 
or head-matter, being not lefs in the whcle than 20 tons in 
each, there fhall be allowed 300/. each; and 2zo0c/. to each 
of the 4 fhips which fhall next arrive with the next greateft 
quantity of oil or head-matter; and roo/. to each of the 
4 veflels which fhall next arrive with the greateft quantity 
of oil, &c. not lefs than zo tons. To 4 other fuch hips, 
which fhall proceed to the wettward of 36° of S. latitude, 
and fhall carry on ‘the faid fifhery, and fhall return, before 
the-3 1ft of December in the fecond year after their clearing 
out, to fome port of Great Britain, there fhall be allowed 
400/. each, having not Iefs than zo tons of oil or head- 
matter, as aforefaid. The ftat. 35 Geo. EII. c. 92. re- 
quires fuch fhips to be navigated by perlons, of whom the 
mafter and at leaft three-fourths of the mariners are his ma- 
jelty’s fubjects. Or if fuch fhip clecr out from any port of 
Great Britain, fuch fhip may be navigated by perfons being 
proteftaats, and who, not being fubjects of his majetty, have 
been before employed in carrying on the faid fifhery, and en 
clearing out have taken the oath of fidelity and allegiance to 
his majefty, and another oath that it is their intention to 
eftablifm them elves and their families in Great Britain, &e. 
No premium fhall be paid to any fhip that has not an ap. 
prentice indentured for three years for every 50 tons bur- 
den; nor unlefs {uch fhip fhall have regularly kept a log- 
book on board. The commiffioners of the cuitoms in 
England and Scotland are to pay the premiums, which are 
to be claimed within two months. Ships concerned in this 
fifhery may fail and pafs for that purpofe to the caitward of 
the Cape of Good Hope, and to the weftward of Cape 
Horn, or through the traits of Magellan ; but fuch fhips 
fhall be obliged to take out a licence for each refpeétive 
voyage from the Eatt India company, &c. &c. Every fhip 
intending to navigate any fea comprifed within the boun- 
daries of the exclufive trade of the South Sea company, de- 
{cribed by an aét of the gth of queen Anne, mutt take a 
licence for the voyage from the faid company. By ftatute 
42 Geo. III. c. 18. any hip fitting and clearing out, and 
licenfed according to the preceding a€ts, failing to the eait- 
ward of the Cape of Good Hope, and having paffed beyond 
123° of E. longitude, may pafs to the northward as far as 
1° of N, latitude, but no further to the northward, until 
fuch fhip fhall have failed or pafled to the eaitward of 180? 
E. longitude from London. 

Fisuery, Whitings. hefe fith frequent the Englifh 
feas in large fhoals, particularly during the fpring, keeping 
at the diltance of half a mile to three miles from the fhore. 
They are taken in abundance by the line, and afford excel- 
lent diverfion. They are the mot delicate and wholefome 
of any of the genus, but do not grow to a large fize near 
the coaft, where thé ufual length is 10 or 12 inches. In 
the deep water on the edge of the Dogger-bank, they have 
been found to weigh from four to eight pounds. 

Fisnery, free, in Law, or the exclufive right of fifhing 
in a public river, is a royal franchife (fee Francuiss) ; 
and is confidered as fuch in all countries wherethe feodal law 
has prevailed. (Seld. Mare Claufum. 1. 24. - Dufrefne. v. 
503. Craig de Jur. Feod. ti. §15.) However, the mak- 
ing of fuch grants, and thus the appropriating of that which 
it feems unnetural to reftrain, the ufe of running water, 
was prohibited for the future by king John’s great charter ; 

Ce aad 


» 


FIS 


and the rivers that were fenced in his time were directed to 
be laid open, as wellas the forefls to be difafforefted. This 
epening was extended by the fecond and third charters of 
Henry ITI. to thofe alfo that were fenced under Rich- 
ard I. ; fo that a franchife of free tifhery ought now to be 
at leaft as old as the reign of Henry IL. This differs from 
a feveral filhery ; becauie he that has a feveral fifhery muft 
alfo be (or at leaft derive his right from) the owner of the 
foil, which in a free fifhery is not requifite. (M. 17 Edw. IV. 
6. .P.18 Edw. IV. 4. T.10Hen. VII. 24. 26. Salk. 
637-) It differs alfo from a common of pifcary, in that the 
free fifhery is an exclufive right, where the common of pif- 
cary is not fo; and, therefore, in a free fifhery, a man has 
a property in the fifh before they are canght; in a common 
of pifcary, not till afterwards. (F. N. B. 88. Salk. 637.) 
Some, indeed, have confidered a free fifhery not as a royal 
franchife, but merely asa private grant of a liberty to fifh in 
the /everal fifhery of the grautor. (2 Sid. 8.) But to 
confider fuch right as originally a flower of the prerogative, 
till reftrained by magna carta, and derived by royal grant 
(previous to the reign of Richard I,) to fuch as now claim 
it by prefcription, and to diftinguifh it (as judge Black{tone 
does) from a /everal/ and a common of fifhery, may remove 
fome difficulties (fays the learned Judge) in refpe& to this 
matter, with which our books are embarrafled. For it muft 


be acknowledged, that the rights and diftinGtions of the’ 


three fpecies of fifhery are very much confounded in our 
law-books; and that there are not wanting refpeCtable 
authorities (fee Hargrave’s Notes on Co. Litt. 122.) which 
maintain, that a feveral fifhery may exilt diftiné&t from the 
property of the foil, and that a free fifhery implies no ex- 
clufive right, but is fynonymous with common of pifcary. 
Black {t. Com. vol. ii. 

FISHERIES, Briti/h Society for Encouragement of. 
By ftat. 35 Geo. II]. c. 100. the governor, deputy- 
governor, and directors of the Britith fociety for extending 
the fifheries, and improving the fea coatts of this kingdom, 
incorporated by 26 Geo. III. c. 106. are empowered to 
give the following premiums and loans to perfons at the 
fociety’s fettlements; viz. 6o/. a year, in premiums or 
rewards, to fober and induflrious perfons refiding at any of 
thele fettlements, who are moft expert in fifhing, curing of 
fifh, preparing of foap or oil from fifth, making of nets, &e.; 
and alfe to lend at legal intereft a fum not exceeding soc/. 
for the purpofe of purchafiag, building, or equipping boats 
or other veflels for the fifhery ; and alfo fuch Etles {ums 
on loans to fuch perfons as may build houfes or tenements at 
any of the fettlements of the fociety, the fum fo lent not 
exceeding one-third of the value of {uch buildings, payable 
by inftalments in the courfe of five years; and alfo fuch 
fums in loans, not exceeding 200/., on proper fecurity to 
be repaid in one year, to fuch perfons as may undertake to 
provide ftores of oatmeal or falt, or other neceflaries, at 
either of the faid fettlements, the fum not to exceed two- 
thirds of the value of the commodity ; and alfo fuch fums 
of money, not exceeding 2¢0/., in loans to fuch perfous as 
may eftablifh a manufactory of fail-cloth or cordage, &c. 
fuch fum to be repaid in three years, and not to exceed 
two-thirds of the value of the material provided. 

FISHES, aboard a Ship, are pieces of timber, conyex 
on one fide, and concave on the other, ufed to ftrengthen 
the mafts and yards, when they begin to fail, through an 
extraordinary weight of fail, or after damage in battle, or 
tempeftuous weather. They both nail the fifhes on with 
iron fpikes, and alfo would them as they call it, that is, 
wind ropes hard about them. There is alfo a tackle called 
the fifh, which hangs at ee end of the davit by the ftrap of 


FIS 


the block, in which is the runner of the fifh-hook; by 
which means the fluke of the anchor is haled up to the fip’s 
bow, or chainwale. (See Brocxs.) Perhaps this tackle 
was called a fifh, from that which the ancients called a dol- 
phin, which was a pointed and vaftly heavy piece of iron, 
which they ufed to heave up by a tackle to a good height, 
and then, when they came near enough to the enemy’s fhip, 
let it fall at once, to break or pierce a hole through the 
bottom of the enemy’s veffel, to fink her. 

~FISH-GIG, an inftrument ufed to ftrike fith at fea, 
particularly dolphins. It confifts of a ftaff, three or four 
barbed prongs, and a line faftened to the end, on which, 
the prongs are fixed; te the other end is fitted a piece of 
lead, which ferves to give additional force to the ftroke 
when the weapon flies, and to turn the points upward after 
the fifh is penetrated. 

FISH-GARTH, according to Skinner, fignifies an 
engine to take fifh; but it fhould rather feem to denote the 
dam or weir in a river, where thefe engines are latd ang 
ufed. 

FISH.GLUE. See IcutTHyocoxva and Give. 

FISHING, the aé or art of catching fifh. 

Right of fifhiag and the property of fifth belong to the 
lord of the manor, when he hath the foil on both fides of a 
river ; but where a river ebbs and flows, and is an arm of 
the fea, they are common to all; and he who claims a pri- 
vilege to himfelf muft prove it. In the Severn, the foik 
belongs to the owners of the land on each fide ; and the foil 
of the River Thames is in the king, &c. but the nfhing is 
common to all, There are feveral ftatutes for preventing 
the deftrution of the fry of fifh ; and perfons ufing nets fos 
that purpofe, or taking falmen or trout out of feafon, or. 
any fifth under certain lengths, are liable to forfeit 20s. ; 
and juftiwes of peace and lords of leets have power to put 
the acts in foree. See 1 Eliz. cap.17. 3 Jac. J. cap. rz. 
30 Geo. II. cap. 21. See Salmon Fisuery, and Stealing 
of Fism. 

Fifhing is diftinguifhed with regard to its inftrument into 
that performed with the net, for fifth that go in fhoals; and 
that with the hook, for folitary fith ; which latter is pro- 
perly called angling. 

Fifhing, again, is diflinguifhed with regard to its objeé- 
into that performed in falt water, and that in frefh. The 
firft practifed for whales, herring, cod, falmon, pearls, 
mackarel, and other fea-fifh. ‘The latter praétifed for pike, 
trout, carp, tench, perch, dace, eels, &e. ' 

The inftruments principally ufed in angling or fifhing 
with the hook, are the rod, line, hook, and fly. j 

The points on which the art of fifhing chiefly turns are 
the proper feafon, place, bait, and manner of application. 
What relates to each thereof; we fhall here give the reader 
in the feveral kinds of fifhing- chiefly praétifed among us. 

In March, April, and September, the warmeit days are 
the bett for fifhing, and the bait muft be deep; for the fifh’ 
in thefe cool months lie nearthe bottem. In fly-tifhing, it 
is always obferved, that the fifh will rile belt after a {mall 
fhower of rain, that has juft beat down the flies upon the 
water without muddying it. March, April, May, and. 
June, are the beft months for fly-fifhing, and the bef& hoars 
are about nine in the morning, and three or four ia the afier-. 
noon; ina ftill warm evening they will bite as long as the 
day light lafts, at thofe feafons when the gnats are feen moft 
plentifully about in the air. 

In the extremity of heat, when the earth is parched with 
drought, there is but little fport to be expected in fithing 
in any water. In-cold weather, when there is a white 
hoary froft in the morning, the fith will not bite kindly 

all 


FISHING. 


all day, except in the evening, if that-fiould prove ferene 
and warm. 

‘Too much wind is neverconyenient for ffhing, though a 
little is rather advantageous than otherwife. It is bad nfh- 
ing about fheep-fhearing time, in waters where the fheep are 
wafhed ; for the fifh glut themfelves in fuch a manner ‘with 
what is wafhed from thefe creatures, that they will not take 
any bait till that feafon is over. 

North and eaft winds are enemies to fifhing ; and it is not 
right to fifth foon after the time of the hth fpawning, for 
they are thea fick, and have no great appetite, fo that they 
do not bite readily. All tith have a natural fore-knowledge 
of a fhower of rain, and when clouds are coming on that 
will fall in rain, they will not bite; the expert angler, 
who is ufed to this, often efcapes being wet to the fkin 
by it. 

The fubterranean or wnder-ground fifhing of the lake 
Ribefkajamnia has been much talked of by thofe who have 
written of the Zirchnitzer fea, of which it isa part; but 
on the whole it amounts to no more than this. The waters 
of this lake emptying themfelves through fubterranean paf- 
fages into another Jake below, the whole body of the wa- 
ter, with the fifh in it, is frit received into a large opening, 
which conveys it into a fort of fubterranean bafon, in the 
bottom of which there are many holes, and through thefe 
the water is let out, but the fifh left behind. The people 
of the place who know this, defcend through the large hole 
into this fubterraneous bafon with torches in their hands, 
and as the waters run off, they feize upon the fifh wherever 
they can catch them. This fort of ffhing is attended with 
One inconvenience ; for the people being obliged to ftand up 
to the middle more or lefs in the water, the horfe-leeches, 
which are extremely plentiful there, feize upon their legs 
and other parts, and are only to be got off by fome perfons 
making water upon the part ; the heat and naufeous tafe of 
the urine always making ‘them let go their hold. Phil. 
Tranf. N° gi. For a curious method of fifhing in China, 
fee Cuina. 

Fisuinc, White-bait. See Bair. 

The feafon for taking white-bait is only from the firft of 
Auguft to the frft of O&ober. 30 Geo. II. cap. 21. 

Fisuinc, Barbel. See Barsus. 

No barbel is to be taken in the Thames or Medway under 
twelve inches in fize, from the eye to the end of the tail, and 
only between the twenty-fourth of Auguft and the twenty- 
frit of March. 30 Geo. II. cap, 2r. 

Fisuine, Carp. The carp is generally held the queen 
of frefh-water lifh. It is exceeding fubtle, and of all others, 
the eel only excepted, lives longeft out of water. Mr. 
Ray affures us, that in Holland they have a fpeedy way of 
fattening them, by hanging them up ina net in a cellar, 
and feeding them with white bread and milk. ‘The fith is 
wrapped upina quantity of wet mofs, {pread on a piece of 
net, and then gathered into a purfe in fuch a manner, hew- 
ever, as to-allow him room to breathe. The net is then 
plunged into water, and hung up to the cieling of a cellar: 
the dipping muft at firft be repeated every three or four 
hours, but afterwards it necd only be plunged into water 
Once in about fix or feven hours, Bread foaked in milk is 
firft given him in fmall quantities: in a fhort time the fith 
wilt bear more, and grow fat by this treatment. Many have 
been kept in this way, breathing nothing but air, for feveral 
days fucceffively. (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixi, part 1. p. 310.) 
They breed feveral times in the year ; for which reafon we 
feldom meet with male or female without either milt or 
fpawn. Their natural place is fome ftill water; in running 
waters they rarely, if ever, breed. ‘To make them fat and 


large, it is a good way, when the pond is low, in April, 
to rake all the fides thereof with an iren rake, and fow hay 
feeds thereon, By autumn there will be a crop of {s, 
which coming to be overflowed as the pond rifes, will be a 
fine feeding-place for them. See Fisu-Ponps. 

Great patience is requifite in angling for carp, on account 
of their incredible policy. They always choole to lie in the 
deepeft places ; they feldom bite in celd weather; and ia 
hot, aman cannot be too early or too late for them. When 
they do bite, there is no fear of the hold. The tackle muft 
be- very ftrong, and it will be proper to bait the place be- 
forehand, where itis to be fifhed for, with a coarfe paite. 
It may be alfo proper to bring the carp to the place intended 
for angling, by throwing in cow-dung and blood, or bran 
and blood mixed together, or fome chicken guts cut {mall. 
The baits are the red-worm, in March; the cadew, in 
June; and the grafs-hopper, in July, Auguft, and September. 
Proper paftes may alfo be prepared for them; as honey and 
fugar, wrought together with flour, and thrown in pieces 
into the water fome hours before you begin to angle. 
Honey and white crumbs of bread mixed together alfe 
make a good pafte. The following pafte is much recem- 
mended: take common wheat flour and veal, or any other 
young meat, of each equal quantities; beat them together 
in a mortar till the meat is thoroughly diffolved or broke to 
pieces ; thenadd about half the quantity of honey ; beat it 
well together again, and add more flour till the whole is of 
a proper confiftence. This has the advantage of a patte, 
and of an animal bait, and hangs well upon the hook, fo 
that it feldom fails of fuccefs. 

The beft feafon for catching fuch as are intended for fale 
is autumn. 

Fisuinc, Chub. The chevin or chub is a frefh-water 
fifh with a large head. It {pawns in March, and is very 
{trong, though inaGtive, yielding in a very Little time after 
it is truck; and the larger it is the quieter. His bait 1s 
any kind of worm or fly, particularly the large yellow moth ; 
alfo grains, cheefe, the pith in the bone of an ox’s back, 
&c. He affets a large bait, and variety of them at the 
fame hook. Early in the morning angle for him with 
{nails ; but, in the heat of the day, choole fome other bait 5 
and in the afternoon, fifh for him at ground or fly. See 
Cuus. 

No chub is tobe taken under nine inches from the eye 
to the end of the tail, and only between Auguit 24th and 
March 21ft, in the river ‘Thames and waters of Medway. 
30 Geo. II. cap. 21. 

Fisninc, Dace or Dare. See Dace. 

No dace are to be taken in the Thames or Medway under 
fix inches from the eye to the end of the tail in fize, and 
only between Auguit 24th and March 21ft, 30 Geo. 11. 
cap. 27. 

Fisuinc, Ee/. See Etx. 

"The filver eel may be caught with divers baits, particularly 
powdered beef, garden-worms or lobs, minnows, hens guts, 
filh, garbage, &c. But as they hide themfelves in winter 
in the mud, without ftirring out for fix months, and in the 
fummer, they take no delight to be abroad in the day, the: 
mot proper time to take them is in the night, by fattening 
a line to the bank fide with a hook in the water; or a line 
may be thrown at large, with a good ttore of hooks baited, 
and plumbed with a float, to difcover where the lme lies in 
the morning. A {mall roach does w ell here for a bait, the 
hook being laid in his mouth. For other methods of 
catching eels, fee Bosuinc, Burrers, Errypear, and 
SNIGGLING. 

No. leaps or rods for eels are to be laid in the Thames and 

Mecway 


FISHING. 


Medway but from April 21f to O&dber goth; but they 
may be hooked for all the year. 30 Geo. II. cap. 21. 

Fisuinc, Flounder. ‘he flounder is a flat fea or river 
ffh, caught in April, May, June, and July, in any time 
of the day, in a {wift ftream, and fometimes alfo in a ftill 
deep. The beft bait is red worms, wa{ps, and gentles. 

Flounders may be taken in the rivers Thames and Med- 
way at any time of the year; but their fize muft not be 
lefs than fix inches from the eye to the end of the tail. 
30. Geo. II. cap. 21. ; 

Fisninc, Gudgeon. The gudgeon is a fmall fith of a 
very delicious tafte. It fpawns three or four times in the 
fummer-feafon, and feeds in ftreams and on gravel, flighting 
all kinds of flies; butiseafily taken with a {mall red worm, 
fithing near the ground; and being a leather-mouthed fifh, 
will not eafily get off the hook when firuck. ‘The gudyeon 
may either be fifhed with a float, the hook being on the 
ground, or by hand, with a running line on the ground, 
without cork or float. He will bite well at wafps, gentles, 
and cadworms; and one may even fifth for him with two or 
three hooks at the fame time, which makes good {port. 
When you angle for gudgeons, ftir up the fand or gravel 
with along pole, which will make them gather to the place 
and bite the fafter. 

The feafon for gudgeon fifhing in the Thames and Med- 
way is from Auguit 24th to Mareh 21ft. 30 Geo. Il. 
ap. 21. 

Fisuinc, Pearch or Perch. The pearch or perch is 
hook-backed, not unlike a hog, armed with ttiff prickles, 
and his fides with dry thick fcales; he is voracious, and 
will yenture on his own kind even with greater courage than 
the pike. He feldom grows much above afoot long. He 
fpawns in February or Merch, and bites bett when the {pring 
is far fpent. ‘The proper baits are the bradiing, minnow, 
and fmall frog; as alfo the lob-worm, bob, oak-worm, 
‘gentle, wafp, and cad-bait. The minnow yields the beit 
{port, which is to be alive, and {tuck on the hook through 
the upper-lip or back-fin, and kept fwimming about mid- 
water. If the frog be ufed, he is to be faitened to the 
hook by the fkin of his leg. When the fifh bites, as he is 
none of the leather-mcuthed kind, he mult have time to 
‘pouch his bait. The beit place to fith for him is in the 
turning of the water-eddy in a good gravel bottom 

No perch is to be taken in the Thames. or Medway 
under fix inches from the eye to the end of the tail, and 
only between Augult 24th and March 21ft. 30 Geo. II. 
cap. 21. 

Fisuing, Pike. The pike is reputed the tyrant of the 
frefh waters. .By the common confent of naturaliits, he is 
the longett-lived of all fithes. The larger he is found, the 
coarfer is his flefh; and.fo- vice verfa. This filh never 
{wims in fhoals, but always fingle, being very rapacious, 
and preying even on his own kind. The pike {pawns in 
February and March. The beft fort is in rivers; the worlt 
in meres and ponds.. His ordinary food is frogs, and what 
fish he can lay hold on, 

There are. two ways of fifhing for the pike: by the /ed- 
ger bait and the walhing-bait. 1. The ledger-bait is that 
fixed in one certain place, and which the angler may leave 
behind him. Of this kind the belt is fome living bait, as a 
dace, roach, gudgeon, or a living frog. To apply it, if 
a fifh, ftick the hook through his ypper-lip; then faften- 
ing it to a ftrong line twelve or fourteen yards long, tie 
the other end of the line to fome flake in the ground, or 
bough of a tree, near the pike’s ufual haunt, letting the 
line pafs over the fork of a flick placed for the purpofe, 
fufpending the hook, and about a yard of line in the wa- 


ter, but foas that when the pike bites, the fork may giy, 
way, and let him have line enough to go to his hold a 
paunch. If the bait bea frog, the arming wire isto be 
put in at his mouth and out at his vent, and one of his 
legs to be flitched or tied over the upper joint of the. 
wire. 2. The walking-bait is that which the fifher calls 
in, and conducts with ared, &c. This is perforated by 
a troll, with a winch for winding it up. At the top 
of the line is to be placed a ring for the line to be run 
through. The line, for two yards and a quarter next 
the hook, to be of filk double, and armed with wire the 
length of feven inches. On the fhank of the hook is te 
be faftened a fmooth piece of lead, fo as to fink the fifth. 
bait, which is to be a gudgeon with its head downwards. 
Thus ‘difpofed, the bait is to be caft up and down; and 
if you feel the fifh at the hook, give him length enough 
to run away with the bait, and paunch it; then ftrike 
him with a fmart jerk. To fifh with a dead bait, ufe a 
yellow frog, dace, or roach, anointed in gum of. ivy, 
diffolved in oil of fpike, and ca{t it where the pike fre- 
quents. After it has lain a httle while at the bottom, 
draw it to the top, and fo up the ftream, and you will 
quickly perceive a pike in earneft purfuit thereof. This 
fifh bites beft about three in the afternoon in clear water, 
with a gentle gale, from the middle of fummer to the 
end of autumn; but in wiater all day long ; and in the 
{pring he bites beft early in the morning, and late at 
night. Another method of fifhing for pike, fee under 
Huxinc. : 

No pike or jack is to be taken in the Thames or Medway 
under twelve inches from the eye to the end of the tail, and 
only between Auguft 24th and March 21ft. 30 Geo. II. 
cap. 21. 

5 Perse Roach. ‘The roach or rochet is no delicate fifh. 
Thofe in rivers are more valued than thofe in ponds, though 
the latter are much the larger. They {pawn about the 
middle of May. 

‘To angle for this fih in April, cads or worms are proper 
baits; fo are {mall white fnails or flies in fummer. ‘ihe 
bait is always to be under water, for this fifh will not bite 
at top. Others ufe May-fly in that feafon with good 
fuccefs. In autumn, a pafte muft be ufed, made of the 
crumb of white bread moulded with a little water, laboured 
with the hands into a tough pafte, and coloured not very deep, 
with red lead. In winter, gentles are the beft bait. 
Sprouted malt, the young brood of wafps, and bees dipt- 
in blood, and the thick blood ef fheep half dried, are nol- 
trums in this fort of fifhing. 

In the neighbourhood of London they have a peculiar 
method of fifhing for roach; they take a ftrong cord, at 
the end of which is faftened athree pound weight; anda 
foot above the lead a packthread of twelve feet is made 
fait to the cord; and to the packthread, at proper dif- 
tances, they add twelve ftrong links of hair with roach 
hooks at them, baited with a white {nail or perriwinkle. 
Then holding the cord in their hands, the biting of the 
fifh draws the packthread, and this the cord, which gives 
them notice what to do. By this means they fometimes 
dray up half a dozen, and very commonly two or three at a, 
draught. By 30 Geo. II. cap. 21. no roach is to be taken 
in the Thames or Medway under {ix inches from the eye 
to the end of the tail, and only between Auguit 24th and 
March 21 ft. 

Fisuinc, Smelt. See Smext. oY 

By 30 Geo. II. cap. 21. no {melt is to be taken in the 
Thames or Medway lefs than five inches from the eye to. 
theend of the tail, or at any time, except from Jana 

25t 


FISHING. 


25th to June rt; and thofe that are caught in other waters: 
mutt be of the above fize. 33 Geo. II. 

Fisuinc, Seal. See Soar. 

Fisuinc, Zench. The tench is a fine frefh-water fith, 
having very {mall fcales, but large, {mooth fins, with a red 
circle about the eyes, and a little barb hanging at each 
corner of the mouth. It takes more delight among weeds 
in ponds than in clear rivers, and covets to feed in foul water. 
His flime is faid to have a healing quality for wound- 
ed fith ; upon which he is commonly called the f/hes’ 
phyfician. When the carp, pike, -&c. are hurt, it is 
faid they find relief by rubbing themfelves againit the 
tench. 

The feafon for catching this fifth is in June, July, and 
Auguft very early and late, or even all night, in the ftill 
partof rivers. His bait isa large red worm, .at which he 
bites very eagerly, efpecially. if firft dipped in tar. He 
alfo delights in all forts of paftes made up of ftrong- 
feented oils, or with tar; or a pafte of brown bread and 
honey ; nor does he refufe the cel-worm, lob-worm, 
flag-worm, green gentles, cod-bait, or foft boiled bread- 

rain. 
5 Whien a number of tenchare to be taken out of a muddy 
pond, the method is to take a large cafting net, well leaded, 
and with the mefhes from the crown to a full yard anda 
half, not too fmall; for then, if the pond be deep, the fith 
will itrike away before the net gets to the bottom. ‘The 
place where the net isto be thrown into muft be cleared of 
weeds, &c. with a rake, A bait is next to be prepared 
for drawing the fifh together: for this purpofe put a quar- 
ter of a peck of wheat into three quarts of water, fend 
it to an oven, and let it be well foaked; then add to it five 
pints of blood, and as much bran as is neceflary te give it 
the confiftence of a pafte; mix with it fomeclay, and add 
a quart of lob-worms chopped to pieces. Let the whole 
be wrought up into a {tuff patte, and rolled into balls of the 
fize of ahen’s egg, and throw thefe into the pond in the 

Jace where the net is to be caft. Let thefe, and fome grains, 
te occationally thrown in, and the place be thus baited for 
feveral days. When the fifh may be fuppofed to be well 
acquainted with the place, let a good baiting be given in the 
morning, andin the clofe of the evening let the cafting-net 
be evap thrown in. When thenet is funk, the mad all 
about it is to be ftirred with a long pole with a fork at the 
end; thenet is to lie half an hour, andthe mud to be thus 
flirredall the time ; by this means the tench will be raifed, 
and will betakenin pulling out the net ; butif the net were 


to bethrown in and taken out in the common way, there, 


would hardly be one fifh taken; fer the cuftem of both 
tench and carp, when they are frighted, is to plunge their 
heads up tothe eyes in the mud, and thus placed with their 
tailsere&t, the net mut draw over them, without the pofhi- 
bility of entangling them. 

Fisuinc, Trout.~ The trout is a delicious frefh water fifh, 
fpeckled with red and yellow, coming in and going out of 
feafon with the buck, and f{pawning in the cold months of 
Otober and November, whereas all the other {pecies {pawn 
‘in hot fummer weather. There are divers kinds of this fith, 
all valuable ; but the beft are the red and yellow trouts ; and 
of thefe the female, diitinguifhed bya lefs head and deeper 
body, is preferred. They are known to be in feafon by the 
bright colour of their {pots, and by their large and thick 
Takes which laft may {ferve alfo as a rule for other fih. 
Through the whole winter they are fick, lean, and unwhole- 
fome, and frequently loufy. Asthe fpring comes on, de- 
ferting the ftill, deep waters, they repair to the gravelly 
ground, again which they continue to rub till they get nd 


of their lice, which area kind of worms with large heads. 
From that time they delight to be in the fharp ftreams, and 
fuch as are fwift, where they lie in wait for minnows and 
May-flies. Arthe latter end of May they are in their prime 

The ufual baits whereby the trout is caught are the worm, 
minnow, and fly, either natural or artificial. The proper 
worms are the brandling, lob-worm, {quirrel-tail worm 
which has a ftreak round the back, a red head, anda noel 
tail, earth- worm, dung-werm, and maggot or gentle, efpe- 
cially the three firft; the brandling is cemmonly found in an 
old dunghill, or under cow-dung, or elfe among tanner’s 
bark.;,the others are found in the earth, and under large 
ftones, or ftumps of trees; but whatever worms are ufed, 
they are the better for keeping, which is to be done in an 
earthen pot, with mofs, frequently changed. Totakethe 
trout with a ground bait, the angler fhould have a light, 
taperrod, with a tender hazel top; and may angle witha 
fingle hair of three links, the one tied tothe other, for the 
bottom of the line, and a line of three-haired links for the 
upper parts: with this fort of tackle, if the f{portf{man has 
room enough, he will take the largeft trout in any river. The 
angler mu‘ always keep out of fight, and the point of the rod 
mut be down the ftream. The feafon for fithing for the 
trout for the ground bait begins in March, and the morn- 
ings and evenings are the beft time of the day ; but in cloudy 
weather the {port may be followed all day long. There 
mutt be a plummet at ten inches from the hook, which the 
angler muft feel always touching the ground; and this muft 
be heavier as the ftreamis fwitter. When the minnow is 
ufed, chufe the whiteft, and that of middling fize ; flip the 
hook through his mouth, and the point and beard out at 
the tail, fo as it. may lie almoft ftraicht on the hook. Then 
try, againii the ftream, whether it will turn. The tacklein 
this cafe may be ftronger, for the trout will feize this baits 
as foon‘as it comes in fight ; the upper part of the. line may 
be of three filk and three hairs, and the lower of two of 
each ; and the hook may be mederately large. In defe& 
of a minnow, a {mall loach, ora ftickle-back, may ferve the 
turn ; or, for wantof either, an artificial one may be made 
ef cloth by the life, which is found every whit as good a 
bait as the natural one. 7 

The moft agreeable manner of ffhing for trout is with 
the fly : the rod in this cafe muft be light and pliable, and 
the line long and fine ; if one hair be trong enough, as it 
may be made by proper fkill in the angler, there will be 
more fifh caught than when.a thicker line is ufed ; and the 
fly-fither fhould have the wind in his back, and the fua’ 
before him. See AnGuino: 

By 1 Eliz. cap. 21. no trout is to be taken under eight 
inches in length; and by ftat. 24. Anne, cap. 21. fea-trout 
is not to be taken in particular rivers, creeks, or arms of 
the fea between June 30th and Noy, fith. By 30 Geo. II. 
Cap. 21. no trout is to be taken in the Thames or Medway 
between November s1th and Augult 24th, or to be of lefs 
weight than one pound. 

FisuinG-daits. See the preceding articles, and ANGuNe. 

Fisuine-fly, a bait ufed in angling for divers kinds of 
fifh. The fly is either natural or artificial. 

Natural flies ave innumerable: the more ufual on this 
occafion are the dun-fly, the ftone or May-fly, the red-fly, 
the moor-fly, the tawny-fly, the vine-fly, the fhell-fly, the 
cloudy and blackith-fly, the flag-fly ; alfo caterpillars, 
canker-flies, bear-flies, &c. all which appear fooner or later, 
according to the forwardnefs or backwardnefs of the 
{fpring. To. know the particular fly the fifth: moft covets, 
when you come in the morning to the river-fide, beat the 
budhes with your rod; and take wp what variety you can of 

ali 


FISHING. 


all forts of flies ; try them all, and you will quickly know 
which are in mot{t efteem ; not but that fith will fometimes 
change their fy ; but it is only when they have fometimes 
glutted themfelves therewith. 

There are two ways to fifh with natural flics, either on 
the furface of the water, or a little underneath it. 

In angling for chub, roach, or dace, move not your 
natural fly {wiftly, when you fee the fifh make at it; but 
rather Iet it glide freely towards him with. the ftream; 
but if it be in a ftill and flow water, draw the fly flowly 
fideways by him. which will make him eagerly purfue it. 

The artifctal fly is moft fuccefsfully ufed in bluttering 
weather, when the waters are fo troubled by the winds that 
the natural fly cannot be feen, nor reft upon them. 

Of this artificial fly there are reckoned ten principal 
forts: 

1. The dun-fly, in March, made of dun wool, and the 
feathers of a partridge wing. 2. A dun-fly, made of black 
wool, and the feathers of a black drake; the body made 
of the firft, and the wings of the latter. 3. The’ ftone-fly, 
in April, the body made of black wool, dyed yellow under 
the wings and tail. 4. The ruddy-fly, in the beginning of 
May ; the body made of red wool, and bound about with 
black filk, with the feathers of a black capon, which hang 
‘dangling on his fides next his tail. 5. The yellow or 
greenifh fly, in June; the body made of black wool, with 
a- yellow lift on either fide, and the wings taken off the 
wings of a buzzard, bound with black broken hemp. 
6. The moorith-fly ; the body made of dufkifh wool, and 
the wings with the blackifh mail of a drake. 7. Tawny- 
fly, till the middle of June ; the body made of tawny wool, 
the wings made contrary one again{ft the other, of the 
whitifh mail of a white drake. 8. The wafp-fly, in July; 
the body made of black wool, ca{t about with yellow filk, 
and the wings of drakes’ feathers. 9. The fteel-fly, in the 
middle of July; the body made of greenifh wool, caft 
about with the feathers of a peacock’s tail, and the wings 
made of buzzards’ wings. to. The drake-fly, in Augutt ; 
‘the body made of black wool, caft about with black 
filk, his wings of ‘the mail of a black drake, with a black 
head. 

The beft rules for artificial fly-fithing are, 

1. To fith in a river fomewhat difturbed with rain, or in 
a cloudy day, when the waters are moved by a gentle 
breeze; the fouth wind is beft; and if the wind blow 
high, yet not fo but that you may conveniently guide your 
‘tackle, the fifth will rife in plain deeps; but if the wind be 
fall, the belt angling is in fwift ftreams. 

2. Keep as far from the water-fide as may be ; fifh down 
the itream, with the fun on your face, and touch not the 
water with your line. 

3. Angle always in clear rivers with a fmall fly and flender 
wings, but in muddy places ufe larger. 

4. When after rain the water becomes brownifh, ufe an 
orange fly ; ina clear day, a light-coloured fly ; a dark fly 
for dark waters, &c. 

5. Let the line be twice as long as the rod, unlefs the 
river be encumbered with trees. ‘ 

6. For every fort of fly have feveral of the fame, differing 
in colour to fuit with the different complexions of feveral 
waters and weathers. 

7. Have a nimble eye and a¢tive hand, to ftrike prefently 
with the rifing of the fith, or elfe he will be apt to throw 
eut the hook. 

8. Let the fly fall firft into the water, and not the line, 
which will feare the fifh. 

9. In flow rivers or ftill places, caft the fly crofs ever the 


river, and let it fink a little in the water, and draw in gently 
back with the current. 

Salmon fligs fhould be made with their wings ftanding 
one behind the other, whether two or four. That fish de- 
lights in the gaudieft colours that can be; chiefly in the 
wings, which muft be long, as well as the tail. 

Visuinc-floats are little appendages to the line, ferving 
to keep the hook and bait fufpended at the proper depth, 
to.difcover when the fifh has hold of them, &c. 

Of thefe there are divers kinds, fome made of Mufcovy 
duck quills, which are the beit for flow waters; but for 
ftrong ttreams, found cork, without flaws or holes, bored 
through with au hot iron, into which is put a quill of a fit 
proportioa, is preferable; pare the cork to a pyramidal 
form, and grind it {mooth. 

FisuinG-hooé, a little engine of fteel-wire, of a proper 
form to catch and retain th. 

The fifhing-hook, in general, ought to be long in the 
fhank, fomewhat thick in the circumference, the point 
even and ftraight ; kt the bending be in the fhank. For 
etting the hook on, ufe ttrong, but {mall filk, laying the 
hair on the infide of your hook ; for if it be on the outlide, 
the filk will fret and cut it afunder. 

There are feveral fizes of thefe fifhing-hooks, fome big, 
fome little; and of thefe fome have peculiar names, as, 
I. Singte-hooks, z. Double-hooks, which have two bend- 
ings, one contrary to the other. 3. Snappers or gorgers, 
which are hooks to whip the artificial fly upon, or to bait 
with the natural fly. 4. Springers or fpring-hooks, a kind 
of double hooks, with a itpring which flies open, being 
{truck into any fifh, and fo keeps its mouth open. 

Fisuine-line. See Angling Line. 

Fisuine-nets. See Net. 

FisuinG-red, a long, flender rod or wand, to which the 
line is faftened for angling. 

Of thefe there are feveral forts, as, 

1. A troller or trolling rod, which has a ring at the end 
of the rod fer the line to go through when it runs off a 
reel. 2. A whipper or whipping-rod, a top-rod that is 
weak in the middle, and top-heavy, but all flender and fine. 
3. A dopper, which isa ftrong rod, and very light. 4. A 
{napper, or {nap-rod, that is, a {trong pole, peculiarly ufed 
for the pike. 5. A bottom-rod, being the fame as the dop- 
per, but fomewhat more pliable. 6. A {niggling or poking- 
ftick, a forked ftick, having a fhort {trong line, witha needle, 
baited with a lob-worm: this is only for eels in their holes, 

Fifhing-rods are made of different materials and ftrength, 
according to the purpofes for which they are nfed: in fifh- 
ing with mvre than one hair, and with a filk-worm gut, 
red deal is reckoned the bet, with hickery top, and the 
length of the whole rod fheuld be about four yards; but 
for a {mall fly and fingle hair, the length of three yards 
will be fufficient, with the top of yellowifh hickery, and 
about nine inches of whalebone, near as long as the ftock, 
which fhould be of whire deal. The ftocks or buts of 
rods are generally of ground hazle, ath, or willow, about 
two or three feet long; and every joint fhould gradually 
taper to the top. Hazle tops are preferred, though fome 
ufe the Bamboo cane, and fay it exceeds the beit hazle. 
For ground angling, efpecially in muddy waters, the cane 
or reed is preferred for a ftock ; with a hazle top, confilt- 
ing of one, two, or three pieces, and a {mall piece of round, 
{mooth, taper whalebone, which is whipped to the hazle 
with itrong filk, rubbed with fhoe-maker’s wax ; the whole 
length of the rod being five yards or five and a half yards. 
The beft method of piercing hazle and bone is firft to 
whip the end of the hazle with thread, and to bore it with _ 

a Square 


FIS 


a fquare piece of iron of a proper fize ; and then make the 
thick end of the bone, firft dipped in pitch to go into it 5 
after which let it be fcraped, filed, and neatly whipped. 
However, the neateft rod may be thus made: get a thick 
white deal or fir-board, free fiom knots, and fever or eight 
feet long; let this be divided by a joiner into feveral 
breadths, and with his places let him fhoot them round, 
fmooth, and taper. To one of thefe faften an hazle rod, 
fix or feven feet long, which may confift of two or three 
ieces ; to the top of which fix a piece of yew, about two 
Pet long, made round, taper, and {mooth, and to the yew 
a piece of {mall, round, fmooth whalebone, five or fix 
inches long. The fir may be coloured by warming it at 
the fire, and with a feather dipped in aqua-fortis, ftroking it 
over and chafing it into the wood, which will make it of a 
pure cinnamon colour. 
It is found ufeful to have rings or eyes made of fine wire, 
and placed upon the rod from one end to the other, in 
fuch a manner as that when the eye is laid to one you 


-may fee through all the reft: through thefe rings the 


line is made to run, which will thus be kept in a due 
poiture ; and you maft have a winch or wheel affixed to 
the rod about a foot above the end, by which, when- 
ever it is proper, you may give range to the fifh. See 
ANGLING. 

FisuinG-vefels, or thofe ufed in the feveral fifheries at 
fea, or on the coafts, are the bufs, coble, cock, dogger, 
driver, eel-boat, fly-boat, fluyt, hooker, Peter-boat, {mack, 
ftand-boat, trawler, trinker, &c. 

Fisuinc Bay, in Geography, a bay of America, in 
Maryland, lying on the eaft fide of Chelapeak bay, partly 
in Dorchefter and Somerfet counties, the entrance of which 
is between Goldfborough and Devil’s iflands. This bay 
receives feveral rivers from each of the above-mentioned 
counties ; the chief of which are Wicomico and Nanticoke, 
and alfo Tranfquaking and Blackwater creeks.—Alfo, a 
bay on the fouth fide of lake Ontario, about 37 miles E. 
of fort Niagara. 

_Fisuine Creeé,a townfhip of America, in Pennfylvania, 
fituated on Sufquehanna river.—Alfo, a river of Virginia, 
which runs into the Ohio. N. lat. 39°35’. W. long. 80° 57’. 
—Alfo, a river of Kentucky, which runs into Cumberland 
river, N. lat. 36° 49’. W. long. 84° 19!—Alfo, a river of 
Pennfylvania, which runs into the Sufquehanna. N. lat. 
40°19’. W. long. 76° 56'—Alfo, a river of New Jerfey, 
which runs into Delaware bay. N. lat. 39° 5’. W. long. 
74. 54. 

USE Point, a cape on the eaft coaft of Borneo. 
S. Jat. 1° 38" E. long. 116° 30. 

FISHKILL, a poft town of America, in Dutchefs 
county, New York, five miles E. of Hudfon river or Fith- 
kill, containing about 30 houfes, a church for epifcopalians, 
and another for Low Dutch. The townhhip is very exten- 
five, and contains fix churches, and 6168 inhabitants, of 
whom 524 are flaves ; 66 miles N. of the city of New York. 
Fifhhill landing is a part of the above town on the river, 
where is a poft-office. 

Visu-k1£1, or Crees, is the fmall river on which the above- 
mentioned town ftands, and from which it derives its name. 
Jt difcharges itfelf into Hudfon river, nearly oppofite to 
New Windfor.—Alfo, the name of a fmall tream which 
runs S.W. into Oneida lake.—Alfo, a ftream which rifes 


‘from Saratoga lake, and runs fix miles eafterly to the Hud- 


fon. Its mouth is oppofite to Batten-kill, two miles above 

Saratoga town, memorable on account of general Burgoyne’s 

army having laid down their arms as_prifoners on its north 

fide, during the conteit between Great Britainand America. 
Von. XIV. 


FIS 


FISHLIN, one of the fmaller Shetland ifles, five miles 
S. from the ifland of Yell. N.lat. 60°13’. W. long. 1° 23'. 
FISH-PONDS, refervoirs of water for the breeding, 


feeding, and preferving of fifh. 


The quality of the pond, water, &c. proper for this end 
is fearce determinable by any certain fymptom or rule: for 
fome very promifing ponds do not prove ferviceable that 
way. One of the beft indications of a breeding pond is, 
when there is good ftore of rufh and grazing about it, with 
gravelly fhoals, fuch as horfe-ponds ufually have ; and when 
a water takes thus to breeding, with a few milters and 
fpawners, that is, males and females, two or three of each, 
a whole country may be ftocked ina fhort time. 

Eels and perch are of very good ufe to keep down the 
ftock of fifh; for they prey much upon the fpawn and 
fry of bred fih, and will probably deftroy the fuperfluity 
of them. 

As for pike, perch, tench, roach, &c. they are obferved 
to breed almoft in any waters, and very numeroufly ; ouly 
eels never breed in ftanding waters that are without {prings; 
and in fuch are neither found, nor increafe, but by putting 
in; yet where fprings are they are never wanting, though 
not putin. And, which is moft flrange of all, many fay 


there is not in an eel the leaft token of propagation, either 
by milt or fpawn ; fothat how they are produced 1s a quet- 
See Err. 


refrefhed with a little brook, or with the rain-water that 
falls from the adjacent hilly ground. Add, that thofe 
ponds which receive the flale and dung of horfes, and other 
cattle, breed the largeft and fatteft fith. 

Fifh-ponds are not only a thing of convenience to great 
families, but may be made a very profitable article with 
the farmer under due management. Watery and boggy 
land is often fit for no other ufe, and thefe are then a great 
improvement of it. Ponds made in dry grounds in the 
flat bottoms between hills, will alfo ferve not only to fup- 
ply the cattle with water, but the profit of the fifh that may 
be bred in them is greater than many are aware of, and 
comes without any labour or expence. 

In making the pond, obferve that the head be at the lowe 
part of the ground; and that the trench of the flood-gate 
or fluice have a good fwift fall, that it may not be long ia 
emptying on occafion: mf 

The beft way of making the head is by driving three or 
four rows of ftakes about fix feet long, and at about four 
feet diftance from one another, the whole length of the 
pond head: the firft row of thefe isto be driven in four 
feet deep, that they may be very firm and fecure ; and if 
the bottom be not good, but be of a loofe fand, fome lime 
is to be added, which will harden into a fort of ftone. The 
earth dug out of the pond is to be laid between thele fakes 
and rammed hard down, Other rows of ftakes mult be 
added behind and ever thefe, and the fpaces filled up till 
the whole is as high and as thick as is neceflary. The 
Face of it muft be made even and flanting, and there wait 
be a wath left to carry off the fuperfuous water m flo 
&e. 

If the pond carry fix feet of water, it is enough; but it 
muft be made eight fect deep, te receive the trefhes sud 
rains that may fall into it. 

It would alfo be advantageous to have fhoals on the fides 
for the fifh to fun themfelves in, and lay their [pawn on ; 

4 beada, 


ods, 


‘ FISH-PONDS. 


befide, in other places, certain holes, hollow banks, fhelves, 
roots of trees, iflands, &c. to ferve as their retiring-places. 
Confider farther, whether your pond be a breeder; if fo, 
never expect any large carp from thence, the greatnefs of 
the number of {pawn overltocking the pond. 

Carp and tench will live and thrive very well together in 
the fame pond. Where pike are kept, there fhould be 
roach, or fome other quick breeding fifh, to fupply them 
with food. 

Some think that pike and tench may be kept in the 
fame pond. They imagine that pike will not feed npon 
tench ; but they are miftaken, for the pike is fonder of this 
than of almoft any other fifh. Ponds with clear gravelly 
and fandy bottoms are ufually the beft for breeding of 
fith, and foul water with muddy bottoms is the beft for 
them to fatten in. Carp have been known to grow in one 
year from five to eighteen inches tong in ponds where the 
water of the common fewers of any town have run into it. 

The ordinary growth of a carp is not above two or three 
inches in that time, fo that all the excefs is to be attributed 
to the fatnefs of the water of the fewers. 

The carp, which was firft brought into England by 
Leonard Mafcal, about the year 1514, is the molt valuable 
of all kinds of fifh for the ftocking of ponds, becaufe of 
its quick growth and great increafe. Ifthe breeding and 
feeding of this fith were more underftood and pra¢tifed, the 
advantages would be very great, and fifh-ponds become 
as valuable an article as gardens. ‘The gentleman who has 
land in his own hands may, befide furnifhing his own table, 
and fupplying his friends, raife a great deal of money, and 
very confiderably improve his land at the fame time, fo as 
to make it yield more this way than by any other employ- 
ment whatever. The fale of earp makes a part ce the 
revenue of the nobility and gentry in Pruffia, Pomerania, 
Brandenburg, Saxony, Bohemia, Mecklenburg, and Hol- 
ftein. For this purpofe particular attention fhould be paid 
to the foil, water, and fituation of the carp-pond: the beft 
kinds of ponds are thofe which are furrounded by the fineit 
pattures and corn-fields of a rich black mould, having foft 
{prings on the fpot, or running water that is neither toa 
cold, nor impregnated with acid, calcareous, felenitic, 
or other mineral particles. The water, indeed, may be 
foftened by expofing it to the air and fun in a referveir, or 
by forming an-epen channel for it at fome diftance from the 
pond. They fhould likewife be fheltered againit the eafterly 
and northerly winds, and be fully expofed to the influence 
of the fun, 

It is found by experience moft convenient to have three 
kinds of ponds for carp; vix. the {pawning pond, the 
nurfing and the main pond. The firft fort of pond muit 
be well cleared of all other kinds of filh, efpecially thofe 
ef the rapacious kind, fuch as the pike, perch, eel, and 
trout, and alfo of all newts, of lizards, and the water- 
beetles. It fhould be fupplied with foft water, and be ex- 
pofed to the fun and air. A pond of one acre requires 
three or four male carp, and fix or eight female ones, and in 
the fame proportion for each additional acre. The beit 
earp for breeding are thofe of five, fix, or feven years old, 
in good health, with full fcale, fine full eyes, and a long 
body, and without aay blemifh or wound. The pond should 
be ftocked ona fine calm day, towards the latter end of 
March or in April. Carp fpawn in May, June, or July, 
aecording to the warmth of the feafon; and for this pur- 
pofe they {wim to afteady, warm, fheltered place, where 
they geuthy rub their bodies againft the fandy ground, grafs, 
or ofiers, and by this preflure the {pawn 1fues out. At the 
{pawning feafon all kinds of fowl should be kept from the 


ponds. The young fry, hatched from the {pawn by the ge~ 
nial influence of the itn, are left in this pond through the 
whole fummer, and even the next winter, if the pond is 
deep enough to prevent their fuffocation under the ice ina 
fevere winter; otherwife the breeders and fry are put into 
feparate ponds, more convenient for the wintering. 

Ponds of the fecond kind are the nurferies; the young 
fhould be removed into the nurfery in March or April, ona 
fine calm day; a pond of an acre will admit a thoufand or 
twelve hundred of this fry. When they are firft put in, 
they fhould be well watched and driven from the fides of the 
pond, left they become the prey of rapacious birds. In 
two fummers they will grow fo much as to weigh four, five, 
fometimes fix pounds, and to be flefhy and well taited. 

The main ponds are the laft fort; into thefe are put carp, 
that meafure a foot, head and tail inclufive. Every fquare 
of fifteen feet is {ufficient for one carp; their growth de- 
pends upon the room, and the quantity of food allowed 
them. The beft feafons for ftocking the ay be are 
{pring and autumn: carp continues to grow for along time, 
and to a very coufiderable fize and weight. Mr. Forfter 
mentions one which he had feen in Pruffia abeve a yard long, 
and of twenty-five pounds weight; and two or three hun- 
dred between two and three feet long, and which, as he 
was told,’were of between fifty and fixty years ftanding. 
Geftrer mentions an inftance of one that was 100 years old: 
thefe were tame, and came to the fhore in order to be fed, and 
{wallowed with eafe a piece of white bread of the fize of a 
halfpenny roll, Ponds fhould be well fupplied with water 
during the winter, and when they are covered with ice, 
holes fhould be opened every day for the admiffion of freth 
air, through want of which carp frequently perifh. See 
Carp Fisuine, and Breeding of Fisu. f. 

For the general management of fifh-poads referve fome 
great waters for the head-quarters of the fifa, whence you 
may take, or wherein you may put any quantity thereof ; 
and take care to have ftews, and other auxiliary waters, fo 
that you may convey any part of the ftock from one to the 
other, aud lofe no time ia the growth of the fifh, but em- 
ploy the water as you do your land, to the belt advantage. 
View the grounds, and fiud out fome fall between the hills 
as nearly flat as may be, fo as to leave a proper current for 
the water; if there be any difficulty in judging of fuch, 
take an opportunity, after fome fudden rain, or the breaking 
up of a great {now in winter, and you will plainly fee 
which way the ground cafts, for the water will take the 
true-fall, and run accordingly. 

The condition of the place muft determine the quantity of 
ground to be covered with water. or example, we may 
propofe in all fifteen acres in three ponds ; or eight aeres in 
two, and no lefs; and thefe ponds fhould be placed one 
above another, fo as the point of the lower may almoft reach 
the head or bank of the upper; which contrivance is no lefs 
beautiful than advantageous. 

The head or bank, which, by ftopping the current, is to 
raife the water, and to make a pond, mult be built with the 
clay and earth taken out of the pan or hollow dug in the 
lowell ground above the bank: the fhape of the pan is to 
be an half oval, whereof the flat is to come to the bank, 
and the longer diameter to run {quare from it. : 

All fh-ponds fhould be drawn once in three or four years, 
and the tifh forted; if it be a breeding-pond, the fmaller fill 
fhould be taken out to ftore other ponds with ; and in feed-. 
jng-ponds all the fh fhould be kept as nearly as may be of 
a fize, for the larger and {maller never all thrive well to- 
gether. 

Flounders will both thrive and breed in any pond, efne- 


t cially 


FIs 


cially in'a ‘clay pond, and will be much larger’ than in 
rivers. 

Bitterns, herons, otters, water-rats, and fea-gulls, are all 
great deftroyers of fifh, and the ponds fhould be kept as clear 
as poflible of them; but the greateft of all deftruétion in 
fifh-ponds is occafioned by frotts. 

To remedy this, fome propofe to break the ice and lay in 

ipes, itraw, and other things, to give air tothe fifh; but 
all thefe fail when the ponds are foul; but when they are 
clean, the fith feldom fuffer any harm, be the froft ever fo 
long, though no holes be broke in theice. The {tench of 
foul water feems to be the occafion of the death of the fifh, 
in this cafe of its being locked up by frofts, and not the 
want of air. The cleaning of ponds frequently is of great 
ufe as well on this as on many other occafions ; and it is done 
at no expence, becaufe the mud, ferving as manure to the 
lands, more than pays the expence of taking it out. 

When the ground is boggy, and carts cannot come up to 
take the mud, it is beft to cut the ponds long and narrow 
in form of moats, that it may be thrown out at one tofs by 
the labourers in clearing them; forif it require two toiles, 
the difference will be juft the double price of labour. 


. Inmany fituations where fifh-ponds can be readily formed, 
it may not unfrequently be advifeable to have recourfe to 
them in the view of profit from the fifh, and their conve- 
nience in family ufe. It is not eafy to afcertain what quan- 
tity of produce, or profit, might be derived from ponds of 
this defeription under different circumitances, as very few 
experiments have yet been detailed from which conclufiors 
can be drawn. It would lead to much intereiting informa- 
tion on the fubject, if the annual increafe in the weight of 
‘different forts of fifh, in different ftages of their growth, 
and under different circumftances of foil and water, were 
corre€tly determined. 

It has been ftated by Mr. Lowden of Berkthire, in the 
«¢ Annals of Agriculture,” that a pond of the extent of 
three acres and a half, drawn, after three year’s ftocking 
with ftores of one year old, afforded 195 pounds weight of 
earp, and 230 pounds weight of tench; which in the whole 
was 425 pounds, which fold for twenty ponnds ten fhillings, 
or nearly 2/. 65. od. the acre per annum. And that the 
fame pond, when ftocked with tench only, on being drawn 
three years afterwards, produced about twenty-fix pounds. 
Therefore, fuppofiag that, in a pond which fupports two 
thoufand four hundred fifh, half a pound be gained an- 
nually, it will be 1200 pounds weight, which, at 67. the 
pound, will afford thirty pounds, and for fifteen acres, forty 
fhillings the acre ; and when at o¢. the pound three pounds 
the acre. 

As there is litile trouble in this fort of farm managenient, 
fuch prosits fhould not be difregarded or overlooked in par- 
ticular fituations. Inthe diftri€t noticed above, it is ftated 
that the ufual price, when fold by the pound, is one fhilling 
for tench, and ten-pence for carp. And that this is the 
beft manner of difpofing of them that can be adopted. 
But when they are fold by the number, as per hundred, &c. 
they are moftly meafured from the eye to the tail, and dif- 
pofed of in this manner. 


Tench. 
Lite aie Bod 
Under 12 inches - - 3 Or 6 
12 -—— - = SE STOr iG 
14 —-- - aL aS 


Carp 
Heat oOCE: 
Under 12 inches - Ge tom te 
14 - - - 6" to" +o 
16 ——- - - 8 °o.O0 


In what relates to the proper ftocking and managing of 
ponds for the raifing of fifh, inthe intention of deriving ad- 
vantage from the fale of them, much itill remains to be 
accomplifhed before the greateft poflible profit can be ob- 
tained. 

In different fituations the methods of flocking are ex- 
tremely different. It is the pra¢tice in Berkfhire to itock 
with carp and tench in the proportion of one hundred to 
the acre, while in Suffex they ftock in the quantity of, 
feventy five brace to the acre. Stocking in too large a pro- 
portion may be injurious to the profit, as fith require the 
food to be abundant in moft cafes. 

The forts of pond-fifh moft profitable to farming pro- 
prietors, are probably thofe of carp, tench, perch, and oc- 
cafionally eels. But in thinly ftocked ponds, the two lait 
forts fhould not be both admitted at the fame time, as they 
devour young fry very largely. Where ponds are large, 
carp and tench anfwer well together ; but in thofe of the 
{maller kind, the former is apt to deprive the latter of its 


. food, in confequenee of being fo much more powerful. 


Carp feldom affords much profit in {mall ponds, but tench 
fucceed well in thofe of almoft any dimenfions. Carp, 
perch, and eels, fometimes anfwer pretty well together, and 
likewife tench with eels. Where the ponds are but {mall, 
the beft practice is perhaps to keep the carp and tench fe- 
parate. 

Carp frequently injure themfelves by breeding, but this 
is not often the cafe with tench. 

The fituations in which fifh-ponds can be made, in the in- 
tention of farm-profit, are principally in the dips, hollows, 
and other parts of ground where the quality of the land is 
very bad, but where there is the convenience of plenty of 
water proper for the purpofe. 

In a national point of view, ponds of this fort can hardly 
yet be confidered of much importance, but they fhould not 
be negle@ted by thofe who are engaged in the improvement 
of landed property. 

Though fifh-ponds are numerous in many diftri€te of the 
kingdom, it is perhaps only in the counties of Suffex and 
Surry that any thing like a fyftem has been eftablifhed for 
raifing fifth with the intention of prefit; but in thefe coun- 
ties fifh-ponds have long been formed for letting to dealers 
in pond-fifh, and’ ftocking in order to the difpofal of the 

roduce as an article of farm-ftock, like that of any other 
Find. It is not, however, improbable but that as the na- 
ture and management of pond-fifh become more perfectly 
underftood, fuch a. practice may be confiderably ex- 
tended. 

FISH-TOWN, in Geography, a town of Africa, at 
the mouth of the river Calbari. 

FISKEROE, an ifle or peninfula on the Laponic 
fhore, part of which belongs to Ruifian Lapland. 

FISKO, a {mall ifland of Sweden, between the ifand 
of Aland and the coat of Finland. N. lat. Go® 28. E. 
long. 20° 45’. 

FISMES, :a town of France, in the department of the 
Marne, and chicf place of a caaton in the diltri& of 
Rheims, fituated on the Veile; 15 miles N.W. of Rheims. 
N, lat. 49° 184, E.long. 3° 46'. The place contains 2129, 

4D2 jad 


FIs 


and the canton 11,152 inhabitants, on a territory of 182% 
kiliometres, and in 23 communes. 

FISSATO, a fea-port town of Africa, in the country of 
Tripoli; go miles N.W. of Tripoli, N. lat. 33° so!. E. 
Jong. 12°. 

FISSENIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in 
Mefopotamia, feated on the Bafil or Royal river, towards 
Babylonia. 

FISSIDENS, in Botany, from ffus, cloven, and dens, 
a tooth, an Hedwigian penusof mofles, diltinguifhed by its 
author, from his own Dicranum, only by the male flowers 
being axillary on the fame plant with the female ones; a 
difference which, though corroborated by the habit in moft 
cafes, not in all, we think too difficult to be of any praGtical 
ule. See Dicranum. 

FPISSILIA, from the fiffile or eafily cloven corolla. 
Jaff. 260.. Willd. Sp. Pl..v. 10194. Ibamarck t. 28: An 
evergreen tree of the i/le de Bourbon, where it is.called dois 
#e perroquet, becaufe the fmaller kinds of parrots are fond 
ef the fruit. The /eaves are alternate, on fhort ftalks, el- 
liptic-lanceolate, entire, bluntifh, thick and coriaceous, 
fmooth, with one rib and a few flight veins. Stipulas none. 
Flowers axillary, fomewhat racemofe, occafionally folitary, 
on longifh {mooth italis, refembling thofe of an orange but 
fmaller. Fruit a fmall drupa, encompaffed with the en- 
larged, cup-fhaped, entire, permanent calyx. 

This is the Olax p/ittacorum of Vahl’s Enum. y, 2. 33. 
« Leaves ovate-oblong or lanceolate, flightly veiny. 
Branches round.”? See Oxrax, to which genus itis with 
indubitable propriety referred by Vahl, though they are 
placed in two very different natural orders by Juflieu, who 
knew Olax but imperfectly. What he terms barren fila 
ments in the flower, Linnzus, lefs authentically perhaps, 
takes for neétaries. 

FISSUM-Forivum, a leaf that is cloven, or divided ver- 
tically more or lefs deeply. See Lear. 

FISSURA, in Anatomy, a name given to feveral open- 
ings, particularly in the banes of the head ; as the fuperior 
erbital fiffure of the {pheroid bone, the inferior-fphero- 
maxillary fiffure formed between the f{phenoid and fuperior 
maxillary bones, &c. 

Fissura Magna Sy/lvii, a divifion in the fubftance of 
the brain, feparating the anterior from the middle lobe; 
See Brain. 

FISSURE, a term in: Surgery. All pra€titioners and 
authors have, from the earlieft times, underftood by the 
word ffJure, a folution of continuity in a bone, having the 
appearance of a hair. Hence the expreffion rima capil- 
laris, capillary fifure, which, in fhort, is nothing more than 
a very fine, minute crack ina bone. 

The old furgeons ufed to believe, that this fort of frac- 
ture took place both in the flat and the long cylindrical 
bones; and it was M. J. L. Petit, who firft brought into 
doubt the opinion, in as far as it related to bones of the 
latter clafs. The fubje& was noticed by this writer, in his 
«<< Traité des Maladies des Os.”? In this work, he reprefente 
fragtures, faid to occur exatly in the direétion of the 
length of the bones, asonly imaginary. His reafon for this 
fentiment is, that there is no force capable of breaking a 
bone in this way, which would not much more eafily occa- 
fion a fra@ture of the tranfverfe kind. 

The figns of a fiffure, as fated by Fabricius ab Aqua- 
pendente, are very equivocal and fallacious: he obferves: 
*¢ quod fios fecundum longitudinem fraGtum fit, primé adeft 
membri craffities ultra naturalem ftatum, deinde dolor, tum 
membri inequalitas.”” Butall thefe fymptoms, when they 


FIs 
make their appearance, ought rather to be afcribed to the 
effects of the contufion, than to any other circumftance, 
It is alfo evideut, on reading Fabricius ab Aquapendente, 
that he meant by a longitudinal fraéture, what is now called, 
anobliqueone. Indeedas M. J. L. Petit notices, Fabricius 
would never have advifed extenfion to be made for a fraéture 
which was exa¢tly in the direction of the length of a bone, 
fince this practice is obvioufly not applicable to the cafe, 
and he would never have recommended making preflure 
round the broken part, which could not be ina difplaced 
condition, even were the bone actually fra¢tured in a longi- 
tudinalmanser. Duverney in his ‘¢ Traité des Maladies des 
Os,’’ bas adduced no folid arguments in favour of the 
doétrine of longitudinal fra€tures. 

The reader may find the prefent fubje& very judicioufly 
inveltigated at the beginning of M. J. L. Petit’s work, It 
appears from the facts and reafons there brought forward, 
that, on the benes of the extremities a fiffure can only oc- 
cur, in cafes of gun{hot-wounds, where the f{plinters fome- 
times extendas tar as the neareft joint. Such fractures are 
not ealy of deteGtion. They are moft frequently attended 
with fymptoms, arifing more from the violence and fhock 
always occafioned by gun-fhot injuries, and the confequent 
mifchief excited in the fubftance or medullary ftru@ture of 
the bone, than from the particular nature of the fracture 
itfelf. 

But though authors differ in opinion, in regard to fiffures 
on the long cylindrical bones, they are al! of one fentiment 
in acknowledging the occurrence of fuch fra&tures on the 
bones of the cranium, in confequence of blows upon the 
head. Here the accident is often termed by Latin 
writers /cifura. The crack is either plainly perceptible, or 
{earcely difcoverable ; in which latter cafe, the expreffion of 
capillary fifJure is often ufed. In both cafes, the folution 
of continuity may take place, either precifely in the place 
again{ft which violence has been directed, or at fome other 
part of the fkull. Encyclopedie Méthodique; Partie 
Chirurgicale. Art. Fiffure. 

Fissure, in Geology and Mining, generally fignifies the 
fame with Fau/t, which fee; but Mr. W. Martin, a late, 
and generally a very correct writer, defines it (Outlines of 
the Knowledge of Extraneous Foffils, p. 172.) to mean, a 
partial and fuperficial rift, rarely extending through more 
than one ftratum: which definition, by the notes in this 
page, is made to apply nearly to mineral veins ; like thofe in 
the Limeftone diftrict of Derbyfhire, and by which two 
things very different in their nature, and the mode and 
period of their formation, are confounded together, as we 
have obferved, when treating of Faults. 

Fissure Fofils, in Mineralogy, or yenous or venigenous 
minerals, are thofe found in veins or fiffures, and which are 
generally cryftallized in a more or lefs perteét {tate ; fee Ve- 
NIGENOUS Fo/fils, Ripers, VEINS, &c. 

Fissures, ia the Hiffory of the Earth, certain interrup- 
tions that horizontally or parallelly divide the feveral {trata 
of which the body of eur terreftrial globe is compofed. 

FISTELLA, or Ferza, in Geography, a town of 
Moroeco, the inhabitants of which are rich, courteous, and - 
warlike ; 150 miles N.E. of Morocco. ae 

FISTER, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Bergen ; 
16 miles N.E. of Stavanger. 

FISTRITS, or Bysrrzir, New, a town of Bohemia 
in the circle of Bechin; 28 miles E, of Budwais.. N. lat. 

gat B. long. 15 ons 

FISTRITZ, a river of Moravia which runs into the 
Marfch, near Olmatz, 

4 FISTUCA, 


FIs 


“FISTUCA, in Antiquity, an intrament of wood ufed in 
driving piles, and fitted with two handles. It was either 
raifed with pullies fixed at the head of large beams, and then 
Jet fall again direétly on the piles, or was wrought by the 
hand only. 

FISTULA, Lat. a pipe, a flute, a flageolet, awhiltle. 

Fistruva, in the dncient Mufic, an inftrument of the 
wind kind, refembling our flute or flageolet. 

The principal wind inftruments of the ancients were the 
tibia and filtula; though how thefe were conftituted, or 
wherein they differed, or how they were played on, does 
not at prefent appear. All we know is, that the fiftula 
was at firft made of reeds, and afterwards of other matters. 
Some had holes, fome none; fome again were fingle pipes ; 
ethers a combination of feveral; witnefs the fyringa of 
Pan. 

Fisruta, Liturgical, was the pipe, being generally made 
of gold or filver, through which during feveral ages, per- 
fons who communicated under both kinds, drank out of the 
chalice. ‘The ufe of it was retained in the abbey of St. 
Dennis, near Paris, as long as it {ubfifted, as likewife by the 
kings of France, when they received the facrament at their 
coronation. ‘ 

' Fistura Panis, Pan’s pipe. 
RINGA. 

Fisruxa, in Surgery, has ufually been defined, “ finus 
anguftus, callofus, profundus ; acri fanie difluens;’’ or, as 
Dionis tranflates it, “un ulcére profond, et caverneux, dont 
Pentrée eft etroite, et le fond plus large; avec iffue d’un 
pus acreet virulent; et accompagné de callofités.”” In the 
words of Mr. Pott, a fiftula is “¢a deep, hollow fore, or 
finus, all parts of which are fo hardened, or fo difeafed, as 
to be abfolutely incapable of being healed while in that 
{tate ; and from which a frequent, or daily difcharge is made 
of athin, difcoloured fanies, or fluid.”’ 

A fiftula generally leads down to fome cavity, commonly 
fituated in the cellular fubftance, between the integuments 
and mufeles, or in the interfpaces between the mufcles them- 
felves. The cavities with which fiftulee communicate are 
ufually termed /inu/es. Thefe, in fome meafure, ferve as 
receptacles for whatever matter is fecreted by the parietes 
of the abfcefs, and when preflure is made upon fuch finufes, 
a much larger quantity of fanies, or matter, flows out of 
the external fiftulous opening, than appearances would in- 
duce one to expect. 

The reader will excufe us from devoting much time te 
criticiims on the ordinary definitions of a fiftula; but we 
cannot refrain from obferving that a filtula might be better, 
and more fmply called a narrow track oer paffage, leading 
from the feat of an abfcefs, giving vent to more or lefs of 
the matter outward, and having little or no tendency to 
heal. However, in cafes of fiftule in perinxo, and of thofe 
of the parotid duét, the foregoing definition will not be al- 
together accurate, fince the fiftulous paffage leads from 
parts where urine and faliva exift, inftead of pus. In- the 
prefent ftate of furgery, fo many diforders are termed fiftu- 
lous, which have uo claim to the appellation, (according to 
the ftri& fenfe of the expreffion,) not being accompanied 
with any callofities or fanious difcharge, that perhaps a fur- 
geon would be lefs liable to imbibe erroneous notions from 
the fignification which we have fuggefted, than from the 
ancient one, We are ready to acknowledge, however, that 
almoft all definitions are difficult, obje€tionable in fome way 
or another, and expofed to controverly, and we gladly quit 
the fubject ourfelves, ever ready to retragt our own explana- 
tions in favour ef better ones. 


See Syrinx and Sr 


FIS 


The finufes which are formed in cafes of ulcers and 
abfceffes are moft frequently occafioned by the confinement 
of purulent matter, which readily makesits way in different 
directions in the cellular fubftance, which is the fofteft and 
mott yielding part of the texture of the body. If a timely 
opening be made into abfceffes, the formation of fiftule 
and finufes is generally avoided. But though a pun@ure be 
made by the furgeon at a feafonable period, if the aperture 
fhould-not be-made in a depending fituation, fo that the 
mafs of pus cannot freely flow out, fome of the matter will 
be continually oozing cat in a flow way, prevent the part 
from healing, and be the canfe of a fiftula. The cavity of 
the abfcefs, in confequence of being kept for a confiderable 
time diftended with matter, inftead of contraéting and gras 
nulating, will acquire a difeafed ftate, in which a thin 
fanious difcharge will be emitted, and the parts lofe all ten- 
dency to get well of themfelves. 

The foregoing obfervations are equally applicable to cafes, 
in which an abfcefs burlls of itfelt, in a place which is very 
unfavourable for the efcape of the pus. 

Another circumitance under which fiftule are neceffarily 
produced, is when a dead portion of bone, or fome extraneous 
body lodged in the flefh, maintains a continual fuppuration 
around it. In this fort of cafe, the opening by which the 
abfcefs firlt breaks never clofes as long as the fecretion of 
pus within goes on; the matter is everynow and then 
oozing out, and the track through which it pafles becomes 
fiftulous. 

No term in furgery has been fo much mifapplied as the 
word fiftula; and fince the expreffion has always conveyed 
to the practitioner’s mind the idea of a difeafe attended with 
a great deal of callous induration, this abufe of language 
has too often led, efpecially in former days, to methods of 
treatment equally unneceffary, hurtful, and barbarous. 
Even at prefent, fo many diforders are called fiftule without 
deferving the name, at leaft, without being accompanied 
with any callous hardnefs, that, as we have already faid, 
young furgeons weuld avoid imbibing many prejudices, by 
merely confidering the phrafe ‘fiftula,’? as implying an 
outlet for fome difcharge, which outlet, owing to fome par- 
ticular caufe, has not much propenfity te heal. The truth 
of what we have here remarked will be better feen, when 
the fubjeGts of fiftula in ano, and fiftula lachrymalis, are pre- 
fently treated of. 

We fhall next notice fome of the modes of treatment 
which have been put into praétice for the purpofe of curing 
fiftulous complaints. Some of the plans alluded to may 
now be faid to be exploded; but there is an advantage in 
knowing what has been done by our predeceffors, and, for 
this reafon, we fhall enter into fome details, which otherwife 
would not have been given. 

In recent cafes of filtule, many writers have recom- 
mended what they call ou/nerary injeGions to be made ufe 
of, and when the difeafe is in a more advanced ftate, and 
the fides of the finus from length of time are in a callous 
{tate, e{charotic injetions and powders are prefcribed. Such 
applications, however, have feldom or never produced any 
real good effects, and the too frequent indifcriminate employ- 
ment of them has often rendered finufes hard and callous, 
which previoufly were by no means indifpofed to heal. 

In all cafes in which the fides of a finus are in an indu- 
rated callous ftate, fome recommend laying open the cavity 
from one end tothe other, and removing all fuch parts as 
have become hardened, fo as to convert the whole difeafed 
place into one wound, which is to be treated en common 


principles, 
The 


BEST U' LA: 


The fimple divifion of a fiftula throughout its whole ex- 
tent Is, even at this day, the moft approved plan of treat- 
ment generally {peaking ; but the additional method of 
cutting out all the furrounding indurated parts has long 
been abandoned by all good furgeons. The abfurdity and 
bad effects of fuch treatment were well explained by Pott, 
in his treatife on the filtula in ano, and, fince his time, the 
lamett praCtitioners in this country have not difgraced them- 
felves by the performance of excifions of this nature. 

Though there cannot be a doubt, that dividing fittule 
throughout their whole exteut is generally the moft eligible 
mode of cure, it muft be acknowledged that, in certain 
inttances, the greatnefs of the pain, the dilagreeablenefs of 
the fear, and the degree of danger, are formidable objec- 
tions. ; 

For example, the practice of cutting thus extenfively is 
not applicable to cafes in which fiftule extend a very con- 
fiderable way up the rectum; and certainly no prudent 
furgeon would advile fiftule to be cut open which run to 
an immoderate depth, and, as very often happens, below 
large blood-veffels, nerves, and tendons. 

In thefe laft-mentioued, and feveral other kinds of fittule, 
the French furgeons are advocates for the employment of a 
feton. They obferve that the obje& in the treatment of all 
fiftulous difeates, is to make the fides of the finus adhere 
together, fo that no cavity may remain. They ftate, that 
the moft effectual plan of fultilling this indication is firkt to 
make an opening in the moft depending part of the fiftula, 
in order to give free vent to the matter ; and, fecondly, by a 
gentle irritation to excite a certain degree of inflammation 
over the inner furface of the cavity. It is well known that 
in the inflammatory fate, coagulating lymph is effufed, and, 
becoming vafcular, renders the fides of the filtula perma- 
nently aderent together. 

According to the French writers, the two indications, juft 
now fpecified, may be beft fulfilled, in the majority of cafes, 
by introducing a feton from the orifice of the fiftula down 
to the very bottom of the finus, where a counter-opening 
is to be made 

The feton fhould he made of filk or cotton, and more or 
lefs thick, according to the fize of the fiftula. The fkein 
of filk or thread is to be gradually leffened, as the cure ad- 
vances, one or two threads being removed every two or 
three days. At length, when the cavity of the finus is 
almott filled up, and. the ‘difcharge has confiderably dimi- 

‘nifhed, the feton may be entirely removed. A moderately 
tight bandage over the drefiings will then ferve to com- 
plete the cure. 

Setons are not generally preferred for the cure of fiftule 
by Englith furgeons. Indeed it is obvious, they can only 
be ufed when the whole courfe of the filtula can be traced 
with a probe, and its termiuation is fo fituated that a 
counter-opening ca be made into it. This may be faid 
never to be the cafe with fiftuke in ano. 

The fimple divifion of fiftulous finufes is generally the 
mott judicious mode of cure. It is only when a fiftula runs 
under parts, which it would be dangerous or hurtful to cut, 
that the kuife mult give place to other means. A direétor, 
a crooked biftoury, anda probe, are the inftruments which 
are uledin dividing fillule. 

Many fittule are kept up hy the prefence of extraneous 
bodies, dead pieces ef bose, &c. In fuch inftances, it is 
manifcft that the accomphfhment of a cure cannot be effe- 
ed, elther by injections, fetors, or laying open the finufes 3 
but can oly be brought about by the removal of the foreign 
fubttance, or difeafed portion of bone. 


We hall now treat of the fiftula in ano, fiftula lachrymalis, 
and fiftule in perinzeo, all which are furgical difeafes of the © 
greatett importance. 

Fiftula in ano.—Clear and precife definitions of difeafes, . 
and the application of fuch names to them, as are expreffiye 
of their true and real nature, are (fays that celebrated fur- 
geon Mr. Pott) of more confequence than they are 
generally imagined to be: untrue or imperfect ones occa, 
tion falfe ideas ; and falfe ideas are generally followed by 
erroneous practice. ‘ 

The fame writer remarks that it would be no difficult 
matter to produce initances of diforders, whofe treatment 
has, for a great length of time, been accommodated more to 
the titles impofed upon*them, than to their true and real 
charaéter. Among thele, the fiftula in ano is mentioned as 
a moft glaring proof. 

‘The cuftom of giving the appellation of fiftula to every 
impofthumation, and to every colle¢tion of matter formed 
near tothe anus, has, by conveying a falfe notion of them, 
been productive of fuch methods of treating them, as 
(though perhaps fuited to fuch idea) are diametrically oppo- 
fite to thofe which ought to be purfued; fuch as have often 
rendered thofe cafes tedious and painful, which might have 
been cured eafily and expeditioufly; and, confequently, 
fuch as have brought difgrace on our art, and unneceflary. 
trouble on mankind. m ; ; 

‘* A {mall orifice or outlet, froma large or deep cavity. 
difcharging a thin gleet or fanies, made a confiderable part 
of the idea which our anceftors had of a filtnlous fore, 
wherever feated. With the term ffulous, they always cen- 
nected a notion of callofity ; and, therefore, whenever 
they fouud fuch a kind of opening yielding fuch fort of dif- 
charge, andattended with any degree of induration, they 
called the complaint a filtula. Imagining thiscallofity to be 
a difeafed alteration made in the very {tru€ture of the parts, 
they had no conception that it could be cured by any 
means but by removal witha cutting inftrument, or by de- 
flruction with efcharotics ; and therefore they immediately 
attacked it with knife or cauftic, in order to accomplifh one 
of thefe ends; and very terrible work, by their own ac-. 
counts, they often made, before they did accomplifh it.. - 

« Several of the above-mentioned circumitances fo fre- 
quently attend colle¢tions of matter near to the re€tum ; and 
therefore, for want of proper attention to the true nature 
of the cafe, the cuftom of calling them all fiftule has gene- , 
rally prevailed, though witheut any foundation in truth or 
nature. ; 

«© That abfcefles, formed near the fundament, do fome- 
times from bad habits, from extreme negle@, or from grofs 
mif-treatment, become fiftulous, is certain ; but the majority 
of them have not, at firlt, any one character or mark of a true 
fillula ; nor can, without the moft fupine negle& on the fide 
of the patient, or the mgft ignorant mifmanagement on 
the part of the furgeon, degenerate, or be converted into. 
one. 

“¢ ColleGions of matter from inflammation, wherever 
formed, if they be not opened in time, and in a propermanner, 
do often burft. The hole, through which the matter finds 
vent, 1s generally {mall, and not often fituated in the moft 
convenient or moit dependent part of the tumour : it tliere- 
fore is unfit for the difcharge of all the contents of the ab- 
{cefs; and, inftead of clofing, contraéts itfelf to a fmaller 
fize ; and, becoming hard at its edges, continues to drain off 
what is furnithed by the undigefted fides of the cavity. 

_ This is often the cafe in the moft mufcular or flefhy. 
parts of the body, where the cellular and adipofe membrane, 
~ does 


FISTULA. 


does not abound ; but is more particularly fo in the neigh- 
bourhood of the anus, where that membrane is large in 
quantity, well flocked with fat, and not compreffed by the 
action of any large or {trong mufcles.”? 

After taking notice of the frequency of abfceffes about 
the anus, and their being attended with confiderable indura- 
tion, which does not fubfide, particularly when they have 
been allowed to burit of themfelves, Mr. Pott remarks that 
the fmailnefs of the accidental orifice, the hardnefs of its 
edges, its being found to be the outlet from a deep cavity, 
iis difcharging every dayathin, gleety, difcoloured kind 
ef matter, attended with great induration of the furround- 
ing parts, are all of them circumftances raifing and confirm- 
ing the idea of a true fiftula. 

«To this idea (fays Mr. Pott) the general treatment of 
thefe cafes has therefore been made to accord: upon this 
has been built the prevailing doétrine of free excifion, or as 
free deftru€tion, without any regard to the original produc- 
tion of the complaint, its particular feat, its date, or any 
other attendant circumftances; and without examining 
whether it would not admit a more eafy and a more expedi- 
tious method of cure. In hort, this notion, that all finufes 
near the rectum are neceflarily fiftulous, has occafioned the 
prefcription of fuch a manner of treating them, from their 
very firft appearance as they can hardly ever ftand in need 
of at any time; and a more ill founded fuppofition that the 
induration of the parts about may be owing to a difeafed 
callofity, is urged asa reafon for ufing them with more fe- 
verity than even fuch a ftate would require.”” 

Mr. Pott next obferves, that whoever would obtain a 
true notion of the difeafe in queftion, muft confider it under 
all the forms in which it makes its appearance. Thefe, 
which are many and various, both with regard to afpect, 
fituation, and fymptoms, are what fhew the different nature 
of the complaint in different ftates, and are the circum- 
fiances which ought to regulate a furgeon’s conduct in the 
cure of it. 

Sometimes (fays Mr. Pott) the attack is.made with fymp- 
toms of high inflammation; with pain, fever, rigor, &c. 
the fever fubfiding as foon as {uppuration is fully efta- 
blifhed.. 

_ “In this cafe, a part of the buttock, near to the anus, 
is confiderably {wollen, and has a large circum{cribed hard- 
nefs. Ina fhort time, the middle of this hardnefs becomes 
red and inflamed ; and, in the centre of it, matter is 
formed. 

“ This, in the language of our ancetftors, is called in 
general a phlegmon; but, when it appears in this par- 
ticular part, a phyma. 

«¢ The pain is fometimes great, the fever high, the tumour 
large, and exquifitely tender ; but however difagreeable the 
appearances may haye been, or however high the fymptoms 
may have rifen before fuppuration, yet, when that end is fairly 
and fully accomplished, the patient generally becomes eafy and 
cool, and the matter formedunder fuch circumftances, though 
it may be plentiful, yet is good. 

* On the other hand the external parts, after much pain, 
attended with fever, ficknefs, &c. are fometimes attacked 
with cenfiderable inflammation, but without any of that 
eircumfcribed hardnefs which characterized the preceding 
tumour; inftead of which, the inflammation is extended 
largely, and the fkin, wears an eryfipelatous kind of an appear- 
ance. In this the difeafe is more fuperficial, the quantity 
of matter fmall, and the cellular membrane floughy to acon- 
fiderable extent. 

*¢ Sometimes, inftead of either of the preceding appear- 
ances, there is formed. in this part what the French call 


une fuppuration gangrenenfe ; in which tlie celluler and adi- 
pofe membrane is affe&ted in the fame manner as it is in the 
difeafe called a carbuncle. 

In this cafe, the fkia is of a dufky red, or purple kind of 
colour, and although harder than when in a natural ftate, 
yet it has by no means that degree of tenfion or refiftance 
which it has either in the phlegmon, or in the eryiipe- 
las. ; 

“ The patient has generally at firft a hard, full, jarring: 
pulfe, with-great thirft, and very fatiguing reftleffneis. If 
the progrefs of the difeafe be not ftopped, or the patient 
relieved by medicine, the pulfe foon changes into an unequal, 
low, faultering one; and the ilrength and the fpirits fink in 
fuch manner as to imply great and immediately impending 
mifchief. 'The matter formed under the {kin fo altered is 
{mall in quantity, and bad in quality ; and the adipofe mem- 
brane is gangrenous and floughy throughout the extent of 
the difcolouration. This generally happens to perfons 
whofe habit is either nacurally bad, or rendered fo by 
intemperance. 

«In each of thefe different affeGtions, (continues Mr. 
Pott,) the whole malady is often confined to the fin and 
cellular membrane underneath it; and no other fymptoms 
attend than the ufual general ones, or fuch as arife from 
the formation of matter, or floughs in the part immediately 
affeGted. But, it alfo often happens, that, added to thefe, 
the patient is made unhappy by complaints arifing from an 
influence, which fuch miichief has on parts in the neigh- 
bourhood of the difeafe; fuch as the urinary bladder, the 
vagina, the urethra, the hemorrhoidal veffels, and the rec- 
tum ; producing retention of urine, ftrangury, dyfury, bear- 
ing down, tenefmus, piles, diarrhoea, or obltinate coltive- 
neis: which complaints are fometimes fo preffiag, as to 
claim all our attention. On the other hand, large quantities 
of matter and deep floughs are fometimes formed, and great 
devaftatton committed on the parts about the rectum, with 
little, or no previous pain, tumour, or inflammation. 

« Sometimes the difeafe makes its firlt appearance in’an 
induration of the fkin near to the verge of the anus;- but 
without pain or alteration of colour, which hardnefs gradu- 
ally ioftens and fuppurates. The matter, when let out, in 
this cafe, is {mall in quantity, good in quality ;-and the 
fore is fuperficial, clean, and well condittoned.. On the 
contrary, it now and then happens, that, although the pain 
is but little, and the inflammation <pparently flight, yet the 
matter is large in quantity, bad in quality, extremely offen- 
five, and proceeds from a deep. crudé*hoilow, which bears 
an ill-natured afpect. 

“©The pace, alfo, where the abfcefs points, and where 
the matter, if left alone, would burft its way ont, is various 
and uncertain.. Sometimes itis in the buttock, at a dif 
tance from the anus; at other times near its verge, or in the 
perinzeum ; and this difcharge is made fometimes from one 
orifice only, fometimes from feveral. In fome cafes, there 
is mot only an opening through the fkin externally, but 
another through the inteftineinto its cavity ; in others there 
is‘only one orifice, and that either external or internal. 

s¢ Sometimes the matter is formed at a confiderable dif- 
tance from the rectum, which is not even laid bare by it ; at 
others it is laid bare only, and not perforated ; it is allo fome- 
times not only denuded, but pierced; and that in more 
places than one. The original feat of this mifchief is, in 
fome cafes, high up in the pelvis, near the lower vertebre 
of the loins, and the os facrum ; and the matser comes from 
parts fo difeafed, and fo out of reach, that the cafe is hope- 
lefs from the firft.? 

We hhall here avoid inferting a few remarks, which Mr.. 


Pott 


FISTULA. 


Pott has next added, for they feem to reft on dodtrines 
which are now generally abandoned. The different cafes 
which have been mentioned fhew, that there is a great va~ 
riety of ftates and circumftances, and that the difeafe muft 
of courfe have the treatment varied accordingly. When 
inflammation attacks the cellular fub{tance furrounding the 
yeGtum, fuppuration can very feldom be prevented from 
taking place. In conformity to the advice of Mr. Pott, 
therefore, the beft practitioners feldom have any objeét of 
this kind in view; but, when called at an early period of 
the affection, endeavour to moderate the fymptoms, promote 
fuppuration, open the abf{cefs, as foon as the matter is formed, 
and treat the fore in fuch manner as fhall be likely to pro- 
ducé a fpeedy and lafting cure. 

Mr. Pott remarks: whea there are no fymptoms which 
require partieular attention, and all that we have te do is 
to aflift the maturation of the tumour, a foft poultice is the 
beft application. When the difeafe is fairly or the phleg- 
monoid kind, the thinner the {kin is fuffered to become, 
before the abfcels is opened, the better; as the induration 
of the parts about will thereby be more diffolved, and, con- 
fequently, there will be the lefs to do after fuch opening 
has been made. This kind of tumour is generally found 
in people of full, fanguine habits; and who, therefore, if 
the pain be great and the fever high, will bear evacuation, 
both by phlebotomy and gentle cathartics ; which is not 
often the cafe of thofe who are faid to be of bilious 
conftitutions ; in whom the inflammation is of larger extent, 
and in which the fkin wears the yellowifh tint of the 
eryfipelas: perfons of fuch kind of habit, and in fuch cir- 
eumitances, being in general feldom capable of bearing large 
evacuation. 


According to Mr. Pott, the eryfipelatous inflammation 
generally makes its attack with naufea, vomiting, flight 
rigour, heat, thirft, and reftleffnefs. 

«« The quicknefs of the pulfe, and heat ef the fin (faye 
this diftinguifhed furgical writer) are indications for fome 
degree of evacuation, and, indeed, fometimes render it re- 
quifite; but, it is a very prevailing opinion with many 
practitioners, that thefe evacuations fhould be freely made, 
and frequently repeated: in fhort, that the cure of this 
kind of inflammation is fafely to be effeCted by them ; which 
is fo far from being true, that the practice has proved fatal 
to many. If, for inftance, blood be drawn off in {uch 
quantity, as that the patient’s pulfe finks fuddenly, or 
his {trength be confiderably reduced by purging, it is no 
very uncommon thing for the inflammation to leave the 
part firlt affected; and for fuch complaints to come on imme- 
diately, as foon pxove defiruétive, and afford no opportunity 
to repair the mifchief which the evacuation has _pro- 
duced. 

«© When the inflammation is of this kind, the quantity 
of matter formed is {mall, compared to the fize and extent 
of the tumour; the difeafe is rather a floughy, putrid ftate 
of the cellular membrane, than an impofthumation; and, 
therefore, the fooner it is opened, the better. If we wait 
fer the matter to make a point,’we fhall wait for what will 
not happen; at leaft, not till after a confiderable length of 


time, during which,-the difeafe in the membrane will 
extend ittelf, and confequently, the cavity of the finus, or 


abfcefs, be thereby greatly inereafed. 

«¢ When, initead of either of the preceding appearances, 
the {kin wears a dufky purplith, red colour; has a doughy, 
unrefifting kind of feel, and is very little fenfible; when 
thefe circumitances are joined with an unequal, faultering 
kind of pulle, irregular shiverings, a great failure of ftrength 


and fpirits, and inclination to dofe, the cafe is formidable, 
and the event generally fatal. : 

«« The habit, in thefe circumftances, (continues Mr. Pott) 
is always bad; fometimes from nature, but much more fre- 
quently from gluttony andintemperance. What affiftance 
art can lend muft be adminiftered {peedily ; every minute is 
of confequence; and, if the difeafe be not ftopped, the 
patient will fink. Here is no need for evacuation of any 
kind; recourfe muft be immediately had to medical affift- 
ance; the part affected fhould be frequently fomented with 
hot fpirituons fomentations; a large and deep incilion 
fhould be made into the difeafed part ; and the applications 
made to it fhould be of the warmeft, moft antifeptic kind.’? 

Mr. Pott afterwards notices the occafional occurrence of 
ftrangury, dyfury, and a total retention of urine, when 
abfceffes form in the neighbourhood of the reétum and 
bladder, particularly, when they are fituated near the neck 
of the latter part. Such complaints may continue from 
the firft attack of the inflammation till the abfceis breaks, 
or they may only laft a few hours. " “ 

My. Pott obferves, that ftrangury and dyfury in general 
are eafily relieved by bleeding, gum arabic, and nitre. ¢* But 
(fays he) the total retention (of urine) is, while it con-' 
tinues, both fatiguing and alarming. ‘They, who have not 
often feen this cafe, generally have immediate recourfe to 
the catheter, and for this they plead the authority of pre-: 
cept; but, the practice is fo effentially wrong, and I have 
feen fuch terrible confequences from it, that L cannot help: 
entering my proteft againit it. ; 

«« The neck ef the bladder, from its vicinity to the parts 
where the inflammation is feated, and from its being in- 
volved in the fame comm6n membrane, does certainly 
participate, in fome degree, of the faid inflammation. This. - 
will, in fome meafure, account for the complaint; but, 
whoever confiders the extremely irritable ftate of the parts 
compofing that part of the urethra, (if I may be allowed fo: 
to call it,) and will, at the fame time, reflect on the amazing 
and well-known effe&s of irritation, will be convinced, that 
the principal part of this complaint arifes from that caufe ; ° 
and that the difeafe is, ftri€tly fpeaking, fpafmodic. The 
manner in which an attack of this kind is generally made, 
the very little diftenfion which the bladder often fuffers, 
the {mall quantity of urine fometimes contained in it, even 
when the ye weeelse are moft preffing, and the moit certain 
as well as {afe method of relieving it, all tend to itrengther’ 
fuch opinion, : 

‘« But (proceeds Mr. Pott) whether we attribute the evil 
to inflammation, or to fpafmodic irritation, whatever can, 
in any degree, contribute to the exafperation of either,’ 
mutt be palpably and manifeitly wrong. |The violent paf- 
fage of the catheter through the neck of the bladder, (for - 
violent in fuch eircumitances it muft be,) can never be right. 
Twill not fay, that it never fucceeds ; but I will fay, that it’ - 
can hardly ever be proper to make the attempt. 

“© Tf the initrument be fuccefsfully introduced, it mutt 
either be withdrawn as foon as the bladder is emptied, or 
it muft be leftin it: if the former be done, the fame caufe 
of retention remaining, the fame effet returns; the fame = 
pain and violence muit again be fubmitted to under (moft 
likely) increafed difficulties. On the other hand, if the » 
catheter be left in the bladder, it will often, while its neck 
is in this ftate, occafion fuch difturbance, that the remedy, 
(as it is called,) will prove an exafperation of the difeafe, 
and add to the evil it is defigned to alleviate. Nor, is this 
all; for the refiftance which the parts, while in this ftate, - . 
make, is fometimes fo great, that if any violence be ufed, 
the inftrument will make for itfelf a new rout in the neigh=« - 

bourieg 


FISTULA. 


bouring parts, and lay the foundation of fuch mifchief as 

‘frequently baffles all our art—an accident, (fays Mr. Pott,) 
which [have known to happen to thofe, whofe judgment 

“and dexterity have never been doubted.”” 

* Mr. Pott remarks, that the true, fafe, and rational method 
of relieving this complaint is by evacuation and anodyne re- 
laxation : this not only procures immediate eafe, but does 
at the fame time ferve another very material purpofe, which 
is that of maturating the abfcefs. Lofs of blood is 
neceflary ; the quantity to be determined by the ftrength 
and ftate of ‘the patient. The inteftines fhould alfo be 
emptied, if there be time for fo doing, by a gentle cathartic : 
but, (fays Pott,) the moft effectual relief will be from the 
warm bath orfemicupium, theapplication ofbladderswith hot 
water to the pubes and perineum; and, above all other reme- 
dies, the injection of cly ters, confifting of warm water, oil, 
and opium. 


For the painful tenefmus, which is no uncommon ~ 


“attendant on inflammations about the re&tum, Mr. Pott re- 

commends a dofe of rhubarb, joined with fome warm 
“anodyne; and, in cafe chis plan fails, he prefcribes ftarch 
. clyfters with opium. 

The bearing down in women may be cured by the fame 
means. 

For the obftinate coftivenefs, and piles, which fometimes 
accompany abf{ceffes about the re€tum, Mr, Pott advifes 

phlebotomy, laxative clyfters, and a low cool regimen, a 
foft poultice being externally applied, which foftens the 
indurated piles, and promotes fuppuration. 

We fhall next follow Mr. Pott in confidering this difeafe, 
when the firft fymptoms attending the inflammation are gone 
off, and matter is ether formed and colleGted, fo as to require 
being let out, or this lalt ftep having being neglected, the 

“pus has made its own way out. 

Mr. Pott reduces all cafes of this clafs to two general 
heads: 

1. Thofe-inftances in which the inteftine is not at all 
interefted. 

2. Thofe in which it is either laid bare, or perforated. 

When the matter is fairly formed, makes a, point, and 
requires peing let out, the opening ought always to be 
made where fuch point is fituated, where the fkin is moft 
thin, and the fluctuation moft palpable. 

Mr. Pott, after cenfuring the plan of opening abfceffes 
about the anus, expofes the abfurdity of the opinien once 
“prevalent, that an ablcefs, opened by a knife, muft be im- 
‘mediately examined and {ftuffed with dreflings, while that, 
‘on which a cauttic has been applied, mult be let alone, 

“until the efchar is caft off. ‘ Let the one be treated as the 
other is, (obferves this eminent furgeon,) and as they both 
ought to be, and the event will be found to be alike in each; 
excepting this material difference in favour of the knife, that 
it will not neceflarily occafion any deftruction of parts, lofs 
“of fubitance, nor any deformity, which is at all comparable 
“with what mutt follow the ufe of the cauttic. 
_ In making the opening, the knife or lancet fhould 
‘be paffed in deep enough to reach the fluid, and, when it is 
in, the incifion fhould be continued upward and downward, 
in fuch a manner as to divide all the kin covering the 
‘matter. By thefe means, the contents of the ab{cefs will be 
‘difcharged at once ; future lodgment of matter will be pre- 
vented ; convenient room will be made for the application 
of proper dreffings; and there will be no neceflity for 
making the incifion in different direCtions, or for re- 
“moving any part of the fkin compofing the verge of the 
“anus.” 
Mr. Pott has explained with great ability, that though 
Vow. XIV. 


all abfceffes of this kind are called fiftule, and have been 
fuppofed to effect the rectum, yet the place where the 
matter is formed is at fuch a diflance -frem the inteftine, 
that the latter part cannot be at all concerned, and none of 
thefe cafes are, in the firft inftance, fiftule. It does not 
follow, as a matter of courfe, that we have any thing to do 
with the reétum at all, not more than if it were not near 
the difeafe, which fhould be regarded.and treated as a com- 
mon ab{cefs. ; 

It is accurately obferved by the celebrated furgical 
writer, whofe remarks are freely quoted in this article, that 
wherever matter is formed in confequence of inflammation, 
it always leaves, upon being let eut, a proportional hollow, 
and fome degree of induration. ‘lhe former of thefe is of 
different fize, according to the quantity of matter, and the 
latter depends both on the degree of previous inflammation, 
and the more or lefs perfeét fuppuration of the abfcefs. 

The idea, formerly attached to the two circumftances 
of hollow and hardnefs, was, that the firft arofe entirely 
from lofs of fubftance ; the fecond, from a difeafed alteration 
of the parts. | Hence preceding furgeons, as foon as they 
had difcharged the matter, ufed to fill and diftend the 
cavity, with a view of obtaining a gradual regeneration of 
flefh, and the dreffings were generally of an efcharotic 
quality, intended for the diffolution of the hardneis. 

«¢ The practice (fays Mr. Pott) is a neceffary confequence 
of the theory. Whoever fuppofes difeafed callofity, and 
great lofs of fubftance, will neceffarily think himfelf obliged 
to deflroy the former, and prevent the cavity formed by 
the latter from filling up too haftily. On the other hand, 
he who confiders this matter as it really is, that is, he who 
regards the cavity of the abfcefs as being principally the 
éfieét of the gradual diftration and fuppuration of its fides, 
with very little lols of fubftance, compared with the fize of 
the faid cavity ; and who looks upon the induration round 
about as nothing more than a circumftance which neceflarily 
accompanies every inflammation in membranaccous parts, 
efpecially in thofe which tend to fuppuration, will, upon 
the {malleit refleétion, perceive, that the dreflings applied 
to fuch cavity ought to be fo {mall in quantity, as to permit 
nature to accomplifh that end which fhe always aims at 
as foon as the matter is let out ( I mean, fays Pott, the ap- 
proach of the fides of the cavity toward each other); and 
that {uch {mall quantity of dreffings ought to confiit of mate- 
rials proper only to encourage ealy and gradual fuppuration. 

“The fa& is fo obvious to common fenfe, that it mutt 
appear to every one, who will coolly and impartially con- 
fider it. 

«¢ What is the part in which the difeafe is feated? and 
what are the alterations which fuch difeafe produces? The 
part is mere cellular membrane; and the alteration is 
obftruction and inflammation, ending in the formation of 
matter. But do thefe create any new body? Do not the 
fides of the abfcefs {till remain cellular and adipofe mem- 
brane, only inflamed, thickened, hardened, and rendered 
purulent? Can fuch alteration require any thing more 
towards reftoring the parts to a natural itate than a free fup- 
puration from the parts fo altered? Or, can it make extir- 
pation or deftru€tion neceflary ? Moft certainly it cannot. 
How then is fuppuration to be produced ‘and maintained? 
Not by thrufting in fuch applications as by their quantity 
diftend, and by their quality irritate and deftroy; but 
by drefling lightly and eafily with fuch as appeale, 
relax, and foften.’’ 

When an abfcefs near the anus is opened, the cavity, ae 
Mr. Pott obferves, is found proportioned to the vee 
of matter, If the hollow be immediately tilled with drefl- 


4k ings 


EIS TULA. 


ings-of any kind, the fides of it will be prevented from 
approaching toward each other, or may even be farther fe- 
parated. But, if this cavity be not filled, or have little 
or no dreflings of any kind introduced into it, the fides im- 
mediately collapfe ; and, coming nearer and nearer, do, in a 
very fhort time, convert a large hollow into a {mall finus. 
“The fame thing happens when the collection of matter has 
burft of itfelf. 

» Mr. Pott acknowledges, that the finus will not always 


become perfeétly clofed, particularly in cafes of fiftula in- 


ano; but, ftill he contends, that the conduét of nature is 
not the lefs evident, nor the hint, which art ought to bor- 
row from her, the lefs palpable. 


Whenever extenfive ulcers or cavities exift, whether in 
eafes of niftula in ano, or other diforders, much will depead 
npon the patient’s centtitution, and the care taken of it. 
When the habit is good, or properly corre€ted, any dreflings 
which are not offenfive in quantity or quality will prove ef- 
feétual ; but if the conftitution be out of order, or badly 
treated, the furgeon may try (as Mr. Pott remarks) the 
whole farrago of externals, and only wafte his own and his 
patient’s time. : 

This able writer explains, that afl thefe cafes are at firft 
mere abfcefles ; the confequences of inflammation ; and re- 
quire no other treatment than what would be proper in the 
fame kind of eafe in all other parts. Some few of them 
are fo circum{tanced, with regard to the inteftine, that it 
is quite unneceflary to meddle with it at all; but whether 
that be the cale or not, whether the divifion of the re@um 
become a neéceflary part in the cure or not; they moft cer- 
tainly do not deferve the name of fiftule, nor require that 
fort of treatment which fiftule: are faid and thought to ftand 
in need of; though by being, from their very firft appear- 
ance, fuppofed to be fuch, they are frequently, by mifma- 
nagement, rendered truly fiftulous. 

By light, eafy treatment, fays Mr. Pott, large abfceffes, 
formed in the neighbourhood of the reCtum, may fometimes 
be cured’ without meddling with this inteftine at all. But 
it much more frequently happens that the inteftine, al- 
though it may not have been pierced by the matter, has 
yet been fo denuded, that no confolidation of the finus can 
be obtained except by laying the cavity of the abfcefs, and 
that of the inteftine, into one. 

Sometimes the practitioner may perceive the neceflity for 
fuch a divifion at firlt; that is, on opening the abfeefs he 
may find the inteftine fo bare, that it is evident no cure can 
be accomplifhed without this operation, In other inftances 
reafonable hopes of fuccefs may be entertained at firft ; but 
they may end in difappointment. 


Mr. Pott obferves, that when the gut is found to be in 
fuch itate, that there is no reafon to expe@ a cure without 
its being divided, that operation had better, on many ac- 
courts, be performed at the time the abfcefs is firft opened, 
than be deferred to afuture one. When done, as it always 
may be done, the pain which the patient muft feel when 
the abfcefs is opened will be fo trivially increafed, that the 
difference will hardly be diftinguifhed, either with regard to 
time or fenfation. If the divifion be delayed, the patient 
mutt either be under the continual apprehenfion of a fecond 
cutting, or fuffer one when he does not expect it. 


The objeé of the operation is to divide the reQum from 
the verge of the anus as high as the top of the héllow in 
which the matter is formed, fo as to lay the two cavities 
of the gut and abfcefs into one; and by means of an open, 
inftead of a hollow or finuous fore, to obtain a firm and lalting 
@ure. 


The beft inftrument for the operation is the curved, 
probe-pointed knife, which, being introduced into the finus, 
while the furgeon’s fore-finger is in the inteftine, will enable 
him to divide all that can ever require divifions and that with 
lefs pain to the patient, with more facility to the operator, 
as well as with more certainty and expedition, than any 
other inftrument whatever. If there be no opening in the 
inteitine, fays Mr. Pott, the fmalleft degree of force will 
thraft the point of the knife through, and thereby make 
one: if there be one already, the fame point will End and 
pafs through it. In either cafe it will be received by the 
finger in ano; will thereby be prevented from deviating ; 
and, being brought out by the fame finger, mult neceflarily 
divide all that is between the edge of the knife and the 
verge of the anus; that is, mutt by one fimple incifion, which 
1s made in the {malleft {pace of time imaginable, lay the two 
cavities of the finus and of the inteftine into one. 

With refpe& to the diftin@tion between thofe cafes in 
which the inteftine is pierced by the matter, and thofe in 
which it is not, although it may be ufeful when the dif- 
ferent ftates of the difeafe are to be deferibed, yet, in prac-” 
tice, as Mr. Pott obferves, when the operation of di- 
viding the inteftine becomes neceflary, fuch diltinétion is of 
no confequence at all; it makes no alteration in the degree, 
kind, or quantity of pain, which the patient is to feel; the 
force required to pufh the knife through the tender gut is 
next to none; and, when its point is in the cavity, the cafes 
are exaétly fimilar. 

Immediately after the operation, Mr. Pott recommends a 
foft doffil of fine lint to be introduced from the reétum, be- 
tween the divided lips of the incifion, as well to reprefs any 
flight hemorrhage, as to prevent the immediate re-union of 
the faid lips; and the reft of the fore fhould be lightly 
drefled with the fame. This firft dreffing fhould be permit- 
ted to continue, until a beginning fuppuration renders it 
loofe enough to be taken away eafily; and all the future 
ones fhould be as light, foft, and eafy as poflible; confiiting 
only of fuch materials as are likely to promote kindly and 
gradual fuppuration. Mr. Pott remarks, the fides of the 
abfcefs are large; the incifion mutt necefflarily for a few 
days be inflamed ; and the difcharge will for fome time be 
difcoloured and gleety. This induratien, and this fort of 
difcharge, are often miftaken for figns of difeafed callofity 
and undifcovered finufes; upon which prefumption, efcha- 
rotics are freely applied, and diligent fearch is made for new 
hollows. The former of thefe, as Mr. Pott relates, moft 
commonly increafe both the hardnefs and the gleet, and, 
by the latter, new finufes are fometimes really produced. 
Thefe occafion a repetition of efcharotics, and, perhaps, of 
incifions; by which means, cafes which at firft, and in their 
own nature, were fimple and ealy of cure, are rendered 
complex and tedious. 

Mr. Pott cenfures, in ftrong terms, the former cuftom of 
applying to the wound the hydrargyrus nitratus ruber, and 
other efcharotic powders. What, fays this writer, would 
any patron of this method of drefling fay to a man, who 
fhall order a large tent, well charged with red precipi- 
tate, to be thruft up the undivided, unweunded re€tum of a 
perfon who, from any caufe whatever, had an inflammation 
of the hemorrhoidal veffel, and infide of the faid ivteftine ? 
Would he not fay that fuch tent would prove a fatiguing 
inflammatory fuppofitory? And would he not be right in 
faying fo? 1s then the retum rendered lefs fenfible and 
lefs irritable by being wounded? or, can that very applica- 
tion, which proves a painful ftimulus to’a gut not divided, 
become an eafy digeftive to one that is? Jf any man thinks 
that it will, Mr. Pott would advife him to make the expe- 

2 riment 


FISTULA. 


riment on himfelf ; and an appeal might thea be made to 
the teftimony of his own unprejudiced fenfations. 

“ In thort,’’? obferves this author, “to quit reafoning, 
and {peak to feét only: in the great number of thefe cafes 
which muft have been in St. Bartholomew’s Hofpital within 
thefe ten or twelve years, I do aver, that I have not met 
with one in the circumftances before defcribed, that has not 
been cured by mere fimple divifion, together with light, 
ealy dreflings; and that I have not in all that time ufed, for 
this purpofe, a fingle grain of precipitate, or ef any other 
efcharotic.” 

We have now to confider the fiftula in ano in that {tate in 
which the matter has made its own way out, without the 
help of art. 

The furgeon having omitted to open the abfcefs with a 
lancet, or knife, the matter makes its own way out by burft- 
ing the external parts fomewhere near to the fundament, or 
by making a hole through the inteftine into its cavity, or 
fometimes by both. In either cafe, as Mr. Pott explains, 
the difcharge is made fometimes by one orifice only, and 
fometimes by more. Thofe in which the matter has made 
its efcape by ove or more openings through the fin only, 
are called blind, external fifule; thofe in which the difcharge 
has been made into the cavity of the inteftine, without any 
orifice in the fkin, are named J/ind, internal; and thofe 
which have an opening both through the {kin and into the 
gut, are called complete fifule. 

Thus, as Mr. Pott remarks, all thefe cafes are deemed 
fiftulous, when hardly any of them ever are fo; and none 
of them neceflarily. They are {till mere abfcefles, which 
have {pontaneoufly burt, and, if properly treated, will not 
demand the kind of treatment applicable to a true fiftula. 

The fame excellent writer informs us, that the moft fre- 
quent cafes of all are the blind external, and the complete 

JSiyiule. Each of thefe ftates may be known by introducing 
a probe into the finus through the orifice in the fkin, while 
the fore-finger is within the reGium. 

Whether the cafe be what is called a complete fiftula, or 
not ; that#s, whether there be an opening in the fkin only, 
or one there and another ia the inteitine, the appearance to 
the eye is much the fame. Upon difcharge of the matter 
the external {welling fubfides, and the inflamed colour of the 
fin difappears; the orifice, which at firlt was floughy and 
foul, aftera day or two are pafled, becomes clean, and con- 
tracts in fize; but the difcharge, by fretting the parts about, 
renders the patient {till uneafy. 

Mr. Pott next obferves, that as this kind of opening fel- 
dom proves fuflicient for a cure, (though it fometimes does,) 
the induration, in fome degree, remains; and if the orifice 
happens not to be a depending one, fome part of the matter 
lodges, and is difcharged by intervals, or may be prefled 
out by the fingers of anexaminer. ‘The difeafe in this ftate 
is not very painful; but it is troublefome, natty, and offen- 
five: the continual difcharge of athin kind of fluid from it 
creates heat, and caufes excoriation in the parts about ; it 
daubs the linen of the patient, and is at times very fetid. 
The orifice alfo fometimes contracts, fo as not to be fuf- 
ficient for'the difcharge, and the lodgment of the matter 
then occafions frefh ditturbance. 

Surgeons in former times ufed to adopt three modes of 
curing fittule which had burit; vis. cauftic, the ligature, 
and incifion. 

The fear of bleeding and a cutting inftrument, and the 
idea of deftroying callofity, were the chief motives for the 
employment of the two frft means. However, as they are 
now univerfally abandoned, we fhall not waite the reader’s 
time in fhewing the great objections to them, 


4 


With regard to the plan of curing fiftule ia azo in this 
ftate, by incifion, the fame method fkould be followed as 
the one already recommended in the cafe of a colieCtion of 
matter formed juxta anum, 

Notwithftanding the opinions of fome former very emi- 
nent furgeons, fuch as Chefelden, De la Faye, and Le Dran, 
that the mere divifion of the inteftine and finus would not 
effet a cure, and, that unlefs we cut out or extirpated a 
portion both of the faid intefline and the fin of the anus, 
durable relief-would not be obtained, it was ably contended 
by Mr. Pott, and all experience {trongly fupports him, thas 
the deftruGtion of any of the parts is not only unnecefiary, 
but injurious. As fuch practice is now gone completely out 
of vogue, we need not take up any more time in expreffing 
our difapprobation of it. 

When the fiftula extends- high up the rectum, further 
than the finger introduced within the anus can reach, it is 
found to be quite unneceflary to divide the finus through- 
out its whole length, even were fuch proceeding praética- 
ble and free from danger. - If the furgeon fairly divide that 
part of the fiftula asd inteftine which he can coiveniently 
reach with his finger, he need not cencern himfelf about 
the deeper part of the diieafe, as in general a cure will fol- 
low without further trouble, in relation to any operation. 
The experience of Pott taight him this important faét,- 
and fucceeding praétitionera have daily opportunities. of 
feeing the fame truth confirmed. 

Thus far we have followed Mr. Pott in confidering the 
difeafe either as an abfcefs from which the matter has been 
let out by an incifion made by a furgeon, or from-which the, 
contents have been difcharged by one fingle orifice, formed 
by the burfting of the fin tees about the fundament. 
We fhall now purfue the fame writer’s plan, and confide 
the cafe, in which, initead of one, there are feveral open- 
ings. 

“This ftate of the cafe,”? obferves Mr. Pott, ‘* gene- 
rally happens when’ the quantity of matter collected has 
been large, the inflammation of confiderable extent, the 
adipofe membrane very floughy, and the {kin worn very 
thin before it burft. It is indeed a circumftance of no 
real confequence at all; but from being mifunderftood, or 
not properly attended to, is made one of additional ter- 
ror to the patient, and additional alarm to the inexperienced 
practitioner; for it ig taught, and frequently believed, that 
each of thefe orifices is an outlet from, or leads to, a dif- 
tin€&t finus or hollow; whereas, in truth, the cafe is meft 
commonly quite otherwife. All thefe openiags are only fo 
many diftinét burilings of the fin covering the matter ; and 
do all, be they few or many, lead and open immediately into 
the one fingle cavity of the abfcefs: they neither indicate, 
nor lead to, nor are caufed by, diftin@ finufes; nor would 
the appearance of twenty of them (f poffible) neceffarily 
imply more than one general hollow. 

«“ Tf this account be a true one, it will follow, that the 
chirurgic treatment of this kind of cafe ought to be very 
little, if at all, different from that of the preceding ; and that 
all that can be neceflary to be done, muit be to divide cach 
of thefe orifices in fuch manner as to make one cavity of 
the whole. This the probe-knife will eafily and expeditionfly 
do; and, when that is done, if the fore, or more properly 
its edges, fhould make a very ragged, uneven appearance, 
the removal of a {mall portion of fuch trregular angular 
parts will anfwer all the purpofes of makiag room for the 
application of the dreffings, and for producing a fmooth, 
even cicatrix after the fore fhall be healed. 

«< When’ a confderable quantity of matter has been re- 
cently let out, and the internal parts are nat only in a crude, 

4 E2 undis 


ELSTWE As 


undigefted flate, but have not yet had time to collapfe, and 
approach each other, the infide of {uch cavity will appear 
large ; and if a probe be pufhed with any degree of force 
it will pafs, in more than one direGion, into the cellular 
membrane by the fide of the rectum. But, (continues Mr. 
Pott;) let not the unexperienced pratitioner be alarmed at 
this, and immediately fancy that there are fo many diftinét 
finufes ; neither let him, if he be of a more hardy difpofi- 
tion, go to work immediately with his director, knife, or 
{ciffars; let him enlarge the external wound by making his 
incifion freely; let him lay all the feparate orifices open into 
that cavity; let him divide the iateftine lengthwife by means 
of his finger in ano; let him drefs lighcly and. eafily ; let 
him pay proper attention to the habit of the patient ; and 
wait and fee what a few days, under fuch condué&, will 
produce. By this he will frequently find, that the large 
cavity of the abfcefs will beeome {mall and clean; that the 
induration round about will gradually leffen ; that the probe 
will not pafs in that manner into the cellular membrane ; and, 
confequently, that his fears of a multiplicity of finufes 
were groundlefs. Ox the contrary, if the fore be crammed, 
or dreffed with irritating or efcharotic medicines, all the ap- 
pearances will be different, the hardnefs will increafe, the 
lips ef the wound will be inverted, the cavity of the fore 
will remain large, crude, and foul; the difcharge will be thin, 
gleety, and diicoloured ; the patient will be uneafy and fe- 
verifh, and if no new cavities ate formed by the irritation of 
parts, and confinement of ‘matter, yet the original one will 
have no opportunity of contracting itfelf, and may very 
poffitly become truly filtulous.”’ 

Without pofitively denying that there is ever more than 
one finus extending along the fame fide of the retum, Mr. 
Pott maintained, that for one inftance in which the cale is 
really fo, forty are only fuppofititious ones. He allows that 
feparate openings in the flcin, from the fame cavity or finus, 
are common; but denies that perfectly diftinét finufes, 
running along the fame fide of the rectum, are at ail 
ufual. 

Sometimes the matter of an ab{cefs, formed in the neigh- 
bourhood of the anus, inftead of. making its way through 
the {kin, externally near the anus, or in the buttock, pierces 
through the inteftine only. This is what is called a bind 
internal fifiula. In thisénftance, when the matter has dif 
charged itfelf, the fwelling fubfides, and the patient expe- 
riences fome degree of relief. If the evacuation of the 
matter does not terminate in a cure, which fometimes, though 
very feldom happens, fome fmall degree of induration ge- 
nerally remains in the place where the origina tumour was. 
As Mr. Pott deferibes, when this hardne{s is preffed upon, 
a {mall difcharge of matter is frequently made per anum ; 
and fometimes the expulfion of air from the cavity of the 
abicefs into that of the inteftine may very palpably be felt 
and clearly heard. The ftools, particularly if hard, and 
requiring force to be expelled, are fometimes fmeared with 
matter; and although the patient by the burfting of the 
abfcefs is relieved from the acute pain which the collection 
occafioned, yet he is feldom free from a dull kind of unea- 
finefs, efpecially if he fits for any confiderable length of 
time in one pofture. Mr. Pott remarks, that the real dif- 
ference between this kind of cafe, and that in which there 
is an external opening, with regard to the method of cure, 
is very immaterial; for an external opening muft be made, 
and then all difference ceafes. In this, as in the former, no 
cure can reafonably be expe&ted, until the cavity of the ab- 
fcefs, and that of the rectum, are made one; and the only 
difference is, that in one cafe we have an orifice at or near 
the verge of the anus, by which we are immediately enabled 


to perform that neceffary éperation: in the other, we muft: 
make one. 

We have next to treat of that ftate of the difeafe which 
really deferves the epithet of fiftulous, according to the’ 
common definition. Mr. Pott obferves, that various caufes 
may produce fuch a condition of the parts concerned. ° 
Thefe caufes are divided by this celebrated furgeon into 
two claffes ; viz. thofe which are the effe& of negle&, dif- 
tempered habit, or of bad management, and which may be 
called, without any great impropriety, local difeafes; and 
thofe which are the confequence of diforders, whofe origin 
and feat is not in the immediate tinus or fittula, but in parts 
more or lefs diftant, and which, therefore, are not local 
complaints. 

The former are generally cureable by proper treatment ; 
the latter are frequently irremediable by any means what-— 
ever. 

In the firft defcription of cafes, Mr. Pott ranks all thofe 
which were originally mere colleétions of matter within 
the coats of the rectum, or in the cellular fubftance fur- 
rounding this inteftine ; but which, by being long negle&ted, _ 
grofsly managed, or by happening in habits which were dif- 
ordered, and for which diforders no prover remedies were 
adminiftered, fuffer {uch alteration, and get into fuch flatey. 
as to deferve the appellation of filtule- 

In the fecond kind of cafes, Mr. Pott claffes all thofe iv 
which the difeafe has its origin and firit ftate in the higher 
and moré diftant parts of the pelvis, about the os facrum, 
lower vertebra of the loins, and adjacent parts; and are 
either ftramous, or the confequenceof longand much diitem- 
pered habits; or the effe& of, or combined with ether dif- 
tempers, local or general, fuch as a difeafed neck of the 
bladder, or proftate gland, or urethra; the lues vene- 
rea, &Xc. 

Mr. Pott notices, that among the very low people who 
are brought into hofpitals, we frequently meet with caféa 
of the firft defcription ; cafes which at firlt were mere fim= 
ple abfceffes, but which, from uncleanlinefs, from intempe- 
rance, negligence, and diftempered conititutions, become 
really fiftulous. 

In thefe examples the general eff2@s of intemperance, 
debauchery, and conftitutional difeafe, are to be correct- 
ed, or removed, before furgery can afford any material 
relief. 

When thefe great objeéts have been attended to, the fur- 
gery required confifts in laying open and dividing the finus 
er finufes in fuch manner, that there may be no pofiible 
lodgment for matter, and that fuch cavities may be fairly 
opened lengthwife into that of the rectum. If the internal 
parts of thefe hollows are hard, and do not furnifh good 
matter, Mr. Pott advifes us to fcarify them with the point 
of a knife, but not to ufe efcharotic applications. . When, 
either from the multiplicity of external orifices, or from the 
loofe, flabby, hardened, or inverted ftate of the edges of the 
wound, near the aaus, no hopes of healing the parts in an 
even way can be entertained, fuch a portion of them may 
be cut away as will juft ferve that purpofe. Mr. Pott re- 
commends the dreflings to be foft, eafy, and light. 

When the infide of the finus is occupied with fungous 
flefh, a flight touch of the lunar cauftic may become 
neceflary. ret te 

In the mean while, the remedies for the improvement of 
the fyitem muft be continued, and local meafures alone not 
trufted. 

When the bad ftate of the fore arifes from the manner 
in which it has been crammed, irritated, and eroded, leaving 

° 


FISTULA, 


off fuch treatment muft of courfe be the means of bringing 
the difeafe into a better condition. 

Mr. Pott remarks, that a patient who has been fo treated 
has generally fome degree of fever, has a pulfe, which is too 
hard and too quick, is thirfly, and does not get his due 
quantity of natural reft. A fore which has been fo drefled 
has generally a confiderable degree of inflammatory hardnefs 
round about; the lips and edges of it are tumid, full, in- 
flamed, and fometimes inverted ; the whole verge of the anus 
is fwollen; the hemorrhoidal veffels are loaded; the dif- 
charge from the fore is large, thin, and difcoloured ; and all 
the lower part of the re€tum participates of the inflamma- 
tory irritation, producing pain, bearing-down, tenefmus, &c. 
Contraria contrartis (continues this able writer) is never 
more true than in this inftance ; the painful unealy ftate of 
the fore, and of the reGum, is the great caufe of all the 
mifchief, both general and particular; and the firft intention 
mutt be to alter that. All efcharotics muft be thrown out 
and difufed; and in lieu of them a foft digeftive fhould be 
fubitituted, in fuch manner as not to caufe any diftenfion, 
or to give any uneafinefs from quantity. Over this a poul- 
tice fhould be applied. Thefe drefliigs fhould be renewed 


twice a day; and the patient fhould be enjoined abfolute rett.. 


At the fame time attention fhould be paid to the general 
difturbance which the former treatment may have created. 
Blood fhould be drawn off from the fanguine ; the feverifh 
heat fhould be calmed by proper medicines; the languid and 
low fhould be affifted with the bark and cordials; and eafe 
in the part mutt at all events be obtaitied by the injection 
of anodyne clyfters of ftarch and opium. 

Tf, as Mr. Pott obferves, the finus has not yet been laid 
open, and the bad ftate of parts isoccafioned byefcharotic or 
altringent applications, no operation of any fort fhould be at- 
tempted, until both the patient and the parts are eafy, cool, 
and quiet. When this defirable change has taken place, 
the finus may be fuccefsfully divided, and, if requilite, a {mall 
portion of the ragged edges be taken away. 

Lumbar abfcefles fometimes form finufes, which run down 
by the fide of the rectum, and burlt near the fundament. 
The difcharge from thefe is generally large, fetid, thin, and 
fharp. Hence, we cannot wonder that the finufes and ori- 
fices become hard and callous; that is, truly filtulous. But 
it muft be obvious to every one (fays Mr. Pott) who will 
confider it, that the furgical treatment of thefe fores and 
finufes can be of very little confequence towards curing the 
difeafes from which they arife, and which are generally out 
of the reach of our inflruments and applications. The pro- 
per treatment alfo of fuch diforders will be fpoken of in 
another part of the Cyclopedia. See LumBar b/c. 

Cancers and cancerous fores are fometimes formed in the 
cavity, or the neighbourhood of the reétum and fundement, 
where they make moft terrible havoc. See Rectum. 

Fiftulous fores, finufes, and indurations about the anus, 
which are confequences of difeafes of the neck of the blad- 
der and urethra, and are named fittule in perinzo, require 
feparate and particular confideration, into whieh we fhall 
prefently enter. Pott’s Treatife on the Fiftula in Ano. 

- Fifiula Lachrymalis.—Every owe who has acquired that 
degice of anatomical knowledge which is effeatially requifite 
ina good furgeon, is well aware that the tears and febaceous 
fluid with which the furface of a healthy eye is naturally 
kept in a moift tate, are conveyed, as {von as they become 
fuperfluous, through certain tubes or dué€ts, down into the 
nofe. We leave it to the anatomift and phyfiologift to de- 
termine, whether it is by fome ation like that of a fyringe, 
or of a capillary tube, or whether it is by the mufeular power 


of the lachrvmal paflages themfelves, that the tears are made 


to defcend from the eye into the cavity of the nofe. The 
fecretion from the lachrymal gland, membranous lining .of 
the eyelids, and Meibomian glands, conftitutes what is com- 
monly called the tears, the ufe of which is to lubricate the 
eye in its inceflant motions, to keep the furface of the cor- 
nea ina moiit, clean, bright ftate, fitted for the tranimiffion 
of the rays of light, and laftly, to wath away any duit or 
other hurtful particles, which may accidentally fall upou, 
and irritate the organ. Mr. Pott, in his excellent account 
of this fubjeét, has obferved, that this fluid (meaning the 
tears) is derived principally from a large gland, named the 
lachrymal, fituated under the upper edge of thejorbit, near 
the outer corner of the eye, which gland is of the conglo- 
merate kind, and lies in a-{mall depreflion of the os frontis. 
Its excretory ducts, or thofe by which it difcharges the fe- 
creted fluid, pierce the tunica conjunctiva, juft above the 
cartilaginous border of the upper eye-lid. 

When any irritating particles come inte contaé with the 
eye, a large quantity of fluid is immediately fecreted by the 
lachrymal gland, and is as quickly diffufed, by the motion 
of the eye-lids, over the furface of the eve; by which 
means, fuch particles are wafhed and wiped off. Sometimes, 
alfo, as Mr. Pott remarks, the paflions of the mind produce 
an immediate increafe of this fecretion, which is then ftri@ly- 
ealled tears. A conitant fecretion of too large a quantity 
caufes a difeafe, called epiphora (which fee); and a defi- 
ciency of it makes the motions of the eye-lids difficult and 
painful. 

Although the fluid, fecreted by the lachrymal gland, is 
confiderable in quantity ; yet, when it is not fuddenly pro- 
duced by irritation from without, or paffion within, it is fo 
conftantly and gradually carried off, as to create neither 
trouble, uneafinefs, nor blemifh. 

The edge or border cf each eye-lid, continues Mr. Pott, 
is formed by a thin eartilage, the firure and confiitence of 
which keep the lids properly expanded. Thefe cartilages 
are covered by a fine membrane, and are called cilia. Their 
internal edges do, upon every motion, {weep over every 
point of the furface of the cornea. This motion, though 
almolt imperceptible, unlefs attended to, is very frequently 
performed ; and as the fecretion of the fluid is alio conftant, 
the eye is by this means kept always: motft,, clean, and- 
bright. 

Mr. Pott next relates, that at the extremity of each-of- 
thefe cartilaginous borders of the eye-lds, -on the fide next 
the nofe, is a {mall papilla or emiuence; and in the middle 
cs each of thefe is a {mall hole, which, being fituated inthe 
cartilage, is not liable to collapfe wile the parts are in a 
found fiate, but remainsalways open. ‘They are called the 
punda lachrymalia, and their office is to receive the lachry- 
mal fluid, as it runs off the cornery along the edges of the 
eye-lids, fo as to prevent it from trickling down the cheek. 

From each of the panéta lachrymalia proceeds a {mall 
membranous tube. Thefé tubes foon enter, or: rather ex- 
pand into, a little fort of pouch, placed near the inner angle 
of the eye, under the orbicularis palpebrarum mufcle. The 
bag in queftion is named the lachrymal fac, and its office is 
to receive all the lymph tranfmitted through the punéta and 
duéts. The upper part of the fac lies in an excavation, 
formed partly by the nafal procéfs of the upper maxillary 
bone, and partly by the os unguis. * The lower part of it is 
confined in a long channel, and forms a tube,or du&, which, 
defcending obliquely backward, communicates with the 
cavity of the nofe, behind the -os fpongicfum fuperfus, by 
an opening of rather different fizes in different fubje@s. 

This paflage, fays Mr. Pott, is called the dudus na/falis, 
and through it- whatever is received by the lachrymal fae 

; \ from 


FISTULA. 


froth the punta does, in a healthy and found ftate of thefe 
parts, pa{s into the nofe, 

The membrane which lines the lachrymal fac and nafal 
duct fecretes a kind of mucus. 

In the healthy ftate, the fluid fecreted by the lachrymal 
sland readily paffes off through the punéta, fac, and du@, 
into the nofe; but when they are in a difeafed ftate, the 
cafe is otherwife. The membrane lining the fac and dué& is 
fubje& to inflammation, by which it is often fo thickened 
as to render the paflage more or lefs impervious. Hence, 
the lachrymal fac becomes filled with its own mucus, and 
with the fecretion tranfmitted into it from the eye; and 
when no more of this laft fluid can enter the punéta lachry- 
malia, it falls over the eys-lid, down the cheek. The ob- 
flruGtion continuing, and the mucus and tears ftill lodging, 
the fac is dilated, and that tumour in the inner corner of 
the eye, and that difcharge from the punéta lachrymalia, 
upon preffure, are occafioned, which charaéterife the firlt 
ftate of the fiftula lachrymalis. See Pott’s Obfervations on 
the Fiftula Lachrymalis. 

From what we have already ftated, the reader mult begin 
to fufpect that tke term /ifula lachrymalis neceffarily means 
no callous, indurated difeafe, accompanied with an acrid, 
fanious difcharge ; but merely a diforder, confifting of an 
obftrugtion in fome part of thofe paflages throngh which 
the tears have to pafs into the nefe, and attended with dif- 
ferent appearances in different perfons, and under different 
circumi{tances. Here the phrafe ¢ fiftula”? is fometimes, in 
confequence of ancient eltablifhed ufage, fo unreafonably 
employed, that it is applied toa certain flage of the difeafe, 
now treated of, in which there is even no ulcerated opening 
at all, nor any other circumftance which, according to the 
diétates of common fenfe, could bring into the mind the 
idea of a fiftula. 

When the obitruétion to the paffage of the tears into the 
nofe is only fuch as to occafion a watering of the eye, and 
a confequent neceflity of wiping away the effufed fluid, the 
diforder is commonly named epiphora; but when a fluid, 
Somewhat. fimilar to pus in appearance, accumulates in the 
lachrymal fac, and regurgitates through the punéta lachry- 
malia, on the fac being comprefled, the complaint receives 
the name of fifula lachrymalis. 

The eminent Scarpa, imprefled with a convi&tion of the 
bad effects in practice refulting from the ufe of terms which 
convey erroneous notions, has propofed callisg that flage 
of the difeafe which is attended with a difcharge of a vifcid, 
eurdly, yellowish matter from the punéta lachrymalia, whea 


the lachrymal fac is compreffed, the puriform di/charge of 


the palpebra. The term /iffula lachrymalis is retried, by 
this author, to that ftate of the complaint in which the 
lachrymal fac is not only greatly diftended, but ulcerated, 
and in a fungous ftate on its internal furface ; and in which 
there is alfo an external opening, occafionally attended with 
‘a caries of the os unguis. 

The varieties of the difeafe commonly called fiftula la- 
chrymalis are referred, by Mr. Pott, to five principal circum- 
fLances, viz. 

1. The degree of obftruGion in the nafal du@. 

2. The ftate of the cellular membrane covering the fac. 

3. The flate of the fac itielf. 

4. That of the bone underneath. 

5- The general {tate and habit of the patient. 

Sometimes the lining of the fac and dud is fo thickened, 
that the fluid cannot pafs through them into the nofe; and 
this forms the whole of the complaint. The cellular mem- 
brane on the outfide not being difeafed, there is no appear- 
ance of inflammation. In this cafe, as Mr. Pott defcribes, 


the dué& is ftopped, and the facculus dilated, but without~ 
any alteration in the colour of the fkin. A fulnefs appears 
in the corner of the eye next the nofe; and upon the appli- 
cation of a finger to this tumour, a clear, vifcid mucus is 
difcharged through the punéta lachrymalia. The. patient 
feels no pain, nor finds any inconvenience, except what is 
produced by the difcharge of this macus, and by the trick- 
ling of the tears down the cheek. 

The fame writer next notices, that, in fome cafes, the 
mucus is not perfe@tly and always clear, but is fometimes 
cloudy, and looks as if it had a mixture of milk or cream in 
it. At firfl waking, fome of it is generally found in the 
corner of the eye; and the eye-lafhes, beiug {meared over 
with it during fleep, moft commonly adhere together in the 
morning. 

Mr. Pott remarks that this is the moft fimple ftate of the 
difeafe, and what the French have called the hernia, or hy- 
drops facculi lachryinalis. It is frequently met with in 
children who have been ricketty, or are fubjecé to glandular 
obftruQions; and, in this ftate, it fometimes remains for 
fome years, fubjeét to little alterations, as the health or habit 
fhall happen to vary ; the fac being fometimes more, fome- 
times lefs, full and troublefome. ‘The mucus which is preffed 
out is fometimes more, fometimes lefs, cloudy; and, now 
and then, it is attended with a flight ophthalmy, or an in- 
flammation of the eye-lids, but which, by common care, is 
eafily removed. 

When the fac is not much dilated, the difcharge {mall, 
and produced only by preflure, the chief inconveniences are 
the weeping eye, and the gumming together of the eye-lids 
after fleeping ; but thefe, by bemg attended to, may be 
kept from being very troublefome; and, if the diieafe 
makes no farther progrefs, may be fo regulated as to render 
any more painful procefs totally unneceflary. 

When the dilatation is confiderable, fays Pott, the {well- 
ing is more vifible, and the quantity of mucus is larger. It 
is alfo in this {tate more frequently mixed and cloudy, and 
more troublefome, from the more frequent neceflity of 
emptying the bag. But if the patient be adult, it may, 
even in this more dilated ftate of it, be kept from being very 
inconvenient. 

If an inflammation comes on, the tumour is thereby con- 
fiderably increafed, the difcharge is larger, as well during 
fleep as upon preflure; the fkin covering it lofes its natural 
whitenefs and foftnefs, becomes hard, and acquires an in-, 
flamed rednefs; and with the mucus a mixture of fome- 
thing, which in colour refembles matter, is difcharged, ef- 
prea if the preflure be made with any force, or continued 
or any time. ‘This circumiftance, added to the. painful 
fenfation and inflamed appearance of the parts, has been 
productive of a fuppotition, that there is either an ulcer or 
an abfcefs within the fac or du€t; an opinion which Mr.- 
Pott has takem great pains to refute. 

We thall here introduce Scarpa’s fentiments concerning: 
the manner in which the fluid which diftends the fac is, 
formed. The vifcid, curdly, yellowifh fluid, mixed with 
tears, which regurgitates from the punéta lachrymalia, is- 
not altogether fecreted by the fac itfelf, as fome have con- 
jectured. The greateft part of it paffes into the fac ffom, 
the eye-lids, through the punta lachrymalia, from which it 
regurgitates on preflure being made on the fac. This puri- 
form fluid is chiefly fecreted by the lining of the eye-lids,' 
efpecially by the lower eye-lid along the tarfus, and by the 
glands of Meibomius. The febaceous matter, which is. 
furnifhed by thefe glands, is not only fecreted more abun-. 
dantly, but aflumes an irritating quality. Befides the feba-, 
ceous fluid from the glands juft now {pecified, a thin mucus, 

Ww 


FISTULA, 


is effufed from the lining of the eye-lids; which mucus 
greatly increafes the quantity of vifcid matter which is 
ipread over the eye and eye-lids. 

It becomes manifeft that the puriform fluid, which comes 
out of the lachrymal fac, is derived from the fources which 
have been pointed out, by turning the eye-lids, particularly 
the lower one, outward, and comparing their appearance 
with that of the found ones of the oppofite fide of the face. 
The lining of the former always feems redder than natural, 
and exhibits a villous appearance, particularly along the 
tarfus. The margin of the eye-lid is {wollen, aud marked 
with a great number of little varicofe veflels. ‘The glands 
of Meibomius are more turgid and prominent than natuval, 
and, when looked at with a magnifying glafs, frequently 
feem to be fomewhat ulcerated. 

The villous texture, which the infide of the eye-lids 
wcquires in thefe cafes, is converted into an organ which 
fecretes an unufual quantity of a fluid like vifcid lymph, 
which, being blended with the febaceous fecretion from the 
glands of Meibomius, makes the tenacious matter which is 
fmeared over the eye-lids, and which, pafling through the 
punéta lachrymalia, fometimes diftends the lackrymal fac in 
a very extraordinary degree. 

If the lachrymal fac be empticd of this matter by means 
of preflure, and the eye and infide of the eye-lids be care- 
fully wafhed, fo that none of the glutinous fecretion which 
iffues from the fac may remain upon them, and the infide of 
the eye-lids be turned ont halt an hour afterwards, their 
inner furface, efpecially that of the lower one, will be ob- 
ferved to be covered with a new effufion of mucus, mixed 
with a febaceous fecretion; which fluids have manifeftly 
not regurgitated from the lachrymal fac to the eye, but 
have been formed between the eye and eye-lids by the villous 
infide of the laft-named parts, and the glands of Meibo- 
mius, 

As a further proof, that the lachrymal fac has no other 
concern in this difeafe than that of receiving the tears and 
puriform fluid which are tranfmitted from the eye-lids, 
Scarpa mentions, that if the morbid fecretion from the eye- 
lids be retarded or ftepped, either by accident or the effe& 
of applications, little or none of the vifcid, curdly fluid ac- 
cumulates in the lachrymal fac, or can be preffled out of the 
punéta lachrymalia. 

The membrane which lines the lachrymal fac is one that 
has no febaceous glands, and is only calculated for the fe- 
cretion of athin mucus. A {mall addition of this latter may 
be made to the puriform fluid and tears which are colleéted 
in the fac, but the quantity cannot be confiderable. 

_ We fhall now refume the account of the different ftates 
of the diforder, as delivered by Mr. Pott. The inflamma- 
tion of the integuments covering the fac is a circumf{tance 
which makes a confiderable difference, both in the appear- 
ance of the difeafe and its requifite treatment. In fome 
cafes, it is confined merely to the furface of the tumour; in 
others, it fpreads ftill farther, affecting the eye-lids, cheek, 
and fide of the nofe. - 

' When the parts are in this ftate, continues Mr. Pott, the 
mucus within the bag has generally the appearance of being 
‘matter, that is, it wears a deep yellow colour, and is of a 
“more thin confiftence. If the punéta lachrymalia are na- 
turally‘large and open, and the inflammation confined to the 
furface of the fac, its contents will pafs off pretty freely, 
and the {kin will remain entire. This is what the ancients 
‘called the fimple or imperfed anchylops. 

But, fays Mr, Pott, when the fkin covering the lachry- 
mal bag has been for fome time inflamed, or fubje& to fre- 
quently returning inflammations, it moft commonly happens 


that the punéta lachrymalia are affeted by it; and the 
fluid, not having an opportunity of paffing off through 
them, diftends the inflamed fkin, fo that at laft it becomes 
fleughy, and burlts externally. This was named the perfed 
aigylops or agylops. The difcharge which ufed to be made 
through the punéta lachrymalia, while the fkin was entire, 
is now made through the new opening, and by excoriating 
the eye-lids and cheek, increafes the inflammation, and 
gives the difeafe a much more difagreeabie appearance. In 
fome, the matter burfts through a fmall hole, and, after it 
has difcharged itfelf, the tumour fubfides, the neighbouring 
parts become cool, and, though the fisin covering the fur- 
face of the fac is floughy and toul, yct there is no reafon to 
believe that the facitfelf is much difeafed below. In others, 
the breach is large, the fim remains hard and inflamed, 
and, from the appearance of the fore, there is reafon to fup- 
pofe the whole infide of the bag to be in a difeafed ftate ; 
and, in fome cafes which have been much negle¢ted, or irri- 
tated by ill treatment, the cavity of the fac feems to be 
filled with a loofe, ill-natured fungus, which gleets largely, 
and produces inflammation and excoriation of all the parts 
about. 

Mr.. Pott obfezves, that there is another circumitance 
which is fometimes found to attend this diforder, viz. a 
carious ftate of the bones. The practitioners, in ancient 
times, ufed to fuppofe this complication was a very frequent 
one; and hence tuey fo freely had recourfe to the cauttic, 
cautery, and fcalpra, in the treatment. But caries is now 
a{certained to attend the complaint but feldom. 

When the fiftula lachrymalis is a fymptom of the lues 
venerea, as it fometimes is, the bones are indeed often 
carious; but then the fiftula is not the original complaint, 
but produced fecondarily, and is a confequence of the dif- 
eafed ftate of the os ethmoidesand offa {pongiofa of the nofe, 
and is not curable by any local means or applications, but 
depends entirely on the cure of the difeafe of which it is a 
fymptom. 

A very material difference, as Mr. Pott accurately ex- 
plains, will be occafioned both in the appearance of the 
diforder, in the prognoftic, and in the proper method of 
treatment, by the combination of other difeafes, either’ of 
the conftitution, the parts themfelves, or adjoining ones. 
The patient, for example, is fometimes fubjeét to an habi- 
tual ophthalmy or lippitudo, which will increafe the de- 
formity, and give a good deal of additional trouble during 
the cure. Mr. Port alfo obferves, that an ozena, or fome 
other diféafe of the membrane and cells of the ethmoid bone, 
or a polypus within .the nofe, may be combined with a fif- 
tula lachrymalis. Struamous complaints are other frequent 
attendants ; and, if we may believe Mr. Pott, it fometimes 
becomes cancerous. 

We fhall now proceed to {peak of the treatment of the 
difeafe; and, for the fake of rendering this fubject as eafily 
intelligible as poffible, we fhall imitate the above-mentioned 
writer, by dividing the diforder into four ftates. 

The firft confifts of a fimple dilatation of the fae, and an 
obftruétion of the nafal duét, difcharging, upon preflure, a 
mucus either quite clear or a little cloudy. 

In the fecond, the tumour is fomewhat larger; the fkin 
which covers it is ia an inflamed ftate, But entire; and the 
difcharge made through the puncta lachrymalia is of a pale 
yellow or purulent colour, 

In the third, the fkin covering the fac.is become floughy, 
and burft, by which means the {welling is in fome meafure 
leffened ; but the mucus which, while the fkin was entire, 
ufed to be prefled out through the puna lachrymalia, now 


difchanges itfelf through the new aperture, The nafal dua, 
both 


. 


FISTULA. 


both in this and the preeeding ftate, is not otherwife difeafed 
than by the thickening of its lining. 

In the fourth, the paflage from the lachrymal fac into the 
nofe is totally obliterated; the infide of the former being 
either ulcerated or filled up with a fungus, and attended 
fometimes with a caries of the bone underneath. 

In the firft or moft fimple fate of the difeafe, wiz. that 
of mere obftruction, without inflammation, various plans 
have been devifed with a view of reftoring the parts to their 
natural flate and ufe, without making any wound at all. 
The chief of thefe methods have been the introduétion of a 
probe, the injection of a fluid, and a conftant compreffion, 
made on the outfide of the fac, in the corner of the eye. 

A French furgeon, named Anel, invented a probe of fo 
fmall a fize as to be capable of pafling through one of the 
puncta lachrymalia, down into the nofe. As the inftrument 
was thus pufhed through the lachrymal fac and nafal duct, 
M. Anel conceived that it would be able to break any {mall 
obftru@tion which might be met with. 

The fame gentleman alfo invented a fyringe, furnifhed 
with a very minute pipe, which admits of being introduced 
into one of the puncta lachrymalia; and in this manner any 
fluid may be injeéted into the fac and duct, in order to clear 
away any thickened mucus or matter, which may be the 
caufe of the tears not finding their way, as they ought to 
do, down into the nofe. 

With regard to the introdu€tion of a {mall probe through 
one. of the punéta Jachrymalia, Mr. Pott obferves that the 
plan has a very plaufible’appearance, but is unequal to the 
tafk affigned: the very fmall fize of the probe, its flexibility, 
and the little refiftance which it is capable of making, are 
manjfeft deficiencies in the inftrument. He allows that fuch 
2 probe may be pafled through one of the punéta down into 
the nofe’; but he contends, that the pain which it gives, 
aid the inflammation which it often excites, are much 
greater than any benefit which does or can arife from it. 
As for the idea, that this probe may be of ufe in removing 
any obftruétion in the punéta lachrymalia, it isan unfounded 
one; for fuch an obftruétion is feldom met with at all, and 
hever can exift in this ftate of the fiftula lachrymalis, one 
principal fymptom of which is a difcharge into the inner 
corner of the eye, when prefftre is made on the fac. This 
difcharge is made from the fac, through the punéta, and 
‘proves that the latter are open. The ob{truction really 
forming the difeafe is one that hinders any thing from paffing 
from the fac into the nofe, and not from the eye into the 
fac. 

On the fubje& of the fcrew, which Fabricius of Aqua- 
pendente invented, for making preffure on the lachrymal 
fac, we need only fay, now that it has gone into perpetual 
difufe, that though it anfwered the purpofe of compreffing 
the fac very well, it did not operate in any way whatever on 
the obitruction in the nafal du@, the primary caufe of the 
difeafe. 

M. Anel’s fyringe is entitled to a much higher fhare of 
recommendation than has been given to his probe. Indeed, 
the plan of injecting fluids through one of the punéta lachry- 
malia into the lachrymal fac, for the purpofe of removing 
any flight, recent obftruction in the nafal du&t, is what re- 
ceives the fanétion of all the beft furgeons and oculifts of 
the prefent day. It is evident, however, that it isa method 
which can only be adopted while there is no ulcerated open- 
ing in the fac, and only then, with much hope of fuccefs, 
as long as the ftoppage in the nafal dud is flight, and fuch 
as would be oceafioned by the lodgment of thickened 
mucus. 


Before entering upon the defcription of the manner in 


which the eminent Mr. Ware employs Anel’s fyringe for 
the cure of the epiphora, or firft {tage of the fiftula lachry- 
malis, it is proper to acquaint the reader that, in the year 
4780, fir William Blizard made the propdfal of injecting 
quickfilver inftead of water into the lachrymal fac, by means 
of a pipe {mall enough to be introduced through one of the 
punéta lachrymalia, and fixed on the end of a long glafs 
tube. In fhort, the inftrument is exaétly like what ana- 
tomifts commonly ufe for injeéting the lymphatics. The 


‘glafs tube being filled with the mercury, as high as the 


practitioner may deem neceffary, and the little pipe intro- 
duced into one of the punéta lachrymalia, the quickfilver 
defcends by its fZecific gravity into the lachrymal fac, as 
foon asa little {crew is turned, and, by reafon of its weight, 
is, in fir -W. Blizard’s opinion, more calculated than water 
propelled from a fyringe for removing the obftru@tion in the 
nafal'duc&t. ‘The force with which the mercury acts de- - 
pending entirely on its weight, it muft be manifett that the 
higher the column of the metal is made, the greater mult be 
the power with which it operates. 

There cannot be a doubt that fir William Blizard’s 
method is an exceedingly good one; but perhaps it has no 
real advantage over the ufe of* the fyringe, fince the fluid 
injeGed by this inftrument is one which is always ready at 
hand, and operates with as much power as mereury, when 
the practitioner choofes to propel it with force into the 
lachrymal fac. 

Mr. Ware made a trial of fir William Blizard’s method, 
but at length preferred the employment of Ancel’s fyringe. 
With this he ufually inje€ts warm water through the lower 
pundctum lachrymale into the lachrymal fac, while a finger 
is put over the lower punétum, in order to prevent the fluid 
from making its way outward. The lachrymal fhould alfo 
be now and then compreffed, for the purpofe of promoting 
the defcent of the water down into the nofe. Ln particular 
inftances, Mr. Ware has ufed the injeétion three times a 
day; but, in general, much lefs frequently.. This gentle- 
man relates, that his practice has been attended with con- 
fiderable fuccefs. ’ 

Mr. Ware commonly commences his method of treat- 
ment by injeéting fome water through the inferior panftum 
lachrymale, and he repeats the operation four or five days 
in fucceffion. If, inthis fpace of time, none of the water 
fhouldjpafs through the duétinto the nofe, and the watering of 
the eye be as troublefome as it was before the injeGtion was 
employed, he commonly orders the angular vein to be open- 
ed, or aleech to be applied near the lachrymal fac. How- 
ever, Mr. Ware is careful in forbidding the leech to be put 
on either of the eye-lids, left it fhould occafion an extrava- 
fation of blood in the adjacent cellular membrane. 

About the time when bleod is taken away from the vici- 
nity of the eye, Mr. Ware is in the habit of changing the 
injeGtion, and trying the effects of a weak, vitriolic, or 
anodyne lotion. In fome inftances alfo, when, after feve- 
ral attempts, he has not been able to inject any part of the 
liquid through the duct, he has introduceda golden probe, 
about as large as a briftle, through the fuperier punétum 
lachrymale, and, attending to the direction of the duét, he has 
infinuated the end of the inftrument through the obftruétion, 
and conveyed it fully into the nofe. Immediately after 
doing this, Mr. Ware has found, that a liquid, injected 
through the inferior pun&tum, has paffed without any diffi- 
culty into the nofe; and, by repeating thefe. operations a 
few fucceflive days, the pervious {tate of the paflage has 
been re-eftablifhed, and a cure accomplifhed. 

"On fome other oceafions, Mr. Ware has advifed a ftrong- 
ly flimulating fternutatory to be fiuffed up the nofe, about 
aB 


_diable by fome of the above means. 


° FISTULA. 


‘an hourbefore bed-time. Thusa large difcharge has been 
excited from the Schneiderian membrane, which difcharge, 
according to Mr. Ware’s account, has had the effeét of 
materially contributing to remove the ftoppage in the nafal 
du&. 

Very few cafes prefent themfelves which are not reme- 
In certain examples 
which have been attended with a feetid difcharge, Mr. Ware 
has corre€ted this bad quality, by inje&ting a vitriolic lotion 
into the lachrymal fac. 

The celebrated Scarpa of Pavia, who has lately pub- 
lifhed fome excellent obfervations on the difeafes of the eyes, 
has fet forth the do€trine, that the primary and principal 
caufe of the Fftula lachrymalis does not exilt either in the 
Jachrymal fac orthe nafal du&, as furgeons have hitherto 
fuppofed, but in the morbid ftate of the eye-lids. Hence 
the fame writer contends, that every method of treatment 


which is merely calculated to heal the ulceration of the fac, 


or remove the obftruction inthe nafal du@t, cannot accom- 


_plifha permanent cureof the difeafe, without theemployment 
_of fuch other remedies as are proper for correcting the dif- 


eafed fecretion from the eye-lids. 
In the firtt ftage of the Gftula lachrymalis, called by Scar- 
a “il fluffo palpebrale puriforme,”’ this furgeon’s practice 
confilts in fulfilling two indications; viz. firll, that of check- 
ing the fecretion from the lining of the cye-lids, and the 
glands-of Meibomius, from which difeafed fluid he thinks 
that the fiftula lachrymalis originates; fecondly, that of 


' diligently wafhing out the lachrymal paffages throughout 


their whole extent. 

For the firft objeé&t, Scarpa recommends the ufe of Janin’s 
ophthalmic ointment, which is compofed of half an ounce 
of hog’s lard, two drams of prepared tutty,. the fame 
quantity of Armenian bole, and one dram of the calx hy- 
drargyri alba. ‘The lard, after being wafhed three times 
with rofe water, isto be well mixed with the other ingre- 
dients, after they have been made into a fine powder. 

When this ointment is firft ufed, it is to be rendered weaker 
by the addition of a larger proportion of lard than what is 
above-mentioned. A bit ofthe ointment, about the fize of 
a barley-corn, is to be put on the end of a blunt probe, 


‘and applied between the eye-lids and eye-ball, near the ex- 


ternal angle, every morning and evening, and all the edgés 
of the palpebre are alfo to be fmeared with the fame appli- 
cation. ‘The patient is then to fhut his eye, and gently rub 
his eye-lids, in order to diffufe the ointment all over their 
internal furface. A comprefs and bandage are next to be 


applied. At the end of two hours the eye may be unco- 


vered, and wafhed with cold water. A collyrium of zincum 
vitriolatum, and mucilage of quince feeds, is alfo to be ufed 


- three or four times a day. 


When there are {mall excoriations upon the edges of the 


_ eye-lids, Scarpa recommends the unguentum hydrargyri ni- 


trati to be applied at bed-time to the little fores. When 
this remedy fails, he fays the argentum nitratum mutt be 
gently rubbed along the margin of the eye-lids, and the eye 
immediately afterwards wafhed with new milk. 

Juft before every time of making thefe applications to the 
eye-lids, Scarpa, in order to tulfil the fecond indication 
above {pecified, advifes fome plantain-water, containing a 


little fpirit of wine, to be injected into one of the puncta 


t 


Tachrymalia, by means of Anel’s fyringe. 

With regard to the truth of the theory advanced by 
Scarpa, concerning the primary caufe of the fiftula 
lachrymalis, we cannot help having our doubts ; but of 
the prattice which we have been defcribing we have 
to exprefs ourentire approbation. Ifthe origin of the 

Vou. XIV. 


difeafe always depended on the morbid feeretion from the 
lining of the eye-lids and the glands of Meibomius, why do 
we not havea fiftula lachrymalis as an attendant on nume- 


‘ rous ophthalmies in which we know and fee that fuch fe- 


cretion is ina difeafed ftate? Befides, in the praétice of 
furgery, we have moft pofitive evidence that the duétus na- 
falis very frequently becomes obftru€ted by the preflure of 
polypi and other tumours in its vicinity; and although 
this caufe cannot be afligned as the ordinary one of the dif- 
order, yet it proves that a filtula lachrymalis may fometimes 
originate without the fecretion of the eye-lids being cou- 
cerned in its production. Experience alfo thews that 
colds which inflame and thicken the Schneiderian membrane, 
fometimes bring on obftru€tions in the rafal duét. “Nor is 
the ftatement of Scarpa altogether correét, when he ob- 
ferves that the difeafe can never be permanently cured by re- 
medies which only operate in clearmg away the obftructian 
in the duct, without acting upon the difeafed inner furface 
of the eye-lids. We have daily proofs that the epiphora, 
the incipient itate of the filtula lachrymalis, or, as Scarpa 


.terms it, the palpebral puriform difcharge, can be cured by 


merely injecting warm water, with Anel’s fyringe, through 
the lower punétum lachrymale. . 

The ample experience of Mr. Ware is a confirmation of 
what we have juft now remarked. 

Much, however, as we have differed frem Scarpa in rela- 
tion to the primary caufes of the fiftula lachrymalis, we 
entertain the moft favourable opinion of that part of his 
practice which arifes out of his theory. We allude to the 
plan of applying fome fuch ointment as Janin’s, or the un- 
guentum hydrargyri nitrati, to the edges and infide of the 
eye-lids, Scarpa’s defcription of the difeafed ftate in which 
the inner furface of thefe parts is found, is perfe&ly accu- 
rate, and whether fuch ftate be regarded with him as a 
caufe, or with us only as an effeét, there can be no doubt 
that fomething fhould be done to rectify it. 

We have now to {peak of the treatment of the fecond and 
third {tages of the fittulalachrymalis, or of thofe in which 
the fkin covering the lachrymal fac fs either inflamed or 
burtt. 

This part of furgery has only attained its prefent improved 
flate within the fewlaftyears; and Mr. Pott, whowrote fo well 
on every furgical {ubjec&t which attracted his notice, has re- 
commended in his worksa mode of treating thefe ftates of 
the fiftula lachrymalis. much lefs fimple and efficacious than 
what modern furgeons now univerfally prefer. For inftance, 
when the fac is burit, he diredts the opening, if neceflary, to 
be enlarged with a knife, and, in other cafes, an incifion to 
be made through the fkin into that cavity. He then ad- 
vifes us to diftend the wound moderately with dry lint, or 
prepared {ponge, fo as to beable, in two or three days, to 


- afeertain the ftate of the infide of the fac, and of the du@us 


nafalis. *When the formeris not floughy nor difeafed, and 
the obftru€tion in the latter flight, a cure will fometimes en- 
fue, according to Mr. Pott, on a free difcharge taking 
place, and fuperficial dreflings being applied to the fore. 

When this methiod is not attended with fuccefs, Pott 
advifes us to render the nafal du& pervious, by introduciug 
aprobe, a piece of catgut, or a bougie, from the wound 
down into the nefe. When one of thefe inftruments will net 
pafs all the way down at once, it is to be gently introduced 


again and again until a paflage is obtained. 


About the year 1781, Mr. Wathen tried the effec of in- 
troducing a cannula into the nafal du@. His obje& was 
not only to form a communication between the eye and the 
nofe, but, by letting the wound heal over the inftrument, 
to hinder the ebilruQion from returning afterwards. In 


4F this 


FISTULA. 


this way many curés were effected; but, aftera time, the 
method was found to be fubjeé to difficulties. The tubes, 
as Mr. Ware relates, frequently changed their pofition in 
the dut; fometimes they rofe too high; at other times 
they funk toolow; and, in confequence of thefe accidents, 
the tears often became obftruéted again, and all the old 
fymptoms returned. 

A. French oculift, M. Pellier, invented fome cannulex, 
which had two projeéting edges; one at the top forming a 
‘kind of brim, and another about the middle of the inftru- 
ment. The intention of thefe was to keep the tube from 
afcending or defcending, after granulations had occupied 
the {pace between the two projecting brims. 

Notwith{tanding the favourable accounts which have been 
given of cannulz for the cure of the filtula lachrymalis, 
Mr. Ware has experienced much difappointment from their 
ule; and, among the objections to them, mentions the diffi- 
culty which fometimes attends the attempt to withdraw 
them from the duét, in which they have become fixed. 

For the fecond and third ftages of the fiftula lachrymalis, 
the treatment which now obtains univerfal preference is 
that which Mr. Ware introduced into praétice. Whenever 
a patient applies to this gentleman for relief, on account of 
au obftruction in the nafal duct, he always thinks it right to 
endeavour to free the canal from any thickened mucus which 
may be lodged there, by injecting {ome warm water through 
the lower pun&um lachrymale. At the fame time he tries, 
when neceflary, the effect of other remedies, mentioned in 
his writings on the epiphora. But if no benefit be per- 
ceptible after employing thefe means about a week or ten 
days; orif, fromthe long continuance of the obftruction, 
fuch treatment cannot be expected to fucceed; he recom- 
mends the operation which we are about to defcribe. How- 
ever, with refpe& to children, Mr. Ware advifes it to be 
deferred till they are eight or nine years old. 

If the difeafe has not occafioned any external opening in 
the lachrymal fac, or if there is an opening which is not 
fituated ina right line with the longitudinal direétion of the 
nafal duct, Mr. Ware advifes a punéture to be made inte 
the fac, ata {mall diftance from the internal commiflure of 
the eye-lids, and nearly in a line drawn horizentally from this 
commiffure towards the nofe. ‘This openingis to be made 
with a very narrow {pear-pointed lancet. ‘The blunt end 
of a filver probe, which muft be rather f{maller than the 
probes commonly ufed by furgeons, ought next to be intro- 
duced into the wound, and be gently, but iteadily, pufhed 
on in the direction of the nafal du@, with a force fufficient 
to overcome the obftru@tion in this canal, and until there is 
weafon to believe that it has freely entered into the cavity of 
thenofe. Mr. Ware remarks that the pofition of the probe, 
when thus introduced, will be nearly perpendicular; its fide 
will touch the upper edge of the orbit ; and the fpace be- 
tween its bulbous end in the nofe andthe woundin the flkin 
will ufually be found in a full grown perfon to be about an 
inch and a quarter, or an inch and three-eighths. The 
probe is then to be withdrawn, and a filver ftyle, of a fize 
nearly fimilar to that of the probe, but rather {maller, about 
an inch and three-eizhths in length, with a flat head, like 
that of a nail, but placed obliquely, in order that it may be 
clofe on the fin, is to be introduced through the duét in 
place of the probe, and to be left, for a continuance, in 
this fituation, For the firft day or two after the ftyle has 
been introduced, Mr. Ware informs us that it is fometimes 
advifable to wafh the eye with a weak faturnine lotion, for 
the purpofe of obviating any tendency to inflammation, 
which may have been excited by the operation. However, 
the fame gentleman obfervesthat thisinflammation is in general 


fo flight, that he has feldom found it ne¢effary to ufe any 
application for its removal. The ftyle fhould be withdiawa 
once every day for about a week, and afterwards every 
fecond or third day. Each time fome warm water fhould 
be injeéted through the dué into the nofe, and the inftru- 
ment be then replaced in the fame manner as before. Mr, 
Ware next blacken3 the head of the ftyle with fealing 
wax. 

On the firft trials of this method, Mr. Ware entertained 


no expe@tation that any relief would be obtained till the » 


ufe of the ftyle was left off. He had the gratification of 
finding, however, that the watering of the eye ceafed as 
foon as the ftyle was introduced, and the fight became pro- 
portionally better and ftronger. 

In cafesin which there is no external opening in the la- 
chrymal fac, or no opening which will anfwer the purpofe, 
Mr. Ware only makes a pun@ture of juft fufficient fize to 
admit the end of the probe or ftyle. This aperture foou 
changes into a filtulous orifice, through which the {tyle may 
be paffed without the leaft pain. In fhort, fays Mr. Ware, 
in about a week or tendays, the treatment becomes fo eafy, 
that the patient, or any friend, is fully competent to do what 
isneceflary. It merely confifts in withdrawing the ftyle 
two or three timesa week, occafionally injecting fome warm 
water, and then replacing the inftrument in the fame pofi- 
tion which it held before. 

With refpe& to the time which the ftyle fhould be worn, 
no determinate rule can be laid down. Mr. Ware acquaints 
us that fome perfons, who find no inconvenience from the 
{tyle, and are afraid to leave it off, wear it for years. Many 
others leave it off in about a month or fix weeks, and con- 
tinue quite well. 

The fores which are frequently met with over the lachry- 
mal fac generally heal as foon as the tears begin to find a paf- 
{age down into the nofe. ‘Two examples, however, are re- 
lated by Mr. Ware, in which the ulcerations did not heal 
until the patient had taken a weak folution of the hydrar- 
gyrus muriatus and bark. 

The fourth and lait ftage into which the fiftula lachry- 
malis is divided, is that in which the natural paffage from 
the fac into the nofe is fo difeafed as to be quite obliterated, 
or in which bones are carious. 

In either of thefe circumftances the obje&t to be at- 
tempted is to form an artificial paflage for the defcent of 
the tears into the nofe. 


Mr. Pott has explained, in a very clear manner, that the 
upper and hinder part of the lachrymal fac ‘is firmly attached 
to the os unguis, a {mall and very thin bone jult withia the 
orbit of the eye. This bone is fo fituated, that if it be by 
any means broken through or removed, the two cavities of 
the nofe and of the orbit communicate with each other; 
confequently, the os unguis forms the partition between the 
hinder part of the lachrymal bag, and the upper part of 
the cavity of the nofe. It is, lays Mr. Pott, by making 
a breach in this partition, that we attempt the formation 
of an artificial paflage for the lachrymal fluid. 

For making a perforation in the os unguis Mr. Pott al- 
ways employed a curved trocar, the point of which was 
turned obliquely downward from the angle of the eye to- 
wards the infide of the nofe. Some make the breach in 
the bone witha knife; others with fome fuch inftrument as 
a gimblet. As foon’as the communication between the fac 
and infide of the nofe is made, the cireumftance will be 
indicated by a difcharge of blood from the noftrilyand air 
from the wound, upon blowing the nofe. 

Without lengthening this article by detailing how the 

ancients 


. FISTULA. 


ancients ufed to make the breach in the os unguis with the 
actual cautery, which the celebrated Scarpa even now pre- 
fers, or by explaining how practitioners a very few years 
back were wont to. maintain the breach open by cramming 
in tents, prepared {ponge, a piece of bougie, &c. we fhall 
proceed at once to defcribe what is generally regarded as the 
beft plan of keeping the artificial opening pervious. 

Here we have to make the reader acquainted with an 
improved mode of treatment, for which the public and the 
profeffion are indebted to the ingenuity of Mr. Ware. 
After the perforating inftrument is withdrawn, this gentle- 
man advifes us to introduce a nail-headed ftyle, about an 
inch in length, through the new aperture, in the fame man- 
ner in which fuch an inftrument is pafled through the nafal 
duét, in cafes in which the obitruétion is not fo great as to 
prevent its paffing in this direCtion. The ftyle may alfo be 
left in the opening made in the os unguis, with as much 
fafety as in the natural duius nafalis, and this for as long 
a time as may be deemed requilite for removing all chance 
of the new paffaze becoming clofed again, Pott on the 
Fiftula Lachrymalis. Ware on the Epiphora and Fittula 
Lachrymalis. Scarpa fulle Principali Malattie degli Occhi. 
Venezia, 1802. 

Fiflule in Peringo.—Very often, in confequence of various 
irritations affecting the urethra, inflammations and abfcefles 
are occafianed areund this canal. Thefe collections of matter 
may burft inwardly into the urethra, or externally, orin both 
ways, in which latter cafe more or lefs of the erine flows out of 
the opening, whenever the patient has need of difcharging 
this fluid. Sometimes the artificial paflage through which 
the urine is evacuated heals up, after the irritation in the ure- 
thra is leffened. In other inflances, the caufe of the preter- 
natural opening remains unremoved, and the urine pafling 
into the abfcefs by the inner orifice, and, making its efeape 
by the external one, keeps up a conftant irritation in the 
fore, prevents the fides of the paffage from uniting, and 
converts them into a hard callous fubftance, the inner fur- 
face of which, as Mr. Hunter has remarked, lofes the dif- 
pofition to union, and aflumes the nature of an outlet. Every 
opening which is thus caufed, which partakes of this na- 
ture, and is fituated in the perineum, or even in the fcrotum, 
is, with the general confent of furgeons, denominated a 

» fiftala in perinao. 
» The kind of irritation in the urethra moft frequently oc- 
cafioning fiftule in perinzo, is that which attends the ob- 
Struétion produced by ftri€tures in this canal. When this 
Jatter difeafe is very bad, and the urethra confiderably ob- 
ftructed, nature frequently endeavours to procure relief by 
ulceration on the infide of that part of the urethra which is 
between the bladder and the ftri€ture The urine then pafles 
into the loofe cellular membrane of the f{crotum and penis, 
and the irritating quality of this fluid becomes a caufe of 
duppuration wherever it is extravafated, and even of morti- 
fication, firft, of all the cellular fubftance, and then, of fe- 
veral portions of the fkin. If the patient continues to live, 
all thefe floughs are detached, and the fores contract, till 
nothing but the fiftulous aperture remains, through which 
the urine makes its efeape. In fome examples the urine in- 
finuates itfelf into the corpus fpongiofum urethre, is dif- 
fufed all over this fubftance, even into the glans'penis, and 
produces a floughing of all the parts in which it is lodged. 
© Jn irritable conftitutions, in old perfons, and in fubjects 
whofe fyitems have long been under the influence of the 
Eaft or Weft India climate, fitule in perinzo feem to be 
more eafily excited. We have often feen, in fuch patients, 
abfceffes and openings, through which the urine flowed, 
eccafioned by gonorrhwas, which could not be regarded as 


fevere ones, and by ftri€tures which had not made fufficiest 
obftruGion in the paffage even to render the perfons them- 
felves con{cious of having any ftoppage of this kind at all. 

Mr. Hunteradvifes us to treat inflammations which occur 
in the vicinity of the urethra in the fame manner as inflamma- 
tions in other parts. Refolution is very defirable, though 
hardly to be expected, when a ftriGure is the caufe, in which 
cafe f{uppuration almoft inevitably enfues. When matter is 
formed, the fooner an external opening is made into the 
abfcefs the better, as by this means we may fometimes, 
though not often, prevent it from buriting inwardly inte 
the urethra. Mr. Hunter recommends the external open- 
ing to be made large. 

In certain inftances it happens, when the colleGion of 
matter burftsinternally, that the itri€ture is removed by the 
ulceration, and is thus fortunately cured. But when the 
ftriture continues, as it almoft always does, an attempt 
muft be made to deitroy it by fome of the metheds which 
will be defecribed in a fubfequent part of the Cyclopedia. 
(See Stricture.) While the urine paffes through the 
artificial paflage no cure can be hoped for. 

From what has been already delivered, it muit be obvious, 
that in every inftance in which a ftri€ture is known or fuf- 
pected to have occafioned the abfcefs and fiitula in perinxo, 
it is proper to examine the urethra with a bougie. Ifthe 
obftruétion has been more or lefs deftroyed by ulceration, 
fo that this inftrument, of a certain fize, can be paffed, 
its employment fhould be almoft inceffantly continued, and 
its fize regularly increafed as faft as circumitances will al- 
low, in order to procure a free paflage onward to the blad- 
der. Some practitioners, in the fame kind of cafe, would 
prefer the ufe of bougies armed with cauttic; but this fubje& 
more properly belongs to the article in which ftri€tures will 
be confidered. 

Some praGtitioners recommend hollow bougies to be worn 
after the ftri€ture is in part removed, with a view of prevent- 
ing the urine from pafling into the artificial opening. -Mr. 
Hnuater remarks, that this inftrument allows the urine to 
dribble away continually; but that its orifice may be itop- 
ped up, and the urine only allowed to flow when the patient 
has an inclination to make the evacuation. The hollow 
bougie, according to the fame great furgeon, becomes, 
under certain circumftances, the wort inftrument poffible ; 
for if its canal is not of a fize fufficient to let the water pafs 
as freely as the contra¢tion of the bladder requires, the fluid 
will eatily pafs by the fide of the bougie, and not being 
able to get more forward than the remaining. part of the 
ftriGture, will of courfe run into the abfcefs in the perinzum. 
In order to avoid this difagreeable occurrence as much as 
poffible, the hollow bougies fhould be as large es the itric- 
tured part will allow, and their fides fhould be as thin as pof 
fible, fo that their cavity may be the wider. On. thefe ac- 
counts the elaftic. gum catheters ought to be preferred to 
common hollow bougies, made with fpiral wire, covered 
with waxed cloth. 

Mr. Hunter himfelf entertained doubts whether the abfcefs 
in the perinzum was really prevented from healing bythe paf- 
fage of the urine through it, and, confequently, he had novery 
high opinion of the ule of hollow bougies. He obferved, 
that after lithotomy the parts healed very readily, when they 
were free from difeafe. Hence he fupe&ed that in ab- 
{ceffes, and fores in the perineum, the want of difpofition to 
heal arofe from the itriQures not being fufficiently fubdued, 
or the deeper parts not being in a healthy ftate. 

When {uppurations in the perineum are neglected, and 
no attempt is made to cure the ftriture, the latter fometimes 
clofesentirely, no bougie can be pafled through it, and all 

4¥F2 the 


SISTULA., 


the urine paffes through the artificial paflage. For fuch 
inftances cauftic bougies are fuch as ought to be employed. 

In cafes in which fuppuration takes place in the peri- 
neum, in confequence of itri€tures in the uxethra, the fur- 
geon fhould not limit his attention to the removal of the 
latter affeCtion only; he fhould alfo make ufe of every means 
which is proper for diminifhing the local inflammation, 
Bleeding, and expofing the parts to the fteam of hot water, 
are mealures fraught with peculiar efficacy. All prac- 
titioners likewife acknowledge the great benefit which is 
derived from the ufe of opium, adminiftered both by the 
mouth and in glytters. Irritation and fpafm will be moft 
effeCtually relieved by conjoining with the foregoing treat- 
ment the employment of the warm bath. 

In fome examples matter fofms in the perineum, and 
purils both internally and externally, fo that a paflage is 
made, through which the urine efcapes; but in confequence 
of the abfcefs being circumferibed by the adhefive inflam- 
mation, which fhuts up the cavities of the cellular fub- 
ftance, the urine does not become diffufed. 

The avoidance of fuch an extravafation, however, is fre- 
quently not in the power of the furgeon ; an unfortunate 
truth, becaufe floughing and abfcefles generally arife in 
every place into which the irritating fluid infinuates itfelf. 

As the mifchief continues to increafe as long as the urine 
cannot find a free vent outward, and is, confequently, in- 
jected more and more into the cellular membrane, the .prac- 
titioner mutt not be guilty of delay. It very often happers 
that all the methods related above prove infufficient, or un- 
produétive of the prompt relief which is urgently demanded. 
‘In this citcumftance the furgeon muft try by other means 
to unload the bladder, and prevent the increafing extrava- 
fation in the cellular membrane of the permeum, ferotum, 
and adjacent parts. Thefe two great defirable objets may 
be effeéted by making an opening into the urethra, fomewhere 
beyond the ftriture; though the nearer to it the better. 

With this view, Mr. Hunter advifes a diretor or ftaff 
to be introduced into the urethra, as far as the ftri€ture, and 
an incifion made down upon the end of the inttrument. The 
cut is then to be lengthened a little towards the anus, fo as 
to open the urethra juft beyond the ob{truction. 

In cafes in which the ftri@ure happens to be fituated op- 
pofite the fcrotum, we are recommendéd by Mr. Hunter to 
make an opening into the urethra in the perineum. It is 
obvious that in fuch inflances we cannot have the ftaff to 
guide us, and we muft be dire&ted by our knowledge of 
anatomy. A cannula is then to be pafied from the wound 
to the ftriG@ure, and another cannula from the glans penis 
alfo to the obftruétion, fo as to meet the other tube. A 
perforating inftrument is then to be puthed from one can- 
nula into the other, by which means the itricture will be pe- 
netrated. The next ftep is to withdraw the two tubes, and 
introduce a gum-catheter, which is to be worn tillthe wound 
3s healed, 

Thefe proceedings, however, are only to be confidered 
as proper in certain very urgent cafes. In others, the in- 
creafing diffufion of urine may be ftopped by merely making 
an opening into the urethra, fomewhere between the {tric- 
ture and bladder; and, indeed, in the generality of in- 
ftances, a diligent ufe of bougies, and making depending 
apertures for the difcharge of the urine, which becomes 
extravafated, will remove all occafion for more fevere mea- 
fures. 

Nor fhould the important confiderations which we have 
*juft been foeaking of monopolize all the pratitioner’s at- 
tention. Other mattersalfo require his care. ‘That inflam- 
mation, which is conftantly excited wherever the urine is 


extravafated, fhould be diminifhed as much as poffible, 
Fomentations and poultices fhould be applied, and the fame 
{caritications and incifions which ferve to let out the-urine, 
and prevent its {preading further in the cellular fubftance, 
will alfo ferve to give vent to whatever pus may be colleéted, 
When there are floughs, which is too frequently the cafe, 
the incifions fhould of courie rather be made ia the infen- 
fible dead parts than in the living ones. However, the 
advantage of having a depending opening ought even to 
be paramount in the furgeon’s mind, to the faltely humane 
motive of not fubjeéting the patient to pain. By fubmitting 
to requilite operations, it is true the latter fuffers for a time,: 
but it is equally obvious that he would certainly fuffer 
much more, and perhaps ultimately die, were fuch opera~ 
tions negle@ed. It is frequently the cafe in furgery, that 
thofe proceedings which to an unthinking perfon feem 
bold, bloody, and cruel, are in reality, with regard to 
what the patients muft feel, the moft tender and humane, 
and, with regard to his fafety, the moft difcreet. Were 
the furgéon’s knife not ufe¢ when difeafes require it, the 
patient certainly would not feel the fharp edge of the 
inftrument ; but he could not in this way elude pain, which 
would be tenfold greater, when refulting from the increafing - 
ravages of the difeafe, than When infliéted by the furgeon, 

with this material difference, that in one inftance it is fuf~ 

fering for the chance of a recovery ; in the other, it is fuf- 

fering in all probability to die. 

} In cafes of old fiftule in perinzo, in which the dangers arif- 

ing from an extravafation of urine are over, either common qr 

armed bougies are to be ufed for the purpofe of making the 

urethra as free from obftruétiou as poflible. When the {tric- 

tures give way, and the urine can flow freely forward, 

thertiiulats openings in the perineum often fpontaneoufly- 

eal. 

When the urethra is completely free from ftrictures, and 
i the fiftulz in perinzo do not beal, the finufes are to be 
aid open like all others which have no difpofition to get 
well. One great object in performing fuch operations is 
to cut as little as poflible of the found urethra. On this ae- 
count, Mr. Hunter advifes us to find the inner orifice of the 
filtule, if poffible, by introducing a ftaff, which is to meet 
the end of a probe pafled through the tiftule into the ure- 
thra. Surgeons ought to underftand, that though filtulze 
in perinzo often have feveral external openings, they feldom 
or never have more than one internally, with which they coms 
municate with the urethra. A direétor is the moft 
convenient inftrument when the ftraight courfe of the fiftula 
will allow it to be introduced. When the filtulous 
paflage is tortuous, a probe is bett, becaufe it can be bent 
into any fhape. 

The probe or direGtor being introduced fo asto meet the 
ftaff, the furgeon is carefully to lay openthe finus, through 
which it paffes, and he is to do this till he has. cut as far as- 
the ftaff. 

When no probe nor dire&tor can be made to enter fo far 
as to touch the ftaff, the furgeon muft lay open as much of 
the finus, as what the inftrument enters, and then endeavour 
to find the continuation of the fiftula. 3 

As foon as the fiftulous finufes are all laid open down to 
their termination in the urethra, a gum catheter fhould be 
introduced, and worn at firft almoft without intermiflion. 
However Mr. Hunter recommends the catheter to be 
difufed, as foon as the fores become ftationary, as it fome- 
times has the effe&t of preventing them from healing. 

The fame eminent furgeon alfo advifes us to drefs the 
wounds at firft down tothe bottom. If this prudent. method 
were negleted, the fuperficial parts might clofe, while the 

deeper 


FIS 


deeper ones remained unhealed, and frefh abfceffes and 
fiftule be the confequence. 
Fistura, Salivary. See Sarivary Fifula, 
Fisrura Pulmenis, in Anatomy, aterm ufed by fome 
writers for the a/pera arteria. 
Fisruva Sacra, is that part of the back-bone which is 
perforated. 
Fisruza Urvinaria, the fame with the urethra. 
FISTULAR, or Fisrutous, is applied by the fur- 
geons to woundsand ulcers which degenerate into filtulas. 
Fisruzar is alfo applied to the leaves of plants. which 
are round and hollow within; as the leaves of leeks, 
&e. 
Visrurar Mowers, among Herbali/ls, are thofe made up 
of many {mall, long, hollow flowers, like pipes. 
FISTULARIA, in Jchthyology, a genus of abdominal 
fifhes, the {nout of which is cylindrical ; jaws diftant from 
the eyes; gill-membrane with feven rays; body round, and 
gradually tapering from the jaws to the tail. 
< Species, 
‘Tapacarra. Tail bifid, and ending inafetaceous pro- 
eefs. Linn. Petimbuaba, Marcg. Tobacco-pipe fish, Will. 
A very fingular fpecies, found in the feas of America and 
- Japan. The ufual length of this fith appears to be from 
twelve to eighteen inches, exclufive of the briltle-form pro- 
cefs which proceeds from the extremity of the body 
between the two lobes of the caudal fin, and in general 
meafures rather more than one-fourth the length of the 
body. Some writers, however, affure us that the tobacco- 
pipe filh grows to the length even of three or four feet. 
The fhape is that of an eel, the fkin fmooth, of a livid 
brown colour above, and filvery beneath; the back and 
fides are marked with longitudinal feries of blue fpots, dil- 
pofed on each fide the middle of the back in two diftin& 
lines ; the lateral line is ftraight, and the fins pale red. In 
dome examples of this fifh the tail exhibits two of the above- 
mentioned filiform appendages inftead of one ; whether this 
ought to be confidered as an accidental circumftance, or as 
a criterion of fexual difference is uncertain; Dr. Bloch 
obferves that the fnout of thofe with two appendages to 
the tail is ferrated. According to the remarks of Count de 
Cepéde the {pine of this fith 1s very peculiar in ftruéture, 
the firft vertebra being of immoderate length, the three 
next much fhorter, and the reft gradually decreafing as they 
approach the tail. The fpecies fubfifts on fmaller fifhes, 
marine infeéts or worms, &c. which the itructure of its 
fnout enables it to obtain, by introducing that part into the 
_cavities of the rocks. 
Cuinensis. ‘Tail rounded, and without the long appen- 
dage. Linn. Chinefe trumpet fifh. 
A native of the Indian feas, and poffefling the fame 
habits as the former. Its general fhape refembles that of 
the common eel. The head is elongated, fomewhat bony, 
and compreffed at the fides; the {nout tubular and rather 
broad; mouth fmall; eyes rather large; and the body 
covered with fcales of moderate fize. ‘The prevailing colour 
is reddifh-brown, of a pale hue, with three or four whitifh 
ftripes extending from the gills to the tajl; the upper part 
of the body variegated with dufky f{pots, and the'fins pale 


_ yellow. 
_ Parapoxa. Body reticulate with prominent lines ; tail 
lanceolate. Gmel. Pallas. Paradoxical filularia. 


_ A fpecies apparently defcribed in the firft inftance by 

Seba, and fince with yet greater accuracy by Pallas. This 
_ fifh is of the fmaller kind, being only from two or three 
inches in‘Jength, or four inches at the utmoft. The body 


ELT 


is whitifh-afh, with obfolete brown rivulets; the firft 
dorfal fin and tail blackifh; compreffed, and fpinous at the 
interfections of the lines. The back is triangular, and the 
belly towards the ventral fins nearly of the fame figure 5 
behind them narrower, and equally fix-fided; tail coms 
prefled, and feven-fided’ ‘The head is rather {mall; eyes 
large, at the bafe of the fnout, and witha triangular. {pine 
on each fide before the orbit. The fnout is remarkably 
long, ftraight, horny, and terminated in a mouth of {mall 
dimenfions. ‘The napeis armed with three {pines ; the gill- 
openings are fhallow, fmall, and radiated with a few pro- 
minent lines. he firft dorfal fin is long, reclined, and 
banded with black; the peétoral fins are very broad; the 
ventral remarkably large, with the rays deeply cleft and 
divided, and conne@ed by means of a lax membrane in the 
form of a longitudinal pouch. 

FISTULATOR, Lat. a piper. 

FISTULOUS U cer. See Fistuva. 

FIT, in Medicine, an accefs, exacerbation, or paroxy{m 
of difeafe. The term is applied particularly to intermittent 
or periodical difeafes; as we fay an ague-fit, the cold or 
hot fit of the fame complaint ; and alfo to all fudden or vio- 
lent difturbances of the fyflem, as to the attack of apo- 
plexy, epilepfy, hyfteria, &c. The word fits, when ufed 
without any epithet, applies principally to hytterical attacks 
in women, to the convulfions of children, and, among the 
vulgar, to epilepfy. See Convutsions, Epiversy, and 
Hysreria; alio Cotp fi. 

Fits of ea/y reflection and ly tranfmiffion, See Licut. 

Fits of the mother. See Hysteric affedion. 

FITAQUE, or Firogui, in Geography, a town of 
Japan ;. 30 miles E. of Jeddo. 

FITCHBURG, a pott-town of America, in Worcefter 
county, Maffachufetts; 25 miles N. of Worcefter. It con- 
tains 1390 inhabitants. 

FITCHEE, or Ficuer, in Heraldry, is when the 
lower part of any crols is fharpened into a point fit to fix 
into the ground. Thus, he bears azure, a crofs-potent 
fitchee. 

The origin hereof M‘Kenzie afcribes to the primitive 
Chriftians, who ufed to carry. their croffes with them 
wherever they went : and when they ftopped at any place in 
a journey, fixed them in the ground. 

FITCHES, in Agriculture, a common name often ap- 

lied by farmers to vetches. Crops of this fort are grown 
in the field both as a green food for live-ftock, and their 
produce in feed. They are mottly fown broadcait over the 
land, and_harrowed in bya light harrow; but occafionally 
in drills at narrow diftances. 

The feafons for putting the crops into the ground are 
either the autumn or ipring, according as they are 
wanted. 

They are occafionally likewife cultivated as a green crop, 
for being turned into the foilas a manure. This is afually 
done juit before they come into bloflom, when they are in 
their moft luxuriant ftate. See Manure. 

When ufed green for foiling cattle, they are an excellent 
food; and when given in the pod extremely fattening. See 
Tares and VeTcHEs. 

FITCHET, aname ufed in fome places for the wea- 
fel; called alfo the jitchel and the foumart, See VIVERRA 
Putorius. 

FITSIL Heap, in Geography, acape of Scotland, on 
the W. coaft and S. extremity of Mainland, one of the 
Shetland iflands. N. lat. 59° 50’. W- long. 1° 44". 

FITTING-OUT, iw Naval! Language, the act of pro- 
viding a ship with a fufficient number of men, to navigate 


aud 


Fie 


and arm her forattack or defence; asalfo of furnifhing her 
with proper matts, fails, yards, ammunition, artillery, 
cordage, anchors, and other naval furniture, together 
with fufficient provifions for the fhip’s company. See 
Crew. 

FITTRE’, or Fippri, in Geography, a country of 
Africa, otherwife called Luffi, and Couga or Cougu, 
ituated on the borders of a large lake to the fouth of Be- 
garmee. It is governed by a fultan, and his dominions 
have been much diminifhed by the encroachments of the 
fultans of Begarmee and Wadey. The inhabitants live in 
{mali tents, and are faid to be in a low degree of civiliza- 
tion. They have no falt, except what they procure from 
the afhes of goflab. The lake is fituated 210 miles S. 
ef Bornou. N. lat. 15° 50!. E. long. 22° 30! 

FITZ, a Freachterm, literally denoting fon; fometimes 
given by way of addition to the natural fons of the kings 
of England; as James Fitz-Roy, duke of Grafton, 
&e. 

FITZHERBERT, 5% Anruony,in Biography,a learn- 
edlawyerand judge,who flourifhedinthereignof Henry VIT1. 
was the yourtger fon of Ralph Fitzherbert, efq. of Norbury, 
in the county of Deiby. He was educated at Oxford, 
and purfued his {tudies, as preparatory to the pra€tice at 
the bar, in one of the inns of court in the metropolis. He 
attained the degree of lergeant at law in 1511, and received 
the honour of knighthood about the fame time. In 1523 
he was appointed one of the juftices of the court of 
Common Pleas, in which office he pafled the remainder of 
chis life, and was difttiguifhed by many valuable legal 
works, as well as by fuch an honourable difcharge of the 
duties of his office, as made him efteemed an oracle of the 
law. In the difcharge of his duty he feared no man, and 
oppofed the arbitrary proceedings of Wolfey in the height 
oF his power. On his death-bed he is faidto have exacted 
a promife from his children that they would neither accept 
grants, nor make purchafes of lands of the diffolved religious 
foundations, to which they conftantly adhered. He died 
in the year 1538, leaving a numerous pofterity. His 
principal writings are, “© The grand Abridgment,’’ a col- 
leGtion of cafes abridged: ‘* The office and authority of 
Juftices of Peace;’? ‘¢The office of Sheriffs, Bailiffs of 
Liberties, Conftables, &c.’’ and** The new Natura Brevium.”’ 
He is fuppofed to have been the author of a work entitled 
«« Of the furveying of Lands ;” andalfo of « The book of 
Hutbandry.” —Biog. Brit. 

FirzkerBert, Tuomas, grandfon of fir Anthony, 
was born in the county of Stafford in the year 1552, where 
he received the early parts of his education, after which 
he went to Oxford to purfue his ftudies. On account of his 
rigid adherence to the catholic principles, in which he had 
been brought up, he expofed himfelf to occalional reproofs 
from his fuperiors, and at length became an object of per- 
fecution, and was committed to prifon in the year 1572. 
Tarfh_ meafures rarely make a man lefs tenacious of his prin- 
ciples ; and, upon his liberation, he became more ative in 
promulgating the doétrines of popery than he had ever 
been, till at length he was obliged to feek fafety in con- 
cealment. In the year 1580 he connected himfelf clofely 
with fome Jefuits fent into England as miffionaries, aflifting 
them as far as he was able with money and advice. By this 
condu& he incurred the penalties of ‘premunire,’? and, 
alarmed at the rifks he was every day running, he went to 
France. This was in the year 1582; he interefted himfelf 
very much in behalf of Mary queen of Scots ; and when the 
death of that unfortunate princefs rendered his exertions no 
Jonger of any avail, he went to Madrid to implore the pro- 


-over the Englith miffion there. 


FIT 


tetion of Philip II. in behalf of the catholics, and their 
religion in England. From Madrid he went to Rome, took 
a lodging near the Englifh college, and obferved the fame 
devotions as the inmates of that houle, and {pent the re- 
mainder of his time in writing books in defence of the ca 
tholic religion. In 1614 he became a member of the 
fociety of Jefus, was admitted to prieft’s orders, and almoft 
immediately afterwards removed to Flanders, to prefide 
Here he difplayed great 
learning and talent, and acquired fo much efteem by his be- 
haviour and conciliating manners, that he was invited to ac- 
cept the retorfhip of the Englifh college at Rome, the 
duties of which he difcharged with high reputation for 
twenty-two years. He died at Rome in the year 1640, at 
the very advanced age of eighty-eight. As an author his 
works are numerous, but being chiefly on controverted 
points of religion, they have little claim to notice. Biog. 
Brit. 

Firzuersert J/land, in Geography,a {mall ifland in the 
Florida ftveam, at the entrance of the gulf of Mexico. 
N. lat. 24° go!. W. long. 81° sol. i 

FITZHUGH?’s Sounp, a narrow channel of the N. 
Pacific ocean, between Calvert’s ifland, and the W. coaft of 
North America. 

FITZJAMES, James, in Biography, duke of Ber- 
wick, natural fon of king James II. by Arabella, fitter to the 
great duke of Marlborough, was born in 1671 at Moulins, 
in France, where his mother was, in her return from the 
baths of Bourbon. He was educated for the military pro- 
feffion, and diftinguifhed himfelf at an early age at the fiege 
of Buda and battle of Mohatz in 1686 and 1687. On his 
return his father conferred upon him the title of duke of 
Berwick, &c. with the orderof the garter. At the revo- 
lution he accompanied the abdicated king to France, and 
afterwards went over to Ireland to command in the abfence 
of lord T'yrconnel. He fuftained important commands at 
the fieze of Londonderry and the battle of the Boyne, and 
when all was loft in that country he returned, and ferved in 
the armies of France. Inthe fervice of Louis XIV. he 
diftincuifhed himfelfin a very high degree, and in 1703 he 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the troops fent into 
Spain to the affiftance of Philip V. and intent folely upon 
his duty as a general, he in a fingle campaign reduced a 
number of important places. Asareward for his great 
prowefs, and for the many vi€tories which he had obtained, 
he was made marshal of France in 1706. In the fame year 
he returned to the command in Spain, and fignalized his 
military {kill by a campaign, in which, without fighting a 
battle, he obliged the enemy to evacuate Caftile, ‘con- 
ducting them,”’ fays his biographer, “from poft to poft asa 
fhepherd leads his flock.”? In 1707 he obtained a fignal vic- 
tory over the Englifh and their allies, for which he received 
the higheft honours in rank and titles that the crown of 
Spain could confer. He was afterwards entrufted with the 
army on the Rhine, oppofed to that of the empire, and in 
1710 he commandedin Dauphine, where with great fkill he 
foiled all the attempts of the duke of Savoy with a fuperior 
army to break into France. He was now created a duke 
and peer of France by the title of Fitz-James. Notwith- 
ftanding his attachment and obligation to France, in the 
year 1719 he obeyed the orders of Louis, in taking the 
command of an army deftined to invade that country, and 
{oon made himfelf mafter of Fontarabia. He was after- 
wards commander-in-chief of the troops in the fouth-weftern 
provinces of France; and in the year 1730 was made 
governor of Strafburg, War being renewed between the 
empire and France, he was appointed general of the French 

4 army 


FIV 


army in Germany, and, in 1734, undertook the fiege of 
Philipfourgh, during which he was killed by a cannon-fhot 
on June 12th, at the age of fixty-three. We was naturally 
of a cold, referved, and auftere temper, but he was a man of 
principle, fincere, upright, and diftinterefted. He made few 
promifes and profeffions of friendfhip, but no man per- 
formed more fervices to his friends. He avoided all in- 
trigues, and never fpoke ill of any man. As a general 
his great talent was in defenfive war, and he defired nothing 
fo much as to havea good fortification to defend. He elti- 
mated his own merit with modefly, but fuch was the public 
and general opinion of him, that his death was regarded by 
the French, in whofe caufe he died, as a great national 
calamity. Moreri. 

FITZROY Isxanp, in Geography, a {mall ifland near 
the N.E. coaft of New Holland; 5 miles N.E. of cape 
Grafton. 

FITZSTEPHEN, Wituram, in Biography, who 
flourifhed in the 12th century, was defcended from a noble 
Norman family, and born in London. When he had made 
a confiderable progrefs in literature at home, he went to 
France to complete his ftudies. Upon his return he entered 
into the monattic ftate at Canterbury, and by his learning 
and talents obtained the notice and patronage of the arch- 
bifhop, Thomas Becket. To this prelate he became at- 
tached by habits of intimacy and {trict friendfhip, adhering 
moft zealoufly to him and his caufe in the different reverfes 
of his fortune. After the murder of Becket he exhibited 
his attachment by drawing up a life of that prelate in the 
Latin language. The life of the archbifhop is introduced 
by a defcription of the city of London, and a detail of the 
manners and cuftoms of the inhabitants in that period. This 
is faid to be the earlieft account extant of London, and is 
to be feen in Stowe’s Survey. Fitzltephen died in the year 
I1gt. 

FITZWILLIAM, in Geography, a townfhip of Ame- 
rica, in Chefhire county, New Hampfhire, about 16 miles 
E. of Conneticut river, and feparated from Royallton in 
Maffachuferts by the ftate line; incorporated in 1773, and 
containing 1240 inhabitants. 

FIVE Bonnets, a clufter of fmall iflands in the 
Mergui Archipelago. N. lat. 10° 29). 

Five Brothers, a clutter of {mall inflands 
Huron. N. lat. 44°55!. W.long. 83° 28’. 

Five Fathom bank, a fhoal in the Ealt Indian fea. S. lat. 
5° 53 EB. long. 119° 2'. 

Five Fingers’ point, a cape on the S.W. coaft of New 
Zealand, forming the north cape of the fouth entrance into 
Dufky bay ; the rocks of which bear fome refemblance to 
the five fingers of the hand, whence itsname. The land of 
this point is a narrow peninfula ftretching off from Refolu- 
tion ifland, of a moderate and equal height, and wholly 
covered with wood. 

Five J/land harbour, abay on the W. coatk of the ifland 
of Antigua. N. lat.17° 13’. W. long. 61°35’. 

Five Nations of North America, fo called by Engliih 
writers, are the Iroquois of the French, being the Mo- 
hawks, Oneydoes, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Sennekas, 
forming five clans joined in an old confederacy of offence and 
defence. : 

Five-leaved Grafs, Cinquefoil, in Heraldry, is uled by 
fuch as would introduce a blazon by herbs and flowers in- 
ftead of metals and colours, to figuify vert, or green. 

FIVEL, in Geography, a river of Holland, which runs 
into the Ems, near Delfzy!, and gives name toa {mall coun- 
‘ry on its banks between Groningen and the mouth of the 
. ~ >> {mall towns and villages, 


in lake 


Anint: 


FIX 


FIUMARA pb: Muro, a town of Naples, in Calabrig 
Ultra; 8 miles N. of Reggio, ~ 

FIUMARELLA, La, a riverof Naples, which runs 
into the gulf of Squillace, 2 miles S. of Cantazaro. 

FIUME. See Sr. Veir. 

Fiume Fredde, atown of Naples, ia Calabria Citra; 
11 miles W.S.W. of Cofenza. 

FIUMICINO, a fea-port inthe dominions of the Pope, 
at the mouth of the Tiber, with a cuftom-houfe, where 
veflels pay for their goods on board; 2 miles S.W. of 
Porto. 

FIXATION, the a& of fixing, or of rendering a thing 
firm and fixed. 

Fixation is applied in the general to any procefs that 
fixes and binds together what, of its own nature, is volatile; 
and enables it to fuftain the lofs of fire for fome confiderable 
time. 

Geber defines fixation an operation whereby a volatile 
thing, i. e.a thing that cannot endure the fire, is rendered 
capable of enduring it. In the general, fixation is the 
changing of a volatile body into a fixed one. 

Fixation, among Alchemifis, denotes a peculiar pre- 
paration of mercury, whereby it isto be putin a condition 
to bear the fre without evaporating, or the hammer without 
flying or feparating. 

The alchemifts hold, that if they had the true fecret of 
fixing mercury, without the addition of any foreign, lefs 
heavy and folid ingredient, they could make gold, or at 
leaft filver. 

M. Homberg had a long procefs of many months to pre- 
pare an oil from the fecal matter of human excrements ; 
which he imagined would have fixed mercury into filver ; 
but it failed. 

FIXED Arr. See Arr, Carsonic 4cid, and Gas. 

Fixep Bodies, in the general, are thofe which neither the 
fire nor any corrofive has fuch effe& on, as to reduce or re- 
folve them into their component elements ; i. e. abfolutely to 
deftroy them. 

Chauvin holds it not fufficient to denominate a body tixed 
that it can with{tand the fire or any one agent, but it fhould 
withftand all. He contends, that fixity fhould not be re- 
ftrained, as it ufually is, to an exemption from evaporation, 
but from deftruction, or refolution into primary elements : 
inthis fenfe, gold, precious ftones, and glafs, and even fui- 


phur, and mercury itfelf, are properly fixed bodies; for 
mercury and fulphur retain their nature notwithitanding all 
their evaporation. 

The chemiits divide all natural bodies into fixed and vo- 
latile ; 7. e. fuch as bear the utmott force of the fire without 
diffipating or {pending themfelves in fume, and fuch as de 
not. 

Of fixed bodies, the principal are plati 
precious ftones, particularly the diamond ; 

Of all metals, gold and filver alone are Gxed; f. e. on Te- 
maining a long time expofed to the moft intenfe flame, they, 
alone, lofe nothing of their weight. 

Whence this property fhould arife is dificult to fay. If 
the teader is not contented with the caufes enumerated under 
Fixiry, he may add the following one from Boerhaave, viz. 
the homogeneity and equality of parts. The } 
of gold being all homogeneous and equal, will equally 
fuftain each other, and leave equal pores between them ; 
through which pores, when fufed, the fire finding an eafy 
equal paflage, goes off, without carrying any thing ef the 
metal with it: orrather the particles of gold being of all 
others the moft folid and heavy (as appears from the weight 
of that metal) and of all others the moit itrongly united or 

bound 


gold, filver, 


Sy XC. 


the rarts, ¢. gt 


Fix 


fheund together (as appears from the immenfe ductility of 
that metal), the force of the fire is not fufficient to over- 
come fo powerful a refiftance ; the folidity of the particles, 
and their freedom from air, prevents their. being rarefied, or 
fet farther apart, which might leffen their fpecific gravity, 
and diminifh their wis cohefionis ; fo that what has the chief 
effe& in'the raifing’of fumesand vapours, viz. the rarefaction 
or expanfion of the body being here precluded, the 
metal maintains its natural weight and tendency to the 
‘centre. ; 

Mr. Boyle, the Prince of Mirandola, M. Homberg, and 
others, have made numerous experiments on gold, filver, &c. 
to fee how far their fixity extended ; in thefe pure gold, 
kept inan intenfe heat for two months, loft nothing fenfible 
of its weight : filver, under the like circumflances, and the 
like time, loft one-twelfth part of its weight: but 
“Mr. Boyle attributes this to the metal’s not being fine and 

re. 

Indeed, by the great burning-glafles of Meffrs. T{chirn- 
*haufen and Villette, the moft fixed bodies, as gold itfelf, 
‘are rendered volatile, and lofe’of their weight ; fo that there 
is no body in all nature abfolutely fixed. 

Fixep Ecliptic, a certain imaginary plane, which never 
changes its pofition in the heavens from the aétion of any 
of the parts of the folar fyftem on each other; but, like 
a centre of inertia, remains immoveably fixed. The ex- 
iftence of fuch a plane is demonftrated by Laplace, who has 
fhewn the method of determining it from the fituations, 
velocities, &c. mafles of the planets, and other bodies of the 
folar fyftem. The rule for determining it is as follows. 

If at any inftant of time whatever, and upon any plane 
pafling through the centre of the fun, we draw ftraight 
lines to the a{cending nodes of the planetary orbits referred 
to this plane; and if we take on thefe lines, reckoning 
from the centre of the fun lines equal to the tangents of the 
‘inclinations of thefe orbits to this plane ; andif, at the ex- 
tremities of thefe lines, we fuppofe mafles equal to the 
mafles of the planets, multiplied refpectively into the fquare 
roots of the parameters of their orbits, and by the colines 
of their inclinations; and laftly, if we determine the centre 
of gravity of this new fyftem of bodies, then the ftraight 
line, drawn from the centre of the fun to this point, will 
‘be the tangent of the inclination of the invariable plane to 
the affumed plane ; and continuing this line to the heavens, 
will there mark its afcending node. 

Whatever changes the Iucceflion of ages may produce in 
the planetary orbits, and whatever be the plane to which 
they are referred, the plane determined by this rule will al- 
ways be the fame. It is true, its pofition depends on the 
maffes of the planets; but thofe which have fatellites have 
the greateft influence onits pofition, and the maffes of the 
others will foon be fufficiently known to determine it with 
exaCinefs. In adopting the values and the elements of 
their orbits, as given under Eremenr, we find that the 
longitude of the afcending node of the invariable plane was 
402° 56' 56".1 at the commencement of 1750, and at the 
fame time its inclination to the ecliptic was 1° 35! 40".9. 
In this computation we have negleGed the comets, which, 
neverthelefs, ought to enter into the determination of the 
invariable plane, fince they make part of the folar fyftem. 
It would be eafy to include them in the preceding rule, if 
their mafles, and the elements of their orbits, were known. 
But in our prefent ignorance of the nature of thefe objects, 
we fuppofe their maffes too {mall to influence the planetary 
fyftem, andthis is the more probable, fince the theory 
of the mutual attraétion of the planets fuffices to explain 
all the inequalities obferved in their motions. But if the 


EIR 


-aétion of the-comets fhonld become fenfible in Jength of 
time, it fhould principally affe@ the pofition of the plane 
which we fuppofe invariable, and in this point of view, the 
-coniideration of this plane will itill be ufeful, if its variations 
could be recognized, which would be attended with great 
difficulties. 

The fituation of this fixed ecliptic is at prefent nearly 
half way between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, and it 
is inclined in a {mall angle to the plane of the earth’s orbit 


. or true ecliptic. 


The property by which it is determined is that the fum 
of theareas deferibed by the radii vedtores of the bodies of 
the fyitem multiplied refpeGively by the maffes of thele 
bodies, is a maximum. 

Fixep Line of defence, aline drawn along the face of 
the baltion, and terminating in the curtain. See De- 
FENCE. 

Fixep Nitre, a preparation of faltpetre, made by fufing 
it ina crucible, and then inflaming it, with throwing ina 
few coals ; and thus again and again, till no more flanie or 
detonation arife ; then letting it cool, they pulverize and 
diffolve it in water, and afterwards evaporate it into a fine 
white falt, which ferves to draw the tinétures out of vege- 
tables. This falt, per deliguium, yields what they call the 
liquor of fixed nitre. : 

Tixep Salis, are thofeextra@ed or gained from bodies by 
calcination and lotion. See Sats. 

They are called fixed, becaufe the fire was not able 
to fublime or raife them; as thofe carried off in the 
courfe of calcination by the vebemence of fire are called 
volatile. 

The afhes of all plants yield fixed falts. See Lixivium. 

Fixep Signs of the Zodiac, according to fome, are the 
figns Taurus, Leo, Scorpio, and Aquarius. 

They are fo called becaufe the fun paffes them refpective- 
ly in the middle of each quarter, when that feafon. is more 
fettled and fixed than under the fign which begins and endsit, 

Fixep Stars are fuch as conftantly retain the fame pofi- 
tion and diftance with refpeé& to each other. 

By which they are contra-diftinguifhed from erratic or 
wandering ftars, which are continually fhifting their fitua- 
tion and diftance. 

The fixed ftars are what we properly and abfolutely call 
ftars; the reft have their peculiar denomination of planet 
and comet. 

FIXEN, among Sport/men. See Vixen. 

FIXES is a name given by the workmen in gold and 
filver to a folution in filver, from its ufe in garrying down 
te fixing the heterogeneous acids mingled with aqua- 
ortis. 

FIXITY, or Fixepness, in Philofophy, the quality 
of a body which denominates and renders it fixed ; ora pro- 
perty which enables it to endure the fire and other violent 
agents. : 

According to Chauvin, fixity confiftsin this; that the 
component principles of the body are fo clofely united or 
cohere fo ftrongly, and are mixed in fuch proportion, that 
they cannot eafily be divided either by fire or any other cor- 
rofive menftruum, or their integral parts feparated and car- 
ried off in vapour: for a body may be faid to be fixed in two 
re{pects. 

Firft, when, on being expofed to the fire, or a corrofive 
menttruum, its particles are indeed feparated, and the bod 
rendered fluid, but without being refolved into its fir 
elements. The fecond, when the body fuitains the active 
force of the fire or menftruams,whilf its integral parts are 
not carried off in fumes. Each kind of fixity is the re- 

6 fult 


FIX 


Tult of a flvong or intimate cohefion between the particles 
mixed. 

‘Frxirr, or Fixednefs, in Chemifry, is, in a peculiar 
manner, ufed for the affection oppolite to volatility ; 7. ¢. 
the property whereby bodies bear the action of the fire, 
without being diffipated in fumes, ee 
~ The principal caufes of fixity, or the qualifications that 
‘contribute moft to the rendering a body fixed, according to 
Mr. Boyle, are, 1. That its corpufcles be fingly of a cer- 
‘tain proportionable bulk, too big and uiwieldy to be car- 
ried by heat, or buoyed up in the air, 2. That they have 
alfa a proper degree of weight or folidity. 3. That their 
figure be fuchas unfits them for evaporation or flying off ; 
fome being branched, others hooked, &c. fo that being en- 
tangled with one another, they cannot eafily be extricated, 
loofened and feparated. To thefe may be addeda fourth 
‘eircumftance, viz. the nearnefs of the particles, and_ their 
being contiguous in a great many points, or large extent of 
furface, which produces a ftronger force of attraction and 
‘echefion. i : 

FIXLMILLNER, Pracipvs, in Biography, was born 
at a village near Lintz, in Auftria, in May, 1720. He 
was educated by his uncle, Alexander, who was abbot of 
Kremf{muntter, to whom that. inftitution was indebted 
for the eftablifhmeut of a fchool and obfervatory. At 
a very early pericd he ufed to take much deligh* in de- 
lineating mathematical figures. At a proper time he went 
to Salzburgh, where he went through a courfe of philo- 
fophy, and attended the mathematical lectures of profeflor 
Stuart, who had this peculiarity in his mode of teaching, 
that he never made ufe of figures, and yet gave fo clear an 
idea of the different propofitions as rendered the comprehen- 
fion of them eafy. In the year 1737, he took the vows of 
a monattic life, and applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy 
of philofophy and mathematics. Nor was he lefs afliduous 
in laying a folid foundation in the modern and oriental lan- 
guages, hiltory, and antiquities. He obtained the degree 
of dogtor in theology, and in 1745 took prielt’s orders at 
his monaftery. He alfo undertook the profefforfhip of ec- 
clefiaftical law at the fchool belonging to the monattery, 
which was frequented by the young nobility from Auttria ; 
an office which he difcharged for forty years. He was 
about the fame time made dean of the higher fchools, and 
regent of the young nobility. His general knowledge of 
the law rendered him a fit perfon to be confulted in regard 
to law-{uits; and, ona fimilar account, he was appointed 
“¢ Notarius Apoftolicus in Curia Romana.” As his high 
reputation brought mauy fludents to Kremfmuntter, he did 
not confine himielf to the public hours of teaching, but re- 
peated his leétures privately, and was always ready to affift 
his hearers, and to give them every explanation in his power. 
Notwithitanding his diligence and zeal in the way of educa- 
tion, it was not on thisthat his fame was built ; but his at- 
tachment to aftronomy rendered him moit confpicuous, and 
known in foreign countries. His uncle, Alexander, re- 
folved, in the year 1747, to found an eftablifhment in his 

_ monattery, for the purpofe of difleminating mathematical 
knowledge. With this view, he fitted up an apartment to 
contain the neceffary inftruments, and for making experi- 
ments‘of every kind. He alfo caufed an obfervatory to be 
built in his garden, and in the courfe of time Fixlmillner 
was appointed aftronomer, retaining at the fame time his 
office as profeflor of the ecclefiaftical law. His application 
to the ftudy of this fcience was fo intenfe, that he made the 
moft rapid progrefs in it, and publifhed feveral works, in a 
few years, of great merit. His fervice, however, to prac- 
tical aftronomy confiits chiefly in his having made and col- 
© Vous XIV. , 


FIZ 


le€ted, at the defire of Lalande, a great many obfervations 
on Mercury, and thereby enabled the French aftronomer te 
conftruéct his tables of that planet. This fervice Lalande 
publickly acknowledged, and likewife inferted his obferva- 
tious in the fupplemental volume to his aftronomy. Fixl- 
millner was alfo one of the frft aftronomers who calculated 
the orbit of the Herfchel planet, and conftruGted the tables 
which were adapted to it. He was the perfon who proved 
the truth of profeffor Bode’s conjecture, that the ‘thirty- 
fourth ftar of Taurus, obferved by Flamftead in the 
1690, was the new planet; and by applying Fla 
obfervations to calculation, he produced a theory which 
fully agreed with the phenemena of it. It would take us 
much beyond the limits allowed for the article, were we ta 
attempt recording ali that this aétive aftronomer did for his 
favourite feience. He had alfo an uncommon genius for 
mechanics, and inveated many practical helps to obferva- 
tion; fuch as a new micrometer, and a machine for grind- 
ing concentric circles on glaffes with great accuracy. His 
indefatigable induftry injured his health; and he died in 
Auguft, 1791, in the 71# year of his age. He was fimple, 
uniform, ard conftant, like the laws of rature which he 
ftudied and ilinftrated: his chara¢ter difplayed that mildnefs 
and integrity, which rever fail to infpire efteem and love. 
He lived in great harmony with his monaftic brethren ; and 
It was a day of general joy to the whole eftablifhment, when, 
in the year 1788, he celebrated the fiftieth anniverfary of his 
refidence in it. Gen. Biog. 

FIXTELA, in Geography, a town of Morocco, 4 miles 
from Tefza, 

PIZES, Anruony, in Biography, an eminent phyfician 
of Montpellier, was the fon of Nicholas Fizes, profeffor of 
mathematics in that univerfity, and was born in the year 
1690. He received his early education entirely from his 
father, who deftined him his tucceffor in the mathematical 
chair. But in the courfe of his attendance in the clafles of 
the college, he acquired a great difpofition te the ftudy of 
medicine, which he purfued with fo much ardour and ad- 
vantage, that his father was induced to yield to his folicita- 
tions; and, notwithtanding the mediocrity of his income, 
fent Anthony to complete his medical education at Paris, 
under the tuition of Du Verney, Lemery, aud the twa 
Meflis. De Juffieu. On his return to Montpellier, he em- 
ployed himfelf in obferving difeafes in the hc (pital de la 
Charité, and in public teaching. On the death of his fa- 
ther, he was appointed joint profeffor of mathematics with 
M. De Clapiers, and foon became his fole fucceffor. He 
held the mathematical chair until the labours of his medical 
courfe, and the extenfion of his practice, compelled him ta 
refign it. In 1732, the medical profefforfhip in the uni- 
verfity became vacant by the refignation of M. Deidier, and 
Fizes was eleéted his fucceffor. He fulfilled the duties of 
this chair with great propriety, but with lite eclat. It 
was in the practice of his profeffion that his fuperiority was 
particularly confpicuous, for he poffeffed an extraordinary 
talent for obfervation. Being endowed likewife with a 
found judgment, and an uncommon memory, he appreciated 
at once the charaGter of the moft complicated difeafe; and 
was above all admired for the accuracy of his pragnoftics. 
Thefe qualitications placed him at the head ef his profefiion 
at Montpellier: his Eine extended to the metropolis, and 
he was invited to the office of phyfician to the duke of 
Orleans, His age was now, however, advanced ; and the 
fear of the jealoufy which this high appointment might 
produce among his brethren, led him to make fome efforts 
to be permitted to decline this honour. He removed to 
Paris, neverthelefs ; but, unnfed to the intrigues, and rail- 


4G leries, 


FLA 


leries, and cabals of a court, he was unhappy m his fitua- 
tion: his health began to fail, aud he was induced to re- 

ueft permiffion to refign his office, and returned to Mont- 
‘pellier, after refiding fourteen months at Paris, honoured 
with the proteétion of the prince, and the friendfhip of M. 
Senac, Aftruc, Bordeu, &c. He was acetfed of a little 
‘mifanthropy on this occafion; but he was an enemy to 
adulation and felfifhnefs, and feemed to revolt from every 
{pecies of artificial politenefs. He refumed the functions 
ef his profefforfhip at Montpellier, but for a fhort period ; 
for he was carried off by a malignant fever in the courfe of 
three days, and died on the 14th of Auguft, 1765, aged 
about 75 years. His works were principally eflays on dif- 
ferent points of theory and prattice: 1. “ De Hominis 
Liene fano,”’ Montpellier, 17163 2. “ De naturali Secre- 
tione Bilis in Jecore,” ibid. 1719 ; 3. Specimen de Sup- 
paratione in Partibus mollibus,” ibid. 17225 4. “ Partium 
Corporis humani Solidarum Confpectus Anatomico-Me- 
chanicus,” ibid. 1729; ° 5. “ De Cataraéta;” 6. “ Uni- 
verfe Phyfiolegie Contpeétus,” ibid. 3 7G ie ee 
Tumoribus in Genere,”’ ibid. 1738; 8. “ Traétatus de 
¥ebribus,” ibid. 1749. The greater part of the writings 
of Fizes were colleéted in one quarto volume, and were pub- 
Yfhed at Montpellier in 1742. Eloy. 

FLABELLUM, in Leckfiaftical Hifory, the flapper 
or fan which was heretofore ufed in the Latin, es it is {till 
in the Greek church, to keep off flies from the prieft and 
the altar, during divine fervice. At prefent it is only ufed 
in the Latin church, in the folemn proceflions of the pope, 
when two attendants carry enormous large flabella or fans, 
made of peacock’s feathers, and fixed on poles, one on each 
fide of the chair in which the pope is carried, to drive away 
flies, and to keep off the rays of the fun.—This was alfo 
one of the names of the vane or weather-ceck, on the top 
of a church, as we learn from the following paflage in the 
Annales Wintonienfes: ‘* Anno 1248, cecidit flabellum de 
turri S. Swithuni, quando clafficum vefpertinum pulfabatur, 
et fere contrivit Joannem Monachum.” 

FLACCIDITY, in Medicine, &c. a diforder of the 
fibres or folid parts of the body, oppefite to rigidity. 

FLACCOURT, F. Dz, in Biography, direttor-general 
of the French Eaft India company, ¢ anded, in 1648, 
an expedition to the ifland of Madagafcar, where he con- 
tinned feveral years; and, during his refidence there, he 
drew up a particular hiftory of the country, which he printed 
in one volume quarto, with plates defigned by himfcif, and 
dedicated to the fuperintendant Fouquet.. Nouv. Dict. 
Hilt. See FLacourTia. 

FLACCUS, C. Vaverivs, a Roman poet, who 
flourifhed in the reign of Velpafian, and died at an early age, 
in the time of Domitian. From an epigram in Martial, it 
fhould feem that he was in no affuent condition; for he ad- 
vifed him as a friend to quit the mufes for the more gainful 
purfuits of the forum. The work on which his fame refts 
as a poet is entitled “¢ Argonauticon,”” ia eight books. It 
is in imitation of the Greek poem cf Apollonius Rhodius 
on the fame fubje&t, and may rank among the nioft refpec&- 
able of the Latin epics after the A®neid, the manner and ftyle 
of which he aims at copying. ‘The bet edition of it is that 
of Burmann, 1724, in 4to. It contains fublime and fplen- 
did paflages, and is free from the bombait and extravagauce 
of moft of the fecond race of Latin poets; but it is in 
general deficient in poetical {pirit, and is kewife wanting in 
plan and contrivance. Rom. Hilt. 

Friaccus, a Roman mufician, who fet the comedies of 
Terence to mufic. 


FLACHSTADT, in Geography, a {mall iNand in the 


1727: 


rir sz 


North fea, about 40 miles from the coaft of Norway N- 
lat. 68°. 

FLACIUS, or Fraxcowirz, Marruias, in Bios 
graphy, was born at Albona in Ltna, in the year 1520. 
His father, who was a literary man, undertook the educa- 
tion of his fon ; but dying while the youth was quite young, 
he fell into hands who were either incapable of affording 
him affillanee, or negligent of the charge committed to 
their care. But by his own application, and fome occa- 
fional affiance which he received from a learned Italian, he 
made confiderable progrefs in claffical literature and the 
belles lettres. He went to Venice, and ftudied under Bap- 
tifta Egnatius; and when he was but 17 years of age, he 
felt a {trong inclination for theological purfuits, and, from 
his {traightened cireumftances, was defirous of entering a 
monaftery; but he was diffuaded from the plan, and went 
to Bafil, where he {tudied fome months, and embraced the 
opinions of the reformers. From Bafil he proceeded ta 
Tubingen, where he received the initructions of the cele- 
brated Camerarius ; and in 1541, he became the difciple of 
Luther and MelanCthon, the latter of whom gave him ver 
fub{tantial proofs of his regard and liberality. After he had 
taken his degree, he married, and was appointed publie 
profeffor of Wittemberg. During the war between the 
confederate proteftants and the emperor Charles V., the 
{cholars were difperfed from the Saxon feminaries,- and 
Flacius went to Brunfwick, where he obtained a high re- 
putation by his lectures; and upon the termination of hof- 
tilities in 1547, he returned to Wittemberg, to refume his 
former fituation in that yniverfity. In the year 1548, a 
controverly took place among the followers of Luther, ia 
which Flacius futtained a leadiag payt, and difplayed much 
bigotry and intolerance. It originated in the debates among 
the Saxon divines concerning the expediency of fubmitting 
to the famous edict of Charles V., called the interim. Me= 
lan&thon aad others concurred-in the opinion, that in mat- 
ters of an indifferent nature compliance was due to the im- 
perial edigts; and in this clafs they placed many things 
which had appeared of the highelt importance to Luther, 
among whita were the doétrine of juftification by faith 
alone, the neceflity of good works to falvation, the number 
of the facraments, extreme undtion, and certain rites and 
ceremonies relative to church difcipline. On the other 
hand, the defenders of the primitive doétrines of Luther- 
anifm, with Flacius at their head, attacked with much bit: 
ternefs and fury thele accommodating divines, and aecufed 
them of apoitacy from the true religion. Among other 
abfurd notions which Flacius, in the heat of argument, 
avowed, was this, that original fin was not an accident, but 
the very /ui/lance of human nature. The’odium which he 
excited by embracing this ftrange notion, rendered it necef- 
fary that he fhould relinquifha profefforthip at Jena, which 
he had held five years: he accordingly withdrew to Ratif= 
bon, where he continued to publith many books. In the 
year 1567, he was invited, with fome other Lutheran 
miniiters, to Brabant, to model fome churches in that 
country on the principles of the Aug{burg confeffion ; but 
they were foon difperfed by the bloody perfecution under 
the duke of Alva, shen he removed to Strafbourg, and 
afterwards to Frankfort on the Maine.. The number of his 
adherents had greatly declined in Germany; and he died in 
1575» when he had completed the 55th year of his age. 
He was a man of excellent talents, great learning, and 
overbearing zeal againit popery ; but his turbulent, factious, 
and quarrelfome temper rendered his good qualities of little 
avail. He was author of many works, which are enume- 
rated at large by Moreri: the principal are, ‘¢Clavis Sacre 

1 Scripture,?? 


His 


Scripture,”’ in 2 vols.; and “ Centuriz Ecclefiaftiow Hif- 
torie Magdeburgenfes,”? in 3 vols. folio. Moreri. Bayle. 

FLACOURTIA, in Botany, fo named by L’Heritier, 
im memory of Stephen de Flacourt, a native of Orleans, fu- 
perintendant of a colony for fome time eflablifhed by the 
French in Madagafcar, and author of an account of that 
ifland, publithed in quarto at Paris in 1658, and at Troyes 
in 1661. He was the firft who gave a hiftory of the mch 
natural produtions of that country, and though, as Haller 
obferves, not a deep naturalift, he was certainly not defli- 
tute of obfervation. He defcribes many new and rare 
plants, efpecially {wch as are ufeful for food, giving figures 
of the Ieavesonly. L’Herit. Stirp. Nov. 59. Schreb. 702. 
Mart. Mill. Did. v.2. Ait. H. Kew. v. 3. 413. Juff.2gt. 
Clafs and order, Dioecia Polyandria, Dryander. D. Ico- 
JSandria, L?Herit. Nat. Ord. Tihacee, Julf. 

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, in five or 
more deep; roundifh, obtufe, nearly equal, afcending feg- 
ments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments ::umerous, from 50 
to 1co, rather longer than the calyx, capillary, fpreading, 
equal, inferted into a central hemifpherical receptacle ; 
authers roundifh, of two cells. Pi/?. wanting, though 
fometimes the abortive rudiments of one are difcernible. 

Female, Ca/. Perianth inferior, of five or more roundifh, 
ere@t, clofed leaves, downy on their infide. Cor. none. 
Stam. none. iff. Germen fuperior, ovate, feffile, rather 
longer than the calyx ; ftyle none; ftigma ftellated, of from 
five to nine fpreading, oblong, obtufe, furrowed rays. 
Peric. Berry globular, becoming angular by drying, um- 
bilicated, of many cells. Seeds two in each cell, one over 
the other, obovate, compreffed, with a furrow on the up- 

r edge. 

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla 
none. Stamens very numerous. 

Female, Calyx of feveral leaves. Corollanone. Stigma 
radiated. Berry fuperior, of many cells. Seeds in pairs. 

F. Ramonicht is the only known fpecies. L’Herit. 
Stirp. Nov. 59. t. 30. Lamarck t. 826. Native of Ma- 
dagafcar, where, according to Flacourt, it is called d/a- 
moton, and according to Poivre Ramontchi. This isa /brub 
eight or ten feet high Branches {preading, alternate, 
round, fmooth, leafy, dotted, armed with ftraight lateral 
{pines. Leaves alternate, on fhort downy ftalks, {preading, 
ovate, acute, {mooth, veiny, with many fhallow ferratures, 
often purplifh at the edges. Stipulas none. J/owers {mall, 
few, in terminal clufters ; the male ones chiefly confpicuous 
by their yellow anthers; the female appearing before the 
frefh leaves come out. J°rvit like a fmall plum, at firft 
green, then of a fine red, and finally of a deep violet, {weet 
and eatable, but teaving a flight acrimony in the mouth. 
Seeds bitterifh, like the kernel of acherry. An ifland on 
the coaft of Madagafcar, 10 leagues to the fouth of Foul 
point, was named by the French i/fe aux prunes, plum 
land, becaufe they found it covered with bufhes of Ra- 
montchi. ; 

Propagation and Culture—This thrub flowers in our 
ftoves in June ard July, but has not yet produced any fruit. 
L?Heritier fays both fexes bloffomed at Paris, where the 
plant was kept in the green-houfe, but he had never hap- 
pened to fee them both in one fummer. It is propagated 
by cuttings or layers, but has little beauty or utility to re- 
commend it to our care in this country. 

FLADABUNA, in Gengraphy, a fmall ifland near the 
N.W. coatt of Scotland ; 7 miles N. from the ifle of Skye. 
N. lat. 57° 42’. W. long. 6° 19’. 


FLADDA, a {mall iland of Spotland, near the N.E. 


FLA 


coalt of the ifland of Skye. N. lat. 57° 37’. W. long. 6° 8! 
—Alfo, a fmall ifand of Scotland, one of the Trefhannifh 
iflands, weft of that of Mull. N. lat. 56° 32'. W. long. 
6° 24. 

Fiavpa Jffes, three fmalfifiands among the weftern 
iflands of Scotland, about 1 mile W. from the ifland of 
Sandera. N. lat. 56° 52'. W.long. 7° 32! 

FLADHUNA, au inconfiderable ifland of Scotland, ta 
the north of Hunifh, not far from Skye, and at fome dif- 
tance from the coa{t, which was formerly inhabited. In its 
vicinity are fix or feven rocks, one of which iz about 300 
paces in circuit, and flat on the fummit, with a deep well 
in it. 

FLADSTRAND, a fea-port town of Denmark, ia 
North Jutland, and diocefe of Aalborg, on the ealt coaft, 
with a harbour defended by three forts. The chief employ- 
ment .of the inhabitants is fifhing; 30 miles N.N.E, of 
Aalborg. N. lat..57° 27'. E. long. 10° 32’. 

FLADUNGEN, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric 
of Wurzburg; 40 miles N.of Wurzburg. N. lat. 50° 35. 
E. long. 10° 20!. 

FLAG, a general name, including colours, ftandards, 
ancients, banners, enfigns, &c. which authors frequently 
confound with each other. 

The fafhion of bearing the flags pointed or triangular, 
which now obtains, Roderic. Toletanus affures us, came . 
from the Mahometan Arabs or Saracens, upon their feizing 
of Spain, before which time all the enfigns of war were 
{quate, ftretched, ov extended, on crofs pieces of wood, 
like church-banners; on which account they were called in 
Latin vexilla, q.¢. velille, a veli diminutione, as ts remarked. 
by Ifidore. 

The pirates of Algiers, and thofe throughout the coalt 
of Barbary, are the only people who bear an hexagonal flag. 
It is gules, charged with a Morefk head, coifed ‘with its 
turban, &c. though this be exprefsly contrary to their law, 
which prehibits the making any image or reprefentation of 
a man, founded on an opinion, that they who make them 
fhall be obliged at the day of judgment to find fouls for 
them, and that in defect hereof they fhallbe damned. But 
this portrait which they carry is that of Hali, Mahomet’s 
fon-in-law, to whofe party the Africans all retain, who or- 
dered that his efigy fhould be expreffed on their flags and 
ftandards, believing himfelf fo formidable to the Chriftians, ° 
that the bare fight of his image would carry undoubted vie 
tory over them. Leunclavius. 

Fiacs, in the Ailitary Art, are {mall banners of df. 
tinGion ftuck in the baggage-waggons of the army, to dif- 
tinguifh the baggage of one brigade from another, and of 
one battalion from another, that they may be marfhalled by 
the waggon-matter-general, according to the rank of their 
bngades, to avoid the confufion that otherwife might arif@. 
See Corours and SranpDarps. 

Fac is more particularly ufed in Sea-Language, for the 
colours, ancients, flandards, &c. born on the top of the 
mafts of veflels,-to notify the quality ef the perfon whe 
cominands the fhip, of what nation it is, and whether it be 
equipped for war or trade. 

In the Britife navy flags are either red, white, or blue, 
and are difplayed from the top of the maintmaft, fore-matt, 
or mizen-matt, according to the rank of the admiral. The 
firft flag in Great Britain is the royal ftandatd, which is 
only to be hoifted when the king or queen are aboard the 
veflel. The fecond is that of the anchor of hope,’ which 
chara@erifes the lord high admiral, or lords commiffioners 
of the admwalty ; avd the third is: the yaion flag, ia whieh 

4G2 lee 


FLA 


mioic Loricatus), that in fix days Ke could difcharge an en- 
tire century, by a whipping of three hundred thoufand 
itripes. His example was followed by many penitents of 
both fexes ; and as a vicarious facritice was accepted, a flur- 
dy difciplinarian might expiate on his own back the fins of 
his benefactors, ‘Chefe compenfations of the purfe and the 
perfon, introduced, in the rrth century, amore honourable 
mode of fatisfaction, the merit of military fervice, which 
was followed by-the croifades. See Croisapes, Disci- 
PLINE, INDULGENCE, and PENANCE. 

The parliament of Paris prohibited all public flagellations 
by an arretof 1691. See Fracevianrss. 

FLaGeLiarion isa term more peculiarly appropriated 
to the fufferings of Jefus Chrilt, when whipped and f{eourged 
by the Jews; -from the Latin, flagellem, a@ fcourge, or 
whip. 

We fay, a painting of the flagellation ; or fimply, a fla- 
gellation, to denote a picture or print reprefenting this tor- 
ment inflicted on the faviour of the world. 

In this fenfe we fay the flagellation of fuch a painter, 
&e. 

Fraceirarion, [eaft of. See Diamasricosis. 

FLAGELLIFORMIS Cauuis, in Botany, a long 
and pliant ftem as in Periploca greca, and many other plants. 
See Cautts, where this term is accidentally omitted. The 
common jafmine is a good example of it. 

FLAGEOLET,a Frajover, a kind of little flute; or 
a mufical inftrument of the flute kind, ufed chiefly by fhep- 
herds and country people. 

It is ufually made of box, or fome other hard wood, 
fometimes of ivory. It has fix holes or ftops, befides 
that at bottom, the mouth-piece, and that behind the 
neck. 

The ambit of the flageolet, according to the fcale exhi- 
bited by Merfennus, is two o@taves from g /ol re ut up- 
wards. 

FLAHERTI, Roperic, in Biography, an Irifh anti- 
quarian and hiftorian, who publifhed at London, A. D. 
1685, a book under the fingular ard mytftic title of ** Ogy- 
gia, or Rerum Hibernicarum Chronologia,”’ containing chro- 
nological memoirs upon the antiquities of the kingdom of 
Treland ; compiled, as he obferves, ‘ex pervetuftis monu- 
mentis fideliter inter fe collatis eruta, atque e facris et pro- 
fanis litteris primarum orbis gentium, tam genealogicis, 
quam chronologicis fuffulta prefidiis.”? ‘This work, a quar- 
to volume containing about 600 page, he dedicated to the 
then duke of York, afterwards king James II. of England. 
Theauthor commences his hiftory from the deluge, conti- 
nues it to the year of Chrift 428, and has divided it into 
three parts. he firft defcribes the iffand, its various names, 
inhabitants, extent, kings, the-manner of their annual elec- 
tion, &c. The fecondis akind of chrovological parallel of 
the Irifh affairs with the events that happened during the 
fame period in other countries. The third isa more ample 
detail of particular tranfactions,in the fame. k:ngdom. ‘To 
this is added a profeffedly exa&t chronological table of all 
the Chriftian kings who have ruled over Ireland, from A.D. 
482 till A. D. 1022 ; anda brief relation of the moft pro- 
minent hifleric features of the ifland, till the time of Charles 
Ul. in 1685. Tothis fucceeds a chronological poem, which 
forms a fummary of Irifh hiftory to tne fame period. At 
the end is avery curious catalogue of the Scottifh kings, 
Iuifh, who have reigned in the Britifh ifles. 
logical remarks on the regal houfe of the Stewarts, the 
author attempts to prove they were originally an Inifh family. 
Tt is furprifing, that neither the author nor his work has. 


been noticed by Macpherfon or Whitaker in their-contro-: 


In his genea- 


FLA 


verfy refpe@ting the peopling of Hibernia, and the origin’ 
of the Caledonians ; although he is particularly noticed by 
O’Hallaran in his Hiftory of Ireland. See Moreri, Grand 
Dis. Hit. 

FLAIL, in Rural Economy, a well known implement 
or tool made ufe of in threfhing different forts of corn. It 
confifts of a hand-ftaff, anda {hort beating part, whieh are 
attached to each other by a ftrong thong of leather, pafling 
through loops or ftaples fixed on the ends of the different 
pieces. Since the introdu€tion of machines for threfhing, 
the flail method has been much lefa had_recourfe to, except 
upou farms of fmall extent, as being more laborious and 
troublefome, and lefs expeditious in the execution ef the 
work. See TuresuinG Machine. 

FLAIR, in Sea Language. The feamen fay that the~ 
work doth flair-over, when a fhip being houfed in near the 
water, fo that the works hang over a little too much, and 
thus is Iet out broader aloft than the due proportion will 
allow. 

Frarrs, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to the 
fkate, a{pecies of raja. 

The ancient Greeks called this datos, when they {poke 
of the male, and of the female, datis. 

FLAKE, in the Cod-fifhery, a fort of feaffold or plat- 
form, made of hurdles, and fupported by. ftanchions, and ufed 
for drying cod-fifh in Newfoundland. Thefe flakes are 
ufually placed near the fhores of fifhing-harbours. See 
FisHery. 

Friaxe, in Gardening, a name gived by florifts to thofe 
flowers of the carnation kind which have only two colours, 
es very large {tripes, all of which go quite through the 
eaves. 

Fraxe, White, in Painting, is lead corroded by means of 
the prefling of grapes, or a cerufe prepared by the acid of 
grapes. It is brought here from Italy, and far furpaffes, 
both with regard to the purity of its whitnefs and the cer- 
tainty of its {tanding, all the cerufe or white lead made with 
usincommon. It is ufed in oil and varnifh painting, for 
all purpofes where a very clean white is required. The 
white flake fhould be procured in lumps as it is brought 
over, and levigated by thofe who ule it, becaufe that which 
the colourmen fell in a prepared ftate is levigated and mixed’ 
up with itarch, and often with white lead, and worfe fophif- 
tications. t 

FLAMANT, or Framineéo, in Ornithology. 
Puoenrcorprerus ruber. 

FLAMANVILLE, in Geography, a fea-port town of 
France, in the department of the Channel, with a good 
harbour, ro miles S.W. of Cherburg, ; 

FLAMBEAU, or Framsoy, a luminary made of fe- 
veral thick wicks, covered over with wax, ferving to burn 
at night in the ftreets ; as alfoat funeral proceffions, illu- 
minations, &c. 

Flambeaux differ from links, torehes, and tapers. See 
Torcu. 

They are made fquare, fometimes of white wax, and 
fometimes of yellow; they ufually confift of four wicks 
or branches near an inch thick, and about three feet long, 
made of a fort of coarfe hempen yarn, half twifted. They 
are made with the ladle, much as torches or tapers are, 
viz. by firlt pouring the melted wax on the top of the feve-' 
ral fufpended wicks, and letting it run down to the bottom ; 
this they repeat twice. Atter each wick has thus got its 
preper cover of wax, they lay them to dry; then roll them 
on the table, and fo join four of them together by means of 
ared-hotiron, ~ ; 

“When joined, they pour on more wax til the flambeais) 
18 


See 


‘ FLA 


is brought to the fize required, which is ufually from a 
pound anda half to three pounds. 

The laft thing is to finith their form or outfide, which 
they do with a kind of polithing inftrument of wood, by 
running it along all the angles formed by the union of the 
branches. ; 

The flambeaux of the ancients were different from ours. 
They were made of woods, dried in furnaces, or othere 
wife. They ufed divers kinds of woods for this purpofe ; 
the wood moft ufual was pine. Pliny feys, that in his time 
they frequently alfo burnt oak, elm, and hazle. In the fe- 
venth book of the AEneid, mention is made of a flambeau of 
pine; and Servius, on that paflaze, remarks, that they alfo 
made them of the cornel tree. 

FLAMBO, in Natural Hifory, a name given by fome 
to a long anguilliform fifth, called cavagiro. See CEPoLa 
tenia. 

FLAMBOROUGH, in Geography, a townfhip of 
England, in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, on the coatt of 
the German fea, containing about 730 inhabitants ; 3 
miles N. of Burlington. : 

FramsBoroucu Head, a lofty cape or promontory of 
England, on the E. coaft of the county of York. N. lat. 
54° 8’. W. long. 0° 2!. 

This promontory is formed of lime-ftone of a fnowy 
whitenels, and ftupendous height, vifible far offat fea. A 
light-houfe has been lately erected on this head, in which is 
exhibited a triangular revolving light, diftinguifhed from 
the revolving lights of Tinmouth and Cromer by fhewing a 
face every two minutes, one of them being coloured 
red. 

FLamsBorouGH, a factory of the Hudfon bay company, 
on the fouth-wettern fide of Hndfon bay. 

FiamporouGn, a townfhip in Upper Canada, diftin- 
guifhed by E.and W. Flamborough, in the Weft Riding of 

_the county of York, and lying W. of the Miffafaga lands, 
and fronting Dundas ftreet. 

FLAME, (famma, Latin,) is the aGiual burning, attended 
with heat and light, of a volatile combuttible fubftance ; and 
this fubftance may be either a comminuted folid, (viz. a 
powder,) or a vapour, or a gas. 

The powder of rofin, and of other brittle refinous bodies, 
the farina of feveral plants, and fome other powdered 
combuttibles, when projected through the flame of a can- 
dle, or of a piece of burning paper, inftantly take fire, and 
the flame fpreads through the whole powdery cloud. 
Powders of this fort are uled at the: play-houfes for repre- 
fenting a flafh of lightning or other fudden light. Pow- 
dered rofin, and the powder of lycopodium, have been 
found to produce this effe& equally well; yet the latter, 
when it may be procured, is by far preferable to the former, 
and that on account ofits being an unadhefive light powder, 
eafily brufhed off from any thing, whereas the powdered 
rofin flicks to, and foils every thing that it happens to fall 
upon. ; 

The vapcur of certain inflammable fluids, fuch as fpirit 
of wine, ether, f{pirit of turpentine, &c, are inftantly in- 
flamed by the contaét of a candle, or other flaming body, or 
by a {park of eleGtricity, and continue to burn as long as 
there. is a fufficient fupply of it. ss 

_ The inflammable gafes, when they are extricated either 
by the action of heat, or otherwife, from fubftances that 
contain them, may alfo be inflamed, and will burn in a fimi- 
ar manner. ‘Thus, if iron filings and diluted fulphuric acid 
be placed in a bottle, an effervefcence takes place, together 
with a copious prodution of hydrogen gas, which comes 
outina ftream from the aperture of the bottle, and it may 


FLA 


be inflamed either by alighted candle, paper, weod, &c. or 
by paffing an eleGtric fpark through it. Thus alfo, when 
coals are lishted ina common fire, the heat foftens their bi- 
tuminous parts, and expels the inflammable gafes, which 
burn and conftitute the flame, as every body muft daily ex- 
perience. But befides the inflammable gafes, heat expels 
from coals an aqueous vapour, a thick fluid like tar, and 
fome gafes that are not of a combuftible nature, and thofe 
products are neither equal nor conflant, that is, fometimes 
fome of them predominate, and fometimes the other. The 
confequence of which is, that the flame of coals is conti- 
nually wavering both in fhape and intenfity of colour. It 
frequently fhifts from one place to another, and what gave 
a beautiful white light a few feconds before, has become a 
ftream of denfe and dark fmoke. It may be hardly worth 
obferving that the changeable inclination of the flame is 
owing to the motion of the air, which runs towards the fire 
in various dire€tions. 

The like thing takes place in the combuftion of wood, 
and vegetable matter gn general. The heat extricates the 
volatile and inflammable materials which take fire, and pro- 
duce the flame. 

In the combuftion of charcoal, and of coak, (viz. charred 
mineral coal,) the flame and the {moke are very trifling, be- 
caufe the operation of charring has previoufly expelled from 
thofe materials a great portion of their volatile ingre- 
dients. 

With refpe& to the procefs of the combuftion, the fame 
requifites are neceflary with the combufticn of volatile fub- 
ftances, which produce the flame, as with the combuitioa 
of folids ; viz. the combuitible muft be heated to a certain 
degree, a fire muft be communicated, and the combuition 
can only take place in contaét with oxygen gas, or with 
fubftances which contain oxygen. See Combustion. 

Thus, we have given a general fetch of the nature of 
flame ; but there are feveral remarkable particulars belonging 
to every part of the above-mentioned procefs, which are 
highly deferving of notice, and which, of courfe, we fhzll 
now endeavour to point out fucceflively. 

The purpofes for which mankind employs fires, or com- 
buition in general, are either for the ufe of the heat, or for 
the ufe of the light. The heat 1s fubfervient to the nume- 


ings 


ore = 
The licht is fub- 


of night. Were it not for artificial light, how great a por- 
tion of the advantages of indultry, and of real comfort, 
would the human fpecies be deprived of. 

When heat is wanted, then rough folid combuftibles are 
ufed, which give it in abundance, and at a cheap rate; but 
when light is wanted, then the pureft'and the molt uni- 
form combuttibles mult be ufed, otherwife an inadequ 
effet is produced, and a confiderable quantity of n 
is expended. In fome uncivilized countries, flender f 
of fome kind of reftnous wood are ufed by way of candle 
When lighted at one end they burm gradually, and afford a 
good deal of light, butit is unfteady, and encumbered with a 
good deal of fmoke: Befties, thefe faggots are readily 
burnt out, and rault be quickly replaced by new ones. 

At prefent, in all civilized countries, the principal com- 


buftibles 


FLAME, 


buftibles that are wfed for the production of a bright and 
luminous flame, are wax, the fat of animals, under the 
general name of tallow, oil, either of fifh or of vegetables, 
and the inflammable gas of coals, which has but lately been 
introduced, at leaft in this country. The extenfive con- 
fumption of thefe materials, and the fucceffive increafe of 
their price, has obliged the induftrious to devife the belt 
means of producing the greateit effect with the leait poflible 
quantity of materials. : 

Wax, tallow, and oils muft be rendered volatile before 
they will produce a flame, but for this purpofe it is fufli- 
cient to volatilize a {mall quantity of any of them, fuc- 
ceflively ; for this {mall quantity will fuffice to give a uleful 
flame, and hence we muit admire the fimple, yet wonderful 
contrivance of a common candle or lamp. This con- 
trivance contains a confiderable quantity of the combuttible 
fuibftance, fufficient to laft feveral hours; it has lkewife, 
in a particular place, a flender piece of fpongy vegetable fub- 
ftarice, called the qwict, which in fact is the fire place, or 
laboratory where the whole operation 1s condu@ed. The 
wick which, in the formation of the candle, or preparation 
of the lamp, has been partly or entirely foaked in the wax, 
or-tallow, .or oil, is fet fire to by the approach of fome 
other fubftance actually burning ; this heat renders volatile 
and inflames that part of the wax, oil, &c. which is in the 
wick, and at the {ame time foftens that which is next to it ; 
the firft portion of the wax, &c. being thus confumed, the 
wick is, in confequence of its capillary attraction, enabled 
to imbibe more materials for the maintenance of the flame, 
and fo on in fucceffion-antil the whole is exhautted. 

Tkere is a circumitance frequently attending the firft 
lighting of a candle, which demands a fhort explanation in 
this place. It is, that at firft the candle fometimes burns 

dimly, and looks as if it would go out. The method of 
reviving the flame in fuch cafes is to lift up the candle per 
pendicularly with a quick motion, three or four.times fue- 
-ceffively, which immediately revives the light. The reafon 
of the tirft dimnefs is that the wax or tallow, by being too 
cold or too hard, is not melted by the combuttion of that 
{mall portion which is in the wick, and of courfe cannot 
fupply the waite of the wick ; but by the lifting up of the 
candle, the air beats down the flame upon the wax or tallow 
adjoining to the wick, which melts it, and enables it to run 
up.into the pores of the wick, where it is rendered volatile, 
and is inflamed, &c. ; 

That part of the combuftible which is fuccefflively ren- 
dered volatile by the heat of the flame is not all burnt, but 
part of it efcapes in the form of fmoke through the middle 
of the flame, becaufe that part cannot come in contact with 
the oxygen of the furrounding atmofphere; hence it 
follows, that with a large wick and a large flame, this wafte 
of combuttible matter is proportionately much greater than 
with a fmall wick anda {mall fame. In faét, when the wick 
is not greater than a fingle thread of cotton, the flame, 
though very {mall, is, however, peculiarly bright, and free 
from ftnoke ; whereas in lamps with a very large wick, fuch 
as are often fufpended before butcher’s fhops, or with thofe 
of the lamp lighters, the {moke is very offenfive, and in 
great meafure eclipfes the light of the flame, 

In order to avoid this inconvenience, the ingenious Mr. 
Argand made that famous contrivance of a lamp, which 
now juftly goes by hisname. He made the burner or wick 
thin and circular, with a free paflage for the air through 
the middle. In this conftru€tion a very thin and circular 
flame comes in conta&t with a vaft quantity of air both 
within and without the circle, in confequence of which none 
@f the volatilized oil efcapes without burning, and the flame 


is very brilliant and a&tive. “This fhews the reafon of what 
is commonly faid of this lamp, namely, that it confumes its 
ownfmoke. With refpeé& to the original conftru@ion, and 
the fuccefiive improvements of this admirable lamp, we 
mutt refer the reader to the article Lamp. 

Initead of a circular form, the wick has alfo been made . 
thin and oblong butthough this conftru€tion has fome ad- 
vantage over the common lamp, yet it is far inferior to Ar- 
gand’s. A circular eran oblong wick has likewife been 
tried in wax or tallow candles, but the attempts have not 
been attended with any remarkable advantage. 

Another confequence of the want ofoxygen inthe middle of 
the large flame of a lamp or candle, is the formation of a coaly 
concretion at the extremity of the wick. Thisarifes fromthe 
coaly or groffer particles of the combultible which are too 
heavy to become volatile, and at the fame time do not come 
in conta&t with the oxygen which is neceflary for their 
combultion ; hence they accumulate and fpread out fome- 
what like afungus, If the wick be inclined a little, fo that 
the end of it may jult proje& out of the flame, which 
always goes ftraizht upwards ; then no coaly concretion is 
formed. In the lamps which illuminate the ftreets of Lon- 
don, the wick lies: nearly horizontal, in confequence of 
which they feldom contra& any coaly concretion. 

OF the three principal materials for producing a ufeful 
bright flame, viz. wax, tallow andoil, the firft and fecond 
are moftly ufed within doors ia.this country; but the fifh 
oil, the combuttion. of which is attended with an unpleafant 
f{mell, is moftly ufed for ftrect lamps and other out of doors 
purpofes ; excepting indeed when Argand’s lamps are ufed, 
for in thefe the oil gives no bad {mell. Oil of olives burns 
without any offenfive {mell; therefore much ufe is made of 
it for lamps in private houfes in thofe countries where it may 
be had at a cheap rate, as in Italy, the fouth of France, &c. 

Befides the above, a new material has of late been at- 
tempted to be introduced in this country, for the purpofe of 
lighting houfes, ftreets, manufaétories, &c. the material is 
the inflammable gas of coals. Every body mutt know, that 
when coals are burning ina common fire place, a flame more 
or lefs luminuus (according as it is more or lefs encumbered 
with incombuttible {moke and vapour) iffues from them 5 
and they frequently emit fome very beautiful itreams of a 
flame remarkably bright. All this, as we have already 
mentioned, arifes from the gafes which are extricated from 
the coals. by the heat. It was natural to imagine that 
fuch gas might be received in proper refervoirs, and might 
afterwards be forced out of {mall apertures, which being 
lighted might ferve, as the flames of candles, to illuminate 
a room or other place. The trial was eafily made, and it 
was attended with the defired effe€&. The principle of the 
apparatus and of the operation is as follows: The coal is 
placed in large iron veffels, called retorts, to the apertures of 
which iron pipes are adapted, which terminate in a veffel, or 
veffels, called gafometers, or refervoirs, which are inverted in 
water. The retorts thus charged are placed upon the fire, 
the action of which extricates the gas from the coals that are 
within the retorts, together with an aqueous vapour, a 
thickifh fluid, or tar, &c. Thefe produéts are conveyed 
through the above-mentioned pipes under the nee 
where the gas is wafhed, and remains ready for ufe. There 
are then other fmaller pipes from the gafometer, which 
branch out into {maller ramifications, until they terminate 
into the places where the lights are wanted. The extre- 
mities of the pipes have {mall apertures, out of which the 
gas iffues, and the ftrenms being lighted at thofe apertures, 
will burn with a clear and conftant flame as long as the fup- 
ply of gas continues. All the pipes which come from the 


gafometer 


FLAME. 


fometer are furnifhed with ftop-cocks, in order both to 


prevent the ulelefs walte of gas, and to regulate the fizes of. 


the flames. 

’ ‘The method of producing the gas being thus contrived, 
the next ftep was to determine how far fuch lights might be 
employed, confiltently with expence, fafety, &c. A few 
fhops in London were lighted with it, but the ufe was foon 
difcontinued, as it was faid, principally on account of the 
unpleafant {mell. A propofal, and fome attempts were 
made for lighting fome of the ftreets of London by means 
of this coal gas; but cither the mytterious nature of the pro- 
pofals, or the expence attending the operation, or fome other 
caufe of obftrution, has not as yet allowéd the adoption of 
the plan. Other attempts of the like nature have been made 
élfewhere, but of their fuccefles we have no authentic 
account ; excepting however of one, which was laid before 
the Royal Society by the operator, Mr. Murdock, and is 
publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaétions for the’ year 
1808. The precifion with which the particulars are ftated 
in Mr, Murdock’s account, and the effential ufe of which 
fuch ftatements may be to a vaft number of perfons, who 
are now engaged in fimilar examinations in this new branch of 
civil economy, induce us to tranferibe the moft effential part 
of the account in the prefent article ; referving to add what 
future improvements may come to our notice to the articl 
Gas Lights. : 

% Thefe facts and refults, Mr. Murdock fays, were made, 
during the prefent winter, at the cotton, manufaétory - of 
Meffrs. Philips and Lee, at Manchefter, where the light 
obtained by the combultion of the gas from coal is uted 
upon a very large feale; the apparatus for its production 
and application having been prepared by me at the works of 
Meflrs. Boulton, Watt, and Co. at Soho. 

* «The whole of the rooms of this cotton mill, which is, I 
believe, the mofl extenfive in the united kingdom, as well as 
its counting-houfes and {tore-rooms, and the adjacent 
dwelling houfe of Mr. Lee, are lighted with the gas from 
coal. The total quantity of light ufed during the hours of 
burning has been afcertained, by a comparifon of fhadows, 
to be about equal to the light which 2500 mould candles, of 
fix in the pound, would give; each of the candles with 
which the comparifon was made con{uming at the rate of 
4-10ths of an ounce (175 grains) of tallow per hour. — 

«¢ The burners are of two kinds : the one is upon the prin- 
ciple of the Argand lamp, and refembles it in appearance ; 
the other is a {mall curved tube with a conical end, having 
three circular apertures or perforations, of about a thirtieth 
of an inch in diameter, one at the point of the cone, and 
two lateral ones, through which the gas iffues, forming 
three divergent jets of flame, fomewhat like a fleur-de-lis. 
The fhape and general appearance of this tube has procured 
it, among the workmen, the name of the cockfpur 
burner. : ie 

«The number of burners employed in all the buildings 
amounts to 271 Argands, and 633 cock{purs; each of the 
former’ giving a light equal to that of four candles of the 
defcription above-mentioned ; and each of the latter a light 
equal to two and a quarter of the fame candles; makin 
therefore the total of the gas light a little more than aad 
to that of 2500 candles. When thus régulated, the whole 
of the above burners require an hourly fupply of 1250 cubic 
feet of the gas produced from cannel coal ; the fuperior qua- 
lity and quantity of the gas produced from that material 
having given it a decided preference in this fituation over 
every other coal, notwith{tanding its higher price. 

«The time during which the gas light is ufed may, upon 
an average of the whole year, be {lated at leaft at two hours 

Vor. XIV. : 


per day of 24 hours. In fome mills, where there is over 
work, it will be three hours; and in the few where night 
work is ftill continued nearly twelve hours. But taking 
two hours per day as the common average throughout the 
year, the confumption in Meffrs, Philips’ and Lee’s mill will 
be 1250 x 2 = 2500 cubic feet of gas per day; to pro- 
duce which 700 weight of cannel coal is required in the re- 
tort. The price of the beft Wigan cannel. (the fort ufed) 
is 134d. percwt. (22s. 6d. per ton) delivered at the mill, or 
fay about cight shillings for the feven hundred weight. 
Multiplying by the number of working days in the year 
(313), the annual confumption of cannel will be 1:0 tons, 
and its coft 1257. 

« About one-third of the above quantity, or fay forty 
tons of good common coal, value ten flullinge per ton, is 
required for fuel to heat the retorts, the annual amount of 
which is 20/. 

«The 119 tons of cannel coal, when diftilled, produce 
about 70 tons of good coak, which is fold upon.the [pot at 
1s. 4d. per cwt. and will therefore amount annually to the 
fum of 93/. 

“The quantity of tar produced from each ton of cannel 
coalis from 11 to 12 ale gallons, making a total annual pro- 
duce of about i250 ale gallons, which not having been yet 
fold, 1 cannot determine its value. : 

“The intereft of the capital expended in the neceffary 
apparatus and buildings, together with what is confidered 
as anample allowance fer wear and tear, is flated by Mr. 
Lee at about 550/. per annum, in which fome allowance is 
made for this apparatus being made upon a {cale adequate to 
the fupply ofa ftill greater quantity of light, than he has 
occafion to make ufe of, 

“¢ He is of opinion that the coft of attendance upon can- 
dles would be as much, if not more, than upon the gas appa- 
ratus ; fo that, in forming the comparifon, nothing need be 
ftated upon that fcore, on either fide. 

“The economical ftatement for one year, then, ftands 
thus : 


Coft of rro tons of cannel coal - - fis & Toi 
Ditto of 40 tons of common ditto - - 20 

145 
Dedué the value of 70 tons'of coak - 3 


The annual expenditure in coal, after deducting the 
value of the coak, and without allowing any thing 
forthe tar, is therefore 3 - 

And the intereft of capital, and wear and tear of 
apparatus ~ = 3 e 

Making the total expence of the gas apparatus per* 
annum, about - = . Z 


52 
559 


6098 


“¢ That of candles, to give the fame light, would be about 
2000/. For each candle, confuming at the rate of 4-roths 
of an ounce of tallow per hour, the 2500 candles burnings 
upon anaverage of the year, two hours per day, would, at 
one fhilling per pound, the prefent price, amount to nearly 
the fum of money above-mentioned. 

¢¢Tf the comparifon were made upon an average of three 
hours per day, the advantage would be ftill more in favour 
of the gas light. 

‘At firft, fome inconvenience was experienced from the 
{mell of the unconfumed, or imperfeétly purified gas, which, 
may ina great meafure be attributed to the introduction of 
fucceffive improvements in the conitruG@ion of the appa- 
ratus, as the work proceeded. But fince its completion, 
and fince the perfons to whofe care it is confided have be- 

4H some 


FLAME. 


eeme familiar with its management, this inconvenience has 
been obviated, not only in the mill, but alfo in Mr. Lee’s 
houfe, which is moft brilliantly illuminated with it, to the 
exclufion of every other fpecies of artificial light. 

“The peculiar foftnefs and clearnefs of this light, with its 
almoft unvarying intenfity, have brought it into great fa- 
vour with the work-people. And its being free from the 
inconvenience and danger refulting from the {parks and fre- 
quent fnuffing of candles, is a cireumftance of material im- 
portance, as tending to diminifh the hazard of fire, to which 
cotton mills are known to be much expofed.”” 

In the buraing of candles or oil lamps, the heat of the 
flame foftens and attenuates the materials, and converts 
them partly into an elaftic fluid which takes fire fucceffively 
and maintains the flame. In the burning of coals, wood, 
turf, &c. various gafes, as well as vapours, are extricated 
from them, but thefe produéts are not all combuttible ; 
therefore thofe which are not combuftible tend to check the 
activity of the flame which arifes from the combuttion of the 
others. The gafes which are principally extricated from 
the above-mentioned materials are hydrogen gas, azotic 
gas, and carbonic acid gas ; the firft of which only is highly 
inflammable in all its combinations ; and it is hardly ever 
yielded pure by any of the above-mentioned materials. Its 
ufual combinations are either with fulphur, or with carbon, 
er with phofphorus ; hence it derives the denominations of 
fulphurated, carburated, or phofphorated, hydrogen gas. 

The flames of different combuttibles are not all attended 
with an equal production of heat and light. Sulphur burns 
with a weak flame; phofphorus with a very denfe one. 
Spirit of wine burns with a very flight flame in point of 
light, but a very powerful one with refpe& to heat; fo 
that if an Argand lamp be charged with oil, and another 
fimilar lamp be charged with fpirit of wine, the flame of the 
latter will not have a quarter of the light of the other, but 
it gives more than twice as much heat as the other. The 
flame of {pirit of wine is not accompanied with any fmoke. 
The flame of ether is denfer, but produces {moke. The 
flame of {pirit of turpentine is attended with a very denfe 
{moke. ‘The flame of pure hydrogen is very faint. This 
flame of hydrogen produces a remarkable phenomenon, 
which deferves to be mentioned in this place. 

Ifa phial, containing the materials proper for the produc- 
tion of hydrogen gas, (wiz. iron filiags and diluted fulphu- 
ric acid,) be turmifhed with a tube having a finall aperture 
for the exit of a flream of the gas, andit this ttream be 
lighted, a flame will continue to burn at that aperture as 
Jong as the materials continue to give out the gas. Now, ifa 
glafs tube of about an inch in diameter, and about a foot long, 
be held itraight up, with its aperture juft over the above-men- 
tioned flame, a found willbe heard, fomewhat like a delicate 
found of an organ pipe. This found varies according to 
the fize of the tube. No very fatisfaGtory explanation has, 
as'yet, been given of this fingular phenomenon. 

The flames of volatile combnftibles that are more com- 
pound in their nature, vary confiderably with refpe& to the 
intenfities of their heat and light. A curious phenomenon 
takes place in uniting the flames of two candles, viz. the 
light is confiderably increafed. Let a perfon hold two can- 
dles before his face, at firft feparate, and then with their 
flames joined. Upon the junction of the two flames, his 
face will appear much more illuminated than it was before. 
«It is conjectured,” Dr. Prieftley fays, **that the union 
of the two flames produces a greater degree of heat, and 
that this caufes a farther attenuation of the vapour, anda 
rR ga emiflion of the particles ff which light con- 

Se 


The effects which we have juft been ennmerating aré 
fuch as take place in common atmofpheric air. 

The various colours of the flames of fimple and compound. 
bodies are likewife highly deferving the attention of philofo- 
phers. Certain combuttibles, even of the pureft kind, burn 
with flames having peculiar tints ; but much ftronger colours 
may be communicated to their flames by the admixture of 
various fub{tances, efpecially of falts that are of an earthy 


-or metallic nature. 


The flame of a common candle is far from being of an uni- 
form colour. The lowelt part of the flame is always blue ; 
and when the flame is fufficiently elongated, fo as to be 
juft ready to fmoke, the tip is always red. 

As for the colours of flames that arife from coals, wood, 
and other ufual combuftibles, their variety, which hardly 
amounts to a few fhades of red, or purple, intermixed with 
the bright white light, feems principally to arife from the 
greater or lefs admixture of aqueous vapour, denfe fmoke, 
or, in fhert, of other incombuttible produ&ts., 

Spirit of wine burns with a blucifh flame. ‘The flame of 
fulphur has nearly the fame tinge. The flame of zinc is of 
a bright white. The flame of moft of the preparations of 
copper, or of the fub{ftances with which they are mixed, is 
greenifh-blue. Spirit of wine, mixed with common falt, 
burns with a very unpleafant effect, as may be experienced 
by looking at the {fpeGators who are illuminated by fuch 
light. If a f{poonful of fpirit of wine and a little boracic 
acid be {tirred together ina cup, and then be inflamed, the 
flame will be beautifully green. If the f{pirit of wine be 
mixed with a little ftrontian earth in powder, or with any of 
its faline preparations, it will afterwards, on being inflamed, 
burn with a red, or rather purple flame. If the fpirit of 
wine be mixed with barytes, its flame will have a beautiful 
yellowsappearance. Such are the principal means of colouring 
flames, the admixture of various other fubftances will alfo- 
impart fome fhades of colour to flaming bodies, but not 
nearly fo {trong as the above. 

Some years ago an elegant and curious exhibition, under 
the title of “ Philofophical Fire-works,” was fhewn in: 
Loudon by an induftrious foreigner, named Diller. The 
exhibition confilted of the flames of certain gafes or vapours- 
which iffued Gut of a variety of {mall apertures at the ends of 
fhort tubes, which were difpofed in the forms of wheels, 
pyramids, fpirals, tridents, &c. Out of thefe apertures the 
flames were gradually made to increafe and decreafe alter- 
nately ; fo that fometimes the room looked as bright as if it 
were illuminated by the fun, and at other times the flames 
would be barely difcerned. But the moit pleafing effe& 
arofe from the colours of thefe flames, as there were beaua 
tiful greens, yellows, reds, purples, &c. Mr. Diller diedy 
and it feems that he did not leave the fecret of the prepara- 
tions behind him ; forno one has fince been able to exhibit 
any thing equal to thofe philofophical fire-works. The 
f{mell of ether, which predominated in the exhibition room, 
feemed to fhew that Mr. Diller made great ufe of that li- 

uid. 
2 The combuttible vapours and gafes are not all inflamed 
with equal readinefs. Hydregen gas may be inflamed not 
only by the conta& of another flaming body, but even by a 
very {mall ele€tric fpark. An eleétric {park a little more . 
powerful will fire fpirit of wine and ether, efpecially when 
thofe fluids area little warm. Spirit of turpentine, and 
fome effential oils may be inflamed, not only by the above- 
mentioned means, but even by the a@tion of cold acids. 
Put about a {poor ful of oil of turpentine in a cup, and pour 
over it about half that quantity of {trong nitrous acid pre- 
wioufly mixed with a few drops of fulphwric acid. The pr 
© 


FLA 


of turpentine will immediately burft out into a flame merely 
‘Jn confequence of the aétion of the acid. 

The thick fat oils mutt be heated toa confiderable degree, 
and in that ftate a flaming body mutt be brought in contaé 
with their vapour, before they willbe inflamed. Even when 
raifed to a very high temperature, they feldom will of them- 
Selves burit out ina flame. If a veffel containing oil be fet 
upon a fire, a fmoke or vapour begins to rife from it, which 
grows by degrees denfer and denfer ; and at lait it begins to 
fhine in fome places near the furface of the oil, fomewhat 
like an eleGtric light ; yet it does not flame; but if in this 
fate a flaming body, like a candle, amatch, &c. be brought 
within the vapour, the latter will be inftantly inflamed, 
breaking out with a fort of explefion, and will continue to 
burn until the oilis in great mea{ure confumed. 

Betides the ufe of their light, the Aames of candles, and 
efpecially of lamps, are often ufed for the fake of the uni- 
form heat which they give ; and when no very great degree 
of heat is wanted, the ufe of fuch flames muft be allowed 
to be incomparably more commodious, and more economical 
thana common fire. The enameller, the mineralogift, and 
the philofophical inftrument makers, make great ufe of the 
heat of candles and lamps, the flames of which they fre- 
quently urge by means of the blow-pipe. An Argand lamp, 
efpecially when charged with f{pirit of wine, (for which 
purpofe, however, the lamp muft be made in a particular 
manner,) inftead of oil, forms a pretty powerful furnace 
for {mall diltillations, decoétions, &c. but even the flame of 
a fingle common lamp is fufficient for a great variety of 
delicate purpofes. 

The word flame, befides its true meaning, which we have 
already explained, and which denotes the combuflion of a 
volatile combultible body attended with the emiffion of heat 
and light, has often been indifcriminately applied to every 
kind of luminous appearance, provided its light had a pretty 
evident degree of intenfity. Thue all phofphorefcent bodies, 
eleGtrical light, northern lights, &c. have been called 
flames by a variety of writers. Certain phenomena really 
have much the appearance of true flames; yet their real 
mature has not been fufficiently invettigated. Thus the 
égnis fatuus, or Jack-a-lanthorn, is fuppofed to be nothing 
more than phofphorated hydroges, which being extricated 
from certain materials in particular places, comes out of the 
ground, and burns on the furface of it ; forit isa property 
of that gasto take fire of itfelf the moment it comes in con- 
ta€t with refpirable air. The nature of thofe appearances 
in the fky, which have been called flames, is moftly un- 
knownto us. See Meteors, andIonis fatuus. 

By fome authors, flame is detined to be /ight emitted from 

Jire ; by others, who have followed Newton, flame is faid to 
be a vapour heated red-hot ; for Newtonin his Opties fays, 
«¢Is not flame avapour, fume, or exhalation heated red-hot, 
that is, fo hot as to fhine? For bodies do not flame with- 
out emitting a copious fume, and this tume burns in the 
flame.”” 

With refpeé to the firft definition, we imagine that the 
preceding part of the prefent article has clearly fhewn that 
not ail the light which is emitted from a fire is flame ; and 
fuch for inftance is the light emitted from a red-hot cinder, 
or of a coal nearly exhauited of its gas. As for fir I. New- 
ton’s query, it may be juftly faid, that the ftate of chemical 
knowledge at his time could not furnifh him with better 
ideas re{peéting the nature of flame. 

Frame, Vital, Flamma, or Flammula vitalis, a fine, 
warm, igneous fub{tance, fuppofed by many, both of the 
ancients and moderns, to refide in the hearts of animals, as 


FLA 


neceffary to life, or rather as that which conftitutes life it~ 
felf. 

To the prefervation of this flame they fuppofe air as te- 
ceffary as it is to the prefervation of common flame ; and 
hence they afcribe the neceflity of refpiration to animat 
life. 

Mr. Boyle, by experiments in an exhaufted receiver, found 
that the vital flame of animals, if life may be fo called, far- 
vives or outlafts the flame ef f{pirit of wine, or of a wax of 
tallow candle, &c. Some animals would remain alive and 
well in vacuo for three or four minutes, whereas no common 
flame would laft there one minute. The light of the glow- 
worms, he found, would prefently be deftroyed by exhawit- 
ing the air, and retrieved again upon its re-admiffion. Dr. 
Quincy could find nothing more in the notion of vital flame 
than the natural warmth, which is the effect of a circulat- 
ing blood, and which is always as its velocity. See daimal 
Heat. 

FLAMEEL, or Framatt, Bertuotrr, in Biography, 
apainter of hiftorical fubjeéts, born at Liege in 1614. 
He began his ftudies in Flanders, but at the age of 24 he 
went into Italy to cultivate his talents by a view of the 
works of the renowned painters of that country. He teck 
up his refidence in Rome, there copying the beit werks of 
the great matters. He foon acquired a reputation which 
recommended him to the court of Florence, to which the 
grand duke invited him, and there employed him in feveral 
works, the execution of which acquired for him the efteens 
of that prince, and the applaufe of the public. 

In returning from hence homewards, afteran abfence of 
nine years, he went to Paris, and there painted, im the cu- 
pola of the church of the bare-footed Carmelites, Elijah 
afcending to heaven, and Elitha below endeavouring to 
catch the falling mautle of the prophet, thus miraculoufs 
ly borne from the earth. 

At Liege he was received with great warmth, and to 
confirm the high opinion which his countrymen had corm 
ceived of his merit, he painted a cruciiixion for the colle- 
giate church of St. John, in which he introduced a great 
number of figures with great propriety and perfpicwity. 
He alfo painted, in St. Paui’s church, the converfion of that 
faint. Andin the cathedral of the city another picture, 
reprefenting the refurre@tion of Lazarus. 

The clofe of his life is a melancholy inftance of the frail 
tenure on which man holds either his mental or bodily ca- 
pacities. Notwithftanding that wealth, reputation, and 
efteem attended him, he fell, wnaccountably, into melan- 
choly, and dejection of fpirits, which incefiastly oppreffed- 
him, till ultimately he funk under it. It was by many 
fuppofedto be owing to poifon given him by an intimate 
friend named Brinvilliers, but there is no proof of that fup- 
pofition being true. He died in 1675, aged 61. 

By his refidence in Rome, he adopted the tafte of de- 
fign of that fchool, being careful in his fele&tion of ob- 
jects, and correét in the reprefentation of them. He intros 
duced into his pictures a great deal of architecture, in which 
he was a proficient ; he had great knowledge alfo of anti- 
quities, and was careful in obferving the coftume ; thefe, 
united with a lively imagination, render his works very ins 
teretting. 

FLAMEN, among the ancient Romans, was a prieft or 
minifter of facrifice. 

There were as many kinds of flamens at Rome as there 
were gods who had priefts and {acritices offered them. 

Romulus and Numa, at firft, only inftituted three ; one 
for Jupiter, called famen Dialis; another for Mars, called 

4H 2 


? 
PW pew ee 
frames 


Fae: 

fiamen Martialis; and a third for Romulus or Quirinus, 
ealled flamen Quirinalis. Plutarch and Dionyfius Halicar- 
nafleus maigtain, that Numa created only the jaf in honour 
of Romulus; but Livy affuresus, that Romulus had inih-- 
tuted only the-firft, and that the two others were added by 
Numa; and Varro {peaks in the plural number of the fla- 
mines inftituted by Numa. . In after-times twelve more 
were added, which made the number of flamens fifteen. 

» The three firft were taken from among the’ patricians, and 
were held: of arank and diftin@ion fuperior te the reft. 


They were called greater flamens, famines majores, in con-- 


tradiltinétion: to the other twelve, who were chofen from 


among the plebeians, and were therefore called leffer flamens, 


flamines minores. The flamen Dialis, or of Jupiter, was 


the firft inftituted, and held in the greateft repute. He bore. 


a peculiar.ornament on his head, called: albugalerus, which: 
was made of the {kin of a white victim facrificed to Ju- 
iter. 
: One of.thefe priefts revived an ancient pretenfion to a 
feat in the fenate in right of hisoffice, which, by the indo- 
lence of his predeceflors, had not been claimed or enjoyed 
for many generations. ‘The pretor rejected his claim, nor 
would fuffer him to fit in that aflembly ; but upon his ap- 
peal to the tribunes of the people, that is, to the people, 
his right was confirmed, and he was allowed to take his 
place asa fenator. Liy. xxvii. 8. Middlet. of Rom. Sen, 


- 49. 

‘The cap worn by the reft was called fammd or apex. It 
was made of a fheep-fkin, with the wool on; to which was 
faftened a little branch of an olive-tree. That of the flamen 
of Jupiter ended in a point called futu/us.- It was tied under 
the chin with ftrings ; but in the {ummer-time it was only 
a woollen thread tied round the head, it being prohibited 
them ever to appear quite bare-headed. And hence, accord- 
ing to Feftus, came their denomination of flamen, viz. from 

lamen or jfilum, thread. . 

Though the flamens bore one common appellation, yet 
did not they conftitute any company or college. Each god 
had his feveral facrifices, feafts, and ceremonies a-part ; nor 
had.one flamen any relation to another, only they were all 
fubordinate to the pontifex maximus. Aulus Geflius affures 
us, that they were created by the people in the comitia cu; 
riata; but the pontifex maximus afterwards confecrated 
them. Their priefthood, called flaminatus, was perpetual 
though on fome occafions they might be depofed, 

, The names of the feveral flamens are as follow: the three 
great flamens, as already obferved, were the flamen Dialis, 
flamen Martialis, and. flamen Quirinalis : the twelve leffer 
were the famen Carmentalis, or prieft of the goddefs Car- 
menta, mentioned by Cicero in his Brutus ; jlamen Falacer, 
or prieft of the god Falacer, a name whofe origin, Varro 
obferves, isnot known; flamen Floralis, or of the goddefs 
Flora ; flamen Furinalis, whole etymology is not known ; 
flamen Levinalis 5 framen Lucinaris 5 flamen Palatualis, 
“whom fome moderns will have to be the prieft of the god- 
-defs that prefided over. the palatium, though Varro owns 
himfelf at alofs for its original ; famen Pomonalis, or of Po- 
-mona, goddefs of fruits ; flamen Virbialis, or of the god 
Virbius,, whom fome take for the fame with Hippolytus ; 
framen Vulcanalis, or of Vulcan; and flamen Volturnalis, 
or of the god Volturnus. Some authors alfo {peak of the 
flamen Hadrianalis, priet of Hadrian : famen Julit Cafaris, 
of Julius Cefar 5 and flamen Augu/lalis ; and Commodus 
likewife had a flamen created under the title of flamen Her- 
gulaneus Commodianus. 
They had alfo their flaming or faminice, who were wives 


? 


Feit £ 


of the flamens, or the priefteffes of the deities. In an ane 
cient marble, quoted by Gruter, p.cccclix. n. 9, the word 
Jflaminais ufed for prieftefs ; and in the fame author, p. cccviii. 
n. 3, the prieftefs of the goddefs Feronia is called ruam. 
FERON. that is, flamina, or flaminica Feronie. The flami~ 
na bore the fame ornament on her head with the flamen« 
She had alfo the fame furname of office with her hufband, 
as flamina Dialis, Martialis, &c. : 
‘ FLAMETTE, in Conchology, a name given by the 
French writers to a {pecies of chama or fhell-fifh of the bi- 
valve kind, with its fhells always more or lefs open; this 
{pegies is as hot as pepper to the tafte. 

FLAMINGO, in Ornithology, See PHoentcorTerus 
ruber. 

FLAMINIAN Way, one of the Roman ways, which, 
as itis corrected from the Itineraries and beft modern maps 
by @’Anville, may. be thus ftated: Rome to Narni, 51, 
Roman miles ; Terni, 57 ; Spoleto, 75 ; Foligno, 88 ; No- 
cera, 103; Cagli, 142;  Intercifa, 1575; Foflombrone, 
160; Fano, 1763;  Pelaro, 184; Rimini, 208; about 
189 English miles. ' 

FLAMINIO, Marcantonio, in Biography, was the 
fon of a man of letters, and born at Serravalle in 1498. 
He was educated with great care by his father, and when 
he was about fixteen years of age he was introduced to pope 
Leo X. who received him very gracioufly, and in order to 
put his talents to the trialy caufed the youth to difpute on 
certain queftions in the pocieae of many cardinals, when he 
acquitted himfelf fo well as to excite the furprize and ad- 
miration of all who heard him. His fuccefs induced his 
father to leave him to pufh his own fortune. The young 
man went to Naples, and from thence to Urbino, and in 
both places he had favourable opportunities of exhibiting 
the great power with which he was gifted. His father, 
dreading the influence of flattery, removed him to Bologna, 
to the purfuit of feverer ftudies. In 1523, he re-vilited 
Rome, and from thence he went to Genoa, and waselected 
one of the academy. After this he paffed into the fervice 
of Giberti, with whom he refided at Padua, and then, 
for fome years, at Verona. His patron prefented him with 
a farm fituated on the bank of Lago di Garda, where he 
{pent much of: his leifure time, and wrote a Latin para- 
phrafe of Ariflotle’s Metaphyfics, which was printed at 
Bafil in the year 1537. In the following year, being in an 
ill {tate of health, he went to Naples, in which city he re- 
mained till 1541. - Here his health was perfeGly reftored, 
and here,. by the converfation which he had with fome fa- 
vourers of the Reformation, he was himfelf almoft a con« 
vert. On his return from Naples he fpent fome time at 
Viterbo with cardinal Pole, who took great pains to ré- 
ftore him to the orthodox faith. In 1543, he was at Trent 
with the cardinal, and was after this effered the high poft 
of fecretary to the council of legates, which he declined. 
He was, however, the conftant attendant and friend of 
cardinal Pole, and greatly beloved by many other cardinals 
and great men of his time. After a tedious illnefs he died 
at the houfe of his patron in 1550. His death was univer- 
fally lamented,- and his contemporaries are lavifh in his 
praifes, as well for the goodneis of his difpofition and his 
Chriftian virtues, as the depth of his erudition and the-ele- 
gance of his genius. ‘* His works,’ fays his biographer, 
“ appear to be dictated not by the underitanding but by 
the heart.”” His poems rank him with the belt poets of 
the Latin fchool. Qf thefe, fome in his early youth par- 
take of the licence of the times, but the admonitions ef 
his father and the fobriety of his own difpofition called him 


to 


FLA 


to more ferious ftrains. The greater part of the “ Carmina 
quinque illuftrium poetarum’? confiits of the works of 
Flaminio. His elegant poetical. paraphrafes of thirty 
pialms, publifhed a few years before his death, and his 
Italian letters, are very highly efteemed. Some years after 
his deceafe his orthodoxy was fufpeéted, his works prohi- 
bited, and it was intended to dig up his body for the 
purpofe of committing itto the flames; but wifer and more 
deliberate councils determined otherwife. Moreri. 

FLAMINIUS, er Framininus, Titus Quinctius, 
an eminent Roman, was. born about the year 228 before 
Chrift: He was brought up to the praétice of arms, 
and acquitted himfelf fo well in feveral things which he 
undertook, that he was inearly life appointed to the con- 
du& of important expeditions. At the age of 30 he was 
candidate for the confulfhip, and was chofen though he 
had not ferved any of the inferior and preparatory offices 
in the ftate. He obtained, by lot, the conduét of the war 
in Macedon ; and performed, in various parts of Greece, 
many exploits recorded in hiftory, till at length he treated 
with Philip, and made a peace on condition that the king 
fhould withdraw all his troops from the Grecian towns. 
Commiffioners were fent from Rome to affift Flaminius in 
difpofing of his conquefts: thefe wifhed Roman garrifons 
to be kept at Corinth and other places, regarded then as 
the keys of the country, but the conqueror perfuaded them 
to confent to the full and complete liberation of Greece 
from foreign dominion, ‘The decree was proclaimed durirg 
the Ifthmian games, A vaft multitude affembled from 
all parts, uncertain of their future fate, and filled with the 
utmott anxiety for themfelyes and their country. Silence 
was proclaimed by the found of a trumpet, and aherald ad- 
vanced into the middle of the arena, where, in the name of 
the Roman people and of the procon{ful Flaminius, he de- 
clared by name all thofe cities and ftates of Greece free 
which had been poffefled by Philip. The proclamation was 
repeated, and the people, as with one voice, rent the fkies 
with their fhouts: fo tremendous was the noife, that the 
birds were faid to have been ftruck to the ground by the 
concuffion of the air, and Flaminius himfelf was in danger 
of fuffocation from the people who rufhed upon him to kifs 
his hand in gratitude for his kindnefs. To him it wasa 
glorious day ; but the Romans refufed to ratify the decree, 
and ina fhort time they di€tated what terms they chofe to 
the Grecian republics, which now were declared free by 
Flaminius. The-conful left Greece with many tokens of 
gratitude of the people, but with none which he fo highly 
prized as a prefent of 1200 Romans made captive in the 
war with Hannibal, who had been fold for flaves in the 
Grecian ftates, and whom the Acheans had carefully col- 
leéted and redeemed, in order to fend back with him. In 
the habits cf manumitted flaves thofe men followed the 
chariot of their benefactor at the {plendid triumph granted 
him on his return. Flaminius was afterwards long kept as 
a refident in Greece ; the attachment of the nation to him, 
and his accurate knowledge of the views and interefts of 
the feveral flates, rendering him very ufeful asa negociator. 
About the year 190 B. C. he was created cenfor at Rome, 
after which he was employed as an ambaflador to Pruffias, 
king of Bithynia, whom he perfuaded to violate the laws of 
hofpitality in delivering up Hannibal, who had taken re- 
fuge in his court, but the veteran foldier prevented the 
treachery by taking poifon. This is the lalt recorded tranf- 
aGtion in which Flaminius engaged. Univerfal Hittory. 
Plutarch. 

FLAMMA Joyrs, aname given by many writers to a 


FLA 


plant of the clematis or virgin’s bower kind, called by the 
Greek writers ph/ogus. 

FLAMMULA, or Framuta, under the Laffern Em- 
pire, was a kind of flag terminating in a point fomewhat 
like a flame, ferving as a mark or badge to diftinguifh the 
foldiers of the feyeral companies, - battalions, regiments, 
&c. In Greek it was called Qaaus#ro: it was fometimes 
placed on the cafque, fometimes on the cuirafs, and fome- 
times at the end or tip of the pike, &c. 

The emperor Maurice ordered. that the fammule of 
each divifion fhould be of a particular colour, to diftinguifh 
them from the other battalions or brigades. 

They ufed to lay afide the flammula before an engages 
ment, left it fhould prove an incumbrance. The cavalry had 
alfo flammulz on their horfes, to diftinguifh the troops they 
belonged to- ; 

FLamMuta, in Botany, aname given by fome authors 
to a particular {pecies of the crow-foot, commonly called 
the ranunculus flammeus. 

Frammut# duri, in Natural Hiffory, aname given by 
Dr. Woodward, and others, to thofe {mall pieces of gold 
found among the fands of riversin fome places. They are 
fometimes found in roundifh pieces, but more utually in 
their fhining fakes, whence the name flammula feems to 
have been given them, as being very bright and glofly. 
This fort of gold is pure and malleable, and lofes fcarcely 
any part of its weight in fufion. 

The gold duit, as itis called, which is brought from 
Guinea, is much of this kind; its particles are ufually very 
{mall, though fometimes lumps of the fize of a pea or horfe- 
bean are found, and fometimes maffes of an irregular figure 
of three or four ounces weight: but thefe lofe the name 
of flammule when they become fo thick and folid, and 
fo large, and are called by the merchants rock-gold. 
Woodw. Cat. Foff. vol. ii. p. 30. See Gotp. 

FLAMSTEED, Joun, in Biography, an eminent 
Englifh aftronomer, was born at Denby, in Derbyhhire, in 
the year 1646. He received his claffical education at the 
free fchool at Derby, and it was intended that he fhould 
parfue his ftudies at the univerfity, but avery fevere illnefs 
at the age of 14, when he had attained the higheft place in 
the fchool, rendered it neceflary for his friends to change 
their original plan with regard to his future purfuits. Soon 
after he had quitted the grammar fchool he met with Sa- 
crobofco’s work, intitled **.De Sphzra,’? which he read 
with delight, and fome parts cf which he immediately 
tranflated. He now fought for other treatifes conne@ed 
with the fame fubje&, among which was Street’s  Aftro- 
nomia Carolina;”? from this he learned the method of cal- 
culating eclipfe and the places of the planets. In 1669, 
having calculate an eclipfe of the fun, that was omitted in 
the ephemeris for the following year, he fent this, with 
other aftronomical fpeculatiors, to lord Brouncker, prefi« 
dent of the Royal Society, who laid them before that 
learned body, cr whom they were greatly approved. From 
this period he Rept up a correfpondenc on literary and 
{cientific fubje&ts with many of the moit learned men of 
his time. In 1670, his father made him an offer of taking 
a journey to J.ondon, that he might become perionally 
known to his ingenious and learned correfpondents, which 
he gladly accepted. He was now introduced to Mr. Cole 
lins, Mr. Oldenburg, and fir Jonas Moore, the latter of 
whom became a moft valuable friend and patron to Mr. Flam. 
fteed. On his return he paffed through Cambridge, vilited 
Dr. Barrow, Mr. Ifaac Newton, and other learned men ; 
and entered himfelf'a udent of Jefus college.. Mr, Flam- 

’ Reed, 


FLA 


‘fieed, applying himfelf moft vigoroufly to the ftudy of 
aftronomy, wrote in the year 1673 a treatife on the true 
and apparent diameters of all the planets, which fir Ifaac 
Newton made ufe of in the 4th book of his Principia. He 
wrote alfo on other fubjeéts, as the tides, which were 
more popular and adapted to practical ufes, and of which 
one was prefented to the king. To whom, likewife, by 
means of his friend fir Jonas Moore, he prefented a pair of 
barometers, with directions for their ufe. 
inftruments at that period, and excited the attention of 
the monarch and of the nobility, te whofe patronage he had 
been earneitly recommended. Mr. Flamfteed now deter- 
mined to take orders, and was ordained in 1675 by bifhop 
‘Gunning; but he did not obtain any prefermeut in the 
church for feveral years. Sir Jonas, however, prevailed 
on the king to erect a new office for him, viz. that of 
a{ftrenomer-royal, and the foundation of the Royal Obferva- 
tory at Greenwich was built and named after him, Flam- 
fleed Houfe. In 1681, his work intitled « The Doétrine 
of the Sphere,” was publifhed by fir Jonas Moore in his 
‘¢ Syftem of Mathematics ;” and,in 1684, he was prefented 
with the living of Durftow in Surrey, the only inftance of 
preferment to which he attained, notwithftanding the high 
eftimation in which he was held by perfons of the firft rank 
among his contemporaries. He now maintained a clofe and 
-conftant correfpondence with the immortal Newton, with 
Halley, and all the great men of that illuftrious age, and 
among his. foreign -correfpondents was the celebrated 
Caflint, who was held in the higheft refpect by him. To 
any and all his friends he was ever ready to give aflittance 
in facilitating their ftudies, and he took pleafure in contri- 
buting, by his fuggeftions and hints, to the extenfion of 
their reputation. He {pent the remainder of his life in pro- 
fecuting his labours in the improvement of aftronomy with 
unwearied exertion and aétivity, and died at the end of the 
year 1719, at the age of 73. He publifhed many fmall 
tracts, avait number of papers in the Philofophical Tranf- 
actions, in almolt every volume from the fourth .to the 
twenty-ninth. But his great work, and that on which his 
celebrity depends, is intitled «* Hiftoria Coeleftis Britannica,” 
in three volumes folio. The firft of which contains tlie 
obferyations ef Mr. Gafcoigne, taken at Middleton in 
Yorkshire ; and likewife thofe made by Mr. Flamiteed at 
Derby, between the years 1638 and 1643, with tables, &c. 
made at the Royal Obfervatory between the years 1675 and 
1689. 

The fecond volume contains his obfervations, made with 
a capit.l telefcope, on the zenith diftances of the fixed 
tars, fun, moon, and planets, with their tranfits over the 
meridian ; alfo notes and obfervations on the diameters of 
the fun and moon, with their eclipfes, and thofe of Jupi- 
ter’s fatellites, between the years 1689 and 1719. The 
third volume comprifes a catalogue of the right afcenfions, 

olar diftances, longitudes, and magnitudes of nearly 3000 
dixed ftars. The preface to this volume contains an account 
sof all the aftronomical obfervations made before his time, 
with a defcription of the inftruments employed, and much 
other curious and highly important matter. The printing 
of this noble work was rot finifhed at the time of our 
author’s death, and the care neceffary to its completion de- 
yolved on Mr. James Hodgfon, by whom it was publifhed 
vin the year 1725. Few men poffeifed more zeal and appli- 
-cation in the purfuit of {cientific knowledge than the firft 
aftronomer-royal ; and fcarcely any man ever attained to 
higher refpe& among his contemporaries. In common life 
che was free, eafy of accefs, and pleafed with the company 


Thefe were new . 


fan: 


1 a 


of thofe who with fcientific refearch could unite their fhare 
in the convivial intercourfe of life. Biog. Brit. 

FLANCH, Feangue, or Fla/que, in Heraldry, an 
ordinary formed by an arched line, which begins at the 
corners of the chief, and ends in the bafe of the efcut- 
cheon. 

He beareth ermin two flanches vert. 
ways borne by pairs. 

Leigh makes flangue and fla/e two diftin& bearings, 
whereof the former is more bent than the latter; but 
Gibbon judicioufly makes them but one, which he calls 
ue. 

!LANCONNADE, in Fencing, is the a@ion of drop- 
ping the point of your fword under your adverfary’s hilt; 
in feizing with force the feeble or foible of his blade ; whichy 
binding without quitting it, form the parade in oftave, and 
then throw in your thruft. This thrutt is feldom practifed, 
except on favourable occafions, when the adverlary holds. 
his wrift low on guard. 

FLANDERS, in Geography, a maritime province of - 
the Netherlands, was formerly very confiderable, and bound- 
ed on the north by the mouth of the Scheldt and the Germar 
ocean, on the eaft by Brabant and Hainaut, on the fouth by 
Hainaut and a part of France, formerly called Artois and 
Picardy, and on the weft by the Englifh channel and Artois.. 
Its greateft length is eftimated at about 60 miles, and its 
breadth about 50. It contained 3o cities er walled towns, a 
great number of market towns, 1154 villages, and feverat 
religious houfes. Flanders was generally divided into 
Auftrian, French, and Dutch Flanders. The firft extended 
from the fea tothe Dender, being bounded on the north by 
Dutch Flanders, on the eaft by Brabant, on the fouth by 
French Flanders, and on the weit by the channel, and con- 
tained feveral confiderable cities, as Ghent, Bruges, Oftend, 
Oudenard, Dendermond, Nieuport, Furnes, Dixmude, 
Courtray, Ypres, Tournay, &c. &c. French Flanders con- 
tained Lifle, Dunkirk, Gravelines, Caffel, &c. &e. The 
third, or Dutch Flanders, bordermg on the Scheldt, towards 
its mouth, contains the towns of Fruit, Axel, Bouchoult, 
Affenede, Ardenburg, &c.; and this feems to be the only 
part which retains the name of Flanders. By the treaty of 
Formio, A.D. 1797, the whole of Auftrian Flanders was 
annexed to the dominions of France, and converted inte 
the deparments of the Lys and the Scheldt. The climate 
of this country is temperate and falubrious ; the foil in ge- 
neral is fertile and fit for tillage; and in fome places it is 
uneommonly fertile. The Iand produces all kinds of grain 
and vegetables. Flax is a very confiderable commodity, and 
has greatly contributed to the wealth of the country. The 
palture grounds are excellent, and nourifh a valuable breed 
of cattle, which yield rich cheefe and butter. The breed of 
horfes and fheep is alfo confiderable. The Fleming's were at 
one time the principal maaufacturers of Europe; and by 
them the Englifh were taught the art of weaving, and pro- 
bably that of agriculture. Their trade was alfo very ex- 
tenfive. The moft beautiful table linen is ftill the manufac- 
ture of this country, and its lace is fuperior to every other. 
The principal rivers are the Scheldt and the Lys. 

FLANpeERs, a town of New Jerfey; 23 miles N.N.W. 
of New Brunfwick. 

FLANEL, or Fiannet, a kind of flight, loofe, woollen 
ftuff, not quilted, but very warm, compofed of a woof and 
warp, and wove ona loom with two treddles, after the man- 
ner.of bays. As flannel is a bad conduétor of heat, it muft 
evidently form an ufeful garment in cold weather ; its un- 
fituels for conduting heat is obvieus from its Jax leas i 

or 


Flanches are al- 


FLA 


for the fibres of wool touch each other flightly, and there- 
fore the heat moves flewly through the interftices, which, 
being filled with air, afford little affiftance in carrying it off. 
Count Rumford made many experiments on this fubjeét ; 
whence it fhould feem, that though linen, which readily re- 
ceives humidity from the atmofphere, appears to poffefs a 
greater degree of attraction with refpect to water than 
other fubftances ; yet thofe fubftances which receive water 
in its unelaftic form with the greateft eafe, or are mott eafily 
moiftened, do not, in all cafes, attraé&t the moifture of the 
atmofphere with the greateft avidity. ‘* Perhaps,”’ fays he, 
** the apparent dampnefs of linen to the touch arifes more 
from the eafe with which that fubftance parts with the water 
it contains, than from the quantity of water it actually holds; 
in the fame manner as a body appears hot to the touch in 

’ confequence of its parting freely with its heat, while another 
body, which is really at the fame temperature, but which 
withholds its heat with great obftinacy, affeéts the fenfe of 
feeling much lefs violently. It is well known that woollen 
clothes, fuch as flannels, &c. worn next the fkin, greatly 
promote infenfible perfpiration, May not this arife princi- 
pally from the ftrong attra¢tion which fubfifts between wool 
and the watery vapour which is continally iffuing from the 
human body? That it does not depend entirely on the 
warmth of that covering is clear; for the fame degree of 
warmth produced by wearing more clothing of a different 
kind does not produce the fame effect. The perfpiration of 
the human body being abforbed by a covering of flannel, it 
is immediately diftributed through the whole thicknefs of 
that fubftance, and by that means expofed by a very large 
furface to be carried off by the atmofphere ; and the lofs of 
this watery vapour which the flannel fuftains on the one fide, 
by evaporation, being immediately reftored from the other, 
in confequence of the ftrong attraGion between the flannel 
and this vapour, the pores of the {kin are difencumbered, 
and they are continually furrounded by a dry and falubrious 
atmofphere.”’ He expreffes his furprife that the cultom of 
wearing flannel next the fkin fhould not have prevailed more 
univerfally. He is confident it would prevent a number ef 
difeafes ; aud he thinks there is no greater luxury than the 
comfortable fenfation which arifes from wearing it, efpecially 
after one isa little accuftomed to it. It isa miftaken 
notion,” fays he, **that it is too warm a clothing for fum- 
mer. I have wornit in the hotteft climates, and at all fea- 
fons of the year ; and never fourid the leaft inconvenience 
from it. It is the warm bath of perfpiration contined by a 
linen fhirt, wet with {weat, which renders the fummer heats 
of fouthern climates fo infupportable; but flannel promotes 
perfpiration, and favours its evaporation; and evaporation, 
as is well known, produces pofitive cold.” 

it has been obferved that new flannel, after fome time 
wearing, acquires the property of fhining in the dark, but 
lofes it on being wafhed. Phil. Tranf. Ne 483. § 7. See 
Exvectricity, 

FLANK, or Franc, in the Banege, is applied to the 
fides of a horfe’s buttocks, &c: 

In a-ftriG fenfe, the flanks of a-horle are the extremes 
af the belty, where the ribs are wanting, and are below the 

ins. 

The flanks of a horfe fhould be full, and at the top of 
eacha feather. ‘The diftance between the laft rib and haunch 
bone, which is properly the flank, fhould be fhort, which 
they term well coupled, fuch horfes being moft hardy, and 
fit to endure labour. 

A horfe is faid to have no flank if the laft of the fhort 
ribs be at'a confiderable diftance frem the haunch: bone 5, 


FLA 


as alfo when his ribs are teo much ftraightened in their 
compafs. 

Fuank of an Army, in Military Language, is the exterior 
point, or part, towards either end of every line, the fame as 
the terminations of the files of a battalion or company are 
their flanks refpeétively. It has ever been held among mili- 
tary men of the firft importance to preferve the integrity 
of the flanks, by fupporting them in the moft effectual mau- 
ner againft every aflault. This, however, is not always 
practicable when oppofed to a fuperior force, unlefs by the 
aid of fuch a formation of the line as may render any fuch 
fuperiority, not extending to more than a fifth or fixth, of 
lefs avail than it would obvioufly be, were the two armies to 
be drawn up parallel to each other: in fuch cafe the greater 
force muft cover a greater extent of ground, and thus be 
enabled to “ out-flank”’ its opponent. When fuch an op- 
portunity may offer, it will generally be feen, that while 
the refidue are left upon equal terms, man to man, and gun 
to gun, the excefs of numbers is devoted to fuch a pewerful 
charge on one flank as fhould feem to be irrefiftible. Thus, 
the attack is either made in column, ufvally concealed by 
a body of cavalry until the moment of affault, or an angle is 
formed in advance, which is called ‘offering a flank,” for 
the purpofe of beating in the flank by an oblique or a cir- 
cuitous approach to, not only its extremity, but ever towards 
its rear. In fuch cafe the lefler body: neceflarily avails itfelf 
of that fimple evolution termed “ refufing a flank,” by: 
throwing back a portion of its extremity in an angular di- 
rection, {o as to become parallel with the flank ‘“offered”? by 
the ftronger party. The firft figure, Tadics, Plate II. thews 
the attack made in column C, by anarmy A, fuperior on one 
flank, together with the deploy of the cavalry B, that 
covered or mafked the manceuvre towards the flank of the 
line D, with the view to “turn” it; that is, to beat it in 
towards the centre, and thereby to threw the whole into con- 
fufion. The dotted lines at E thew the change made from D, 
for the purpofe of  refufing a flank,”? and of thus bringing 
a column to oppofe the charge intended to be made. The 
viliage G ferves to ‘ cover the flank’? from the cavalry that 
deployed for its attack. , 

In fig. 2. the line HI K is fuperior to the line LMN: 
the former “ offers the flank’? IO, which the latter renders 
unavailing (at leaft fo far as leffer can refit: greater forces,)+ 
by “ refujing a flank’? in the diretion M P, parallelto 10. 
This, confidered mathematically, will be found fuSicient ; 
becaufe, under the fuppofition that the lines LM and M BP” 
are chords of arcs having their common centre fomewhere in 
their rear, it is evident that the parallels HI and IO, 
being, of courfe, concentric therewith,. but exteriorly 
fituated, mutt occupy a greater extent, and yet, in effet, 
not outflank their inner parallels, We do not mean to in. 
culcate that the fuperior force is not fill the fuperior force, 
butonlyto fhew how the lefler body can, by a judicious ar- 
rangement, either render that fuperiority lefs availing, or, 
perhaps, induce to a break near the centre, whereby an open- 
ing may. offer for the cavalry of the weaker army to dafh in 
fo as to divide the énemy’s line, and’to facilitate the defeat 
of at leaft' one wing. 

Frank of a Ba/tion, in' Fortification, is that part’ which 
forms an angle, gencrally of-about 110°, or in flat baftions 
of 130°, with the contiguous face. The flank of a baftion 
is generally intended to defend the face of the other baftion 
ftanding at the further’ extremity of the fame curtain : 
therefore ufually ftands at right angles, or nearly fo, there- 
with :: hence it is neceflary to filence the flanks of the con- 
tiguous baitions, both right and. left,.before the arn 

angle 


FLA 


angle of that baflion flanding between them, though per- 
fectly breached, can with propriety be ftormed. 

Frank, Low, covered, or retired, is the platform of the 
cafement which lies hid im the baftion; otherwife called the 
orillon. 

Franx Fiichent, is that from whence a cannon playing, 
fireth bullets directly in the face of the oppofite baflion. . 

Frank Razant, or rafant, is the point from whence the 
line of defence begins, from the conjunétion of which 


ith the curtain, the fhot only rafeth tne face of the next ~ 


baftion, which happens when the face cannot be diicovered 
but from the flank alone. 

Franxs, Simple, are lines going from the angle of the 
fhoulder to the curtain, whole chief office is for the de- 
fence of the moat and place. 

Fuanx-walls, in Eugineery, are the fame with wing or 
return-walls of a lock or bridge. See Cawac. 

FLANKED, Franové, is ufed by the French heralds 
to exprefs our party per faltier ; that 1s, when the iield is 
divided into four parts, after the manner of an xX. 

Though Colombiere ufes the term in another fenfe, 

- which appears more natural, viz. for the taking of flanches 
er rounding {fe€ions out of the fides of the efcutcheons ; 
the firft from the angles of it, the latter in ftraight hues, 
forming an angle at the fefs, without making any faltier. 

\ Franken Angle, in Fortification, is the angle formed by 
the ‘two faces of the baftion, and which of courfe forms 
the point of the batlion. 

Franken Line of Defence. 
DEFENCE. 

Fianxep Tenaille, is called alfo tenaille. 

FLANKING, in the general, is the act of difcovering 
and firing upon the fide of a place, body, battalion, &c. 

To flank a place, is to difpofe a place or other work in 
fuch a mauner as that there {hall be no part of the place 
but what muy be played on, both in front and rear. 

Any fortification that has no defence but juit right for- 
wards is faulty ; and to render it complete, one part ought 
to be made to flank the other. Hence the curtain is always 
the ftrongeft part of any place, becaufe it is flanked at each 
end. 

Battalions alfo are faid to be flanked by the wings of the 
cavalry. A houfe is fometimes faid to be flanked with two 
pavilions, or two galleries, meaning it hasa gallery, &c. on 
each fide. ; 

FrankinG Angle. Sée Ancuie. 

FianxinG Batteries, are fuch as defend each other mu- 
tually, fuch as the face of a raveline, and the contiguous 
face of its lunette; which fland nearly at right angles, and 
form a re-entering angle. In general, the term is applied 
only to that battery whofe fire, when direét, grazes the front 
of the work it is to defend, as fhewn above in defcribing the 
flank of a baftion; but in that inftance the defences do not 
afford reciprocal fupport. Works that are not flanked by 
ethers can be {trong only in confequence of natural advan- 
tages. See Fietp Fortification, and CoNsTRUCTION, 
Military. 5 

Franxine Line of Deferice. See Line of DEFENCE. 

FLANNAN Iszanps, in Geography, or Seven Hunters, 
a group of fmall uninhabited iflands in the North fea, about 
17 miles N.W. from the ifland of Lewis. They yield good 
pafture for fheep. On the largeft are the ruins of a chapel 

dedicated to St. Flannan. N,. lat. 58° 26. W.. long, 


See Ancre and Line of 


ie) 


2is'. an 
a “LANSKER, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf 
ef Bothnia. N. lat. 63°24'. E. long. 21° 26’, 


FLA 


i LASHES, in Enginzery, ave a kind of fluices ereéted 
upon navigable rivers to raife the water upon any fhoals 
therein, while the véffels or craft are pafling. See Cana. 
FLASK, in the Ariillery. See Powner-flafk. : 
Pay Llafque, a bearing mere properly called Algnque. 

inci. - 
ik FLASKET, in Geograzhy, an ifiand near the coat of 
Norway ; 88 miles 5,.W. of Drontheim. eel 

PLAT, is a character in Mufic, exprefled by a {mall b, 
of which the effe€t is lowering the note to which it is: 
affixed a femitone minor, Guido d’Arezzo having given, 
names to fix founds of the o¢tave of which he conitituted: 
his celebrated hexachord, left the feventh of the natural 
{cale unprovided with any other appellation than the letter 
b, which is wanted in the molle hexachord, when the 
fame found becomes the fourth of the key of F. (See 
Hexacuorps and Mufical Craracrers.) Flats on, 
keyed initruments are the nominal half notes below, that is, 
on the left hand of the. natural notes, as fharps are on the 
right hand. There are two ways of ufing: flats, the one 
accidental, which has no effeéi beyond the fingle bar in 
which it occurs; the other is the flat or flats placed at the 
clef, in the beginning of a movement which affeé all the 
notes on the fame line or {pace throughout a movement, 
unlefs accidentally difcharged by a natural, 4. The placing 
the flats at the clef is not arbitrary, as the firlt neceflarily 
is on B, the fecond on E, the fourth above or 5th below, 
&c. in the following order ; 2 

I z k? 4 
Bh Eb Ab Db Gb 

For thefe five flats upon keyed inftruments, there are 
five fhort keys; flats, however, fometimes occur in C and I’, 
but for thefe the two long keys are obliged to be ufed of 
B and E natural, the two half notes below C and F natural. 
If it is neceffary in practice to lower any found already flat at 
the clef a femitone, it is done by double flats: as B bb is 
A 4, E double flat D natural, &c. See Scares, Cra- 
RACTERS, and TRANSPOSITIONS. } 

Frat Third. See Minor Third. 

Frat Key. See Minor Third. 

Frat, Double, is a term ufed where a note already flat 
is required to be again depreffed by a half-note, and is 
marked thusbb or 6; the quantity or exact deprefling 


effeét of which willonly be conftant in the equal temperament, 
and in all other fyftems of temperament will partake of all 
the uncertainty which we have f\ewn to prevail with 
regard to b. See Fiat. 

Flats are a kind of additional or half-notes contrived, 
&c. together with fharps, to remedy the defects of mutfical 
initruments. ; ; 

The natural feale of mufic being limited to fixed founds, 
and adjufted to an inftrument, the inftrument will be found 
defeétive’ in feveral points; as particularly, in that we 
can only proceed from any note by one particular order 
of degrees; that for this reafon we cannot find any 
sngetyall required from any note or letter upwards of 
downwards; and that a fong may be fo contrived, as 
that if it be begun by any’particular note or letter, all the 
intervals or other notes fhall be juftly found on the inftru- 
ment, or in the fixed feries; yet where the fong begun 
with any other-note, we could not proceed. © 

To remove or fupply this defeét, muficians have re- 
courfe to a {cale proceeding by twelve degrees ; that» is, 
thirteen notes, including the ‘extremes, to an ‘oave; 
which makes the inflrument fo perfect that there is at 

little 


or 


F.L A 


Jittle to complain of. This, therefore, is, the prefent 
Syitem of the fcale for inftruments, viz. between the ex- 
tremes of every tone of the natural fcale is put a note, 
which divides it into two unequal parts, called /émitones ; 
and the whole may be called th  femitonic feale, contain- 
jog twelve femitones betwixt thirteen notes in the compals 
of the o€tave. 

Now, to preferve the diatonic feries diftin@, thefe in- 

Jerted notes either take the name of the natural note next 
below with a chara&ter called a Jbarp; or they take the 
name of the natural note next above with a mark called 
fiat. Thus D flat fignifics a femitone below the D na- 
tural : and it is indifferent, ia the main, whether the inferted 
note be accounted as a flat or a fharp, 
_ The femitonic feries or f{cale is very exactly reprefented 
by the keys of a f{pinnet ; the foremoft range of keys be- 
ing the natural netes, and keys behind, the artificial notes, 
r the flats and fharps. ‘T'he flat is denoted by the letter b 
in the writing and printing of mulic, and denotes that the 
note to which itis prefixed is to be lowered ahalf-note or femi- 
tone, and of courle made to coincide with the note imme- 
diately below, in allfuch nftruments as have but 12 intervals 
in the o€tave; it muft however be obferved, that except inthe 
Lqual Temperament of thefeale (which fee), the flattening 
effe& of a b is not always the fame, but varies according 
to the magnitude of the half-uotes in each different fyftem 
of temperament or part of the fame fyftem, as obferved 
under Fincer-hey intervals. ¢ 

Writers on the theory of mufic are by no means agreed 
on the magnitude of the interval which they affizn toa 
Hat. Dr. Robert Smith (Harmonies, p. 160.) detinesit to 
mean the minor Lima of his different tempered fyitems 

which fee). Mr. Maxwell, (Effay on Tune, p. 51.) fixes 
it to his major limma, which has a ratio of t= 47> +f 
+ 4m, and isthe medivs Semirone (which fee). Dr. Cal- 
cott (Mufical!Grammar, p. 112.) detines it to mean his chro- 
2,248 
2,187 
= 58 + f+ 5m; in numerous other inftances, we find 
} 243 


matic femitone, or the apotome which has a ratio of 


the flat. defined to mean the limma whofe ratio is 


2 
462+ f+ 4m. Ifwe examine the MSS. of Mr. Oven’, 
we find the flat fourth of Tartini and himfelf, and alfo 
what he calls the greater of the flat fevenths and flat eighths, 
ure each of them depreffed below their natural intervals by 


Zt 3654 f+3m 


the minor femitone, whofe ratio is—! = 
25 


See Suarp. 
_ Frat, in Sea Language, denotes a level ground lying at 
a {mall depth under the furface of the fea, and is alfo called 
a fhoal or fhallow. — 1 
Friar Baffion, in Fortification. See Bastion. 
Frart-dottomed Boats are fuch as are made to fwim in 
fhallow water, and to carry a great number of troops, artil- 
ery, ammunition, &c.  T hey are conftru@ted with a 
twelve-pounder, bow-chafe, and an eighteen-pounder, ftern- 


~ chafe; their keel is from ninety to one hundred feet, and 


from twelve to twenty-four feet beam: they have one mait, 
a large fquare main-fail, and a jib-fail, are rowed by eighteen 
or twenty oars, and can carry four. hundred men each. 


~The gun takes up ove bow, aid a bridge the other, over 


which the troops are to march. Thofe that carry horfes 
have the fore-part of the’boat made to open when the men 
are to mount and ride overa bridge. See Bear, 

_ Fuar-botiomed Moat. See Moar, 

See OLe XL. 


FLA 


Friar Crown, in Archite@ure. See Corona. : ; 

Frar-aft, in Sea Language, denotes the firuation of the 
fails, when their furfaces are preffed aft agaiuft the maft by 
the force of the wind. 

Zo Fuar-in, is to draw in the aftmoft lower corner or 
clue of a fail towards the middle of the fhip, to give the 
fail a greater power of turning the veffel. Thus, if the 
mizen or after-fails are flatted-in, this aétion is istended 
to carry the ftern to leeward, and turn the fead nearer to 
the direGion of the wind; and if the head-fails are 
flatted-in, the intention is to make the fhip fall off, when 
by accident or defign fhe has come fo near the wind as te 
make the fails fhiver. 

To Fiar-ix forward, is to draw im the fore-fheet, jib« 
fheet, and fore-ttay-fail fheet towards the middle of the fhip. 
This operation is feldom performed, except in light breezes 
of wind, when the helm has not fufficient government of 
the fhip. 

Frar-bufh, in Geography, the chief town of King’s 
county, in Long ifland, New York. This town is healthy 
and pleafant, and diftant five miles S. by E. from New York. 
The inhabitants are chiefly of Dutch extraétion; their 
number is 956, of whom 341 are flaves. The whole town- 
fhip in f{ummer appears like a garden; and its produdtions, 
which are various kinds of fruit, vegetables, grain, &c, 
find a ready market in the capital. The public buildings 
are a Dutch church, and a flourifhing academy, called 
Erafmus Hall. The Americans were defeated in this place, 
aftera fanguinary conteft with the Britifh, and {udered 
a great lofs, Auguft 27, 1776. ; 

Frat Head, a cape on the S. coaft of Ireland, in the 
county of Cork, feven miles E. of Kinfale. 

Frat Holm, a {mall ifland in the Briftol channel, about 
ti mile in circumference. On the higheit point of land 
is a light-houfe to guide veffels up the channel. N. lat. 
51°30!. W. long. 3° 5’. ‘ 

Friar find, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near 
the N. coaft of the ifland of Flores. S. lat. 7° 59’. E. long. 
120° 59'.—A\lfo, a {mall ifland inthe S. Pacific ocean, near 
the E. coaft of New Zealand. S, lat. 37° 40’. W. long. 
183° 15'. : 

Frat Jflands, iflands of Upper Canada, lying to the 
weit of the Manitou iflands, and open to the ftraits of 
Michilimackinac, upon lake Huron. 

Friar Kill, a river of New Jerfey, which runs into the 
Delaware. N. lat. 41° 4/. W. long. 75° 4'. 

Prat Lands, a {mall townfhip in King’s county, Long 
ifland, diftant from New York fix or feven miles ; containing 
493 inhabitants, of whom 128 are flaves. . 

Frat Point, a cape on the N. coaft of the ifland of 
Jamaica. _N. lat. 18° 30’. W. long. 77° 8'.—Alfo, a cape 
at the fouthern extremity of the ifland of Sumatra. S. lat. 
o° 50!. E. long. 102° 38’.—Alfo, a cape on the S. coat of 
the ifland of Borneo. S. lat. 2° 45'. E. long. 112°. 

FLATA Isranps, a cluiter of fmall iflands near the 
S.E. coait of North Uilt, and about one mile N.E. of 
Rona ifland. 

FLATOR Tintarum, 
player, a Tibieen. 

FLATTA, in Geography, one of the fmaller weftera 
ifands of Scotland, two miles E. trom the ifland of Barra, 
N. lat. 56° 58’. W. long. 7° 201. 

FLATTE!, Fria grace equal to a beat in Encglith 
mufic. 

FLATTENED, in Mufe, is applied to fuch intervals as 
are leffened, or notes which are deprefled in their tone, by 
the intervals which aufwer to a flat (marked §), which 

4l * (except 


in Ancient Mufic, a flute 


FLA 


(except in the equal temperament) are very numerous, See 
Frat, 

Fratrenen Foffls, in Natural Hiftory, are fuch 
mineral fubftances, organic remains in particular, as feem 
to have fuffered a compreffion o: flattening, fince their 
firft depofit inthe ftrata; Mr. W. Martin obferves (Out- 
lines, p. 72.) that {uch compreffed, or flattened form of 
reliquia, ‘tis often the confequence of the mode in which 
the mineral change has been brought about, and not the 
efe& of a fimilar ftructure in the original. Some reliquia 
retain the form only of one fide, or of one half, of the or- 
ganized body reprefented; while others prefent the whole 
of the external or internal organic fabric, according to the 
manner in which the mineral matter has been united to 
the animal or vegetable figure.” See Compressep Jo/- 


Lise 
f FLATTER, or Fratrenrr. See Corninea. 


FLATTERY, Care, in Geography, a cape on the 
N.W. coaft of North America, fo called by captain Cook 
in his Third Voyage (March 1778), becaufe it prefented an 
opening, which flattered the navigators with the hopes cf a 
harbour, but difappointed them ; the opening being clofed 
by low Jand. It hes in N. lat. 48° 15’. E. long. 2357 3!. 
Over it is around hill of moderate height ; and the adjacent 
land is well covered with wood, and exhibited a very plea- 
fant and fertile appearance. In this latitude geographers 
have placed the pretended ftrait of Juande Fuca. But our 
navigators faw nothing lke it; nor, fay they, is there the 
leaft probability that ever any fuch thing exifted—Alfo, 
a cape on the N.E, coaft of New Holland. It lies in 
S. lat. 14° 56'. W. long. 214° 43', and is a lofty promon- 
tory, making next the fea two hills, which have a third 
behind them, with low fandy ground on each fide; but it 
may be better known by three iflands out at fea; the largett, 
and northerrmoft, lying about five leagues from the cape, 
in the direGtion of N.N.E. This is fuppofed to be the. 
fame with that which eapt. Dixon called Caye Cox. 

FLATTING, or Fuatreninc. See Coinine. 

Friattinc-courfe, among Brick-makers. See Brick. 

Frarrinc-mill. See Mitzi and Gouxp-wire. 

FLATTS, fignify the fame with dirt-boats. or floats, 
which are reGtangular flat-bottomed and very fhallow veffels, 
ufed on the Merfey and other navigable rivers, for moving 
ftuff to repair the banks of a canal, and other purpofes ; in 
fome places the ordinary trading boats are fo called. 

FLATULENCE, in Medicine, from the Latin, flatus, 
a puff, or b/a/? of wind, fignifies the generation and dif- 
charge of ar, or gas, in and from the human body, 
efpecially in the ftomach and intettines. 

There are only two fources from which air can be 
generated in the paflages juft mentioned ; namely, their 
contents, and the blood-veffels which fecrete other fluids 
into them. The firft of thefe, the fubftances contained 
in and paffing through the alimentary canal, are the ordi- 
nary fources of flatus: for although we know that in fome 
animal ftru@tures, as in the air-bladder of fifhes, the veffels 
appear to be adapted for the fecretion of air; and although 
it is not improbable that, in fome morbid conditions of the 
organs of the human body, the blood-veffels occafionally 
fecrete air, as was {uggetted by Mr. John Hunter; yet, 
jn general, we have a much more natural folution of the 
problem, in the difengagement of air from the fubttances 
taken for the purpofe of nutriment. All ‘animal and 
vegetable fubftances difengage a confiderable quantity of 
air in the courfe of their decompofition, whether by fer- 
mentation or putrefaction, It appears from the experi- 
mentsof Dr. Hales, that an apple, and many other kinds 


FLA 


of aliment, give out fix hundred times their own bulk of 
an elaftic gas during fermentation. But the procefs of 
digeftion, when well performed, prevents this fermentation 
from taking place ; and the folvent power of the gaftric 
juice converts the food into chyle without any difengagee 
ment of air. When, however, the digeftive procefs is 
imperfe€ily carried on, the aliment, and efpecially the 
vegetable part af it, is fuffered to go into a partial fere 
mentation, of which the difengagement of air is a neceflary 
confequence. Flatulence, therefore, is not fo much a 


difeafe in itfelf although generally confidered fo by thofe. 


who are troubled with it, as a /ymptom of indigeftion, or 
of a-weakened condition of ftomach ; and hence, althongh 
a flatulent diftenfion of this organ may be relieved by the 
means which we fhall enumerate, it can only be entirely 
cured by reftoring the flrength of the flomach. See 
Dyspepsia, and InpIGESTION. : 

Flatulence occafions various feelings of diftrefs, according: 
to the part of the alimentary canal in which the wind is & - 
nerated or pent up. Whenit is copioufly generated in the 
ftomach, and does not pafs readily through the upper orifice, 
to be difpelled by erudation, it produces all the diftrefling 
confequences which are attendant on great diftenfion of that 
organ: in fome inftances great pain of the ftomach is 
excited, either by the fimple extenfion of the fibres, or by 
partial fpa/modic contraétions; in others, efpecially in 
hytfterical habits, the adjoining organs are confiderably 
affected by the preflure of the diftended ftomach; whence 
great anxiety and oppreffion are felt in the cheft, from 
the impediment to the free motion of the lungs and of the 
heart ; the refpiration becomes laborious and difficult, with 
a fenfe of fuffocation, and the heart intermits in its action, 
giving rife to intermiffion of the pulfe, or is excited to 
violent palpitations. Thefe fymptoms are generally alleviated 
by the difcharge of wind by eruétation: this alleviation 
however, is only temporary; for the flatus again accumulates 
and re-produces the fame effe&ts. The generation of air 
in the ftomach, in lefs degrees, is an ordinary concomitant 
of indigeftion; but it generally pafles off readily. Some 
people, indeed, acquire a habit of voluntary erutation, 
which, however, augments the malady. For, as Dr. Darwin 
juftly obferves, “ when people voluntarily ejeét the fixed 
air from their ftomachs, the fermentation of the aliment 
goes on the fafter; for {topping the veflels which contain 
new wines, retards their fermentation, and opening them 
again accelerates it; hence where the digeftion is impaired, 
and the ftomach fomewhat diftended with air, it is better to 
reftrain than to encourage eru@tations, except the quantity 
makes it neceflary.’? (Zoonomia, Clafsi. 3.1.) It has been 
fuggetted, and we think not incorreétly, that in the repeated 
voluntary attempts to difpel wind from the ftomach, which 
are often continued or fome length of t‘'m-, the atmofpheric 
air is often attually /wallowed, aid the difagreeable 
fenfation of diftenfion thus augmented. 

When air paffes from tie lower orifice of the ftomach 
into the inteftines, or when, as is perhaps more common, 
it is generated from the fermentation or putrefaétive 
changes of the alimentary matters in their courfe through 
the canal, other diftrefling fymptoms are produced. ‘The 
flighteft affetion of the bowels from flatulence is a fenfe 
of uneafinefs, with a rumbling or-gurgling noife in the 
belly, termed bordorigmus. This, however, is fometimes 
fuffic ently diftrefling, efpecially from drawing the attention 
of by-ftanders, and is net very uncommon in young women, 
about the age of puberty. <‘* I attended a young lady 
about fixteen,” fays Dr. Darwin, “ who was in other 


refpects feeble, whofe bowels almoft inceffantly made a 
gurgling 


FLA 


gurgling noife, fo loud as to be heard at a confiderable 
diftance, and to attra¢t the notice of all who were near her. 
As this noife never ceafed a minute together for many 
hours in a day, it could not be produced by the uniform 
defceat of water, and afcent of air through it, but there 
muft have been alternately a retrograde movement of a 
part of the bowel, which muit again have pufhed up the 
water above the air; or which might raife a part of the 
bowel, in which the fluid was lodged, alternately above 
and below another portion of it, asmight happen in fome 
of the curvatures of the fmaller inteftines, the air in which 
might be moved backward and forward like the air-bubble 
in a glafs level.” (Loe. cit.) 

The colic, which is occafioned by flatulence, (the cindy 
colic, or colica flatulenta,) avifes from partial collections of 
air, probably pent up by partial {pafmodic {trictures, 
efpecially in the colon, or great gut. The diitenfions, in 
fuch eas as Hoffmann has remarked, are moft frequently 
obvious in the right or left hypochondrium (under the 
fhort ribs), on account of the curvature of the bowel in 
thofe parts, by which the more ready paflage of its contents 
is impeded: and fuch diftenfions, he adds, have been mif- 
taken by perfons ignorant of anatomy, for tymours of the 
Spleen. Large and painful tumours are alfo fometimes 
obferved, above the {pine of the right ilinm, which are 
angmented by flatuient food. Hoffmann affigns their feat 
to the head of the colon, which is capacious and mufcular 
forthe purpofe of propelling the faces upwards, and which 
has been oceafionally feen fo much diflended, as to pufh 
forward the integuments, with confiderable pain, and to 
be in danger of being ruptured. The nature of fuch 
tumours may be learnt from the relief to the pain and 
diminution of the {welling, which follow the emiffion of 
Alatus, or the copious difcharge of a tenacious matter, by 
vomiting or by itool. A great diftenfion of the colon 
ecéafions very fimilar diftreffing fymptoms, to thofe which 
arife from diftenfion of the itomach, from the preffure 
produced on the furrounding organs. Hoffmann obferves, 
that pains in the loins, intermiffion of the pulfe, edematous 
{wellings of the feet, &c. originate often in flatulent dif- 


.tenfions of the bowels, compreffling the great veffels and 


nerves. (Hoffmann, Med. Rational. feét. i. cap. v. § 57.) 
See Corica. 

Sometimes the whole abdomen is enlarged by the 
general diftenfion of the bowels with air, accompanied by 
conftipation. When this diftenfion has been of fome 
duration, a degree of paralyfis of the mufcular fibres of 


‘the inteftines is produced, their power in expelling the 


wind is loft, and the integuments of the abdomen become 
fenfe, like a drum; the patient becomes emaciated and 
Aabid. This difeale is called Tympanites; which fee. 

For the relief of flatulence, (the radical cure, as we 
haye slready obferved, can only be effefied by curing the 
debility of the ftomach and bowele,) a number of medicines 
have been devifed, from a very early period of time, efpe- 
cially fuch as are comprehended under the appellation of 
_Garminatives, (which fee), ‘Thefe ure generally fubftances 

ofieffing itvong fenfible qualities, which render them in- 
“Hensescoully flimulant to the nervous fyftem; and by 
fuddenly exciting the mufcular coat of the ftomach to 
action, enable it to overcome the diftenfion, and difpel the 
diftending gas. ‘The aromatic vegetables, containing much 
_effential oil, fuch as juniper berries, the feeds of aniley 
-earraway, and coriander, the roots of gingerand zedoary, 
and the waters diftilled from thefe, are among the moit 
efteemed carminatives, ‘To thefe may be added other 
ftimulant and antifpafmodic medicines; fuch as aflafe- 


FLA 


tida, and other ftrong fmelling gums; volatve alkali; 
opium, xther, &c. Warm fomentation externally to the 
region of the {tomach has been recommended by Dr. Darwin, 
and other external remedies were employed by Dr. Whytt; 
efpecially frictions on the region of the itomach, with lini- 
ments compofed of the warm oils; fuch as the exprefled 
oil of mace, oil of mint, &c.; and alfo the application of 
large platters to the belly, made with the ftimulating gums 
and gum-refins. He confidered xther and opium, however, 
as the molt effe&tual remedies for fatulence. Dr. Derwia 
recommends ten corns of black pepper fwallowed whole 
after dinner, that its efle@s may be flower and more per- 
manent,” inthe borborygmi of young women. We have 
feen them fufpended by any fubftance, taken isto the 
ftomach, “as a piece of dry bifcuit, which, by the way, 
the late Dr. Buchan contidered ** as one of the beft car- 
minative medicines,” and recommends it in all complaints of 
the dtomach, arifing from flatulence indigeftion. "Thefe 
diforders are often particularlytroublefome when the fiomach 
is neerly empty, and perhaps the cperation of a bifcuit 
taken at fuch times is merely that of relieving this tem- 
porary vacuity, which any other light aliment weuld 
effe&. 

As the proper digeftion of the food is much aided by a 
regular motion and difcharge of the excrementitious portion 
ef it downwards, wherever the bowels are conftipated, 
particular care fhould be taken to obviate this tardinefs of 
their aétion, by conjoining ftimulant laxatives with the dif- 
pellers of wind. Hence pills, confifting of aloes, calomel, or 
rhubarb, combined with affafeetida, ginger, &c. may be ad- 
vantageoufly adminiftered. To thefemeans the genera! reme- 
dies for indigeftion fhould be added, as weil thofe which 
{trengthen theconftitution at large,as thofe which give vigour 
to the ftomach in particular ; fuch are efpecially the aromatic 
bitters, preparations of fleel, and exercife. And the diet 
fhould be fele¢ted from thofe materials which do not readily 
pafs into the vinous or acetous fermentation, and which 
are eafy of digeftion: hence greens, peas, beans, and other 
fimilar vegetable matters fheuld be avoided, as well as 
liquors which are in a ftate of aGtive fermentation, and 
confequently difengaging elaftic air; and particular attention 
fhould be paid to moderation. in eating and drinking, fo 
that the digeitive powers may not be oppreffed and over- 
come. For, as we have already obferved, when fpeaking of 
Diet, excefsin quantity is, in general, much more pro- 
du&tive of injury, than any unwholefome quality in the 
articles of food which we ule. 

FLATULENT, fomething that has a relation to fia- 
tufes, or blaits of wind. 

Peas, and moft kindé of pulfe, onions, &c. are flatuleat 
foods. 

FLAT-Works, in Mining, fignify {mall pipe-works 0: 
bodies of ore, which, initead of being depofited in a rake or 
{traight vertical fiffure of the rock, is found in an herizontal 
potition, or nearly fo, between the beds of ftone, or fome- 
timesin the fubitance of the itone itfelf, according to Mr. 
W. Martin; this kind of mine is very rare in Deraythire. 

FLAVEL, Joun, in Biography, a celebrated Englith 
divine, was born in Werecelterfhire about the year 1627 
He waseducated at the Univerfity-ccllege, Oxford, where 
he took his degree of B. A. In 1650, he fettled as affiitant 
minilter to Mr. Walplate, reSor of Diptford in Devorthire, 
and {hortly after fucceéeded to the reGtory, which, however, 
in 1656, he refigned in order that he might enlarge the 
{phere of his ufefulnefs, by becoming miniiter of a very po- 
pulousparifh at Dartmouth; though the ftipend in this fituas 
tan wag much lefé advantageous than that which he had 

a 2 heli. 


FLA 


Yeft.. In’ 1762, the} was among the number of ejected 
minifters, for refufing the terms propofed by the act of 
uniformity. He did not, however, entirely feparate himfelf 
from his people, but preached and admimiftered the facra- 
ment privately, till the paffing of the Oxford aé& in 1665, 
which prohibited non-conforming minifters from refiding 
within five miles of any city, corporate town, &c. or any 
place where they had preached. Mr. Flavel was now 
obliged to retire to Slapton, avvillage five miles from Dart- 
mouth, where he preached to thofe who durit. venture to 
become his auditors, and fometimes he vifited his former 
people, but this required the greateft care on his part to 
avoid that perfecution which would unqueftionably follow 
the violation of the Jaw. His zeal in fome inftances led 
him to the exercife of his talents at a hazard of his fafety ; 
once in a wood about three miles from Exeter, a congrega- 
tion aflembled to hear him, but he had fearcely begun when 
aparty, fent for the purpofe, furrounded the place of meet- 
ing, and it was with the utmoft difficulty he efeaped ; 
others who were fuppofed the leaders were apprehended and 
' heavily fined. Thote who were more fortunately circum- 
ftanced, remembering the admonition, “ that if perfecuted 
in one place they fhould flee to another,’’ accompanied 
their preacher to an adjoining wood, where he preached 
without moleftation. In 1685, the mob was excited 
againft him, and would probably have deftroyed him, had 
he fallen into their hands ; to avoid therefore the threatened 
evil he came to London. Here, however, he was not long 
fafe ; in one inftance while a number of perfons were aflem- 
bled, a party of foldiers broke in upon them, and though 
Mr. Flavel again efcaped, yet an aged minifter, Mr. Jenkins, 
fell into their hands, and was thrown into Newgate, where he 
fuffered fo mueh hardfhip, as fpeedily to terminate his life. 
After fome ftay in the metropolis, he returned to Dart- 
mouth, where, a prifoner in his own houfe, he was ufeful 
in affording private inftructions to thofe who reforted to him 
for the purpofe. In 1657, when king James affumed the 
right of difpenfing with the laws, and granting more liberty 
to non-conformills, Mr. Flavel’s congregation immediately 
obtained for him a large place, in which he was enabled to 
exercife his minifterial functions ; and by the revolution in 
1688, he was permitted to do that by law which he had 
performed before by connivance. He died at Exeter in 
1691, in his 64th year, having long poffeffed, in an eminent 
degree, the refpeé& and efteem of all good men. He was a 
man of exemplary piety, and his various works were once 
much read, and are ftill regarded by thofe. who hold cal- 
winiftic fentiments. They were colleéted after his death in 
two volumes folio. Calamy’s Ejected Minitters. 

FLAVERIA, in Botany, from flavus, yellow, becaufe 
it is ufed in dyeing that colour by the inhabitants of Chili, 
Juff. 186. (Gupatorio-phalacron, n. 5; Vaill. Act. Ed. 
Germ. 598.)—-Clafs and order, Syngencfia Polygamia-equalis. 
Nat.. Ord. Compofite difcoidea, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl. 

Gen. Ch. Conimon calyx oblong, of three or four equal, 
cohering, obtufe, ribbed, unarmed {cales. Cor. compound, 
uniform, difcoid; florets few, all uniform, perie&, fertile, 
monopetalous, funnel-fhaped, with a regular, tive cleft, 
{preading border. Stam. Filaments five, capillary, fhort ; 
anthers united into a cylindrical tube, prominent. Pi. 
Germen flender; ftyle thread-fhaped; ftigmas . flender, 
bluntifh, fpreading, projecting beyond the anthers. Peric. 
none, except the folded leaves of the permanent calyx. 
Seeds folttary, oblong, ftriated, naked. Recep?. very {mall, 
naked. 

-Eff. Ch. Receptacle minute, naked. Down none. Calyx 


ef five equal, ribbed, pointlefs, at length folded, leaves, . 


FLA 


Florets few, tubular. Seeds ftriated,. enfolded in tlie 
calyx. vu 

1. F. capitata. Jufl, MSS. Flowers in aggregate coryme 
bofe heads.—(Ethuilia bidentis; Linn. Mant. rro. Willd; 
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1741. See Erxuria.—Eupatorioides falicis 
folio trinervi, ‘flore luteo, vu'go Contrahierba; Feuill. Pl. 
de Perou & Chili, 18. t. 14.)—Native of Chili, where it. 
was gathered by Feuillée, who mentions its affording a fine 
yellow dye, if boiled in common water; and fubfequently 
by Mr. Menzies, to whom we are obliged for a fpecimen in 
ripe fruit. It has been cultivated in the royal garden at 
Paris, whence we received a fpecimen in flower by favour 
of M. de Juffieu, marked with his cwn fpecific name as 
above. This is precifely the fame as the Lthulia bidentis of 
the Linnzan herbarium, whofe native country was never 
before afcertained.—The rvot is fibrous, and appears to be 
annual. Stem from one to two feet high, ereét, ftraight, 
angular, ftriated, {mooth, often purplifh, folid, leafy, with 
feveral oppofite, itraight, f{preading, forked branches. 
Leaves oppofite, ftalked, fpreading, lanceolate, acute, 
three-ribbed, {mooth, with numerous incurved ferratures. 
Footftalks dilated at the bafe, and clafping the ftem. 
Flowers terminal, yellow, numerous, ina fort of compound 
corymbus, very ill-drawn by Feuillée. The ultimate ftalks 
are each a fort of compreffed rachis, on which the flowers 
are ranged alternately, in afpiked manner, with a braétea 
under each, and feveral fuch ftalks combine to form a denfe 
level-topped head. All the parts of the inflorefcence and 
flower are {mooth, except a few hairs now and then at the 
edges of the principal ftalks. When in fruit, the whole 
affumesa pale hue, the calyx becomes gibbous, containing 
rarely more than one grey, flender, obovate, neatly ribbed 
feed. The inflorefcence of this plant greatly refembles that 
of Valeriana Cornucopie, and fome others of the fame 

enus. 

: 2. F. fpicata. Jufl. MSS. Flowers in compound fpikes. 
Gathered by the unfortunate Dombey in Peru; fee Dom- | 
BEY. One of his {pecimens was given us by M. de Juflieu, 
with the name we have adopted, and a very fine one was. 
found, without any mark, in the herbarium of the younger 
Linneus. This fpecies has altogether the afpe&t of a So/i- 
dags; but the fem is fhrubby, with many round, or flightly 
angular, roughifh, leafy and flowery branches. Leaves 
oppofite, flalked, lanceolate, narrow, {mooth above; with 
three ribs, which are rough beneath; anda few fhallow 
diftant ferratures. Spikes very numerous, oppofite, lateral 
and terminal, with innumerable little, yellow, crowded, 
{eflile, bra@teated flowers, whofe calyx-leaves are fringed, 
roughifh and very obtufe. #Vorets about three. Seed fhaped 
like the ‘aft, but fmaller, blackifh, and with fearcely more 
than four angles or ribs. The flavour of the plant is 
flightly bitter and aromatic. S. 

FLAVIA Cazsartensts, in Ancient Geography, a pro- 
vince of Britain, which extended over the whole breadth of 
the ifland where it is broadeft, from the Land’s End ia 
Coruwall, tothe South Foreland in Kent ; and was bounded 
on the S. by the Englifh channel, on the N. by the 
Briftol channel, the Severn, and the Thames. It compre- 
hended the countries of the Danmonii, Durotrigées, Belge, 


.Attrebatii, Regni, and Cantii; which are now Cornwall, 
‘Devonfhire, Dorfetfhire, Somerfetfhire, Hampthire, Wilt- 


fhire, Berkfhire, Surrey, Suffex, and Kent. This pro. 
vince was not firft eftablifhed, but the countries compre. 
hended in. it made a part of the one province in Britain, 
fromthe time when they were fubdued, to the reign of the 
emperor Severus. When that emperor divided the Roman ~ 
territories in Britain inte. two provinces, thefe countries . 


FLA 


fnade a part of the fouthern one, and fo continued until 
Conftantine the Great formed them into a diilinét pro- 
vince, which was called Flavia Cefarienfis, from Flavius, 
one of the names of that emperor. The other four :pro- 
vinces were Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, Maxima 
Cefarienfis, and Valentia. Britannia Prima was probably 
fo named becaufe it contained fome of the countries which 
firft f{ubmitted to the Romans, in this ifland. This pro- 
vince was bounded on the fouth by the Thames, oa the eaft 
by the Britifh ocean, on the north by the Humber, and on 
the weft by the Severn; and comprehended the countries of 
the Dobuni, Cattivellauni, Trinobantes, Iceni, and Cori- 
tani; which are now Gloucefterfhire, Oxfordthire, Buck- 
inghamfhire, Bedfordthive, Hertfordfhire, Middlefex, Effex, 
Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgefhire, Huntingdonfhire, North- 
amptonfhire, Leicefterfhire, Rutlandfhire, Lincolushire, 
Nottinghamfhire, and Derbyhhire. 

Britannia Secunda perhaps received that name, when 
Severus divided the Roman dominions in Britain into two 
provinces, of which this was the fecond. It was bounded 
on the fouth by the Briftol channel and the Severn, on the 
weit by St. George’s channel, on the north by the Irifh fea, 
and on the eaft by Britannia Prima. This province con- 
tained the countries of the Cornavii, Silures, Demete, and 
Ordovices, which are now Warwickhhire, Worcefterhhire, 
Staffordfhire, Shropfhire, Chefhire, Herefordthire, Rad- 
norfhire, Brecknockthire, Monmouthfhire, Glamorganfhire, 
‘Caermarthenfhire, Pembrokethire, Cardiganfhire, Mont- 
gomeryfhire, Merionethfhire, Caernarvonfhire, Denbighthire, 
and Flintfhire. For an account of the other two provinces, 
fee Maxima Casariensis and VaLENTIA. 

‘' FLAVIANO, Sr. a town of Naples, in Abnizzo 
Ultra, near the Adriatic; 12 miles N. E. of Teramo. 

FLAVIANUS, in Biography, patriarch of Antioch in 
the fourth century, is diftinguifhed for his zeal in oppofing 
Arianifm. . Upon the death of Meletius, he was. elected 
his:fucceffor, in the year 381, by the fuffrages of the coun- 
cil of Conftantinople, notwithttanding Paulinus, the col- 
league of Meletius, was ftill living, and that Flaviaaus him- 
felf had formerly {worn not to confent to the eleGtion of any 
fucceffor to Meletius during the life of Paulinus. His 
election caufed a confiderable {chiim in the Chriftian world. 
The weltern bifhops declared themfelves on the fide of 
Paulinus, and the greater part of the eaftern bifhops de- 
fended the rights of Flavianus. ‘The death of Paulinus, and 
the prudent condu& of Flavianus, put the latter in quiet 
pofleifion of his fituation. After this he fignalized himfelf 
in defence of orthodoxy, and in perfecuting the heretics ; 
he entitled himfelf to the gratitude of the citizens of An- 
tioch by his fuccefsful inti rpofition on their behalf at the 
court of Conftantinople, when they had incurred the 
emperor’s difpleafure, and dreaded his refentment. For 
during the courfe of a popular tumult, occafioned by the 
impofition of a new tax, various outrages had been com- 
mitted, and the ftatues of the emperor ‘heodofius and his 
emprefs were overthrown. The moit exemplary vengeance 

was threatened, but, by the eloquent interceflions of the 
patriarch, pardon was obtained for the offenders. “he ad- 
drefs which he delivered on this occafion was {aid to have 
been cpmpofed by St.Chryfoftom, who thought very 
highly of Flavianus, as one of the greateit orsaments of 

_the church. Flavianus died in the year 4o4.. He publifhed 
fome epiftles and fome homilies... Moreri. 

Fiavianus, patriarch of Conitaatinople in the fifth 
century, was elected to that dignity in the year 447. An 
unfortunate mifunderftanding took place between Flavianus 


and Chryfaphius, the fir chamberlain and favourite of the. 


FLA 


emperor, which terminated in the ruin. of the patriarch. 
He was depofed and banifhed; and, unable to fuftain the 
feverities inflicted on him, died in 450, at Hypzpa in Lydia, 
the place of his exile. Flavianua was the author of « Two 
Letters”? to pope Leo, which are extant in the fourth 
volume of the ‘ Colleétio Conciliorum ;”’ and alfo of « A De- 
claration of Faith delivered to the Emperor Theodofius.” 
Moreri. 

FLAVIGNAG, in Geography, a town of France, in the 
department of the Upper Vienne; i2 milesS.W. of Limoges. 

FLAVIGNY, VAcerian DE, in Biography, a French 
ecclefiaftic, was born at Laon early in the feventeenth cen- 
tury. He was admitted to the degree of doctor of divinity 
by the faculty of the Sorbonne in the year 1628, and 
fhortly was made canon of Rheims. In the year 1630 he 
was nominated profeffor of the Hebrew. language in the 
college-royal of France, and difcharged the duties of that 
office with high reputation. In 1656 he became dean of 
the college-royal, and died at Paris in 1674, atan advanced 
age. He was eiteemed very learned in theology and the 
oriental languages, but was diftinguifhed by much violence 
of temper and a very bitter fpivit, which he difplayed on 
many occafions. In 1663 he lodged a formal complaint 
before the faculty of the Sorbonne, againft a thefis that had 

een maintained by the jefuits of the college of Clermont, 
the obje& of which was to prove, that as the doétrine of 
Copernicus was contrary to feripture, condemned by the 
Vatican, and anathematized by the inquifition of Rome; it 
was decidedly inconfiftent with the faith of the church, and 
ought not to be defended in France. M. Flavigay, in 
anfwer to this, attempted to prove that the thefis weat 
to vielate the rights of the king and kingdom, and to fet 
at» nought the authority of parliament. He engaged in 
many other difputes, but his controverfies relative to the 
Polyglott publithed by M. le Jay, and the purity of the 
Hebrew text, is his moft important work. It is known 
by the title « Epiftole de Heptaplis Parifienfibus.” 


-Moreri. 


Fiavicny, in Geography, a@ town of France, in the 
department of the Coté d’Or, and chief place of a canton, 
in the diftri&@ of Semur, feated on the Ozerain; 27 miles 
W.N.W. of Dijon. The placecontains 1305 and the canton 
12,392 inhabitants, on a territory of 300 kiliometres, ia 23 
communes. 

FLAVIOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, VERMEO or 


Berme£o, a.town and colony of Spain, in the Tarragonentisy 


fituated on the coaft, at the bottom of a {mall gulf, in the 


country of the Autrigones; called alfo, according to Pliny, 
Amanum Porrus, 

FLAVIONAVA, .or Frayium, a town of Spain, in 
the Tarragonenfis, in the territory of the Perficl, accord- 
ing to Ptolemy; fituated on the fea-coalt in the country of 
the Cantabri ; fuppofed to be the modera SANTANDER. 

FLAVIOPOLIS, atown and colony of Thrace, which, 
according to Pliny fucceeded the ancient Zela, and not far 
from Bizyar. It derived.its new name from Veipafian and 
Titus, who were of the Flavian family. —Alfo, a town of 
Afia, in Bithynia ; called alfo Cratea and Cratia—Alfo, a 
town of Afia, in Cilicia, fituated at the foot of mount” 
Taurus, and near the fources of the Calycadnus, -probably 
the Flaviada of the Itinerary: of Antonine, who marks it 
on the route from Cafarea.of Cappadocia to Anazarbe 

FLAVITAS, in Biography, patriarch of Conitanti- 
nople, the immediate fucceffor of Acacius, was raifed to 
that high dignity, from the fituation of prefbyter of the 
church of St. Thecla, by means of a ftratagem, which the - 
{uperftition of Zeno furnithed him with aa opportunity of 

practifing. 


FLA 


practifing. The prince, on the death of Acacius, depaficed 
on the altar of the great church a blank letter, fealed with 
his own feal, and accompanied witha writing, in which he 
and the whole church bound themfelves to choofe fuch a 

erfon whofe name fhould be found written within the 
blank letter. The church was fhut up, and all the avenues 
carefully guarded by night and by day. Forty days fafting 
was enjoined, during which prayers were offered up to the 
Almighty, that he would be pleafed te direét an angel to 
infcribe in the letter the name of the perfon moft adapted 
to the office. Flavitas bribed the foldiers or their com- 
mander, broke the feal, and infcribed his own name. 
Such, however, was his renown for piety, that no fufpicion 
of fraud fell upon hin, and when it was, found that his 
name had been written by an heavenly hand, he was with 
loud acclamations proclaimed bifhop of Conttantinople. 
His hypocrify was of little avail, though it cheated the 
foolifh emperor and his fuperftitious court, for he had no 
arts to ward off the hand of death, to whofe fummons he 
yielded in a few weeks after his advancement. The fraud 
was now difcovered ; the eftate of Flavitas was confifeated, 
and the perfon participating in the villainy was condemned 
to die, Moreri. 

FLAUTINO, Jal. a f{mall, or o€tave flute. 

FLAUTO, Jtal. a flute. 

FLAW, at Sea, figuities a fudden guft of wind, other- 
wife called /guall. 

FLAX, in Botany. See Linum. 

Frax, Carolina. See Porypremum. 

Friax, Purging. See Linum Catharticum. 

Frax, Toad. See Linaria and ANTIRRHINUM. 

Friax, Bafard-toad. See Tuestum. 

Fax, in Agriculture, is the name of a plant cultivated 
equally for the bark, or covering of its ftalk, and its feed ; 
the former being ufed in making linen cloth, and the latter 
for oil which is drawn from it by preffure, and for the refufe 
or cake. The ftem of the plant, which is round and hollow, 
grows to the heiht of about two feet, and then divides 
into feveral branches ; UL. are terminated by blue flowers, 
confiting of five petals, and are fueceeded by capfules 
divided within, into ten cells, in each of which is enclofed 
a bright, flippery, elongated feed. The leaves are long, 
narrow, fharp-poiuted, and placed alternately along the ttem 
and branches of the plant. 

Scil, The moft proper fort of foil for flax isa deep, free 
loam, fuch as is not liable to become too much charged with 
moifture, or too dry ; but which has been rendered fine by 
tilth, fueh as thofe fituated in a valley bordering upon 
water, or as is thrown up by rivers. If there be water at a 
fmall depth below the furface of the ground, it is thought, 
by fome itil! better, as is the cafe in Zealand, which is re- 
markable for the finenefs of its flax; and where the foil is 
deep and rather iiff, with water almott every where, at the 
depth ofa foot and a half, or two fect, underneath it. It is 
faid to be owing to the want of this advantage, that the 
other provinees of Holland do not fucceed equally well in 
the culture of this ufeful plant; not but that fine flax is alfo 
raifed on high lands, if they have been well tilled and ma- 
nured, provided the feafons aie not very dry and unfriendly 
to its growth in that way. 

Tt has been remarked, inthe papers of the Dublin Agri- 
cultural Socicty, that moift ftiff foils yield much greater 
quantities of flax, and far better feed, than can be obtained 
from light lands; and that the feed fecured from the former 
may, with proper care, be rendered full as good as any that 
is imported from Riga or Zealand. M. du Hamel, howe 
ever, thinks that Srong land can hardly yield fuch tine flax 


ELSA 


as that which praws on lighter grounds. With due pul- 
verization and preparation, there can be no doubt but that 
ftrong iands will afford excellent crops of good flax. . It is 
feldom that either light fandy or gravelly foils anfwer well 
for crops of this kind. Land for flax fhould neither be in 
too great a flate of fertility, or be too much exhaulted, as 
in the former cafe the flax ts Hable to become too luxuriant, 
and the produce in confequence of it, of a coarfe quality ; 


-while under the latter circumftance the quantity of produce 


is very {mall. 

It has been ftated by Mr. Donaldfon, that flax is fowa 
after all forts of crops, but is found to fucceed beft on lands 
lately broken up from grafs. And that io Scotland, the 
mott fkilful cultivators of flax generally prefer lands from 
which only one crop of grain has been taken, after having 
been feveral years in paflure. When fuch lands have been 
limed or marled, immediately before being laid down to 
grafs, the crop of flax feldom or never mifgives, unlefs the 
feafon prove remarkably adverfe to it. It fucceeds in ge- 
neral better after green crops, than thofe of the grain kind, 

Preparation. The Jand, in order to render it &t for the 
growth of this fort of crop, requires to be rendered per- 
fectly fine and mellow, by being repeatedly ploughed over, 
and broken down by fevere harrowings. Where grafs land 
is to be broken up for this crop, it fhould be done in the 
autumn, and left expofed to the influence of the atmo- 
fphere, until the early part of the following year, when it 
fhould be well pulverized and broken down by heavy har- 
rowing, then in the courfe of a week or two ploughed 
again, in which {late it may remain till the period of putting 
in tke feed, when another light harrowing should be given, 
and the ploughing performed afterwards by a very light 
furrow, But in cafes where the crop is fown after grain, 
or other crops that have the property of keeping the land 
clean from weeds, the firft ploughing need not be given till 
January, when it may remain in that fituation until it bo~ 
comes pretty dry in the early fpring, being then. well 
reduced by good harrowing and rolling ; and after continu. 
ing in that ftate about a fortnight, the feed may either be 
immediately put in, or another hight ploughing and harrows 
ing be firft given. 

Sced.~ With regard to the choice of feed, the fame 
writer ftates that, that which is ef a bright brownith 
colour, oily to the feel, and at the fame time weighty, is 
confidered the beft. Linfeed, imported from various 
countries, is employed. That brought from Holland is 
however in the higheft eftimation, as it not only ripens 
fooner than any other that is imported, but alfo produces 
greater crops, and flax of that quality which beft fuits the 
chief manufactures of this country. American feed pro 
duces in common fine flax; but neither the quantity of flax, 
nor of the pods, provincially the ‘ boils”? which contain the 
feeds, is fo large as the produce from Dutch linfeed. The 
Riga feed. yields a very coarfe fort of flax, but 4 greater 
quantity of feeds than any other. It is common im fome 
parts of Scotland to fow feeds faved from the crop the 
preceding year, efpecially when the crop wae raifed from 
feed imported from Holland. ‘The fuccefs of this praétice 
is found to depend greatly on changing the feed from one 
fort of foil to another of an oppofite nature ; but the faving 
ia the expence of purchaling that fore of feed, in place of 
what is newly imported from Holland, is fo inconfiderable, 
and the nik of the crop mifgiving, fo much greater in the 
one cafe than in the other, thet ir as fuppofed thofe onl 
who are ignorant of the conieguences, er who are compell 
from neccflity, are chargeable with this act of ill-judged 
parfimony in the bufinefs. 

The 


FLAX. 


The cultivators of flax in Ireland prefer the American 
feed for the lighter and more elevated expofed lands; but 
the Baltic or Dutch for thofe which are of a heavier quality. 
The feed of home produce is often fown for white flax in 
Yorkfhire ; but the Baltic fort is moftly preferred where 
feed is the object ; which for the enfuing year, and one ox 
two afterwards, is found to anfwer as well as white-flax 
Butvit is highly probable that if that which has been col- 
le&ted from the perfectly ripened feed of our own growth. 
be made ufe of, it will be equally produGtive in both the 
flaxy fubftance and the quantity of feed, and the former be 
equally valuable for all the purpofes of the maiufa@turer. 

Proporticn of Sced.—In refpe&t to the quantity of feed 
ufed, it varies in different places accoiding to the circum- 
ftances of the foil, the methods of fowing, and the ufes to 
which the crop is to be applied ; but from two bufhels, to 
two bufhels and a half, the Englifh ftatute acre, is the or- 
dinary ailowance. In determining the proper quantity 
neceilary for the acre, it is requifite to pay great attention 
to the condition of the Jand. When the land is rich and 
fertile, and the feafon- fo favourable that it can be got 
thoroughly pulverized, if too much feed is fown the crop 
is in great danger of lodging; and when that happens, par- 
ticularly before the pods are formed. the flax proves incon- 
fiderable in quantity, and very inferior in quality. When 
cultivated in the drill mode at narrow diitances, a much 
lefs quantity will be fufficient than in other cafes ; and 
where the intervals are large, fearcely one half the quan- 
tity is required. When the crops are intended for feed, in 
whatever manner the fowing is performed, much lefs will 
be neceffary, than where flax is the main objeét of the 
grower. 

Time of Sowing.—It may be cbferved, that this muft 
depend much upon the foil and fituation, but that the 
ordinary feafon of fowing flax-feed is from the middle of 
March to the middle or end of April; but the laft week of 
March, and the firft ten days of April, are efteemed the 
beit times; and, accordingly within thefe periods the 
greateit quantity of flax-feed is fown in this country. In 
the county of York, where this fort of crop is grown on 
Jand broken up from grafs, the feed is commonly fown 
before the fecond week in April, where it can poffibly be 
done; while on fuch lands as have been in a previous flate 
of tillage, the fowing is frequently deferred a week or ten 
days longer. Wherever it can be fafely practifed, early 
fowing has the advantage of getting the flax plants to cover 
the furface of the land well, before they can ren much rifk 
of injury from the rifing of weeds, or the parching effeéts 
of heat. 

In fome of the fouthern counties of Europe, however, 
the hufbandmen who raife flax fow part of their feed in 
September and OGcber ; fo that the plants which fpring 
from thence remain of courfe in the ground all the wiater ; 
and this may be a judicious practice in thofe places, be- 
eaufe plants which deve not covered the earth well befere 
the fummer heats come on, are apt to be parched by the 
heat and drought which ufually prevail in that feafon. 

They fow linfeed again alfo in the fpring; but the latter 
does not yield fo large a crop; the flax, however, which it 

roduces is more efteemed, becaufe it is finer than that 
Sev im autumn. M. du Hamel feems indeed to think, 
that the autumnal fowing yields the beit feed; but, how- 
ever that may be, in places where the winteris apt to be 
fevere, and where the flax, which is but a tender plavt, 
would in courfe-be in danger of being deftroyed during that 
feafon, almoit all the flax is fown about the end of March, 
er in the beginning of April, as already flated, 


It may be laid down as a general rule, that the land 
which is intended for flax crops fhould be brought to an 
exceeding fine tilth, in the way dire&ted above, before the 
feed is put in; and that it fhould be enriched by fome fort 
of manure fuited to the quality of the foil. Thus, when 
pafture lands are broken up, in order to their being fown 
with flax, they mutt be weil wrought during feveral morths, 
before they will.be fit for producing fuch creps, in the 
manner juit defcribed.. To defray the expence of this cul- 
ture, fome other crops may be got ff the land in the mean 
time, efpecially of fuch plants as do not occupy it long, and 
particularly of thofe which are remarkably benefited by 
frequent fticring of the earth whili they grow; fuch as 
beans, peafe, turnips, &c. becaufe thefe repeated ftirrings 
render the mould fine and loofe, and help to kit! the weeds, 
which would otherwife do great damage to the flax. It is 
afferted that the Livonians, when they clear wood-lands, 
burn the wood upon them, then plough them, and in this 
ftate préfer them to any other kind of foil for fax crops. 
If the land which is intended for flax be fhiff, greet care 
fheuld be taken not to work it when it is wet, for fear of 
kneading it; but it is often an excellent plan to work it 
deeply before winter, when dry, laying it up in very high 
ridges, in order that the winter frois may the more effec- 
tually moulder and lcofen its parts. In the month cf 
February, where the Jand is not too wet, fome very rotten 
dung fhould be laid on, and immediately covered over with 
the mould. The feed fhould afterwards, at the proper 
feafon, be fown, and harrowed in with a light or buth- 
harrow, fo as not to’ bury it too deep. “As this; when 
young, is a very tender plant, and 1s more eafily injured and 
checked in its progrefs by weeds than any other that is 
ufaally cultivated in the field, it is indifpenfably neceflary 
that the danger of injury in this way fhould be well guarded 
againit, in order to foe future trouble and expence. 

Methods of Sowing —Where the principal object of the 
grower is flax, the moft general method of putting in the 
crops is that of fowing them broadcait over. the jurface of 
the laid. In performing the bufinefs, much care is necef- 
fary that the feed be difperfed as evenly as poffible over the 
ground, to prevent the plants rifing in am unequal or tufty 
manner. It fhould be afterwards covered in by regular 
harrowing, once or twice in a place, with a light common 
or bufh-harrow, as juft.neticed, not covering it in teo 
deep. 

But where the feed conftitutes the chief intention of the 
cultivator, it is contended by fome that the drill mode is 
preferable, as requiring much lefs feed in fawing, anda& 
fording a much better and more abundant produce. Be- 
fides, the fmoothnefs and weight of the feed render it ex- 
tremely proper for being drilled; and the creps can be kept 
clean with greater facility. 

In this method, the diilances of the rows or duills fhould 
vary accordiig to the circumfances of the foil, and the 
manner in which the crops are to be kept clean. Where 
the hand-hoe is to be chiefly depended upon, narrow dif- 
tances: may be proper, as ten or twelve inches; but where 
the work is to be principally executed by the horfe-hee or 
cultivatar, larger intervals may be mere fuitable, as thofe 
of eighteen ov twenty inches. Slight harrowing and rolling 
are fometimes afterwards neceflary, efpecially the latter ia 
dry feafous. 

It has been obferved that thick fown flax rurs up in 
height, and produces fine foft flax; but that when fowa 
thin it does not nfe to fuch a height, but fpreads out more, 
fending off a preater number of fide branches, which pro- 
duce a gveat abundance of feed, which is much better filled, 

more 


FLAX, : b 


snore plump and heavy than that which is produced from 
thick fown flax crops. Flax crops cultivated in this way 
are not fo liable to be beaten down in bad weather, the ftems 
being ftronger and better fortified by the more free admif- 
fion of fun and air among them; and they are not fo much 
expoled to danger in weeding or cleaning the rows. 
Ajter-Culture of ihe Crop.— Where flax crops are fown 
in the broad-caft method, they are feldom much attended 


to afterwards: it is, however, highly ufeful and nece Tary 
that they fhould have one good hand-hocing, or weeding, 


as foonas ever the crop is fufliciently up; care being taken 
not to injure the plants by too much treading amonglt 
»them. 

Ta the drill manner of fowing, the after-culture of the 
crops muft be regulated by the diftance of the rows; but 
they may in general be cleaned from weeds, and kept in 
xigorous growth, by proper implements and horfe labour. 
The ground between the rows is moltly wrought by a pro- 
»per horfe-hoe, cultivator, or {mall hoe-plough, taking care 
that none of the mould is thrown againit the rows; to pre- 
vent which, the intervals may be hoed with a triangular 
harrow,’ haviug a proper number of iron tines in it, and 
guided by two handles fixed behind. . By thefe handles the 
tines are made to go deeper or fhallower at pleafure ; and if 
the intervals are cultivated with this inftrument, beginning 
before the earth is become ftale, and while the weeds are 
{mall, the land may be kept very clean, and in fine tilth, at 
‘much lefs expence than by hand-hoeing: for one horfe is 
fufficient for this work. A great deal may be done ina 
day ; and by a frequent repetition of the hoeings, efpecially 
when the earth is dry, the weeds may be fo-effectually kept 
down, as never to rife to any hefght. But the rows mutt 
be weeded by hand. : : 

With fome it has been a cuftom to fow, with their lin- 
feed, either annual or perennial grafs-feeds, when they in- 
tend to lay the land down for palture after the crop is 
taken off. But as grafs plants grow but weakly under the 
flax, it isa practice by no means to be recommended. No 
-other fort of crop fhould, however, be ever grown with this, 
as much injury may be done by it. 

Flax is fometimes damaged by infe&ts, when it is about 
three or four inches high. ‘Thefe, it is faid, may be de- 
ftroyed. by a flight ftrewing of foot, afhes, &c. over the 
crop. At all events, this drefling will give vigour to the 
flax, though it may not kill the isfeéts. 

If any weeds appear atterwards among the flax, as is al- 
mott always the cafe, they muft be thoroughly rooted out : 
and that the flax mray be as little damaged as poffible in the 
doing of this, the weeders fhould work as carefully as pof- 
ible. 

The fineft flax is moft liable to be laid, particularly in 
countries fubleG&t to ftorms. To guard againft this accident, 
fome people run acrofs their flax-felds flender poles fixed to 
fakes ; but a better method is to run fmall ropes acrofs 
‘the ticld, both lengthwife and breadthwife, where necef- 
fary ; for thefe being faftened where they interfe@ one an- 
other, and {upported by fakes at due diftances, form a 
kind of net-work, which is proof againft almoft every acci- 
‘dent that can happen from tempeftuous weather. Thefe 
practices are, however, both.troublefome and expenfive, 
and are feldom or ever neceflary where the crops have not 
been fown too thick on the ground. 

Pulling the Flax.—-Opimons are divided in regard to the 
degree of ripenels at which it is beft to pull flax crops. 
Some think it fhould be pulled whilft it is green, in order 
that its fibres may be the fofter and finer. Others, with 
the fame view, pull it up before its feeds are quite formed, 


And others, again, think that it fhould not be pulled titl 
fone of the capfules which contain the feeds have begun to 
open; being of opinion that the fibres of green flax are too 
tender, and that they fallinto tow. On the other hand, 
it is certain that the fibres of flax which has ftood till it is 
very ripe are always ftiff and harfh, that they are not eafily 
{eparated from the reed, ard that they do not bleach well. 
Here, therefore, as in moft other cafes, both extremes 
fhould be avoided ; and it confequently feems moft reafon- 


-able to think, that the propereit time for pulling flax is 


when its {talks bepin to turn froma green to a yellow, whea 
its leaves begin to fall, and when its feeds begin to be of a 
brownifh colour. 

Mr. Donalcfon obferves, that a crop of flax frequently 
grows fhort, and runs out a great number of feed-bearing 
branches. When that is the cafe, the feeds, not the flax, 
ought to be the farmer’s chief obje@ ; and the crop fhould 
be allowed to ftand till the feeds are in a great meafure per- 
fected. But that when the crop thrives, and is likely to be- 
come more valuable for the flax than the feeds, it fhould be 


pulled feon after the bloom drops off, and before the pods — 


turn hard ard (harp in the points. Whenever the feed is 
the main object, the crops fhould be perfectly ripened, 
which is clearly fhewn by the points of the feed-pods turn- 
ing hard and fharp, and the capfules beginning to crack. 
It ufually takes place towards the end of July, or beginning 
of the following month. 

Where the object is the flax, the erop is pulled up by the 
roots, and placed in fmall parcels, ufually termed dears, 
upon the furface of the land, fo as that it may beas fully as 
poflible expofed to the benefit of the fun. It is afterwards 
tied up, in order to be conveyed to the place where it is to 
undergo the procefs of watering. 

In the work of pulling the flax, it is ufual, when it is 
intended to fave the feeds, to lay it in handfuls, partly 
acrofs each other: the reafon for which is, that the bufinefs 
of rippling is thereby facilitated; as the ripplers, in place 
of having to feparate each handful from the bundle, find it, 
by this fimple precaution, already done to their hand. 

It may be further obferved, that although it is of much 
importance, yet it very feldom bee that much atten- 
tion is bellowed to feparate the different forts of flax from 
each other, in pulling the crops. In molt fields there are 
varieties of foils; of courfe, fome parts of a field will pro- 
duce fine flax, others coarfe; fome long, and fome fhores 
in a word, crops of different lengths and qualities. It 
cannot be fuppofed that ali thefe forts of flax will undergo 
an equal degree of watering, grafling, breaking, and heck- 
ling, without fuftaining great injury. Therefore, when 
flax of various qualities is promifcuoufly mixed together in 
pulling, it is impoffible to prevent fome part of it from 
being loft in the after-management ; a lofs which might be 
avoided with a {mall fhare of attention, and fome additional 
trouble when the crop is pulled, ‘Thofe who rent flax-mills 
are often blamed for embezzlement ; but, there is reafon to 
believe, very unjuttly. Becaufe the crop of a particular 
part of a field yields fuch a quantity of flax from one mill, 
it does not follow that the manager of another mill fhould 
return an equal quantity from the fame fpace, probably, of 
very inferior land. It is certain, in very many cafes, that 
the inattention of flax-farmers to the above very neceflary 
precaution is the caufe why crops of flax often turn out of 
fo little value, and is the principal reafon why the propor- 
tion of tow or inferior flax fo often exceeds, in ordina 
feafons, that of fuperior quality ; the millers and hecklers 
being obliged, in the courfe of their operations, owing to 
the mixed flate in which they receive the crop from th 

Z grower, 


. 


— 


FL 


tower, to reduce the quality of the whole to a lower 

andard than there would be any occafion for, were the 
different qualities forted, and put into their hands in that 
flate. 

As the flax is pulled, when for feed, it is, as has .been 
abferved above, laid together by handfuls, with the feed- 
ends turned to the fouth. Thefe handfuls fhould neither 
be quite ina line with each other, nor dire€tly acrofs, but a 
little flanting upwards, fo that the air may eafily pafs 
through them. Some, inftead of this method, tie the 
handfuls of flax loofely at the top, then fpread out their 
roots, and thus fet feveral of them together upright upon 
their roots. In either of thefe ways the flax is generally 
left twelve or fourteen days in the field to dry it. This 
drying is certainly not neceflary for the rippling, becaufe 
the ripple will feparate the capfules from the flax as 
effeGtually before it has been dried as it will afterwards ; 
and if it be done with a view to ripen the feed, it fhould be 
confidered, that the flax will be more hurt by the longer 
time of fteeping, which will become neceflary in confequence 
of this drying, than the feed cin be benefited ; becaufe the 
more the fub{tance or membrane which conneéts the fibres 
to the reed is dried, the greater muft be the degree of 
putrefaétion neceflary to looien and deftroy the cohefion of 
this conne€ting medium or membrane: the finer parts of 
the flax itfelf muft neceffarily be deftroyed by this degree 
of putrefaGtion ; and if the putrefaction does not arife to 
fuch a degree as to deftroy the cohefion of this fubftance or 
membrane, the fibres of the flax will adhere fo ftrongly to the 
reed. that the force neceflary in feutching will prove equally 
detrimental to the flax, The practice adopted in fome parts 
of Brittany feems therefore much more rational, which is, 
to ripple the flax after it has lain in the air two or three days; 
but even one day will be fufficient if the weather is dry. 
In faG, it is the beft method to do it as foon as poffible 
after the flax has been pulled. 

Rippling the Seed—in order to ripple, or force off the 
feed-capfules of the flax, which is the next operation, a 
large cloth fhould be fpread on a convenient {pot of ground, 
with the ripple placed inthe middle of it. This isa fort of 
comb, confifting of fix, eight, or ten long triangular teeth, 
fet upright, fo as to have the angles approaching pretty 
near each other, by which the parts containing the feed 
arg removed fromthe flax. In performing the bufinefs, the 
pods containing the feeds are forced from the ftalks by 
means of this iron-eomb, which is called a ripple, and which 
is firmly fixed on a beam of wood, on the ends of which 
two perfons fit, who, by pulling the feed-ends of the flax 
repeatedly through between the teeth of this comb, execute 
the operation in a very complete manner, and with great 
difpatch. int 

After the flax has been rippled, the feeds and pods thereby 
obtained fhould be fpread out thinly upon a cloth in the 
fun to dry and harden. Thofe feeds which feparate from 
the pods of their own accord are the fulleft and ripett, and 
fhould therefore be fet apart for fowing, in cafe the pre- 
caution of raifing fome flax purpofely for feed has not been 
attended to. ‘The pods or capfules are then broken, either 
by lightly treading, or by threfhing, in order to get out 
the remaining feeds, the whole of which, as well’as the 
former, fhould be carefully fifted, winnowed, and cleaned 
from dirt and chaffy matter. When the feed is laid up, 
which fhould be immediately done, it muft be frequently 
flirred and ventilated, to prevent its heating. 

This fecond fort of feed affordsa confiderable profit by 
the oil which it yields, ané aWo Fl es ufed when broken 
for fattening of cattle. The cakes of linfeed, after the 

Vor. XIV. 


PAS OX. 

oil has been preffed out of them, are likcwife found to be 
ufeful for this laft purpofe, though they are thought by 
fome to render the fat of cattle yellow ; for which reafon 
it is advifed not to give it them till within a few weeks 
before the b-afts are to be killed. They are likewife of 
great utility asa manure, but from the expence can feldom 
be employed in that way with advantage. See Oru- 
Cake. 

It has been remarked by the author of the « Prefent State 
of Hufbandry in Great Britain,’? that thofe who beftow 
moft attention on the cultivaticn of flax in Scotland, gene- 
rally ripple off the feed, even when there is no intention of 
faving it ; as it is found, when flax is put into water without 
taking off the pods, the water foon becomes putrid, in con- 
fequence of which the flax is greatly injured.- This im- 
perfectly ripened feed is improper for being fown, but may 
be expreffed for the oil. But when it is propofed to fave 
the feeds of flax, the pods are carried home from the field 
as foon as they are feparated from the flax; and cither 
laid on cloths, and expofed to be dried by the influence of 
the fun; or they are {pread on barn-floors. and turned two 
or three timesa day, till they are fo dry that the feeds can 
be eafily threfhed out in the ordinary way. This is the 
general mode adopted in Scotland. But in Dorfetthire 
they allow the flax to be on the field after it has been pulled, 
till the pods become fo dry, that the feeds can be threfhed 
out with a ftick ; which isdone ona board, or log of wood, 
placed in the field for the purpofe. It is likewife the 
practice with fome expert flax growers, where the chief 
obje& is the feed, to fet it up, after being tied up into 
fheaves, in the manner of corn, and, when thus rendered 
perfectly dry, to ftack it until the {pring following ; at which 
time, by placing the tops of the fheaves fo as to incline 
towards each other, and making ufe of a roller, the feed is 
readily forced out. It is f{uppofed that in this mode more 
time is allowed in the after-management of the produce. 

It may be ftated, that the quantity of feed produced on 
the flatute acre is generally from fix to eight, but fometimes 
as high as ten or twelve bufhels; and that the price depends 
in a great meafure on that of foreign feed imported; as, 
when fold to oil-makers, it is generally about one-half of 
that of Dutch feed, fold for the purpofe of fowing. The 
price of home-cultivated linfeed is confiderably advanced 
of late in fome ef the fouthern and weftern counties of 
the kingdom, in proportion to what it is in thofe of the 
northern, owing to the circumftance of its being muck 
ufed as food for fattening cattle. The average price of the 
linfeed cultivated in the kingdom at large cannot, it is 
fuppofed, be rated higher than from three to four fillings 
the bufhel. It has, however, lately been confiderab y 
higher. 

Watering. —This is the next operation that becomes 
neceflary with this fort of produce. The intention of this 
procefs, is that of inducing the feparation of the flaxy- 
material, by exciting a flight degree of fermentation in the 
fubftance which attaches it to the flem of the plant. It is 
accomplifhed in two ways, namely, by iteeping the flax in 
water ; and expofing it to the aGion and influence of the 
atmofphere. The former is the moft common and fafe 
method; the latter being lefs certain and exaé& in pro- 
ducing the neceflary changes. The firft mode is termed 
water-retting, and the lait decu-retting. 

In water-retting, when the flax has been cleared from 
the feed, it is loofely tied up into {mall bundles, and put 
into pools or ponds of foft ftagnant water, where it is 
fuffered to continue feveral days, according to the natural 
warmth of the water. As foft clear ftagnant water has 


4K beer 


FLAX, 


been found by long experience to be fuperior for this pur- 
pofe to any other, where that: cannot be obtained without 
art, a-pit or canal may be formed» adjoining a river or 
ftream, whence’ water can bereadily brought. This pit 
or canal is filled with water for fome time (a week or two) 
before it be propofed to pull the flax: by this means the 
water acquires a greater degree of warmth than river-water 
poffeffes, and which contributes greatly to facilitate the 
object farmers’ have’ in view in immerling green’ flax in 
water, namely, to make the harl or flaky fubftance part 
ealily and completely from the boon or reed. 

With refpeét to the period that flax ought to remain in 
the water, it depends on various circumftances; as the 
ftate of ripenefs in which it was pulled, the quality. and 
temperature of the water, &c, The molt certain rule by 
which to judge when flax is fufficiently watered is, when 
the boon becomes brittle, and the harl feparates eafily from 
it. The method of depofiting the flax in the water is in 
general that, after having it tied in {mall bundles, often at 
both ends, of placing it in a fort of fquare bed, the bundles 
being laid lengthways and croflways of each other, fo as 
to bind firmly together ; the whole is kept dowa by having 
a weight laid upon it. Some, however, inftead of this 
mode, have the fmall bundles fet in an ereét pofition, the 
tops of every layer, except the loweft, being upwards; 
and in place of keeping them down by the application of 
heavy weights, they ufe fods -or earth, treading the whole 
down occafionally, once or twice-at firft in the courfe of 
the day, fo as to keep the whole below the furface of the 
water, as, where the contrary happens, the flax is greatly 
injured by being rendered black. The firft is, moit pro- 
bably, the beft mode of management. 

When the flax has remained the proper length of time 
in thefe pits, it is taken out by means of a tool called a 
drag, and depofited in a ftraight manner on the fides or 
banks of them, in order to its becoming in fome meafure 
dry, and in a ftate for being {pread out on the grafs. 

With regard to dew-retting, although it is in general the 
practice, where flax is cultivated in this country, to immerfe 
it in water for fome time after it is pulled, yet in. Dor- 
fetfhire, and the neighbourhood, it is feldom done. There 
the flax is allowed to arrive at that ftate in which the harl 
parts moft eafily from the boon or reed, by a more gradual 
procefs, that of ripening or producing the neceflary pu- 
trefaGtion, by the ation and influence of the dew, which 
is nothing more than expofing the flax to the influence of 
the weather, thinly fpread out upona grafs field for a 
Jonger period than is neceflary, when the operation of 
watering has been previoufly performed. When the flax 
has been fo long expofed as to be judged fufficient ‘for 
effe&ting the feparation of the harl, nothing more is requifite 
than putting it up in parcels, or bundles, in order to its 
being broken and feutched. 

Grajfing.—After fteeping the flax, where the watering 
method is purfued, the only other operation which properly 
falls under the farmer’s attention is graffing it. For this 
purpofe it is commonly f{pread very thin on the sags 
and in regular rows; the one being made to over-lap the 
other a few inches, with a view of preventing, as much 
as poffible, its being torn up and {cattered by gales of 
wind. Old grafs-ground, where the herbage does not 
grow to any great height, is the beft for the pnrpofe ; 
as, when the grafs or weeds {pring up fo as to cover the 
flax, it is frequently rotted, or at leaft greatly injured 
thereby. 

Flax is allowed to remain on the ground, being occa- 
finally turned, till, by repeated trials, it is found that the 


boon has become. very brittle; fo that on being broken,, 
and rubbed between the hands, it eafily and freely parts - 
fromthe harl, It is then taken up, a dry day being chofen 

for the purpofe: and, being bound in fheaves, is either 

fent dire@ly to the mill, which is the ufsal praétice in 

the northen diftri&s, or broken and. fcutched, in the 

manner they do hemp, by amachine or tool contrived for 

that ufe. é 

- But before thefe operations ere capable of being performs 
ed, it is neceflary that the flax fhould be expofed to the 

heat of the fun, by placing it againit.a wall or paling, in a 

floping dire€tion, or to the gentle heat of a fire, by putting 

it over hurdles, or by introducing it into anoven, heated by 

the refufe flax. The heat in any way fhould be very mode~ 

rate, and regulated in an equal mauner. Avnd in either cafe: 
the flax fhould only be fuffered to remain juft long enough 

to difpel any dampnefs that it may have acquired. The 

sus is, however, always to be preferred where it can be 

ad. 

With refpe& to the produce, there is fcarcely any crop 
that is more variable than that of flaxin the quantity and 
quality. From twenty to feventy ftones of fourteen pounds 
each have been produced from an acre of land; but from 
forty to fifty ftones may be confidereda medium crop. The 
expence of the cultivation, and management of this crop 


afterwards, cannot beeftimatedon the average at lefs than 


from nine to twelve or fifteen pounds the acre, where flax is 
the object. ‘ 

It has been calculated in thefe ways in a northern and 
fouthern diftriGt of the kingdom, before the late great ad- 
vance in the price of labour. 


Expence per Acre, 


#. 5. d 
Working land $3 - - © 16 o 
Seed and fowing - - - on aes 
Cleaning and weeding - 4 =\, Bo SiGo 
Pulling - - - - O10 0 
Loading and watering, &c. - - ©10 30 
Taking and grafling - - - o1z2 0 
Turning and taking up - - NO... hao 
Rent of Land, as let - at 6s = 55, O 
Dreffing 50 ftone of flax, at 1s. 6d. per ftone 3 45 © 
Profit - ~ - - TAK Op 
SS 
20 10. oO 
Produce. 
50 ftones of flax, at 8s. per ftone - 20 1¢ @ 


The neat prefit ftands higher in the following :. 
Expences per Acre. a 


Preparation of land for -fowing - 60 ® 
Rent, tythes, and taxes, &c. + 2) tizeng, 
813 4 

Produce. : 
Forty ftones of flax. at gs. per ftone ~= 18 O © 
Bounty, at 4d. per ftone “ : 013 4 
18 13 4 
Profit ia Cllehe = > 10 0 @ 
——— 
ts 


llleedie nee a 


Poul A X. 


In Scotland, where the flax is often fold before it is pulled, 
the ufual price was formerly from fix to tea pounds the fla- 

tute acre, 

_. The produce and value of the feed has been fhewn 
above. 

It feems, on the whole, not improbable but that flax 
crops may be grown in many fituations with advantage. 

It is ufual for farmers in different parts of Scotland, who 
sent lands in the vicinity of large tewns or villages, to let 
fields to the inhabitants, for the purpofe of railing flax ; 
which is fuppofed by fame the moit advantageous mode of 
“any that can be adspted in cultivating the crop. ‘The rents 
in'thefe cafes are moftly fixed at from 3/. 10s. to 4/. the 
ftatute acre, according to the quality of the land, the 
farmer conftantly undertaking to cultivate the land in a pro- 

er manner. The fame practice, with a little variation, is 

alfo eftablifhed in-fome parts of England; the farmer 
rents or lets the land to a perfon who is denominated amiddle- 
man, or flax-jobber, and whofe bufinefs it is to perform all 
the various operations after the feed is fown; which, as in 
the former cafe, is always furnifhed by the renter, the farmer 
having nothing more to do than to plough and harrow the 
ground. ; 
~ When not grown upon newly broken upland, flax may 
fucceed turnips and.potatoes with great propriety. The 
feed is ufually called /infeed, which fee. See alfo Orn. 
_Fr4x-Dreffing, denotes thevarious operations which are ne- 
, ceflary for bringing flax into a ftate of preparation proper for 
_ being formedinto clothor other articles. hefeare very differ- 
ent, and require different forts of implements and machinery, 
_in order to their being properly performed. Flax, for the 
purpofe of being formed into cambric, fine lawn, thread and 
dace, .is drefled in a rather different manner to that which is 
commonly employed. It is not feutched fo thoroughly as 
_ common flax, which from the fcutch proceeds to the heckle, 
and from that to the fpinner: whereas this fine flax, after a 
rough-fcutching, is feraped and cleanfed witha blunt knife 
upon the workman’s knee, covered with his leather apron ; 
- from the knife it: proceeds to the fpinner, who, with a brufh 
_ made for the purpofe, ftraightens, and drefles each. parcel, 
jutt before fhe begins to {pin it. 

And in the Swedifh TranfaGtions for the year 1747, a 
-method is given of preparing flax in fuchamanner, as to 
_refemble cotton in whitenefs and foftnefs, as well as in co- 
herence, For this purpofe, a little fea-water is directed to 
_ be put into an iron pot, or an untinned copper kettle, and a 
-mixture of equal parts of birch-afhes and quick-lime 
ftrewed upon it;,a fmall bundle of flax is to be then 

opened and fpread upon the furface, and covered with 
more of the mixture, and the ftratification continued till 
the veffel is fufficiently filled. The whole is then to be 
boiled, with fea-water for ten hours, frefh quantities of 
water being occafionally fupplied in ‘proportion to the 
sevaporatiou, that the flaxy matter may never become dry. 
The boiled flax is to be immediately wathed in the fea, 
cby. a little at a time, in a bafket, with a fmooth ftick 
at firft, while hot ; and, when grown cold enough to be 
‘borne by the hands, it muft be well rubbed, wathed 
swith foap; laid to bleach, and turned and watered every 
-day «for fee time. Repetitions of the wafhing with 
foap, expedite the bleaching ; after which the flax is to 
be beat, and again, well wafhed ; when dry, it is to be 
oworked and carded in the fame manner as common cot- 
ton, and. prefled between two boards. for forty-eight 
chours. It is now, fully prepared and. fit for ufe. It 
lofes.in this procefs nearly one-half its weight, which, 
however, is abundantly compenfated by the improvement 


iv i 


made in its quality, and its fitnefs for the fineft . pur- 
pofes. 

Friax-Brake, a hand-inftrument, or machine, which 
was originally, and for many ages, chiefly employed in 
breaking and feparating the boon or core from the 43, 
which is the cuticle or bark of the plant, {n perform- 
ing this bufinefs, the flax beine fneld in the left hand, 
acrofs the threc tinder teeth, or {words of the brake, fhewn 
at A, Plate (Flax) Agriculture, fig. 1, aud a, fig. 2 + the 
upper teeth orfwords B, fig. 1,and b, fiz. 2, are then, with 
the right-hand, quickly and often forced down upon the 
flax, which is artfully fhifted and turned with the left hand, 
in order that it may be fully and completely broken in its 
whole length, 

Fax Foot-Brake, an implement or machine of the brake 
kind, invented in Scotland, by which flax is broken and 
fcutched with much greater expedition than by the hand- 
inftrument juft defcribed ; and in a more gentle and fafe 
manner =han by the flax-mill. By this contrivance, the 
boon or ftem is well broken, and the floping ftroke given 
as with the feutcher, while the machine is moved by the 
foot. The treadle is of confiderable length, on whieh ac- 


‘count it is putin motion with great facility, and affitted in 


it by means of a fly. The {cutchersare fixed upon the rim 
of a fly-wheel. But though thefe machines may be highly 
ufeful where mills turned by water cannot be eltablifhed, 
they are probably much inferior in point of expedition, and 
the economy of labour. A brake of this kind is repre- 
fented, in different. views, at figs. 3 and 4, in which is 
fhewn, by A, the three under-brake teeth, or {words, 
feventeen inches long, three inches deep, one and a quarter 
inch thick at the back,, and a quarter-of an inch at the 
fore-part or edge. 

B, the edges, two and three quarters of an inch afunder 
at the end next the guide B, and two inches afunder at the 
other end. 

C difplays.the two upper teeth, about an inch fhorter thar 
the under teeth; and 

D reprefents the brake-mallet, about thirty-three pounds 
Enplih weight. 

Eis a compound foot-treadle, which is eight feet four 
inches between the fulcra F, raifed at F eight inches above 
the ground, (or rather five inches higher than the ftanee of 
the workman) ; E. is two feet four inches between the fulcra 
G, and is raifed at G eighteen inches above the ground; 
that is, fifteen inches higher than the flance of the work. 
mar. 

H, the {word, or upright timber-rod, which. turns the 
wheel by the treadle-crank. : 
Pr I, the treadle-crank, of feven and a half inches ra- 

ius. 

K, the fly-wheel, four and a half feet diameter, above 
fixty pounds Englifh weight. As here reprefented, it is 
beat or caft-iron, but it may alfo be made of tiniber, 

L, brafs cods or bufhes. : 

m M, the lifting crank ; Mis fixed firm upon theasle of the 
fly,. while the crank m, about eight inches radius, plays 
freely round the axle. In pofition firft, M begins to take 
round the crank (which by the lever R pulls up the mallet); 
when it.comes to pofition fecond, the mallet is again at li- 
berty, and by its weight pulls up the crank (faiter than the 
fixed pieces move) into polition third. 

It may be obferved that the treadle-crank is advanced 
about one-eighth part of the circle before the lifting 
crank. 

n, a {mall pulley which turns eafily round on the end of 
the crank, and to which a rope.is fixed. ; 

4K a O,a 


FLEE 


The filamentous, parts of different vegetables have been 
employed. in different countries’ for the fame mechanic ufes 
as hemp and flax..among us. .Putrefagtion, and, in fome 
degree alkaline hixivia, deftroy the pulpy.or, flefhy matter, 
and leave the tough filaments entire. By curioufly putre~ 
fying the leaf of a plant. in water, we obtain ‘the ,fine 
flexible, fbres which conftituted the, bafis of the ribs and 
minute veins, and which form, as it were, a fkeleton, of 
the. leaf. 
prepared from the ‘filaments. of the bark of certain trees 
boiled in ftrong ley ; and fome of thefe cloths are: very 
fine, and approach to the. foftnefs of filk, but inidurability 
come fhort of cotton ;-others are coarfer and ftronger, and 
_Jaft. thrice as long .as cotton: and of thefe filaments: they 
make fails and cordage to their veflels. The ftalks of 
nettles are {ometimes uled for like purpofes even in. France ; 
and fir Hans Sloane relates, in one of his Ictters to: Mr. 
Ray, that he has been informed by feyeral, that muflin and 

. calico, and moft of the Indian linens, are made of nettles. 
A {trong kind of cloth is faid,to be prepared in fome of the 
provinces of Sweden of hop-ftalks ;,andin the Traafactions 
of the Swedifh Academy for 1750, we have an;accopnt 
of an experiment relating to this {ubjeCt: a quantity of the 
ftalks was gathered in autumn, which was equal in bulk to 


a quantity of flax, fufficient to yield a pound after prepa- . 


ration. The ftalks were put into water, and kept covered 
with it during the winter. In March they. were taken out, 
dried in a ftove, and dreffed as flax. The prepared -fila- 
. ments weighed nearly a pound, and proved fine, foft, and 
white; they were fpun and wove into fix ells of fine ttrong 
cloth. Unlefs the ftalks are fully rotted, which will take 
much longer time than flax, the woody part will not fepa- 
rate, and the cloth will prove neither white nor fine. See 
Dr. Lewis’s notes to Newmann’s Chemittry, p. 428, 429. 

FLAY-Crake, in Agriculture, a provincial term, -which 

is frequently applied to the {care-crow employed to keep 
_ rooks from new-fown lands, 

FLAYL. See, Frain. 

FLEA, Purex, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of the 
aptera clafs of ,infe&ts; of a roundith compreffed figure, with 
two eyes; fix feet, formed for leaping, and filiform antenne ; 
the mouth is bent downwards, and concealsa {mall fting 
or piercer. The generation of this familiar vermin affords 
fomething very curious, firlt difcovered by Sig. Diacinto 
Ceftone. See Puvex. ~ 

Fleas bring forth eggs, or nits, which they depofit on 


very round and {mooth, ufwally flip ftraight down; unlefs 
detained by the piles, or other inequalities of the cloaths, 
hairs, &c. 

OF thefe eggs are hatched white worms, of a) fhining 
pearl colour, which feed on the fourfy fubltance of the 
cuticle, the downy matter gathered in the piles of cloaths, 

_ or other the like fubftances. 

In a fortnight they come toa tolerable fize, and are very 
lively and ative; and, if at any time difturbed, they fud- 
denly roll themfelves into a kind of ball, 

Soon. after this, they come to creep, after the manner 
of filk-worms, with a very {wift motion. Whenarrived at 
their fize they hide themfelves as much as poflible, and 
{pin a filken thread out of their mouth, wherewith they 
form themfelves a fmall round bag, or cafe, white within 

as paper, but without always dirty, and fouled with duit. 
Here, after a fortnight’s reft, the animalcule burfts out, 
transformed into a perfect flea; leaving its exuvie in the 
bag. 

While it remains in the bag it is milk white, till the 


In Madagafear different .kiads. of cloth are. 
ywith fhort {pikes inawery beautiful and regular order. 


el, £ 


{ccond day before-its eruption; when it becomes coloured, 
grows hard,; and gets) firength; fo; that, upon: its Vfirlt 
delivery, ito fprings nimbly, away. . (Phil. Pranf. sN°-249). 
The flea,, when examined by; the microfcope, aflords avery 
pleafing. objet. »Itvis.cowered all over with» black, hard 
and fheily fcales,on plates, which. are curioufly jointed, and 
folded one overanother in~fuch a manner, as to comply 
with all. the nimbie motiozs of the creature. © Thefe feales 
are .allcurioufly polifhed, and sere befet about the edges 
Its 
neck, is. finely arched, and much xefembles the tail ef 2 
lobiter; the head alfo is very extraordinary ; for from’the 
fnout. part of sit: there: proceed ther two rfore-legs, and be- 
tween thefe is placed the piercer or fucker, with which>it 
penetrates the fkin to get its food. 

Its.eyes,are-very large.and beautiful, and it has two fhort 
horns. or feelers. . It -has: four: other legs joined all-at the 
bresft. Thefe, when it leaps, fold; fhort:oneswithin another, 
and then; exerting, their: {pring all atothe fame: inttant, they 
carry the creature to,a furprifiag ditkance. 9 Phe lees have 
{everal jointsy and are very hairy,;and terminate in two long 
aod hooked fharp claws. 

The piercer or fucker of the fleais-lodged between its fore- 
legs, and includes acouple of-darts ordlancets, which, after 
the piercer has made an entrance, are thru(t farther into the 
flefh, to-make ‘the blood flow from the adjacent: parts, and 


-occafion that red round fpat, with avhole in the centre of 


it, vulgarly called a flea-bite. 

This piercer, its :fheath opening fideways, and the two 
lancets;within:it, are very difficult to’ be: feeny-unlefs the 
two fore-legs, between which they are hid, be cut off clofe 
to the head: for the flea rarely puts out its piercer, except at 
the timesof feeding, but keeps it folded inwards ; and the 
beft way. of feeing it is by cutting off firft the head, and 


then the fore-legs, and thenit is ufvally feen thru out in 


convulfions. v. 

Byi keeping: fleas in a glafe tube corked up at both ends, 
but {0 as, to. admit frefh. air, their feveral a€tions’ may be 
obferved, and particularly their way of coupling,-which is 
performed tail to tail ; the female, which is much the larger, 
{tanding over the male; they may alfo be thus feen to lay 
their eggs, not all at once, but ten or twelve in a day for 
feveral days, fucceffively, which eggs will be afterwards 
found to hatch {ucceflively inthe fame order. The flea may 
eafily be diffected in a drop of water, and by this means the 


- ftomach. and bowels, with their periltaltic motion, may be 
animals that afford them a proper food; thefe eggs: being . 


difcovered very plainly,.as alfo their teftes. and penis, with 
the veins and arteries, though minute beyond all concep- 
tion. Mr. Leewenhoeck affirms alfo, that he has feen 
innumerable animalcules, fhaped like ferpents, inthe femen 
mafevlinum of a flea. Baker’s Microf. p. 191, and 194. 

Pleais aifo an infect »which often does great mifchief to 
crops of the hop kind. See Hops. ‘ 

Fie dane, in Botany. See ConyZA. 


_Fiea-bane, the common name. of a plant of the weed 
kind, which is perennial, and common in pafture lands. 
It has a round, bending, folid, heavy ftem. The leaves 
are oblong, fharp-pointed, wrinkled, downy, and embrace 
the italk, on which they grow very thickly, without any 
regularity. It has yellow flowers, radiated and inclofed in 
a flower-cup, compofed of narrow fcales like briftles. And 
jt has fometimes the name of flea-qwort. ‘ 


Frea-bane, Marfh,and Middle. See Invxa. 


Frea-bane, Shrubby African, and Flea-bane-tree. ~See 
TarcHONANTHUS. - 


Frea-wort, P/yllium. See Pantages “oe 
7 Firs. 


FLY 


Yuca-wort, See Prea-bane. 

~Fuea-bitten colour of a hore; isowhite, {potted all: over 
with dark reddifh {pots. 

-FLEAK, aycommon name, fometimes applied to oa 
wattled hurdle, or kind of gate, which by negligent farmers 
is. occafionally fet up inthe gaps of their hedge-fences. 
See Hurpue. 

FLEAM, a. {mall inftrument of pure ftecl, compofed of 
two or three moveable lancets, for;bleeding a horfe, or the 
hike. 

A cafe of fleams, as it is. called by:farriers, comprehends 
fix forts of infruments: two hooked ones, called drawers, 
and ufed. for cleanfing. wounds; a-psnknife, a fharp, pointed 
lancet for making. incifions; and, two fleams, one fharp, and 
the other broad-pointed; thefe laft are: fomewhat like the 
point of a lancet, fixed ina flat/handle, only no longer than 
is juft necéflary to open the ‘vein. 

There are many furgeons in Germany;who bleed, or per- 
form the operation of phicbotomy with. this) inftrument, 
which they-ufe inthis manner: they hotd one finger, upon 
thejend,of ir, which ferves as a handle, and applying the 
point tothe vein they are to open, ftrike upon the back 
over the point with one of the fingers of the other hand, 
opening the vein much as farriers, bleed horfes. Others ufe 
adfpring fleam, fomething like a fingle, point-of the fcarify- 
ing inftrument ufed in cupping; and/others employ a-fort ef 
inftrument’ in form of a/dart;, butias the pofition and fize 
of the veins is different, in different fubje@s, no inftrument 
will ever be found fo ufeful as the conmon lancet of a proper 
fize. 

-FLECHA, Matuew, in Biography, a Spanith Car- 
melite Monk, born at Prades, a {mall town in Catalonia: 
he was Maeitro di Cappella to the Emperor Charles V. 
Amongtt many other works in Spanifh and French, he pub- 
lithed) ** Divinarum completarum Plalmos,’? « Se€tionem 
Brevem,”’ and a ‘‘ Salve Regina,” together with a book of 
Motets,.at)Prague, 15505 and died in. 1604, in the Bene- 
diGine’s College at Salfona, alarge town in the ftate of 
Catalonia. 

FLECHE, La, in Geography, a town of France, and 
priveipal place of a diltrict, mn the department of the Sarthe, 
feated in a pleafant valley watered by the Loire; 21 miles 
S.S.W. of Le Mans. N. lat. 47°42’. E.long.o° 1. The 
place’ contains 5,099. and the canton 15.453 inhabitants, 
on a territory of 255 kiliometres in 11 communes. In 
1603, a college of Je{uits was founded here, by Henry IV., 
for the defcendants of nobility only : the centre is converted 
into a town-houfe, and the wings have been rebuilt as a fe- 
minary for the education of youth. 

Fuecns, the name of a {mall work ufed in. Fortification, 
having two equal faces, generally ftanding at an angle of 
about 85° or 90°, perhaps rather more, and deriving its 
defignation from the French word fleche, meaning an arrow, 
to the head of which it bears much refemblance. 
work is generally conftru€ted along the foot of the glacis, 
before the re-entering and faliant places of arms: it confifts 
only of a parapet, forming a faliant angle. The length of 
the faces may be from 20 to 25 toifes, and the height of the 
work may be 5 feet; communicating with the covert-way 
by means of a cut through the body of the glacis in a direct 
line; fo that, by means of traverfes, the defenders may 
make one or more ftands, and prevent their ailailants from 
’* making any lodgement within the fleche, or in any degree 
commanding the place of arms before which it may 


d. 
AeLECHIER, Esprity in Biography, a French prelate, 


This . 


FL‘E" 


was born at Pernes, in the county of Avignon, in the year 
1632. Though his parents were but of low rank, they 
contrived to give him a good education; and he made a 
rapid progrefs in the different branches of literature. At 
an earlyage, he was appointed profeffor of rhetoric in the 
college belonging to his order at Narbonne. In this fituae 
tion be was.called on to deliver, before the ftates of Langne- 
doc, a funeral oration for Ciande de Rebeé, archbifhop of 
Narbonne. His difcourfe was received with rapture ; and 
the fuccefs.of this ficft attempt at fuch compofition indicated 
the. road which would lead him to celebrity. Some circume 
ftances arofewhich induced him to try his fortune at Paris, 
where-he, was defirous of difiinguifhing himfelf as a poet 5 
but he not only failed in his expe€tatioa of. a patron, but 
was obliged to. drudge in the moft fubordinate duties of 
education. to obtain a {canty livelihood. He was afterwards 
appointed preceptor tothe fon of M. de Caumartin,. coun- 
fellor of ftate, and. remained fome time in that fituation. 
But {till thinking himfelf adapted for amore confpicuous, 
place, he determined to bend his mind to pulpit clocution, 
and almott immediately. rofe to confiderable celebrity: but 
his repptation is built on his funeral orations. In thefe he 
exerted: all his talents, and with fo much fuccefs, that he 
ranks next.to Boffuet. Of Flechier’s orations, that for the 
great Turenne is the moft celebrated. In 1673, he was 
chofen one of the forty members of the Frenca academy 3; 
and in 1679. he publithed his ** Hiftory of the Emperor 
Theodefius: the Great,’? which was drawn up for the in- 
ftruGtion of the dauphin, as.a mode! of a pious and Chriftian 
monarch. After this he publifhed ‘* The Life of Cardinal 
Ximenes,”’ in which he feems to have forgotten the charac. 
ter of this man as an intriguing politician. In 1685, Fle- 
chier was nominated by Lewis XIV. to the bifhopric of 
Lavaur, on which occafion the fovercign paid him the 
higheft compliment ;. ‘* I have,” fays he, “ made you wait 
fome time for a place which you have long deferved, but I 
was unwilling fooner to deprive myfelf of the pleafure of 
hearing you.” ‘Two years afterwards he exchanged the 
fee of Lavaur for that of Nifmes, but not without great 
reluctance ; though in a pecuniary point of view he was 
much: benefited by the tranflation. Nifmes abounded with 
proteftants, and the edict of Nantes had been juit revoked, 
The perfecutions which had followed that revocation bad 
produced a crowd of martyrs, though it had added very 
few, if any, real converts to the catholic religion. - In thefe 
circumftances, Flechier was confidered as peculiarly qualified 
by his learning, eloquence, and zeal, to prefide: over that 
fee. His moderation gained him the efteem of the protef- 
tants, who, in their retaliations on cruel perfecutors, always 
held his. dwelling in reverence. He was eminent for bene- 
volence; and, during the f{carcity in 1709, his charities 
were very great, and equally divided between the protestants 
and papifls. He was free from pride, but never at a Jofs to 
chaftife thofe who were ready to look down upon him on 
account of his low origin. Some time before his death he 
had a dream, which he regarded as a prefage of his ap. 
proaching diffolution. He accordingly ordered a {culptor 
to attend with fome defigns. for his tomb: he fele&ted the 
molt fimple, being anxious that after his death there fhould 
be nothing oftentatious ere&ted to his memory. When he 
had made his choice, he {aid to the artilt, “ Begin your 
work without delay, for there is no time to lefe.”? “He 
died fhortly afterwards, in the year 1710, lamented, fays 
d’Alembert, by the catholics, and deeply regretted by the 
proteitants; and leaving to his brethren a worthy model of 
zeal and charity, Simplicity aud eloquence. He was author, 


> 


F 1B rE 


of many works, which, in the year 1782, were colle€ted 
and publifhed at Nifmes, in ten volumes o€tavo. Of his 
funeral orations, d’Alembert fays, ‘ their ftyle is not only 
pure and correét, but full of fweetnefs and eloquence. 
They were truly pathetic; but this property became fli!l 
more fenfible, when the orations were pronounced by the 
author. His ferious a€tion, and his flow and fomewhat 
feeble voice, brought the hearers into a difpofition of fym- 
pathetic forrow: the foul felt itfelf gradually penetrated by 
the fimple expreffions of the fentiment, and the ear by the 
foft cadence of the periods. Hence he was fometimes 
obliged to make a paufe in the pulpit, that he might leave 
a free courfe to plaudits, not of the tumultuous kind which 
refound at our profane fpeétacles, but expreffed by that ge- 
neral and modeft murmur which eloquence wrefts, even in 
our temples, from an audience deeply moved; a kind of in- 
voluntary enthufiafm, which not even the fanGity of the 
laces can reprefs.”? Moreri. Gen. Biog. 

FLECKED, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying pied, 
cr ftreaked with different colours, as is often the cafe with 
cattle. 

FLECKERAC, or Freexaren, in Geography, an 
ifland near the coalt of Norway, in the North fea. Between 
the ifland and the continent is a famous harbour, which may 
be entered or quitted by the fame winc. In the 17th cen- 
tury a fortrefs was built ior its defence, fo that the largeft 
fleet may lie in it fecure from ftorms or enemies. N. lat. 
58° 4’. E. loug. 5° 18". 

FLEDWITE, or Fricur-wutre, in our Ancient Laws, 
a difcharge, or freedom, from amercements: when one, 
having been an outlawed fugitive, comes to the peace of 
our lord and king, on his own accord, or with licence. 
Raftal. 

Others rather take it to denote a mu'ét, or fine, fet upon 
a fugitive to be reftored to the king's peace. 

FLEECE, the name of the woolly covering fhorn from 
off the body of the fheep, and rolied up ina long round 
form. Tleeces are of different weights ard fizes, according 
to the breed of fheep. See Woot, and SuHeep. 

Freece, the Golden, is famous among the ancient writers. 
It was this that the Argonauts, under the command of 
Jefon, went in purfuit of to Colchis, a province of Afia, 
now called Mingrelia. 

The myttery of the golden fleece is varioufly explained ; 
either of the profit of the wool-trade to Colchis; or of the 
gold that they commonly gather there, with fleeces, in the 
rivers. Arbuth. Diff. p. 224. S-e ArGonauTs. 

Freece, Order of the Golden. Sce Gorven Fleece. 

FLEECY Hostery, a kind of manufacture of moderna 
invention and ufe, confifting of fine fleeces of wool inter- 
woven into cotton pieces of the common ftocking texture. 
The proecfs of this manufa€ture may be thus defcribed. 
Having twilted filk, cotton, yarn, &c. in the common 
ftocking-frame, let the work be begun as in the common 
hofiery ; and when a few courfes are wrought in the ufual 
method, in order to add a coating, draw the frame over the 
arch, and then hang weol or jerfey, raw or unfpun, upon 
the beards of the needles, and flide the fame off their beards 
upon their ftems, till it comes exaGly under the ribs of the 
finkers; then fink the jacks and finkers, and bring forward 
the frame, till the wool or jerfey is drawn under the beards 
of the needles; and having done this, draw the frame over 
the arch, and place a thread of fpun materials upon the 
needles, and proceed in finifhing the courfe in the ufual way 
of manufa@turing hoficry with {pun materials. ‘he article 
thus manufaétured has, on the one fide, the appearance of 


FL,E 


common hofiery, and on the other fide the appearance of 
raw wool. 

FLEET, a number of veffels, going in company, whether 
on a defign of war, or commerce. 

In times of peace merchants fhips go in fleets, for their 
mutual aid and affiftance: in times of war, befides this fe- 
curity, they likewife procure convoys of men of war; either 
to efcort them to the places whither they are bound, or only 


-a part of the way, to a certain point or latitude, beyond 


which they are judged out of danger of privateers, &c. 

The admirals of his majefty’s fleet are claffed into three 
f{quadrons, viz. the red, white, and blue. When any of 
thefe officers are invefted with the command of a fquadron, 
or detachment of men of war, the particular fhips are diftin- 
guifhed by the colours of their refpeétive fquadron; the 
union is common to them all, and in thofe of the red fquad- 
ron it is difplayed on a red field; on a white for thofe of the 
white {quadron, and on a blue field for the blue fquadron. 
A fleet, whatfoever be the number of thips of which it con- 
filts, is ufually divided into three fquadrons; and thefe 
again, when the fhips are numerous, into three divifions, 
diftinguifhed by a particular flag or pendant, and ufually 
commanded by a generalofficer. The admiral, or principal 
officer, commands the centre; the vice-admiral, or fecond 
in command, fuperintends the van-guard; and the opera- 
tions in the rear are direéted by the rear-admiral, or officer 
next in rank, The moft convenient order of a fleet, pro- 
ceeding on a voyage, ts that in which ic is ranged into three 
lines or columns, each of which is parallel to a line clofe- 
hauled, according to the tack on which the line of battle is 
defigned to be formed, The fleet being thus more inclofed, 
will more readily obferve the fignals, and with greater eafe 
form itfelf into the Line of dattle, which fee. See alfo Ex- 
GAGEMENT. 

The Spanifh fleet fent againft E-gland by Philip IT. 
confifted of athoufand veficls. In the Eaft there have been 
fleets feen of three thoufand veflels. 

Merchant ficets generally take their denomination from 
the place to which they are bound; as the ‘Turkey fleet, 
Eaft India fleet, &<. 

The Spaniards call fimply the fleet or flota, a certain 
number of veffels, belonging partly to the king, and partly 
to merchants, fent every year to Vera Cruz, a port of New 
Spain. 

The flota confifts of the captain, admiral, and patach or 
pinnace, which go on the king’s account; and about fixteen 
fhips, from four hundred to a thoufand tons, belonging to 
particular perfons. They are all fo heavy laden, both going 
and coming, that they have much ado to defend themlelves 
when attacked. ‘lhe fleet puts out from Cadiz about the 
month of Auguit, and makes it eighteen or twenty months 
before its return. 

The ficet fent annually from the fame port to Peru, they 
call the galleons. 

When the two flzets put out together, they go in com- 
pany as far as the Antilles, where they feparate; the gal- 
leons for Carthagena and Porto Bello; and the flota for 
Vera Cruz: at their return they join at the Havanna. 

Of the two flcets the galleons are the molt richly jaden ; 
not but the cargo of the flota is alfo very confiderable. 

FLeer is alfo a famous prifon in London, thus called 
from the river Fleet, on the border whereof it ance ttood. 

To this prifon perfons are ufually committed for contempt 
of the king and his laws; or upon abfolute command of the 


king, or fome of his courts, particularly that of chancery ; 
and laftly, for debt. 


‘ Fuset, 


1 AL. & 


Freer, in Geography, ariver in Kirkendbticht-fhire, in 
Scotland, is navigable from Murray’s ifle in Wigton bay, 
into which it enters by a wide mouth, called ‘* Fleet bay,” 
‘up to Gate-houfe bricze. N. lat. 54°54/. W. long. 4° 15/. 
—Alfo, ariver of England, in Dorfetthwe, navigable for 
barges from Portland-Road at Pefflage-Houfe to near Ab- 
botfbury, at the back of that remarkzble mdge of pebbles 
and {and calied Chefil-bank — Alle, a river of Nottingham- 
fhire, which mins intothe Trent. 8 miles N. of Newark, 

FLEETING, in Sea Language, is the a@ of changing 
the fituation of a tackle, whea the blocks are drawn to- 
gether; or what is called block and block by failors, The 
ufe of fleeting is to replace the mechanical powers into a 
ftate of action, and the operation is nearly fimilar to that of 
winding up a clock o# watch. 

FLEETWOOD, Wictiam, in Biography, a learned 
Englifh prelate, was born in the Tower of London, in the 
year 1656. He was iuitiated in claffical learning at Eton, 
from whence he was elected to King’s college in the uni- 
verfity of Cambridge. He took orders about the time of 
the Revolution, and became diftinguifhed for the excellence 
of his pulpit talents. He foon obtained the honour of being 
chaplain to the king, and fome other valuable preferment. 
He was appointed rector of St. Aultin, and, almoft im- 
mediately, leGturer at St. Dunftan’s, Fleet-ftreet, where his 
fermons actraéted great crowds of hearers. In the year 
1691, he publifhed an ufeful introduction to the knowledge 
of antiquities, entitled ‘* Infcriptionum Ant quarum Syl- 
loge, in duas Partes diftributa,”? &c. oGavo. The firtt 
part containing remarkable pagan in{criptions, colleéied 
from Gruter, Reinfius, and other writers; and the fecond 
confifting of ancient Chriftian monuments: the whole illuf- 
trated wich fhort notes, which were partly original, and 
partly fele¢ted from other writers. This work was well re- 
ceived, and contributed not a little to maintain the high re- 
putation which the author had already acquired during his 
refidence at the univerfity. Mr. Fleetwood was next known 
as a theological writer. Of his works under this charaéer, 
the principal was publifhed in 1701, under the title of «An 
Effay on Miracles,’’ which is reckoned a very ingenious 
performance, and was prorounced, by Mr. Farmer, as 
abounding in excellent refleGtions, A fhort time before 
king Wiliam’s deceafe, Mr. Fleetwood was nominated by 
his majefly to a canonry of Windfor; but, asthe grant had 
not paffed the great feal before the king’s demife, the houfe 
of commons addreffled queen Anne to beftow that dignity 
upon their chaplain. She, however, attentive to the late 
king’s wifh, confirmed the grant in favour of Mr. Ficet- 
wood, and allo appointed him her own chaplain, About 
the year 1705, he refigned his rectory and le€turefhip, and 
retired to a {mall living which he had iu the neighbourhood 
of Eton. He indulged his inclination for privacy, and ap- 
plied much of his time to the ftudy of Britith hiftory and 
antiquities. In 1707 he publifhed a work, entitled ‘* Chro- 
nicon Preciofum,”’ or * An Account of Englifh Gold and 
Silver Money, the Price of Corn, and other Commodities, 
and of Stipends, Salaries, Wages, &c. in England, for fix 
hundred Years laft paft.”” In the following year he was 
appointed, without his requeft, and even without his know- 
ledge, ‘to fucceed bifhop Beveridge in the fee of St. Afaph. 
4\t this period, party rage and animofities ran very high, 
and no where more fo than in the diocefe of St. Afaph; but 
fo high was the reputation of the new prelate, fo great his 
«prudence and addre{s, fo amiable and conciliating his man- 
ners, and fo uoblemifhed and exemplary his life and condu@, 
that he not only efcaped all indecent and difrefpeGful treat- 
ment, but fecured the reverence and affcCtion of his clergy, 
Vou, XIV. 


FLE 


who almoft all differed from him in principle. The queem 
now frequently attended the fermons of her bifhop, many of 
which were made public at her defire. He likewife conftantly 
atrended his place in the houfe of lords, where he cov- 
ducted bimfelf with dignity and fpirit, maintaining his inde- 
pendence ; and he was invariably governed in his votes by 2 
regard to what he confidered to be the true interelts of his 
country. Ip his firft epifcopal vilitatior, he delivered and 
publifhed a charge, which has been generally regarded as 
one of the moft perfe&t performances of that kind. This 
was early in 1710; and towards the ciofe of that year a 
change in the miniftry took place, and tory principles be- 
came triumphant at court. From thefe the bifhop was very 
averie, and nothing could induce him to give his {upport to 
the meafures of the new miniftry, which he conceived to be 
equally prejudicial to the glory of the queen and the true 
intereft of the nation. In the year 1711-12, he was ap- 
pointed to preach before the houfe of Lords; but by fome 
means it was known that the difcourfe which he had pre- 
pared was very hoftile to the fentiments of minifters, ard they 
accordingly adjourned the houfe beyond the day on which it 
was to have been delivered. ‘The bifhop determined to 
print what he was prevented from preaching, and publithed 
it under the title of ‘“* A Sermon preached on Falt-day, 
Jan. 16, 1711-12, againft fuch as delight in War, by a Di- 
vine of the Church of England.”? In the political part of 
this difcourfe, the bifhop fpoke his mind with the utmoft 
freedom, relative to what he judged to he the difgraceful 
and ruinous meafures of adminiitration ; which fo exaiperated 
them, that they refolved to lofe no opportunity of refeating 
the infult, as they deemed it. He next engaged in the 
controverfy refpecting lay-baptifm, excited by Mr. Dodwell 
and others. In 1712, the bifhop publifhed feur fermons, 
which he had formerly preached with great applaufe on the 
deaths of queen Mary, the duke of Glocetter, and king 
Wiiliam, and on the acccffion of queen Anne.. In his pre-= 
face he affigned the rcafons for their publication at this par- 
ticular period, and made fome fevere animadverfions on the 
fafhionable politics of the day. It was now determined to 
crufh the bifhop. With this view, minifters carried in the 
houfe of commons a motion that the obj=Gionable work 
fhould be burned by the hands of the common hangman: 


to which it was replied, ‘the fire is certainly a conclufive, 


Wenefrede, topether with her Litanies, and fome hiforical 
Obfervatious made thereon.” He undertook this work to 
countera&t the artifices of popifh emiflarics, who made ufe 
of it to feduce to their faith the weak and unwary among 
the crowds who reforted for the benefit of the waters to the 
well of Holywell, which was m his diocefe. On the accef- 
fion of the houfe of Hanover, Dr. Fleetwood was tranflated 
to the fee of Ely; which new and unexpected dignity 
ferved only to {pur him on to be. more diligent in the dif 
charge of thofe duties which belonged to the epifcopal of- 
fice, His indefatigable labours br. ught upoa him infirmi- 
ties, which produced a gradual decay, under which he 
funk at Tottenham, Middélefex, whither he kad removed 
for the benefit of the air. This happened in 3 
the worthy bithop had attained his fxry-feven:! 
had ever maintained an excellent chara&ter, and was a bright 
pattern of innoceuce of life, integrity of heart, and fanéiury 
of manners. Diog. Bn. 

FLEGA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf of 
Engia; 8 miles E. of Engia 5 

FLEICHER, Joun Curisroruer, 


4L 


in Biography, a 
very 


FLE 


very celebrated inftrument-maker of Hamburgh, at the bes 
ginning of the laft century. He had harpfichords from 60, 
+0, and 100, to 1000 dollars each. His theorbo and other 
lutes were in the greatett requett ; and in all his inftruments 
the imitative {tops were ingenious, aud the mechanifm ex- 
cellent. 

' FLEISCHER, M,, a Brunfwick compofer of great 
merit, in 1772, whofe church mufic, comic operas, and harp- 
fichord leffons, are ali written in an elegant and pleafing 
ftyle. 

“FLEMEN, aterm in Surgery, having two different fig- 
Rifications, viz. a tumour near the ankles, and the har- 
dened furrows which occur on the hands and feet. Fiemen 
(quafi flegmen) is {aid to be derived from /leéo, to incline 
downwards. 

FLEMENEFRIT, FremenerrinTHE, or FrymMena- 
FRYNTHE, in our Old Writers, figoifies the receiving or re- 
lieving of a fugitive or outlaw. 

FLEMESWITE. Fleta, who writes of this word, in- 
terprets it Aabere catalla fugitivorum. 

FLEMING, Roserr, in Biography, fon of a learned 
Scotch prefbyterian minilter, was born in Scotland, where 
he received the early part of his education, which was com- 
pleted at the univerfities cf Leyden and Utrecht, where be 
profecuted all thofe branches of learning which were deemed 
neceflary to qualify him for tne mintfterial profeflion, His 
firft fettlement was with the Englifh church at Leyden, 
whence he afterwards removed to become minifter of the 
Scotch church of Amfterdam. In the courfe of a few 
years, he accepted of an invitation as pafter of a Scotch 
church in Lothbury, London. Here he expeéted to be- 
come more extenfively ufeful as a minifter of the gofpel: he 
was moreover urged to make the exchange by king Wil- 
liam, who often advifed with him on the concerns of his own 
country. So great was his modefty, that he requeited he 
might at all times be called to court with the utmott privacy. 
His great learning and talents procured him much re- 
fpe&t abroad, and alfo in this country, where he was 
greatly efteemed by churchmen and diffenters, as well as by 
thofe belonging to the Scotch prefbytery. He was on terms 
of friendfhip with the archbifhop of Canterbury ; and was 
chofen one of the preachers of the leture, inftituted by the 
merchants of London, at Salters’-hall, every Tuefday. 
From his early years he was eminently devout ; and he was 
firmly attached to the Britifh monarchy and conftitution. 
He died in 1716. He publifhed feveral works; but that 
by which he was chiefly known is entitled ‘ Chriftolozy, 
a Difcourfe concerning Chrift.””? This excited much atten- 
tion in the early part of the French revolution, on account 
of the ftriking coincidence between the author’s interpreta- 
tion of the fourth viel in the book of Revelation, and the 
events which were taking place at that period, (Gen. 
Biog. 

Evans’ Caves, was born at Nottingham in the year 
1698, and, while very young, he difcovered an uncommon 
ta(te for literature, and employed every Jeifure moment in im- 
proving his mind, in which he had the afliftance of a learned 
and liberal divine of his native town, who took the care of 
a {mall number of pupils. He continued at Nottingham 
fome years, engaged in a fecular employment, and then re- 
moved to London. He became intimate with Mr. Holt, 
afterwards one of the tutors at Warrington, who aflifted and 
encouraged him in thofe ftudies which enabled him after- 
wards to embark in the work of the Chriftian miniftry. His 
abilities and acquirements had attraéted the notice of Dr. 
Thomas, bifhop of Winchelter, who was defirous of making 
provifion for him in the eftablifhed church. A. living was 


FLE 


offered him in Cumberland, and Dr. Thomas benevolently 
propofed advancing a fufficient fum of money to defray the 
expences of his journey and removal to fo great a diftance. 
His feruples upon the fubje&t of conformity prevented him 
from accepting this liberal and very handfome offer; but he 
never ceafed to acknowledge with fentiments of unfeigned 
gratitude the kindnefs of the worthy prelate. Nothing but 
a fenfe of right, and an ardent love of the truth, could have 


- led him te decline the proffered introdution to the national 


church ; for he, at that time, had a wife and feveral chil- 
dren, and was almott deftitute of every refource to provide 
for their wants. In forming hts determination, he was en 


couraged by the magnanimity of his wife, who affured him. 


fhe was ready to undergo any privations, and fuffer any 
hardfhips, rather than accept of affluence at the expence of 
his integrity and peace. From this moment he refolved to 
engage in the work of the miniftry among the proteflant 
diffenters, and was, after an interval of fome years, chofen 
paftor of a congregation in Bartholomew-clofe, London, 
Here he continued to officiate till the year 1752, when he 
was chofen affiftant to the celebrated Dr. Fofter at Penners-. 
hall, whom in .a fhort time he fucceeded in the paftoral 
office, the duties of which he difcharged with exemplary 
diligence, until he became incapacitated for public fervice 
by the infirmities of age. He died in the year 1779, in the 
eighty-firft year of hisage. He was the author of numerous 
publications on important and interefting topics, relating to 
morals, the caufe of Chriftianity, and of civil and religious 
liberty. The titles of many of thefe are given in the Gene- 
ral Biography. He was an able and judicious defender of 
the truth of divine revelation, and a clofe and diligent in- 
quirer into its doétrines. He was led to renounce what are 
called the orthodox tenets of eftablifhed fyftems, and to ems 
brace the fimple unitarian creed. He was a fteady and re« 
folute affertor of the rights of confcience, and of private 
judgment; and confidered the interpofition of human power- 
in matters of religion as the principal fource of tbe corrup- 
tions of Chriftianity. His piety was cheerful and rational ; 
his charaGter and manners upright and exemplary; and his 
private and focial virtues fuch as rendered him the obje& of 
warm efteem among thofe who enjoyed his acquaintance. 

FieminG, in Geography, a county of Kentucky in 
America, bounded N. by Mafon, S.E. by Virginia, S.W. 
and W. by Montgomery : it is mountainous, and watered 
by feveral ftreams which fall into Sandy and Licking rivers ; 
it contains 4,893 inhabitants, of whom 240 are flaves. The 
chief town of this county is Fleming /burgh, containing 122 

eople, and a poft-office. 

FLEMINGIANS, or FLanprians, in Ecclefiaftical 
Hijiory, a {e& of rigid Anabaptills, who acquired this name 
in the fixteenth century, becaufe moft of them were natives 


of Fianders, by way of diftinG@tion from the Waterlandians, - 


In confequence of fome difienfions among the Flemingians, 


relating to the treatment of excommunicated perfons, they- 


were divided into two feéts, diftinguifhed by the appellations 
of Flandrians and Frieflanders, who differed from each other 
in their manners and difcipline. 
time came over to the moderate community of the Water- 
landians; and thofe who remained feparate are {till known 


by the name of the old Flemingians, or Flandrians; but - 


they are comparatively few in number. Thefe maintain the 

opinion of Menno, with refpeét to the incarnation of Chrift, 

alleging, that his body was produced by the creating 

poser of the Holy Gholt, and not derived from his mother 
ary. 


FLEMINGS, natives of Flanders, a colony of whom. 


were ¢ftablifhed in South Wales by Henry 1., in order to 
7 ftrengthen 


Many of thefe in procefs of - 


et 


‘ 


FLS 


flrengthen thofe provinces that remained under the power of 
England. During the reign of his father, a great number 
of them, having been driven ont of their dwellings by an 
extraordinary inundation of the fea on that coaft, had come 
over to England; where they hoped to receive proteétion 
from the queen, who was a daughter of Baldwin earl of 
Flanders. The king entertained them with great hofpitality 
and kindnefs, not only from a regard to her patronage of 
them, but from true notions of policy; with a vicw of in- 
creafing, by {uch an acceffion of ufeful inhabitants, the 
wealth and ftrength of his kingdom. Many of them were 
planted by William Rufus in the wafte lands of Northum- 
berland, and about Carlifle ; and others were difperfed all 
over England, and began by their multitude to give fome 
uneafinc{s, which Henry removed, and availing himfelf of 
them to {till greater advantage, he fent them all to fettle in 
South Wales; where he gave them the diftriG about Tenby 
and Haverfordweft, in which their polterity remain to this 
day. ‘They were very induftrious, and, at the fame time, 
very valiant; fkilful in hufbandry, manufaétures, and com- 
merce, and equally expert in the ufe of arms: fo that they 
anfwered all ends which can be propofed in planting a co- 
lony, cultivation of lands, improvement of trade, and de- 
fence of the country. William of Malm{bury fpeaks of 
them as a {trong barrier, which reftrained the Welfh in 
thofe regions from infeiting the Englifh territories: and cer- 
tainly fuch a plantation was a more effectual fecuriry than 
any fortrefs or bulwark, This colony was farther {trength- 
ened by Henry 1I., who allowed fome of the Flemifh mer- 
cenaries, whom, in the firft year of his reign, he banifhed 
out of England, to go to their countrymen eftablifhed in 
Pembrokefhire, and fettle among them. This proved in the 
event a very politic meafure ; for this reinforcement of brave 
and veteran foldiers was fufficient to defend the Flemitfh co- 
lony, and a ceffation of hoftilities on the part of the Wellh 
foon followed that event. © This colony was attacked in the 
year 1164, and their country ravaged by Khus ap Gryffyth 
of Dynevowr. 

Fremines. If the Natives of Flanders and the Nether- 
lands were not the inventors of counterpoint, many proofs 
are extant of their having fuccefsfully cultivated it at a very 
early period. Almoft all the elder great contrapuntilts, of 
whofe works there are many remains, fuch as Okenheim, 
Jufquin du Prez, Adrian Willaert, &c. were Flemings ; 
as the molt curious fpecimens of early counterpoint, among 
the printed mufic in the Mufeum, there isa colleétion of mafles 
in four parts, the firlt that iffued from the prefs after the in- 
vention of printing. ‘They confift of the firft and third fet 
of the mafles which Jufquin compofed for the pope’s chapel, 
during the pontificate of Sextus the Fourth, who reigned 
from 1471 to 1484; the maffes of Pierre de la Rue, fome- 
times called Petrus Platenfis, a fet of mafles by Anthony de 
Feven or Feum, Robert de Feven, and Pierzon. The 
maffes of John Mouton; ditto of different compofers, 
4“ Miffe diverforum Auctorum,”’) viz. Obrecht, Phil. Bal- 
firon, Brumel, Gafpar, and de la Rue. 

All thefe were printed by Ottavio Petruccio da Foflem- 
brone. He firft publifhed the maffes of de la Rue at Venice, 
1503, and in 1508 thofe by different authors. In 1513, 
removing to Foffembrone, in the Eccleliaftical State, he ob- 
tained a patent from Leo the ‘lenth in behalf of his inven- 
tion of types, for the fole printing of figurative fong, 
(“ Cantus Figuratus,”’”) and pieces for the organ, (‘ Or- 

anorum Intabulature,”) during the term of twenty years. 
“This patent is figned by the learned cardinal Bemboe, Leo’s 
fecretary. 

The maffes are followed in this colle&ion by the fecond, 


FLE 


third, and fourth fets of Latin motets, m four or five parts, 
called ‘* Mottecti della Corona,’’ from the figure of a crown 
ftamped on the title page. The words of thefe excellent 
compofitions conlift- of fhort portions of Scripture, and 
hymns of the Romifh church, fet by Julquin, Carpentras, 
Mouton, Adrian Willaert, Conftantius Fefta, end other 
great mattcrs of the fame period: they were all printed at 
Foffembrone, in 1519. by Petruccio, and publifhed with 
the fame patent as the mafics. 

The only Ltalian compofer amongft thefe is Conftantio 
Fefta, but there is fo much of that grace in his melody, 
clearnefs and facility in his harmony, as have always been 
the diftinétive chara¢teriftics of matters of the highett clafs 
in his country, that we can hardly think a genius fo highly 
polifhed ftood alone among fuch a number of foreigners at 
this early period; or that fuch regular compofitions, and 
learned and ingenious contrivances, could be attained by the 
gigantic ftride of any one mufician, however fuperior his 
genius may have been to that of his predecefiors. 

FLEMINGTON, in Geography, a {mall poft-town of 
New Jerfey, in Huntingdon county, abcut 6 miles N.E. of 
Amwell or Delaware river; 53 miles NE. by N. from 
Philadelphia. It has a poft-cflice and about 12 compact 
houles. 

FLEMISH, or the Fremisn Tongue, is that which we 
otherwife called Low Dutch, to diitinguifh it trom the 
German, whereof it is a corruption, and a kind of diale&. 
See Flemi/h Bisres. 

The Flemifh is the language ufed throughout the pro- 
vinces of the Netherlands. It differs confiderably from the 
Walloon, which is a corrupt French. 

Fremisn Lricks. See Bricks. 

Fremisu Hufbandry, in Agriculture, a name fometimes 
applied to that fort which was introduced from the Low 
Countries, and which confifted in the combining of the 
green crop fyftem with that of corn. Itis fuppofed to have 
been practifed there at an early period. See Hussanpry. 

Fremisy School of Engravers. See NETHERLANDS. 

FLEMMING, Ricuarp, in Biography, an Englifh 
prelate, who flovrifhed in the fifteenth century, and who 
was founder of Lincoln college, Oxford, was born at Crof- 
ton, in the county of York. He finifhed his fludies at the 
Univerfity college, Oxford; and was, in 1406, collated to 
a prebend in the cathedral church of York ; and in the next 
yesr, he had the honour of being one of the pro@ors of the 
univerfity. He now efpoufed warmly the caufe of Wick- 
hff, and, by his zeal, induced others to join in the fame 
bufinefs. Some preferment in the exilting church induced 
him'to change fides ; and he became more violent in defence 
of what he had been in the habit of holding to contempt as 
grofs corruptions, than he had been in the caufe of reform. 
He obtained the friendfhip of Henry V., and was promoted, 
in 1420, to the bifhopric of Lincoln. After this he was 
fent deputy to the council of Conftance, where he obtained 
great applaufe by an eloquent {peech delivered in the 
fence of pope Martin V., in vindication of his country 
againit the calumnies and afperfions of the French, Spanithy 
and Scottifh deputies. He was now probably appointed 
chamberlain to the pope; and, on his return, to exhibit his 
zeal, in fubferviency to the decree of the council of Con- 
{tance, he caufed Wickliff’s bones to be dug up and burnt, 
The fee of York being vacant, the pope, by bis own autho- 
rity, tranflated Dr. Flemming from Lincolf to that arch- 
bifhopric ; but the king put in his veto, and the difappointea 
prelate was obliged to be contented with Lincoln. After 
this he formed the defign of founding a college, avowedly 
as a feminary for divines to write, preach, and difpute 

: 4La againtt 


tS 


FLE ; 


araintt Wickliff. Before he had made much progrefs in the 
building, he died at Sleaford, in 1430-31; leaving, how~ 
ever, fullicient money and effets in the hands of truttees to 
tomplere the undertaking. Biog. Brit. 

FLEN, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Sudermania; 
2z miles N.N.W. of Nykoping. . 

FLENSBORG, a fea-port town of Denmark, fituated 
on the eaftern coat of the duchy of Slefwic, in a gulf of the 
Baltic, called ‘ Flenfborzerwieck,” which extends about 
18 miles inland, and forms a good harbour, fo that the 
Jargett veffels are unloaded at the quay, and fecured from all 
wiods by furrounding hills. Ic is the capital of a diftn@, 
and onc of the handfomeft and molt commercial towns in the 
duchy ; 22 miles N. of Slefwic. N. lat. 54°47’. E. long. 

e207 ls 

FLE/RON, a town of France, in the department of the 
Ourte, and chief place of a canton in the diftri@ of Liege. 
The place contains 950, and the canton 15,412 inhabitants, 
on a territory of 130 kiliometres in 23 communes. 

FLESBERG, atown of Norway, in the provinee of 
Aggerhuus; 36 miles W. of Chriftianta. 

FLESH, in Anatomy, is underftood to denote only the 
moufcular fubftance of an animel body, although in common 
language it feems to include all the foft parts of the frame, 
except the fkin. Yet it is ufed fometimes more loofcly by 
the old anatomifts, who fpeak of mufcular flcfh, glandular 
flefh, &c. . 

Fresu, in Rural Economy, the fine healthy fibrous matter 
that couflitutes the principal value of domeftic animials. 
‘The nature and properties of flefh are of great importance 
to the breeding and grazing farmers, in re{pect to the feed- 
ing and fattening of their animals. Such breeds as do not 
poffels perfeGly good flefh fhould never be encouraged either 
in fheep ttock or neat cattle. 

Fresu is alfo ufed, in Theology, in {peaking of the myf- 
teries of the incarnation and eucharift. 

The word was made flefh, Verbum caro fadum gf. 

The Romanitts hold, that the bread in the facrament of 
the {upper is turned into the real flefh of Jefus Chri. See 
TRANSUBSTANTIATION. 

Fresu, Fungous. See Funcus. 

Fvesu is fometimes alfo ufed by botanifts for the foft 
pulpy fubftance of any fruit, inclofed between the outer rind 
or fin, and the feeds, or tone; or for that part of a root, 
fruit, &c. fit to be eaten. 

Fiesu-colour. See CARNATION. 

Fresu Bay, in Geography, a bay of the Indian fea, on 
the coait of Africa. N. lat. 54°35’. W.long. 22° 20!. 

FLESHY, Carnosus, in Botanical Phrafeology, is ufed to 
exprefs any more than ordinary degree of thicknefs or 
juicinefs in fuch parts as are naturally in fome degree pulpy, 
‘asleaves. Witnefs the whole tribe of fucculent plants,com- 
prehending the genera of Aloe, Craffula, Mefembryanthemum, 
Sedum, &c. all which have folia carno/a, flefhy, or very pulpy, 
leaves. [tis alfo applied to parts ufually dry or juicelefs, when 
they happen, contrary to their general nature, to be pulpy, 
as the capfule in Chironia baccifera, and the receptacle of the 
feeds in the Strawberry ; but in thefe laft inftances the word 
éaccatus, expreffing a fruit afluming the nature of a berry, is 
more precife. Several {pecies of Buphorbia, Pelargonium, &c. 
have flefhy ftems; anda great number of perennial plaxts, 
few unnual ones, have flcihy roots, In all fuch cafes the 
part is more durable, more tenacious of life, and lefs de- 
pendent on contingencies than it might otherwife be. The 
roots of fome grafles, as Phleum praten/e, though naturally 
fibrous, become ficfhy, when they, are expoled to occafional 


FLE 


privations of food or moifture, by which they beeomé mor® 
independent of fuch accidents in futures 
Fresny Roots, in Gardening, are all fuch as are confti- 


» tuted of a large mafs of pulpy matter, whether in a lami- 


nated form, or the contrary. See Roor. 

FLESK, in Geography, a river of Lreland, in the county of 
Kerry, which flows into Lough Lane, better known as the 
lake of Killarney. 

’ FLESUS, in Jchthyolncy, a name ufed by fome authors 
for tne common flounder; the pafer fluviatilis of moft writerse 
See PLeuronecres Filefus. 

ELET-Mivk, in Rural Economy. fach milk as has beem 
fkimmed, or had the cream taken off from it. "This fort of 
milk is fometimes employ-d in forming a poor kind of 
cheefe, termed /Fim-milk-cheefes f 

FLETA, in Biography. Itis not a little fingular that 
this, which is the title to one of our early law-books, fhould 
almo{t unifermly have been noticed as the aamé of a writer 
on law, and that by lawyers themfelves. Even profeffor 
Blackitone, in his Commenteries on the laws of England, 
{peaking of the legal period, which commenced in the time 
of Edward I., when enumerating the great Jaw writers of 
that reign, mentions Britton, Fieta, and Hougham, as emi- 
nently confpicuous. The commentary under the title 
Fleta was evidently written at the affizned period in 134¢e~ 
But Nicholfon, in his invaluable work, ‘* The Hiftorical 
Library,’’ obferves, that the writer is uoknown ; that it was 
fome perfon refident in the Fleet, and who thence adopted 
the name of the place as a title for his work. Yet Moreri 
fays the authors of it were fome lawyers, who wrote it in 
the prifon of the Fleet, where they had been confised for 
the crime of concuffion, the particular nature of which has 
been difcufled at large by the learned Selden. Grand Did. 
Hitt. 

FLETCHER, Gives, brother of Richard, bifhop of 
London, was born in Kent, and educated at Eton {[chool, 
whence, in 1565, he was elected king’s {cholar at Cam- 
bridge. He obtained at the univerfity the charaéter of an 
accomplifhed gentleman and an excellent poet, and after he” 
had taken the preliminary degrees, he took that of deGtor of 
laws in 1581. He was employed by queen Elizabeth as com- 
miffioner in Scotland, Germany, and the Low Countries, and. 
in 1588 was fent ambaflador to the czar Theodore Ivano- 
vitch, with the charge of re-ettabiifhing the commercial 
concerns of the Ruffian company, which had fallen into de- 
cay. His reception at firft was very unfavourable, but he 
at length fucceeded in concluding an advantageous treaty, 
by which the former privileges of the company were renewed 
and confirmed. After his return, in 1591, he publifhed an 
account * Of the Ruffle Commonwealth,” which contains 
many curious and authentic particulars of that country, then 
little knowa to the reft of Europe. The freedom of cer- 
tain remarks and ftri€tures in the book caufed it to be fup-. 
preffed, through fear of giving offence to the reigning 
prince, but it is to be found in Hekluyt’s colle€tion. After 
this he was made fecretary to the city of London, a matter 
of requefts,.and treafurer of St. Pau)’s church.- 

Frercuer, Joun, a dramatic writer, fon of Richard’ 
Fletcher, bifhop of London, was born in Northamptonhhire - 
in 1576, and received his education at Cambridge. It does 
not appear that he followed any profeflion except that of a 
poet, in which capacity he was the infeparable companion of 
Beaumont. He died of the plague in 1625, and was buried 
in the church of St. Mary Overy. Several of the plays of 
Beaumont and Fletcher were publifhed during: their lives, 
and various editions have been given of them in a colle@tive - 
form.. The.ten volumes edited by Theobald, Sympfon, and 

Seward, 


FLE 
(Seward, in ry51; and the fame number publithed by Col: 


man in 1775, are efteemed the molt corre. The poetical 
powers of Fletcher are advantageoully difplayed in a piece 
which was certainly his own unaided compofition, entitl-d, 
s¢'The Faithful Shepberdefs,” a dramatic paftorat on the 
model of the ltalian. ‘It poffeff-s,” fays an able critic, 
“€ many beauties, and has been honoured with a clofe imi- 
tation of fome of its paflages by Milton in his Comus. Its 
plot, however, 1s defeSiive and unpleafant, to which may 
be attributed its unfavourable rece ptiou on the ftage.” Biog. 
rit, 

Fietcuer, PaineAs, fon of Giles, was educated at Evon 
f{chool, and from thence he was ele&ted to King’s college, 
Cambridge, in 1600, In 1621 he obtained the living of 
Helgay, in Norfolk, on which he appears to have paffed the 
greater part of his mature life. Little more is known of 
this perfon but that he was additted to poetical compofition 
at avery early pericd. His principal works are “ The Pur- 
ple Ifland,” ‘* Pifcatory Eclogucs,’’ and ** Mifcellanies,’’ all 
printed together at Cambridge in 1633. Amn edition of his 
Pifcatory Eclogues, with fome of hts Mifcellanies, was pub- 
hifhed at Edinburgh in 1781; and all his poetical compo- 
fitions have been received into Dr. Anderfon’s coll: Aion. 
He wrote a book in profe, entitled “De Literatis Antique 
Britanniz.” 

Friercuer, Anprew, fon of fir Robert Fletcher of 
Saltown, in Scotland, was born in 1653. Being left father- 
lefs while he was a child, he was placed under the tuition of 
Dr. Gilbert Burnet, then reGtor of Saltown, from whom be 
imbibed the learning, piety, and attachment to the principles 
of a free government, by which that eminent prelate was dif- 
tinguifhed. He fpent fome years of his youth in foreign 
travel, and firft appeared as a public character in the ftation 
of a commiffioner for Eaft Lothian in the Scotch parliax 
ment. He became fo diftinguifhed by his oppofitica to the 
arbitrary meafures of the court, that he thought it advifeable 
to withdraw to Holland, and upon being cited to appear by a 
fummons from the lords of the council], which it was known 
he could not obey, he was outlawed, and his eftate confif- 
cated. In 1683 he came over to Enzland to affitt, with his 
friend Mr. Baillie of Jervifwood, in the confultations held 
among the friends of liberty in England and Scotland, to 
concert meafures for their common fecurity; and by his pru- 
dence and addrefs he avoided giving any pretext to the mi- 
niftry for his apprehenfion, He returned to the continent, 
and in 1685 engaged in the enterprize of the duke of Mon- 
mouth. He landed in the weft of England, but was obliged 
to quit the country again on account of a difpute which he 
had with a rude, vulgar, and violent man, whom he fhot 
dead. From England he embarked for, and landed in 
Spain; he afterwards pafled into Hungary, where he en- 
gaged in the war with the Turks, and diflinguifhed himfelf 
by his valour and fkill. The intereft which he took in the 
fate of his country foon brought him back to join in the con- 
ferences which were held among the Scotifh refugees in Hol- 
land, for the purpofe of eficéting a revolution, When that 
eyent took place, he returned to Scotland, and refumed the 
pofleffion of his eftate, He was a member of the convention 
for the fettlement of the new government in Scotland, and 
in all his political conduét he fhewed himfelf the zealous af- 
ferter of the liberties of the people, without any regard to 
party diftinétion, and free from al) views of his own intcrelt. 
In 1698 he printed “ A Difcourfe of Government with re- 
Jation to Militias’? 
the Affairs of Scotland,”’’ In one of thefe he fuggelts a 
plan for providing for the poor by domeftic flavery, which, 
to fay the lealt of it, comes with a very ill grace from one 


Alfo **'Two Difcourfes concerning. 


FL SE 


fo zealoufly attached to the caufe of liberty as Mr, Fletcher, 
When a bill was brought into the parliament of Scotland for 
a fupply to the crown, in 1703, he moved, that previoufly 
to this, or to any other butinefs, the houfe fhould confider 
what adts were nec: {lary to fecure their re'izion and liberties 
In cafe of the queen’s death, and he propofed various limite- 
uns of the prerogative, which were received in the * A@ 
of Securty,’? peff-d through his exertions into a law, but 
rendered ineffGtual by the fubfequent union. Of this laft 
teafure he was a zealous oppofer, and made many {peeches 
ep the fubj-&, but it was not a matter to be decided by elo- 
quence, cr elf that of Fletcher, which was more nervousand 
corre&t than that of any other fpeaker in the Scotch parlia- 
ment, enforced by his known patriot'{m, would have had 
much weight. He died at London in 1716. His publi- 
cations, and fome of his [peeches, were colle&ed in one vo- 
lume cétavo, entitled, “ The Political Works of Andrew 
Fictcher, Eiquire.’ Asa writer he pofleffed great power : 
his ftyle was perfpicuous, elegant. and evergetic, and his 
mind was enlarged by acquaintance with the beft authors, 
ancient and modern, and by every fpecies of knowledge 
which forms the politician, ‘ He wes,” fays one of his 
biographers, ‘‘ a fure friend, but an irreconculeabie enemy : 
wou'd lofe his life readily to ferve his country, and would 
not doa bafe thing to fave it. His thoughts are large as 
to religion, and could never be bronght within the bounds: 
of any {cét, nor will he be under the diftin@ion of whig 
or tory, faying thefe names are only ufed to cloak the knavery 
of both parties.” Hume. 

Fretcuer, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in 
Franklin county, Vermont, containing 200 inhabitants, 
having Cambridge on the S. E. and Georgia on the W. 

Frercuer’s Wool, a cape of America, on the coatt of 
Main. N. lat. 43°25'. W. long 70! 29/. 

TLETZ, or Frorz, among German miners, a term of 
high antiquity, generally denoting 2 layer of any kind of 
rock, the pofition of which approaches the horizontal line. 
The word, thus applied, being vague and infignificant, it, 
would fcarcely claim our notice in this work, but for the 
more fixed and fcientific meaning it conveys in the compounds 
“Fletz Mountains”? (fate gebirge), and ‘* Fletz-rocks’? 
(Flatz-gebirge-arten), which terms, as proceeding from the 
country which may properly be called the cradle of mineralogy 
and geology, are now admitted into the technical dice 
tionaries of moft European languages. We too (in the 
fucceeding article) have adopted the prefix ‘* fletz,?? in 
preference to ‘ fecondary,”? which latter, (not to mention 
other obj<€tions againit it,) cannot be adopted by thofe who, 
with Mr. Werner, admit a formation of rocks, intermediate 
between the primitive and fecondary rocks of other geologifts, 

With regard to the fpelling here propofed, it is to be: 
obferved that, although “ flotz” with a diphthong may 
be conformable to the rules of modern German orthography, 
yet the ancient mode of fpelling the word is» * fletz;’? 
and this we prefer, partly becaufe the found of the letter 
é, as pronounced by the Germans, is foreign tothe Eng 
lifh language, and partly becaufe the old {pelling and 
pronunciation (which latter is {till heard in feveral parts of 
Germany ) are more correct, as they approach nearer thofe 
ot other words, which in various dead and modern languages 
equally convey the idea of a horizontal even plane, fuch 
as waarus, latus, frat, plat, fret, &e. 

Fruetz-Mountains, Fletz-Rocks; Fiotz Gebirge, Fictze- 
Gebirge-arten, Germ, The mountains and rocks to which 
thele names are given by the German {chool of geology, 
are obvioufly of much more recent origin than thofe called 
primitive (fee Rocks, Primitive), They bear more dif 

oo tingly 


bc hae Da Ns 


tinétly than thefe latter the marks of being depofited from 
a fluid, and of their having been formed when animials and 
vegetables exifted in abundance. They have their hiftory 
imprinted in chara&ers more legible than thofe of all the 
other roeks, the alluvial alone excepted: but from the 
youngeft fletz-lime-ftone, to the oldeft of the primitive 
rocks we kucw, namely granite, the records before us 
become gradually more illegible, till at lat not a character 
is found but the attempt to decipher it leads the oblerver 
into the mazes of fancy and furmife. ct 
From the alluvial, the fletz rocks are diftinguifhed by 
all thofe pofitive and negative characters that befpcek an 
earlier origin, being the refult of a general revolution that 
extended over the whole furface of the globe; while the 
former can, without any gratuitous aflumption, be confidered 
as partial formations produced by the detritus of all the 
ethers : they have originated, as it were, under the eye of 
the geologilt, who difcovers in their fofter fubftance, in the 
compounds of loam, marle, &c. the remains of fubttances 
known to him, as belonging to the prefent creation, and 
{wept together by pertial inundations, by overflows of 
rivers, &c. (See Rocks, Alluvial). From the primitive, 
the fletz mountains are in general eafily diftinguifhable : 
for while the former, (fuch as the Hartz, the Saxon 
Erzgebirge, a great part of the Fichtelgebirge, &c ) 
ufually tower to a majeltic height, divided up to their 
fummits by ravines and chafms, the fletz mountains are 
generally of a lefs bold and fteep afcent, and run aleng in 
more uniformly undulated ranges. Viewed on a large 
{cale the fletz-rocks are much more compound than the 
primitive ; but they appear much lefs fo, and often of a 
perfeétly homogeneous nature, when viewed in fmall maffes. 
Though lime-{tone is already feen to occur in the primitive 
rocks, yet this formation owes its principal charaGer to the 
filiceous and argillaceous earths, (from granite to clay-ftone); 
while calcareous with argillaceous earth, appear to be the 
leading features in the compofition of fletz-rocks. Very 
charaéteriftic of thefe rocks are the petrifa€tions with which 
they abound, and which decreafe in number as the fletz 
approaches the primitive formation, where they are no longer 
obferved. Thefe petrifa€tions confit in part of vegetables, and 
fhells of various marine animals, moft of the prototypes of 
which no longer exift; and frequently one particular {pecies 
occupies a ftratum throughout a confiderable tra& of country, 
while the adjoining ftratum is ftocked with a fpecies totaly 
different from, and unmixed with the others. Bituminous 
foffils, of rare and ambiguous occurrence in primitive rocks, 
have their principal depoficories in fletz mountains. Thus 
coal, moit frequent in the comparatively new formations, 
can fcarcely be traced higher than to the oldeft fand-ftone, 
where it becomes unfrequent and difappears. But a great 
feature of the mountains under contideration is their ftrati- 
fication, marked by many peculiarities not obfervable in other 
formations. The ftrata generally run parallel with one 
another; their pofition, though fometimes fcarcely deviating 
from the horizontal, is often highly inclined ; they accom- 
pany the fides of primitive mountains, either partially, or 
they furround them ; while the fummit of the latter, pro- 
jeAing over the encompafling fletz-rocks, will often make 
the fuperficial obferver fuppofe to fee a primitive rock 
fuperincumbent on a more recent formation. ‘Thus, for 
initance, we have the Schweitzerling, an old porphyry 
_ mountain, near Wettin, in the diftri€t of Halle, rifiog in 
the fhape of an infulated mafs out of the furrounding fletz 
ftrata. It has been faid above that fletz mountains are 
lef rapidly rifing, and it may be added that they do not 
generally attain any confiderable height, if we except fome 


of thofe belonging to the clafs which Mr. Werner calls the 
newelt fle:z-trapp formation, comprifing bafalt, wacke, 
&c. rocks, fome of which, by other geologitts, are clafled 
with the genuine volcanic produdiions. If, however, the 
fletz mountains can be faid iad general to poffefs many 
characters that keep them diftin@ from the primitive, this 
is not {triétly applicable to all of them; for there isa {mall 
feries of rocks of ai ambizuous nature, which, being often 
intermediate between the two formations, and participating 
of the charaéters of either, have frequently embarrafled the 
framers of geological arrangements. ‘Ttefe rocks have 
been formed by Mr. Werner into a particular clafe, under 
the title Ubergangs gebirge, (fee Veansitiow - Moun. 
rains) ; a diltinGtion which is not admitted by Mr. Voigt 
and others. 

As the ideas which the two laft-mentioned geologilts 
entertain rclative to the origin of the fletz mountains have 
regulated their claflitication of the rocks belonging to that 
and the tranfition formation, ic will be proper, before we 
proceed, to give a fhort outline of their refpective theories, 
as far as they relate to the fubj.& under confideretion. 
Werner accounts for the difference that fublifts between the 
rocks of his three firlt claffes of the aquatic formation, 
from the oldeft granite down to the newelt fletz lime- 
ftone, by the gradual diminution of the water on the fur- 
face of the earth. At that period, when the earth was in 
a chaotic ftate, and entirely encompaffed by the ocean, 
which contained their firft materiais, the primitive moun- 
tains were formed by the laws of cryftallization, As 
the volume of the water gradually diminifhed, and dry land 
made its appearance, in fhort, when the earth pailed intoan 
inhabitable ftate, a feries of rocks originated, which par- 
ticipate, in fome meafure, of the nature of the primitive, 
at the fame time that they difplay the firlt traces of remains 
of fimple organic bodies that inhabited the fea, and of 
mechanical depofition, which could take place only near 
the furface of the water. The increafe of thefe mechanical 
depofitions corre{ponded to the diminifhing level of the ocean, 
from the tranfition to the more recent periods, each of 
which furnifhed the fucceffive fletz-ftrata with their peculiar 
contingents of organic bodies, moft of which remain only as 
petrifactions. Itis in this manner that the celebrated pro- 
feflor of Freiberg affigns to all the known rocks their refpec- 
tive places in his arrangement, the whole forming an unin- 
terrupted feries from the granite to the youngeft of the 
alluvial mountains. There is, however, another eflemblage 
of rocks allied to thofe of the fletz formation, and which, 
(being fuperimpofed promifcuoufly on other formations, 
from the primitive to the moft recent,) is kept feparate by 
Werner, as one of the fubdivifions of that clafs; to this be- 
long bafalt, the kindred wacke, porphyry-flate, amygdaloid, 
and other rocks enumerated by Werner as members of the 
fletz-trapp formation. The whole of this is fuppofed by 
him to owe its origin toa pofterior deluge, or a fudden 
rifing and retiring of water, and is confidered as the neweit 
member of the fletz formation. eae 

Mr. Voigt, who has given a claflification of rocks,though 
he reje& the tranfition period adopted by Mr. Werner, {till 
divides the fletz rocks into thofe of older, and thofe of 
newer formation. A\s his ideas on this fubje& are but little 
known to the Englifh reader, we fhall here give a fhort 
fketch of his theory, omitted under the article Earra. 
His hypothelis is, that in its primordial ftate, our planet 
was entirely encompaffed by water, in which, without hav- 
ing either mountains or valleys, it floated like the yolk in the 
albumen of theegg. Of the fubftances that compofed the 
earth in this fate of {ubmerfion, fome were apt to undergo 

fere 


FoL'E-'T.-Z. 


fermentation, to ignite, to give out elaftic vapours and gafes, 
and to produce cxplofions. It was by thefe energies, that 
maffes were raifed from the bottom of the ocean towards its 
furface, where they formed iflands, which afterwards confti- 
tured the principal ranges cf primary mountains. The body 
of water difplaced by thefe elevated maffes filled up the {pace 
the latter originally occupied ; and this diminution of the 
water was the caufe of the appearance of an additional por- 
tion of dry land. Of the detritus of thefe primary moun- 
tains, and by the depofition of mineral fubftances, fill dil- 
folvedor floating in the ocean, the fletz mountaing were pro- 
duced, which formed layers furrounding the original iflands. 
As according to this theory (which the reader will ob- 
ferve is not unlike that of Lazzaro Moro), no confiderable 
time intervened between the formation of the primary and 
flctz mountains, it isno matter of furprize that’ the newelt 
of the former fhould fhow confiderable affinity to the oldeft 
of the latter formation ; and chat intermediate kinds of rocks 
fhould have been formed, which appear of an ambiguous 
origin only when viewed out of conneétion with the rett. 
But, though our author does not admit tranfition rocks in 
the fenfe in which this wordis taken by fome geologitts, he 
neverthelefs thinks that there are ftratificd or fletz rocks that, 
ftri€tly fpeaking, might be referred to the primary ; namely, 
fuch ftrata of lime and fand-ftone, that, according to his 
theory, were raifed at the fame time with the primary moun- 
tains on which they were depofited at the bottom of the 
fea. To this divifion belong thofe ftrata which are fometimes 
obferved in fuch places, which, from their elevation, cannot 
be fuppofed to have been reached by the water when the re- 
gular fletz rocks were depofited. Thus, for inftance, we 
fee on the primitive granite mountains of the Hartz, not far 
from Claufthal, a calcareous rock called the Hiibigenftein, 
which conftitutes areef almoft entirely made up of corals, 
which prove its having been formed at the bottom of the 
ocean. Not lefs remarkable in this refpe& is the Hans- 
kithnen-burg, a huge fand-ftone rock, on the high Bruch- 
berg, one of the Hartz mountains, at an elevation which 
precludes the idea of its having been produced at the fame 
time with the younger fletz-fand-flone, from which it differs 
alfo in its external chara&ters. Inthe fame manner, our au- 
thor refers to the older fletz rocks thofe ftrata that are met 
with on the declivities and inthe chafms of high primitive 
mountains, at a greater elevation than the younger fletz 
formation reaches ; and which were depofited foon after the 
fummits of the primitive mountains were raifed above the 
furface of the ocean. The fr/? of Voigt’s older fletz-rocks 
is what he calls the old fand-/lone, the fame which has been 
above alluded to, and which is totally differeut from that of 
Werner, as we fhall fee hereafter. The old fand-ftone of 
Voigtis of a much rougher nature than the common fletz 
fand-ftone, and always occurs in very elevated fituations. 
2. The principal coal formation, confidered by Werner as of 
‘much later date. The geognoltic relation of this interelting 
inflammable fubftance, much as has been written on it,-1s 
ftill involved in obfcurity ; more recent obfervations appear, 
however, to be in favour of Voigt’s ideas ref{peéting it. 
3. Slate-clay (Schieferthon) nearly of the fame age with coal 
and its fand-itone, it being found alternating with thefe latter, 
and in general occurring under fimilar ctrcumftances. In 
this rick are found the moft perfect impreflions of vegetables 
which the earth produced in its primordial \tate ; mo!tly be+ 
longing to the arundinaceous and fern-tribe, the former of 
which required nothing for their » owth bot water, the 
latter nothing but naked rocks. 4. The rowz) lime-jlone, as 
Mr. Voigt cails it, of yellowifh, aid fomctimes fmoke-grey 
colour, coarfe grain, confiderable hardacls, aod deditute of 


petrifaGions. It never occurs diftin€tly ftratified, but 
generally as infulated amorphous maffes acd rocks in more 
elevated fituations. The higheft maffles are {een at Reichl 
in the foreft of Thuringia, where they reft on high porphyry 
mountains; and lower down it frequently encompafles 
thofe mountains in grotefque groups.of mafly rocks. Lafius 
has defcribed the fame kind o! lime-ftone in his work on the 
Hartz mountains. Some kinds of rocks, deferibed by pupils 
of Werner, as tranfition lime-ftone, eppear to be tue fame 
with the oldeft lime-ftone of Voigt. 

From what has been faid, (ard from what remains to be 
faid under the article Transirion-Rocxs), it appears 
that, however the followers of different geological fyftems 
may be agreed with regard to the nature of primitive and 
fl-tz*mountains in general, their optuion will be found to 
diverge at thofe points where adjoining diftin& formations, 
by mutually borrowing of each other geognoftic and oryc- 
tognoftic charaGters, baffle difcrimination, and caufe the- 
orifts to draw lines of demarcation that are more or lefs 
derived from hypothetical propofitions. 

In order to illuflrate the different ftrata of the fletz 
formation more generally acknowledged as iuch, we fhail 
caft a view over the traG of country extending in an eattern 
direGion, from the foreft mountains of Thuricgia to the 
Hartz; and enumerate them in the order in which they 
fucceed each other, according to the obfervations of Mr. 
Voigt. This fuccefiion, however, -fheuld not be fuppofed 
to prove exadtly the fame in all parts of the world: the 
fat is, that cften entire ftrata, efpecially fubordinate ones, 
are wanting without being {upplied by others, and fometimes 
ftrata are fubftituted in their room that are foreign to 
other countries, fuch as the vaft rock-falt ftratain Hungarys ” 
Poland, the chalk in England, &c. 

The ftrata, which almoft without interruption fill up the 
{pace between the two above-mentioned ranges of moun- 
tains, whofe diftance from each other is about twenty-two 
miles, are the following: : 

The old red fand flone of Werner, called by the miners 
of Germany, das rothe Todt-liegende (2. e. the red dead 
or barren rock). It occupies the loweft fitmation of all 
the newer fletz rocks. In the Hartz it reits on grey- 
wacke, one of the tranfition rocks of Werner, but re« 
ferred by Voigt to the primitive. (See Grey-Wacks.) 
Where this fand-ftone bafkets out it appears in pretty high 
mountains, and often covers confiderabie tra¢ts of jand, as, 
for inftance, at Eifenach, Eifleben in Manstieid, &c. It is 
often difficult to diftinguifh ‘it from the’ newer fletz fand- 
ftone, when not viewed in its conneGion with the forma- 
tions that accompany it (fee Sanp-stoNne); but in’ general 
itis much harder, and of acoarfer grain then ‘the latter, 
often appearing as conglomerate; and its colour is ufually 
brick and cochineal red, from which its nameis Gerived; 
but is alfofound grey. The coarfe grained often zlternates 
with fine grained varieties, in lzyers of various thicknefs. 
Mr. Jaimefon infinuates-that, if the obfervations lately made 
in Germany by Karften, Buch, and others, be corre&, 
much of the red fand-ftone of England will be found ‘to 
belong to thisald fand-ftone formation. This ftratum, in 
the above-mentiuned tra of country, is regularly followed 
by . 
Bituminous Marl-Slaie, for the defcription of which, : fee 
Maru-Suate, Bituminous. 

The moft diftinG tins is drawn between this and the pre- 
ceding itratum. It bears evident marks of being depofed 
onthe old red fand-flone from a calm and undifturbed fluid. 
Impreffions of fifhes are frequently feen in it, but none of - 
vegetables.- It-is rich in metals, efpecially copper ore, 

whence 


ERXLiE2T Z 


whence the appellation copper /late flctz ; fometimes the me- 
tallic veins, thofe of copper and filver, penetrate through 
the bituminous marl-flate to the furface of the old fand-ftone 
ftratum underneath, which thus becomes metalliferous. (See 
Sanp Ort.) The bituminous marl-flate is claffed by Werner 
under his firit lime-ffone formation, as is likewife the 

Zechflein, which refts on the preceding. This 1s.a coarfe 
fplintery afh-grey compat lime-fone (in fome places it 
approaches the nature of indurated marle); it does not pafs 
over into the adjotning ftrata, but is feparated from them by 
a marked line. Lt contairs nether b:tumen nor metals, ror 
impreffions of fihes as the bituminous marl-flate, This 
ftratum, and the two following, are wanting in fome parts of 
the foreft of Thuringia, but their places are fupplied by a 
bed of yellowifh-brown iime-ftone, accompanied by confider- 
able beds of brown iron ftone, and containing a great quan- 
tity of the petrifetion called Anomia gryphus. The zech- 
Atein is fucceeded, upwards, by a ftratum of 

Gypfum, called the firft fletz-gypfim by Werner. It is 
compofed of granular and compact gypfum, ofa whrte and 
grey colour, often variegated and veined, penetrated by 
bitumen, and containing felenite, fibrous gypfum, ttink- tone, 


&c.; but petrifactions are feldom found init. See Gypsum 


Compaé, Granular. 

By what chemical combination it happened that the 
zechftein-{tratum, being a carbonate of lime, was imme- 
diately fucceeded by a combination of lime with fulphurte 
acid, is a queltion not eafily to be anfwered; but the cir- 
cumfance is the more ftriking, as this fulpbAte is imme- 
diately fucceeded by another carbonate, called 

Stink-tone, a ftratum confidered by Werner as fubordinate 
to his firtt feta. gypfum (See Stink-Srone.) On this 
re{ts another, 

Sand-flone, which appears to belong to the variegated or 
fecond fand-ftone formation, as characterized by Werner. 
Its colour is partly yellowifh-white, partly light grey-brown 
and red. This is fucceeded by another ftratum of 

Gypfum, being the fecond fletz-zypfum, which, though 
in fome parts of Thuringiait affumes confiderable thicknefs, 
is entirely wanting in others, as for inftence in the princi- 
pality of Fulda. But a more conftant attendant on the 
laft-mentioned fand-ftone is the fuperincumbent ftratum of 

Clay, moftly of a brown-red colour, often intermixed 
with other tints, fuch as light mountain-green and blueifh- 
grey. Mr. Voigt obferves, that moft rivers of Thuringia, 
Franconia, and Heffia have cut their way through the fletz 
lime-ftones, through this reddifh clay and the gypfum (where 
they met with it) down to the lait-mentioned {and-ftone ; and 
in moft low grounds and valleys of thofe countries, the arable 
land confifts almoft entirely of that clay, which, though 
unfavourable to vegetation in its pure ftate, becomes 
the moft fertile foil when mixed with fand, gypfum, and 
lime, as is the cafe in the neighbourhood of Erfurt, and 
in feveral other parts of Thuringia. 

The common clay belongs partly to the alluvial, partly 
to the fletz formation, and principally to that fub-divifion 
of the latter called the neweft flctz trap formation by the 
Wernerian fchool. The uppermoft ftratum, and the molt 
confiderable next to fand-ftone, is 

Fieiz-lime-flone. Like the fand-fone, and almoft all other 
rocks of the fletz formation, it is compofed of feveral ftrata, 
each conttituting a different variety of compact lime-ftone. 
Thofe of Thuringia, according to Mr. Voigt, are, 1. A 
compaé lime-{fone of yellowilh-white or blueifh-grey colour, 
of even and earthy freQure, wrought asa marble at Weimar. 
Except cornua ammonis, few petrifaGtions are found in it; 


but often inditin€, vermiaular, and ferpentine elevations 
are difcovered on the planes of its principal frafture. 2. A 
Nght afh-grey limestone, entirely compafed of fmail petrified 
pectinites, and called by the provincial rame of toad-eye. 
3. A light afh-grey fplintery \ime-ftone, with here and there 
fome p-trifa@tion, and alfo containing nodules of grey flint, 
whieh, however, on account of its fraéture not being con- 
choidal, does not anfwer the purpof= of making gun-flints of. 
(See Frirr, Gun-Puint.) 4. Comp-& lime-fone, ap- 
parently compofed of irregu’arly cubic fragmenta, into 
which it feparates on being {truck upon; it is by far the 
moft common varicty in thofe parts. 5. Lamellar lime- 
flone, fife into thin leyers; only found in the vicinity of 
Jena by proftffor Voiz:. Thefe five layers, conftituting the 
above fl-tz lime-ftone ftrata, ‘ollow each other, though in 
irregular fucceffin, The whole formation correfponds with 
that of the fecond fletz or hell lime-ftone of Werner, fo 
called from containing a great nuxber of petrified fhells, 
but feldom any other fecondary foffils; thouzh in the upper 
of the beds ali> petrifections of fithee, crabs, vermicutites, 
&c, are frequently met with. It is in this lime-ftone that 
mo!t caverns are found containing remains of land animals. 
Various diftin@ lim--ftone formations are probably included - 
m this; but the obfervations of well-informed travellers on 
this fubjedt are as yet too feanty and imperfeé to be turned 
to account by the geolowilt. 

Mr, Werner has adopted twelve formations in the clafs of 
the fletz rocks, 1, Firtt or old red fand-itone, 2. Firtt 
or oldeit fletz-lime-itone. 3, Firft or olde filctz-gypfum, 
4. Second or variegated fand-ftone. 5. Second Aetz- 
gypfum. 6. Second fl-tz or thell lime-ftone. 7. Third 
fi:tz fand-ftone. §. Rock-falt formation. g. Chatk form. 
ation, 10. Fietz-trap formation. 11. Independent coal 
formation. 12. Neweft fletz-trap formation, 

The principal of thefe formations being illuftrated by the 
above feries of ftrata in Thuringia, we fhall here add a few 
words on thofe that are not found in that diftri@. FFirft, 
with regard to the fecond of Werner’s formation it is to be 
obferved, that in feveral countries a {tratum of porous grey 
lime-ftone is found fubordinate to it, called rauch wacke, 
which is wanting in that part of Thuringia; and the fame 
is the cafe with roe-flone, confidered as {ubordinate to the 
fourth of Werrer’s formations, and of which confiderable 
{trata are feen in other countries, though it does not appear 
to conftitute an independent formation. ‘The feventh forme 
ation, being the third flctz fand-ftone, is reprefented by the 
commentators on Werner’s arrangement as a very extenfive 
one; but its geognoltic relations do not appear to be fuffi- 
ciently determined. It is fuppofed to be of much newer 
origin than the other preceding fand-ftone formations ; it 
exhibits many traces of coal ; is con{tantly of a white colour, 
and as negative characters are given its not containing 
any clay-galls, or gypfum, its not alternating with fand- 
{tone flate, or roe-ftone, The hills formed by this fand-ftone 
have a peculiar appearance: they are conical and fteep, and 
exhibit in the varioufly {haped and arrauged mafles of which 
they are compofed, a ftriking feene. ‘ One of the moft 
ftriking appearances of this kiud,’”? fays Mr. Jackfon, ** is 
at Andernaeh in Bohemia, where we obferve numberlefs 
cones, pyramids, and pillars, fometimes ifolated, fometimes 
joined together, and from two to three hundred feet high, 
{preading over a confidevable tra€t of country. In other 
places, Caverns or grottos appear, from which there iffue 
many ftreams, that give rife to waterfalls, and thus inereafe 
the beauty of this ftriking feene. Thefe caverns are wide 
at the mouth, but become very narrow towards their farther 
extremity, and are generally very fhort. This form fhews, 

that 


es 


ere Bo Lee 


that they owe their exifterce to external agents, particu- 
Jarly water. A more near exemination difcovers, that the 
feams of the ftrata of the different ifelated mzfles correfpond 
to ezch other, which renders it probable that all thefe cones, 
pyramids, and pillars, have heen formerly united, end that 
the perpencicular rerts or fifi:res have given rife to this 
‘difunion, which has been efterwards increafed by the 200 
of the air, and by the water carrying away tie fofter or 
‘more lecfely agaregated parts of th favd-flone, aud kaving 
the harder perts in thefe varicus forms. A: fimilar apprar- 
ance of fard-{ftone occurs near ‘junis; and, frem its ftrikiae 
refemblance to ruins, is delcribed os the remains of a great 
city, by fome travellers who faw it at a diflance. In 
the land ot the Namaquas in fouthern Africa, and on the 
‘banks of the Wo'ga, there are fimiler :pocerances. This 
formation paffes through S:xony, Lufatiz, into Silefia and 
Bohemia, and ts wrapped around almott the whole of the 
Ricfen-Gcbirge.” 

An excellent chara@terittic of this fand-ftone formation, 
as it appears in Bohemia, we poffeis from the able pen of 
Dr. Reufs. 

_ Another formatior; not in the above feries of Thurirgian 
fletz rocks, nor, indeed. abundantly met with in many parts 
of Germany, is the rock-falt formation. It generally occurs 
with the firtt fletz-gypfum ; and in the territory of Salines of 
Upper Auttria may be confidered 2s fubordinate to the 
firft fletz limelton-, the princ‘pal formation of that country. 
It is almoft coultan:ly accompanied by beas of that clay 
called by Humboldt /a/t-clay, which being a variety bat 
little underftood, we hall here add Bueh’s defcription 
‘of that occurring at Halftadt, Wchel, &c. in the jult- 
‘mentioned Auttrian territory. Its colour is {moke-grey, 
_and it alfo occurs greyifh-black and greyith-white, more (el- 
dom reddifh-brown acd tile-red, It is perfeétly dull, but 
always mixed with minute glimmering faline particles; 
fra&ture fiae earthy, and in large pieces, flat conchoidal ; 
fragments indeterminately angular. It is perfectly opaque, 
does not foil, is foft, approaching to very foft, rather auc- 
tile, and not particelerly heavy. Its flrezk is light afh-prey. 
This clay ts faid +o become of a darker colour when expofed 
to the air, which is the more fingular, as, according to 
Humboiet’s experiments, it eagerly abforbs the oxygen of 
theatmofphere. It is quite penetrated by falt ; and the fmall 
angular fragments, approaching more or kfs to the cubical 
ferm, are often fecn coated with a cruft of faline particles. 
Rock-falt is genera ly found in huge mafl<s, in low parts be- 
tween mountains, or at their foot, fuch as in Trenlyivania ; 
though vatt depofitions of it alfo cccur in hizh Situations, 
fuch as at the foot of the elevated range of mountains 
which, to the north-weft from Tibet, encompafles Cachemire ; 
a fituation equally clevated with a great part of the European 
Alps. For a more detailed account of this interetting 
formation, fee the article Rock Salt. 

The feventh of Werner’s fletz tormations, that of cha/k, 
is but little underitood with regard to its geognoftic relation: 
all we know is, that its occurrence in low fituations on the fea 
coalt, where it forms high and rugged cl'ffs, and its earthy 

-alpeét, befpeak its more recentorigw. In England it occurs 
in confiderable ftrata, f.rming cliffs and high mopotains. 
Wedo not know much of its occurrence-in Germany ; itis, 
however, faid to be found at Luneburg, ahernatung with thin 
ftrata of clay. Chalk contains no metals except fome iron 


*. ores, and but few petri‘: Gions have been found in tt; but 


the nodules of flint imbedded in this rock are almolt cha- 
racteriltic of it. See Print. : 
As to the eleventh or independent coal formation, we 
have already had occafion to mention itas. one of Mr. Voigt’s 
Vor. XIV. 


older fletd-rocks. We fhall here adda few words on- Mr. 
Werner’s coal formation in general. According to Em- 
mer.ing, who gives us an expofition of the Wrrnerian fyf- 
fem, the coa!-meuntains (Kohlen gebirge) are to be divided 
into four diflin& formations: to the cldelt belorg the coal 
{trata occurring in fictz-lime-flone, 2s, for inftance, thefe of 
the Bratenberg, near Kratigest, on the Thuner fea. Younger 
thar this, bunt of the fame age with one of the newer fand- 
{tone formations, is the indeperderct coal formation: of 
fill more recent origin ts the coal which is fuberdinate to the 
trap formation: and the newelt of all is that contained 
in alluvial mountains. Mr. Jamefon, cn the other hena, 
informs us that Werner has afcertained three difi-nét 
formations, without including the beds of cecal found 1a 
fand-ftone and lime-ftone formations, which latter, he fays, 
are in general of no importance. Accordizg to thet new 
arrangement, therefore, the independent coal formation is 
the oldeft; the fecond is that of the neweft fletz-trap forma- 
tion; ard the third, that which occurs tn alluvial land. 
Again, according to later accounts, it is underftood that 
Mr. Werner has adcpted another arrancement of that forma- 
tion which approaches to that of Karften, who makes the 
independent coal formatitn dependent on the clder fand- 
ftone, and that of the lime-flone fubordinate to the fit 
fl.tz, or Alpine lime-ftone. From th-fe frequent changes 
it weuld appear that the hiftory of the different formations 
of coal and their relatyve age are {till involved in confiderable 
darkrefe. What is known with certainty amourts, we fup- 
pofe, to this, that coal is of early as well as of late formation; 
the former is found under the older fand-tione, fometimes 
even refting on primitive rocks; the latrer, on the newer 
fand-{tone in the vicinity of the rocks that belong to Wer- 
ner’s younger flctz-trap formation. We are happy to find 
that Mr. Jamefon has promifed to pub!ifh the refults of his 
obf{crvations on the relation in which thefe formations of 
coa) ftand to the other fletz-rocks; and, indeed, many 
doubts remaia to be cleared up refp: ting the determination 
of this point, as well as of many others intimately connected 
with the natural hiftory of thofe important mineral depo- 
fitions. 

The laft of Werner’s formations of fletz-rocks is called 
the newett fletz-trap formation, comprifing prigcipally thofe 
enigmatous maff-s, known by the pames of bafalt, por. 
phyry flite, wacke, and amygdaloid; rocks which, though 
they contain no oryanic remains, cannot be ranked with the 
priaitive, fince they rett both on thefe and the fletz-moun- 
tains; rocks which are confidered by many gevlogiils as 
the principal produéts of volcanic: agency, but which, ac- 
cording to Werner, are the refults of a deluge. or fudden 
vife of the waters at a more recent period than that in which 
the other fictz-rocks were formed. Belides the jult-men- 
tioned, the following rocks are referred to this formation: 
green-tone, grey-ftone, pitch-ftone, compet feld{par, ob- 
fidian, pumice; and thoie that are mechj»tcal depofitions, 
viz. gravel, fand, bituminous wooed, brown coal, clay, and 
trap-tuf ; to which articles we refer our readers, as likewife to 


athe article Trap, 


For further remarks on the fubjeét of fictz frata, and on 
the order.in which they fucceed cach other in various parts 
of the world, fee Srrara. 

Not wnconneSed with the hiftory of the {rata of fletz- 
mountains are th fe remarkable appearsnces well known to 
the miners under the appeliations of //ips, /eifts, or faults. 
They. are dillacations that have happened to the ftrata, 
after being divided by vertical fiflures; the oppolite fides of 
the fifures, which ave gewerally fillkd up, do no longer cor- 
refpond, the ftrata of the one being either above or below 

4M thofe 


ELE 


thofe of the other fide, with which they were conne&ed 
before the difturbance took place. See the articles Sur 
and VEIN. % 

FLEUKAN, Frooxan, in Mining, denotes rubble 


and unconfolidated earth concained between the fides of 


ftrata vertically divided by a fiflure and diflocated. See 
Surp and VEIN. 
FLEUR-DE-LIS, Frevrerre!’, Jleuronné, and 


Fleury, in Heraldry. See Frory. : 

FLEURENCE, in Geography, a town of France, in 
the department of the Gers, and chief place of a canton, 
in the diftri& of Le&toure, feated on the Gers; 4 miles 
S. of LeGtoure. N. lat.43° 51! E. long.o? 15° The 
place contains 3,021, and the canton 12,159 inhabitants, 
on a territory of 300 kiliometres, in 22 communes. 

FLEURIEU, Care, a cape on the W. coaft of 
North America, fo called by Peroufe. It is fuppofed to 
be the fame with that which captain Dixon called Cape 
Cox. Nolat. 51° as5/.° W.long. 128? 55%. 

FLEURTIS, a termin French Mufic, now obfolete. 
It implied florid counterpoint, fuch as is not note againit 
note, but compounded of notes of different value and pro- 
portion as to meafure. It likewife implied the graces or 
ornaments of a melody when toofimple. See Baopverirs, 
Dovs.es, Variarions, and PassaGces. 

FLEURUS, or Frorus, in Geography, avillageof France, 
in the department of the Sombre and Meufe, remarkable 
for having been the place near which three battles were 
fought, viz. the firft Augult 1c, 1622, the fecond between 
the allies and the French, and the third between the 
Auftrians and the French, in June 1794, in which the 
former were defeated with great lofs; 6 miles N. E. of 
Charleroy. , 

FLEURY, Anprew-Herecures re, in Biography, 
cardinal and prime minifter of France, was born ti 1653. 
He was educated at Paris in the Jefuits’ college, and 
became, ata proper age, canon of Montpellier, and doétor 
of the Sorbonne. Poflefling an agreeable perfon, and thofe 
manners that never fail to reéommend a man at court, he 
obtained the poft of almoner to the queen, and afterwards 
to the kiag. In 1698, he was nominated to the bifhopric 
of Frejus, when Lewis XIV. paid him a high compli- 
ment; “ I have made you waita long time,’’ faid the 
monarch, ** but you have fo many friends, that I was 
defirous you fhould be obliged for your advancement to no 
one but myfelf.”? Fleury, however, was not always plealed 
with his fituation, the diocefe was in a diitant and dif- 
agreeable country, and he became difgufted, probably, for 
the want of that kind of fociety which was conformable to 
his withes. Ina letter to a friend he fubferibed himfelf, 
« Fleury, by divine indignation, bifhop of Trejus.””? He 
neverthelefs held the {ee many years, and on one occafion, 
when the allies under the duke of Savoy and prince 
Eugene made anirruption into France, the bifhop, by his 
prudent conduct and engaging manners, faved his city and 
its neighbourhood from pillage, and perfuaded the generals 
to be contented with a moderate contribution. He was 
nominated by the will of Lewis XIV. preceptor to his 
fucceffor, the young king, with whom he fo completely 
ingratiated himfelf, as to infpire him with a profound 
efteem and attachment. Nor was he lefs anxious to pay 
his eourt to the marfhal Villeroy, the king’s governor, 
and to the regent the duke of Orleans, by the moft refpect- 
fal demeanor. "The regent would have conferred upon him 
the archbifhopric of Rheims, but he refufed that iplendid 

romotion, dreading, perhaps, that it might be a pretext 

er removing him —_ the perfon of the king. At the 


FLE 


death of the regent, it was through his recommendation 
that the duke of Bourbon was appointed prime minifter, 
though in truth it was Fleury who governed, by means of 
the influence which he poffeffed over the king’s mind. This 
was put to the trial, when the duke, urged by his miftrefs, 
attempted to exclude the bifhop from his private confulta- 
tions with the king. Fleury immediately retired, and wrote 
to his fovereign a iter filled with exprefiions of tendernefs 


‘and regret, the effe@ of which was fuch, that it was im- 


poffible to pacify the king, till he was recalled and reftored 
to his prefence. From this time Fleury became’ chief 
minifter, without afluming the title and apparent funétions 
which pointed out the premier. He was created cardinal 
in 1726, and at the age of feventy-three devoted the remains 
of hte, which had hitherto. challenged the public efteem, 
to the ungrateful toils that attend minilterial power, and at 
a period when the moft ambitious are ready to feek repofe, 
he avowediy entered the lifts of fame. ‘The fpinit of his 
adminiltration was economy in the public revenue, and the 
prefervation of peace. The pacitic difpofition of this 
great man correfponded with the immediate welfare of 
Vranee, and he quictly left the kingdom to repair its lofles, 
aud to enrich itfelf by an advantageous and extenfive com- 
merce, without making any innovations. This tranquil 
and u enterprizing difpofition was not calculated to gain 
the ref{peét of a nation like the French, who have ever been 
more defirous of being thought great, than anxious to be 
really profperous. Peace the cardinal could not always 
attain, but he terminated in three years the war of 1733 
with the emperor Charles VI., and obtained for France 
the important acquifition of Lorraine. In the year 
174!', Frederic JI1., king of Pruffia, laid claim to four 
duchies in Silefia; he fuddenly entered that country, defeated 
the Auftrians near Molwitz, aud occupied the whole of 
the duchy. This vitory was the fignal for war to France; 
but Fleury, now in his eighty-fifth year, was but little 
inclined to relinquifh the pacific fyftem that he adored, 
but he was overwhelmed by the impetuofity of the mare- 
{chal and chevalier de Belleifle, who reprefented to Lewis 
that the period was now arrived of finally breaking the 
power of the houfe of Auftria, and exalting that of Bour- 
bon on isruins; and that fo favourable an opportunity 
never again would offer of raifing the eleétor of Bavaria 
to the imperial throne. The monarch affented, and car- 
dinal Fleury, tottering on the brink of the grave, yet itill 
defirous of keeping his power, fan@ioned with his name 
an enterprize he had never approved, and confented to 
prefide over a people whofe councils he was not permitted 
to dire&t. This war embittered the clofe of his life, 
which, however, by habitual temperance and natural 
cheerfulnefs, was protracted to nearly his ninetieth year, 
He died in 1743, and was buried in the church of the 
Louvre at the king’s expence. In private life he was 
fimple and modeit, content witha moderate income, and. 
remote equally from avarice and oitentation. Moreri. 
Hiftoire de France. 

Fieury, Craupe, was born at Paris in the year 1640. 
His father was an efteemed advocate, and he intended his 
fon for the fame profeffion. Claude, indeed, was admitted 
an advocate of the parliament of Paris in the year 1658, 
and from this period, for the next nine years, he diligently 
applied himfelf to the ftudy of jurifpradence, and the 
belles lettres; after this he determined to embrace the 
ecclefiaftical ftate. To forward himfelf in this new courfe 
he attended the conferences which the celebrated Bofluet 
held at his houfe on the feriptures, and on fubjeéts. of 
religion aud literature. During his interviews with this 

excel. 


FLE 


excellent man he tranflated his well-known work, entitled, 
* The Expofition of the Catholic Doéttine.”” Fleury 
foon acquired a high charaGter for abilities and literature, 
while he was equally the object of refpe&t for his piety 
-and virtues. In the year 1672, he was chofen preceptor 
to the princes of Conti, and afterwards fuftained the fame 
chera&er with refpeét to the count de Vermandois, the 
favourite natural fon of Lewis XIV. In the year 1689, 
the king fixed upon him as the fitteit perfon to be aflociated 
with the great Fenelon in the education of his legitimate 
offspring, and made him fub-preceptor to his grandfons, 
the dukes of Burgundy, Anjou, and Berry. Ina the year 
1696, he was admitted a memy:r of the Krench academy, 
at the meetings of which he affifted as often as his other 
duties and engagements would permit. He had not been 
overlooked by the king in church preferment ; but being 
a very diftinterefted man, he was content with compara- 
tively fmall emolument, and fought nothing fer himfelt 
_till the priory of Argenteuil became vacant, which, from 
its proximity to Paris, offered a commodious retreat for 
fludy within reach of defirable fources of affiftance and 
information. This benefice the abbé Fleury obtained from 
the king without difficulty ; at the fame time he refigned 
an abbacy irto the fovereign’s hands which he had held 
before. In his retreat at Argerteuil he continued till the 
year 1716, when he was drawn out of it by the duke of 
Orleans, the regent of the kingdom, after the death of 
Lewis XIV. to occupy the place of confeflor to the 
young king. His own infirmities, and the intrigues of 
the Jefuits, obliged him to refign his eflicesin the year 
1722, and in the following year he died, leaving behind him 
a charatter eitimable for extenfive learning, firm and nice 
integrity, tree modefty and candour, great purity and 
fimplicity of manners, and ardent and unaffected piety. 
He was’author of numerous works of merit, but his mott 
confiderable and important, the fruit of thirty years ftudy, 
was his Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, in 20 vols. 12mo., of which 
the firft was publifhed in the year 1691, and the Jatt in 
the year previoufly to his death. This work has been pub- 
lithed fince his death in 13 vols. gto. It contains the 
hiflory of the Chriftian church, from the earlielt times to 
the council of Conftance in 1414: his faéts are collected 
with great induftry and impartiality from the beft autho- 
tities, and they are, in general, combined in a fimple and 
unornamented ftyle. Moreri. Hift. de France. 

Fievury, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of the Loiret ; 2 miles N. of Orleans.—Alfo, a 
tewn of France, in the department of the fliaits of Calais ; 
4 miles N.W. of St. Pol. 

- FLEWS, in Rura/ Economy, a name fometimes provin- 
cially applied to the phlemes employed in bleeding 
cattle. 

FLEXIBLE, in Phy/ics, is applied to bodies that are 
capable of being bent, or changed from their natural form 
and direétion. ° 

A body is not capable of being infle&ted or bent, unlefs 
the whole thereof be at reft. In bending a body, it con- 
ftitutes, as it were, two levers; and the point it is to be 
bent in, is a fulcrum; hence, as 4 moving power, the 
farther it is from the fulcrum, it acquires a greater force ; 
the longer the flexible body is, the eatier it is bent. 

FLEXION, in dnaiomy, the act of bending, or the 
attitude into which any part of the body is brought by the 
action of the flexor muicles. When the parts compoling 
an articulation are fo fituated with refpeét to each other, 
as to form one {traight line, the joint is faid to be extended ; 
when they are moved fo as to form an angle with each other 


FLE 


it is bent. Some joints, as thofe of the hip, knee, end 
elbow, admit of being bent only in one direGtion ; and from 
this bent attitude, they can be moved in the oppofite 
courfe only fo far as to bring the two parts of the limb into 
the fame ftraight line. In other cafes, as at the wrift, mo- 
tion is almoft equally free in both dire&tions, from the atti- 
tude in which the limb defcribes a ftraight line. Yet here 
the term flexion is confined to one of thefe motions; and 
the othet is called extenfion, although the joiat 1s not then 
ftraight. 

FLEXOR, a name given to thofe mufcles, particularly 
of the wnft, fingers, and toes, which have the- office of 
bending thofe organs: they ave the autagonifls ef the ex- 
tenfors. 

Frexor brevis minimi digiti manus; flexor proprius ; 
flexor pa vus, Alb.; carpo-metacarpien. This is fometimes 
wanting, abd in all cafes it isa very {mall mufele. It arifes 
from the annular ligament and os unciforme, is fituated at 
the fide of the abdudior minimi digiti, and inferted in com- 
pany with it into the outer and anterior part 6f the firil 
phalanx of the little finger. It is covered by the fkin, and 
by the palmaris brevis, and covers the addu¢tor offis meta- 
carpi minimidigiti. It will bend the firit phalanx of the 
little finger on the metacarpus. 

Fiexor brevis minimi digiti pedis 5 } 
Winflow ; tarfo-phalangien du petit orteil. This muicle, 
fituated within the abduétor minimi digiti, has an elongated 
form, and is thicker in the midcle than at,the two extremi- 
ties. Itis attached, by means of aponeurotic fibres, to the 
under furface of the tarfal extremity of the laft metatarfal 
bone, and to the fheath of the peroneus magnus. Ad- 
vancing forwards, it firft increafesin fize, and then dimi- 
nifhes again, and is fived to the metatarfal extremity of the 
firft phalanx of the little toe, adhering clofely to the joint. 
It is covered by the abduétor, and by the palmar fafcia ; 
while its fuperior furface correfponds to the laft metatarfal 
bone, and to the interofleous mufcle of the little toe. It 
bends the little toe on the metatarfus. ; 

Vrexor, Carpi radialis brevior 

Erexor, Carpi radialis longior 

Flexor, Carpi radialis ulnaris 

FLexor brevis pollicis manus ; thenar of Winflow ; carpo- 
phalangien ; is a. fhort mufcle belonging to the ball of the 
thumb, and placed within the opponens pollicis. It has 
two origins, ore from the annular ligamert and os trape- 
zium, the other from the os magnum and the third metacar- 
pal bone. The two flefhy portions of which it confifts 
run parallel to the metacarpal bone of the thumb, and unite 
at the oppofite end, ftill leaving a channel between them for 
the tendon of the flexor longus. It is inferted into the 
two fefamoid bones of the thumb, being connected to the 
abdu&or and adductor mufcles of this organ. The abdu€tor 
pollicis, the fkin, the tendon of the flexor longus, that of 
the flexor profundus, and the two firft lumbricales, cover this 
mufcle externally. It covers the tirft metacarpal bone, the 
tendon of the flexor carpi radialis, and the firft interoffei, 
This mufcle will bend the articulation between the metacar- 
pal bone and the firft phalanx of the thumb; and it will 
alfo draw the metacarpal bone gowards the carpus. 

Fvexor brevis pollicis pedis ; flexor brevis pollicis ; thenar; 
tarfo-phalangien du pouce ; is a fhort and thick mufele, fim- 
ple behind, and bifurcated in front, and placed on the infe- 
rior furface of the firft metatarfal bone. It arifes by a 
flattened, but clearly marked tendon, from the under furface 
of the os calcis and two of the cuneiform bones, and the 
ligaments which join thefe. It is alfo attached to the 
plantar faicia, where that covers the flexor brevis digitorum 

aM-2 pedis, 


bd 
pirathenas minor of 


See Carri. 


WL Ex Ome. 


pedis, and the abduétor pollicis. The flefhy fibres, colled- 
ed into a thick fafciculus, marked below witha groove fof 
the tendon of the flexor longus, proceed forwards to the 
sveat toe, and are inferted in two divifions. The inner and 
larzeft, clofely connected to the abductor, is fixed with it 
by tendinous fibres to the internal fefamoid bone, and to 
the correfponding extremity of the firft phalanx. ‘The 
external, which is {maller, is fixed tothe external fefamoid 
bone. Botliare clofely attached to the fynovial membrane 

f the articulation, which joins the great toe to the firlt 
metatarfal bone. Its upper furface is covered by the firlt 
metatarlal bone, and by the tendon of the peroneus longus 5 
its under furface reits on the tendon of the flexor longus and 
the plantar fafcia. By beuding the great toe at its meta- 
tarfal articulation, this mufcle contributes to render the fole 
of the foot concave. 

Flexor digitorum pedis accefforius. 
rum pedis longus. ; 

T'Lexor digitorum fublimis ;fublimis, Alb.; flexor perfora- 
tus ; epitrochlo-phalanginien ; fléchiffeur digital fuperficiel. 
This mufcle is thick, elongated, and flattened. It arifes, 
iit, by means of the common tendon, from the internal 
condyle of the humerus, and then from the éorrefponding 
lateral ligament, and from the coronoid procefs of the ulna, 
by fhort aponeurotic fibres; 2dly, froma feptum which 
feparates it from the flexor carpi ulnaris ; 3dly3 by tendi- 
nous fibres from a confiderable portion of the front edge of 
the radius, between the fupinator brevis and the flexor polli- 
cislongus; 4thly, from feptawhich feparate it from the flexor 
¢arpi radialis and palmaris longus. From the origin juft 
enumerated, a thin portion of mufcular fibres 1s produced ; 
but the mufcle grows thicker towards its middle, runs ina 
direétion parallel to the bones of the fore-arm, and divides 
into four flefhy portions, correfponding to the four fingers 5 
of which, the two belonging to the middle fingers are the 
moft fuperficial, and thofe of the fore and little fingers 
the moft deeply feated ; the latter is the fmalleft. Thefe 
end in tendons. proportioned to their bulk ; which are com- 
pletely difengaged from the mufcular fibres at the annular 
ligament. The four tendons, connected together in the 
manner which will be prefently explained, pafs in the 
deep channel formed by the annular ligament, in front of 
the tendons.of the profundus, feparate as they proceed, and 
continue their courle towards the fingers under the palmar 
fafcia., ‘They become broader aud thinner, enter the tendi- 
vous thece of the fingers, and each prefents, at the com- 
mencement of the fheath, a concavity adapted to the cor- 
refpond.ing tendon of the flexor profundus. As the ten- 
don paffes over the firit phalanx, it divides into two por- 
tions, which feparate to allow the paffage of the tendon of 
the profundus, then unite together behind that tendon, fo 
as to form a channel, with its concavity in front, lodging the 
tendon of the profundus ; and afterwards feparate again to 
be implanted; diftin€tly from each other, in the lateral and 
anterior margins of the fecond phalanx. 

Thus each tendon is firft concave pofteriorly, where it 
Ves on the tendon of the profundus ; then prefeuts a large 
fit for the paffage of the Jatter ; is afterwards concave an- 
teriorly, from the two fides of the flit uniting below, and 
then ezds by a double infertion in the bone. 

“On the fore-arm, the pofterior furface of this mufcleis in 
contaét with the profurdus, the flexor longus pollicis, and 
the median. nerve; while its anterior furface is covered by 
the pronator teres, flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, 
and the fafcia of the jore-arm. It covers the profundus and 
lumbricales in the haad, andis covered by the annular liga- 
ment and palmar fafcia. In the fibrous theath of the fingers, 


See Frexor diito- 


it is placed firft between the fheath aud the tendon of the 
profundus, and lower down between the latter and th 
bone. = 
Friexor disitorum profundus ; profundus, Alb,; flexor pere 
forans ; cubitu-fous-ouguien ; fiéchifleur digital profond, 


This mufcle is fituated in the forearm, under the former, . 


which it very muchrefembles. It isthick, flattened,elongated 
in its form, flelhy above, and tendinous below. It arifesy. 


‘rit, from the aponeurofis extended from the flexor carpi ul- 


naris tothe ulna, and from the inner furface of that boue’ 
in one-third of its length; 2dly, from the anterior furface 
of the bone for three-fourths of its length, next to the el- 
bow,-and from the corre iponding portion of the interof- 
feous ligament, by apondurotic fibres. Smaller at its ori- 
gin, it {wells inthe middie, and diminithes again, dividing 
into four more or lefs ciltin& portions, terminated by four 
tendons, which are at firft concealed by the flefhy fibres, 
but become entirely difengaged at the annular ligament, 
where they are clofely conneéted by cellular fubftance. 
They pals in the deep channel of the ligament, behind thofe 
of the flexor fublimis, fepar te as they proceed into the 
hand, give origin to the lumbricales, enter the tendinous: 
fheaths, perforate the tendons of the flexor fublimis, and 
lie in the channels formed on the anterior furfaces of the 
two firlt phalanges, ach tendon terminates in a flightly 
flattened form, by an infertion in the anterior furface of the 
lalt phalanx. 

In the fore-arm this mufcle is covered by the flexor carpi 
radialis, the flexor fublimis, the median and ulnar nerves, 
and the radial artery ; and it covers the furface of the ulna, 
the interofleous ligament, and the pronator quadratus. 
The bones of the carpus and metacarpus, and the interoflei 
mufcles, lie behind it in the hand ; and the lumbricales and’ 
tendons of the fublimis are before it. In the fingers, its 
tendons lie on the bones, being covered by the tendons of 
the fublimis and the fibrous fheaths. It is furnifhed with 
certain fynovial membranes, common to it with the pre- 
ceding mutcle. 

The annular fynovial Membrane.—On cutting the annular 
ligament of the hand, and lifting up the fubjacent packet of 
tendons, we obferve a cavity terminated by a cul-de-fac 
above and below, and formed by a membrane, which en- 
velops the tendons of the flexor fublimis and profundus of 
the flexor longus pollicis, and the median nerve ; and whicly 
is fpread over the furface of the annular ligament and the 
carpal ligaments. ‘This membrane conneéts all the parts 
into one fafciculus, fends numerous folds between them, is 
very foft and yielding, but contains fo little fynovia, that 
a doubt may be entertained whether it fhould properly be 
regarded as a fynovial membrane. Yet its office and ufe 
are exaétly the fame as thofe of the burfe mucofe ; it en- 
ables the tendons to play eafily in the channel of the annular 
ligament. ‘The latter part confines the tendons in their 
proper fituation ; they would otherwife ftart up from the 
wrilt when the hand is bent on the fore-arm, and deferibe 
a of aa are formed by the fore-arm, writ, and. 
rand. ; 

Synovial Membranes and fibrous Sheaths of the Fingers.— 
Thefe membranes are expanded on the tendons of the two- 
flexor mufeles juft deferibed, and on a, canal containing 
them, formed partly of bone, and partly of a ftrong fibrous: 
fubftance. The auterior concave furface of the phalanges, 
and the front of their articulations, form the bon . portion: 
of the canal. The fibrous part is a deufe flroag (fae at- 
tached to the fides of the bony channel, and terminating” 
below by a conneétion to the flexor profundas. Thus the: 
cavity ends in a-cul-de-fac.. The fheath is very thick and: 

ftrong 


———— 


———————— a 


PLEX OR 


flrone at the middle of the firft and fecond phalanges, and 
compofed of femicircular fibres of cartilaginous firmnefs ; 
the refl is weaker, and compofed of decuflating fibres. A 
{ynovial membrane lines this cavity, and is reflected at its 
commencement over the tendons, fo as to form here alfo a 
cul-de-fac. The tendons are completely unconneéted in 
this fheath, being lubricated, as well as the containing 
cavity, by’a fynovial fluid: there are, however, one or two 
flender vafcular threads going from the fheath to the ten- 
don. The ufe of this ficath is the fame with that of the 
annular ligament, viz. to confine the tendons in their fitua- 
tion. When it is divided in the dead fubjeét, and the 
mufcles are drawn fo as to bend the fingers, the tendons 
immediately ftart up from the bones. As they move con- 
fiderably within the canal during the motions of the fiugers, 
the neceflity of the parts being lubricated by fynovia is ob- 
vious. No fimilar apparatus belongs to the extenfor mufcles 
of the fingers; becaufe thofe members cannot be moved in 
that dire&tion beyond the point at which they form ftraight 
lines with the hand, and their extenfor tendons do not con- 
fequently admit of difplacement ; which would be prevent- 
ed too by the attachment of the lumbricales and interoffei 
to thofe tendons. At the wrift thesextenfor tendons are 
confined as well as the flexors; becaufe the hard can be 
moved in this direétion beyond the ftraight line, and the 
tendons wonld be fubject to ftart from the bones. 

~ The lumbricales mufcles are fmall, flender, and elongated 
mufcular fafciculi, fo named from a comparifon to earth- 
worms. Their number is four, and they are defignated by 
numerical epithets, counting from the thumb to the little 
finger. ‘They are placed in the palm of the hand, and de- 
rive their origin from the tendons of the profundus. The 
firft arifes from the anterior and radial fide of the firft ten- 
don, and the fucceeding ones from the bifurcations of the 
tendons, fo that each of the latter has an attachment to two 
tendons. ‘They accompany the tendons towards the fin- 
gers; are fmall at firft, then grow larger, and afterwards 
contract again, and end at the firft phalanx in {mall flat. 
tened tendons. Thefe turn round the articulation, which 
joins the metacarpus to the phalanges, and go towards the 
back of the fingers. The expanded tendons are conneéted 
to thofe of the ititeroffei, and are joined by a broad furface 
to the edge of the extenfor tendons. They then run along 
the fide of the finger, and terminate by an infertion at the 
back of thethird phalanx. The firft lumbricalis runs along 
the radial fide of the fore-finger; and the fucceeding ones 
hold the fame relation to the other fingers. The middle or 
the ring-finger may have a lumbricalis on each fide, and 
then the little finger has none. ‘They are covered by the 
flexor fublimis, the palmar fafcia, the digital nerves and 
veffels, and lie upon the interoffei mafcles. In the fingers 
~ tendon covers the phalanges, and is covered by tlie 
ikin. ; 

The flexor fublimis and profundus, and the laumbricales, 
are flexors of the three joints of the fingers: the firft bend- 
ing the middle joint; the fecond, the laft jot; and the 
third, the fittt or that which conneéts the Metacarpus to 
the firft phalanges. When the two firlt have produced 
their effet upon the articulations to which they belong, 
they have the further power of bending the firft joint, con- 
eurvifig in this office with the lumbricales. Since the latter 
mufeles turn round the firft joints, and run afterwards along 
the back of the phalanges, being confined in their fituations 

their connection to the extenfor tendons, they will ex- 
tend the fecond and third joints, although they are placed 
in'the palm of the hand: tor their peculiar courfe alters the 
dire@ion of the force. It is neceffery, in order to the 
flexion of the fuft joints by the lumbricales, that the flexor 


profundus fhould be in aGtion; that its tendons may be 
fixed, fo as to afford a firm point, to which the lumbricales 
may move the fingers. Hence, where all the three joints 
are bent, asin clenching the fift, in grafping a ftick, &c, 
the middle and laft are bent firtt, and afterwards the firit. 
The latter, however, may be bent, while the others are 
kept itraight; but this requires a painful effort. Here, 
the flexor profundus is put in a€tion, and the extenfor com- 
munis alfo contraéts, to prevent the fingers from being 
bent. By feeling in the fore-arm, we can afcertain that 
both the flexors and extenfors are exerted on this occafion, 
and the effort is attended with confiderable pain. Thus a 
fixed point is produced for the aétion of the lumbricales. 
The fublimis and profundus, after bending the fingers, or 
if the fingers are kept extended, will concur very powerfully, 
with the flexors of the carpus, in bending the wrift. As 
they arife chiefly from the inner fide of the fore-arm, they 
will alfo co-operate in turning the palm towards the ground, 
or producing the ftate of pronation. Inafmuch as any cf 
their fibres are derived from the humerus, they will have 
the power of bending the elbow joint. We cannot avoid 
noticing, even on the mott fuperficial examination, the great 
fuperiority in bulk of the flexors over their antagoniits the 
extenfors of the fingers. The fablimis or profundus alone 
contains twice or three times as many fibres as the extenfor 
communis ; and this difpreportion becomes itill more ftnk- 
ing, when we obferve that the internal condyle, from which 
the flexor mufcles arife, is very prominent, fo as to give 
them a mechanical advantage.in their action. The bending 
of the fingers is employed on many occafions, which require 
great mufcular forces: the lifting of heavy weights is an 
example of this kind; where the ring of a weight is grafped 
by the fingers, and the weight elevated, it is entirely fup- 
ported by thefe mufcles. Now any individual can eafily 
lift, in this way, from fifty to a hundred pounds and up- 
wards, by his little finger only: In feizing and holding 
bodies firmly great power is required, on ocesfions which 
are conftantly occnring, not merely among the laborious 
parts of the community, but alfo in thole who do not de- 
pend for {upport on their perfonal exertions. In the latter, 
indeed, the fact is more obvious: the aét of rowing, the 
handlisg of cables, the ufe of the hammer, the mallet, the’ 
pick-axe, and fimilar inftruments, all exemplify the great 
importance of the flexors of the fingers. No effeéis of any 
analogous defcription are produced by the extenfors: they 
merely reftore the fingers from their bent {tate. The fingers 
may be rendered the fixed point, and then their flexor 
mufcles will bend the fore-arm on the hand. In climbing, 
we grafp firmly an obje&t above our heads; and we then 
fee ithe fore-arm moved upou the hand. The whole weight 
of the body is fuftained in that pofition, without any dufli- 
culty, by the flexors of one fide; and it can be fupported 
even by the flexors of a fingle finger. 

Fruexor /ongus digitorum pedis ; ftexor profundus orcom-- 
minis, or perforans ; tibio-fous onguien ; grand’ féchiffeur 
des orteils ; is placed on the pofterior furface of the tibia, 
between the bone and the mufeles of the ; poffeffes an 
elongated form, is thin and fr d and divided 
into rtendons below. From its origin in the leg it enters 
the fole of the foot, and receives, before dividing iato its 


above, 


four tendons, the infertion of the @exor accefforius, which 
comes from the wader furface of the os calcis. The lume. 
bricales: pedis: arife from its feparate tendons. It is at- 


tached on the inner fide, by thort aponeurotie fibres, to the 
back of the tibia, from the oblique line of that bone to its 
inferior fourth part ; on the outiide to a long apouewrotic 
feptum, which feparates it from the tibialis Be Sass and 
flexor longus pollicis pedis. From this double origin th, 
2 fieth. 

: y 


BLE OR! 


flefhy fibres defcend obliquely oa each fide to a tendon, 
concealed in the fubftance of the mufcle at firft, but foon 
appearing fuperficially at the back of the mufcle. The 
fibres of the fecond origin continue to enter the tendon as 
low as the ankle; but thofe of the firit ceafe higher wp in 
the leg. ‘The tendon paffes in a fuperficial groove behind 
the internal malleolus, feparated by a fibrous feptum from 
that of the tibialis pofticus; and then paffes behind the 
a{tragalus, turning afterwards horizontally forwards in the 
fole of the foot. It now turns rather outwards ; pafles 
under the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis pedis, to 
which it is conneéted by a fmall tendinous chord; then 
becomes confiderably broader and flattened, and fhews the 
marks of a divifion into four portions. Here it divides 
into four tendons, which proceed towards the four 
{maller toes, entering with the correfponding portions of 
the flexor brevis into the tendinous fheaths of the toes, 
pafling in the flits of thofe tendons, and inferted into the 
lower and poiterior part of the laft phalanges. The relative 
pofitions, the infertions, and the fibrous fheaths of thefe 
tendons are analogous in the toes to thofe of the flexor fub- 
limis and profundus in the fingers; to the defcription of 
which the reader is referred. ; 

In the leg this mufcle is covered by the foleus, the fafcia 
of the leg, the pofterior tibial artery and nerve; and it 
covers the tibia and the tibialis pofticus. The tendon re- 
flected behind the ankle, at its entrance into the fole, is 
confined in a fibrous fheath attached fucceflively to the 
groove at the back of the tibia, to the malleolus internus, 
the altragalus, aud front of the os calcis. On flitting up 
this caval, we find it lined by a diitiné fynovial membrane, 
lubricated with a mucous fluid, and refleéted over the tendon 
above and below fo as to form two cul-de-facs. The deep- 
feated mufcles of the foot, and particularly the flexor accel: 
forius, lie over the tendon inthe fole. The abductors of 
the great and little toes, the plantar nerves, and the 
flexor brevis, are under it. 

The flexor acceflorius, or mafla carnea Sylvii, is a thin, 
flattened, and rather fquare portion of mufcle, fituated 
under the tarfus, and above the preceding tendon. ‘There 
is nothing analogous to it in the profundus of the hand. 
It arifes, by aponeurotic fibres, from the inferior and 
internal furface of the os calcis; thefe proceed horizon- 
tally forwards parallel to each other. The mufele is in- 
ferted, either by flefhy fibres or by a tendon, into the upper 
and outer furface of the flexor longus, where it expands 
previoufly to the divifion into its four tendons. It is inter- 
pofed between the under furface of the tarfus and the ten- 
den of the flexor longus. 

The lumbricales pedis arife from the tendons of the 
flexor longus in the foot, as thofe of the hand do from the 
profundus. Their number, fize, figure, and courfe corre- 
{pond very much to thofe of the lumbricales manus. They 
are inferted, at the roots of the toes, into the metatarfal 
extremities of the firft phalanges, detaching a thin produc- 
tion to the extenfor tendons. 

The flexor longus will bend the laft joints of the toes, 
and afterwards the middle and firft articulations. Inthe 
latter effet it is affilted by the lumbricales, which at the 
fame time will give a flight degree of lateral motion. The 
toes being bent, or kept ftraight by the extenfors, the 
foot will be carried back upon the leg by the flexor longus, 
in which cafe it aflifts the mufeles of the calf. It will alfo 
aid thefe mufcles in elevating the leg, and through it the 
whole body, while the foot refts on the ground ; it aéts 
therefore when we ftand on our toes, as well as in the office 
of progreffion. When it bends the toes, or extends the foot 
upon the leg, it draws them at the fame time inwards, fo 


that the fole faces backwards and inwardé, in confequence 
of its tendon going~ behind the internal malleolus. This 
effect is counteracted by the flexor acceflorius, which draws 
the tendon outwards ; and the toes are confequently bent 
without any obliquity to either fide. Its aétion, when the 
body is erect and fupported by the feet, fixes the fole to 
the ground ; and by bending the front of the foot accom- 
modates the organ to inequalities of furface. When the 
foot is firmly fixed to the ground, the flexor longus may 
draw the leg backwards upon the foot ; in this way it will 
reftore the legs to their upright bearing upon the aftragalus, 
when the knees have been. bent forwards. 

Fiexor longus pollicis manus ; radio-fous-onguien ; grand 
fléchiffcur du pouce ; is.a peculiar and feparate fexor of the 
thumb, placed on the furface of the radius, and on the fame 
level, in the fore-arm, with the flexor profundas digitorum. 
It has an elongated form, and is flattened at the fides. It 
arifes from the anterior furface of the radius, commencing in 
a narrow pointed form juft below the tubercle, and continued 
as far as the origin of the pronator quadratus; being alfo 
attached to a {mall part of the interofleous ligament. 
Sometimes a {mall fafciculus joins it from the coronoid pro- 
cefs of the ulua. From this origin the fibres defcend iuc- 
ceffively in an oblique diveétion, and terminate in a tendon 
lying on tke front of the mufcle, and pafling with the flexors 
of the fingers, to which it is united by the fynovial mem- 
brane already defcribed, under the annular ligament of the 
carpus. It then turns outwards, paffes between the two 
portions of the flexor brevis pollicis, and between the two 
{efamoid bones; it is continued over the firft phalanx of 
the thumb, and is inferted in the root of the fecond, being 
previoufly marked by an impreffion dividing it fuperficially 
into two porticns. In the fore-arm, the flexor fublimis, 
lexor carpi radialis, {upinator longus, and radial artery and 
nerve lie on this mufcle, which covers the furface of the 
radius, a little of the interofleous ligament, and the pronator 
qnadratus. In the hand, it occupies firft the radial fide of 
the channel formed by the annular ligament, and then is 
furrounded by the two portions of the flexor brevis pollicis :- 
being afterwards contained ina fibrous fheath. ‘The latter 
is tixed to the two edges of the firit phalanx of the thumb, 
and to the whole furface of the fecond, where it is conti- 
nuous with the infertion of the tendon, and, together with 
the concavity of the bone, forms a complete canal a pe 
the tendon. It is lined by a fynovial membrane, refleGe 
at the commencement of the canal over the tendon, fo as to 
forma cul de fac. It will bend the laft joint of the thumb 
towards the palm of the hand; and afterwards alfo the 
articulation of its metacarpal bone with the carpus. T'ur- 
ther, it may affiftin bending the wrift on the fore-arm. | 

Tiexor longus pollicis pedis ; flexor longus pollicis ; 
grand fiéchiffeur du gros orteil, The great toe, like the 
thumb, has a feparate long flexor, which is a thick and. 
itrong mufcle, lying on the back of the fibula, and covered 
by the mufcles of the calf. On the outfide, it arifes from 
a kind of feptum placed between it and the , peroneus 
longus and brevis; on the infide, from a more difliné& 
tendinous produ@tion feparating it from the tibialis pof- 
ticus and the flexor longus digitorum; between‘ thefe 
points, from the two inferior thirds of the back of the 
fibula, to which the above-mentioned fepta are alfo at- 
tached. It has above a thin and pointed form, but grows 
confiderably thicker as it defcends ; becoming thinner again 
below. A middle tendon receives the mufcular fibres, ap- 
pears at the back part of the mufcle, from which it is com- 
pletely difengaged at the ankle. It goes behind that 
joint, and then turns horizontally forwards in the fole of 
the foot ; pafies over the flexer longus digitorum, bein 

conne& 


FLE 


connected to it by a portion of tendon, continues its courfe 
along the inner fide of the foot, between the two portions 
ef the flexor brevis pollicis, and afterwards between the 
two fefamoid bones of the great toe. Here it generally 
expands, then proceeds in a narrowed form, under the firft 
phalanx of the great toe, and is inferted into the under 
and back part of the fecond phalanx. In the leg, this 
mufcle is covered by the foleus and by the fafcia of the 
leg ; and covers the fibula and tibialis pofticus. 

It then lies on the back of the tibia, and is confined to 
the aftragalus and os calcis by a fibrous fheath, lined with a 
fynovial membrane. On the firft phalanx of the great toe 
it is contained alfo in a fheath with a fynovial ming. This 
mufcle has the fame ufes with refpec to the great toe and 
foot, as the flexor longus digitorum has in regard to the 
other toes. See the account of the ation of that mufcle. 

Frexor brevis digitorum pedis ; flexor perforatus or fub- 
limis ; calcanéo-fous-onguien. This mufcle is placed in the 
middle of the fole, and is one of the fuperficial mufcles of 
the foot. It is moderately thick, of an elongated form, 
and poffeffes four tendons in front. It arifes behind from 
the os calcis, on the fides from two fepta, which feparate 
it from the abductors of the great and little toe, and below 
from the plantar fafcia; proceeds in a ftraight direétion 
to the end of the metatarfus; and then divides into four 
portions, which give origin to four tendons. The latter 
pafs in the intervals of the double infertions of the plantar 
fafcia, and enter the fibrous fheaths of the toes. At firft 
they are concave above, to receive the tendons of the flexor 
longus, then they are divided for the paflage of the latter, 
unite again, and afterwards feparate to be attached by means 
of diftin& portions to the edges of the fecond phalanges. 

The edges of this mufcle correfpond to the abduGtors of 
the great and little toes; its inferior furface is covered by 
the plantar fafcia; and the fuperior by the flexor ac- 
ceflorius, tendons ef the flexor longus, lumbricales, and 
plantar nerves and veffels. By bending the toes, this muf- 
cle renders the inferior furface of the foot concave, and 
thus enables it to accommodate itfelf to uneven ground, 
and in a manner to grafp fuch unequal furfaces. This 
effe& is much limited in the human fubject by the practice 
of wearing fhoes. By drawing the toes downwards, it 
tends to fix the foot to the ground. 

FLExoreES primi internodii digitorum; a name given by 
fome of the older anatomifts to the lumbricales. 

FLexor primi internodii minimi digiti pedis; is the name 
under which Douglas defcribes the flexor brevis of the little 
toe: Cowper calls it flexor primi offis minimi digiti. 

Frexor fecundi internodii digitorum ; is a name by which 
the flexor fublimis of the hand, and the flexor brevis of the 
foot, have been defcribed. The flexor profundus of the 
hand, and the flexor brevis of the foot, have been called 
flexwres tertii internodii digitorum. 

Frexor primi internodit pollicis ; is the opponens. 

Frexor fecundi internodit pollicis ; is the flexor brevis. 

Frexor ¢ertii internodii pollicis ; is the flexor longus. 

Fiexor primi et fecundi offis pollicis of Cowper, includes 
the addutor, opponens, and flexor brevis. 

FLEXUOSUS Cauuis, in Botany, a zigzag ftem. 
See Cavtis, n. 3. 

FLEXURE, or Fusxion, in Geometry, is ufed to fig- 
nify that a curve is both concave and convex, with re{pect 
to a given right line, ora fixed point. And the point 
which limits the concavity and convexity is called the point 
of contrary flexure. See RetTRoGRavaTion of Curves. 

As to the method of finding che points of the contrary 
flexure, fee INFLECTION. 


FLIDETHRIFT, or more truly Slidethrift, is the 


FLI 


game we now call /hovel-board. It is otherwife called /bove- 
groat, and is mentioned in the ftatute 33 Hen. VIII. cap. 9. 

FLIE, or Fry, that part of the mariner’s compafs on 
which the thirty-two winds are drawn, and over which the 
needle is placed, and faftened underneath. 

Fur, or Vie, in Geography, a river or channel, 
which runs from the Zuyder fea, near the coaft of Frief- 
land, into the German ocean, between the ifland of Schelling 
and Vlielandt. 

Frre’s Bay, a bay on the W. coaft of Africa. S. lat. 
14° 50'. 

Fries, a river of Lufatia, which runs into the Spree, 
near Luben. 

FLIGHT, the a& of a bird in flying ; or the manner, 
duration, &c. thereof. See Fryinc. 

The feathers of birds are admirably contrived, and fitted 
for the eafe and convenience of flight. See Fratuers. 

Almott every kind of bird has its particular flight : the 
eagle’s flight is the higheit ; the flight of the fparrow-hawk 
and vulture are noble, and are fit for high enterprize and 
combat. ‘The flight of fome birds is low, weak, tranfient, 
and as they callit, terra a terra; the flight of the partridge 
and pheafant is but of fhort continuance; that of the dove 
is laboured ; that of the fparrow undulatory, é&c. 

The augurs pretended to foretell future events from the 
flight of birds. ; 

Fiicur, in Rural Economy, a young brood of different 
forts of birds, as pigeons, &c. 

Fiicur. In melting the lead ore in the werks at Men- 
dip, there is a fubftance which flies away in the {moke, 
which they call the flight. 

They find it {weetith upon their lips if their faces happea 
to be in the way of the {moke, which they avoid as much 
as poffible. This, falling on the grafs, kills cattle that 
feed thereon ; and, being gathered, and carried home, kills 
rats and mice in their houfes; that which falls on the fand 
they gather, and melt upon a flag hearth, into fhot, and 
fheet-lead. 

Fricut, Capon’s, in fome Cuffoms, isa compafs of 
ground, fuch as a capon might fly over, due to the eldett 
born of feveral brothers, in making partition of the father’s 
effe&ts with them, where there is no principal manor in a 
lordfhip. It is ufually eftimated by a bow-fhot. 

Fricut of a Stair-cafe. See Sv air-ca/e. 

Fricut, in Heraldry. See Vor. 

Fricur of aw Army. Were it poffible for each indivi- 
dual of an army to be {ufficiently imprefled with the inevit- 
able confequences of “taking to flight,’? fueh an occur 
rence would be extremely uncommon. Whatever may he 
the dangers of oppofing an enemy front to front, they 
tainly fall very fhort of thofe infeparable from that di 
evafion, which, while it difgraces the whole, fubje&s cach 
to be maffacred in detail. Very fortunately for the Britifh 
fervice, and with the moit heartfelt pride do we declare it; 
very, very few inftances could be adduced wherein our fol- 
diery have fo far lof fight of fubordination, or been fo far 
overcome by panic, as to induce them to adopt this ruinous 
condu&t. Chat they have been led very improperly into 
fueh fituations as to render their valour and diicipline of no 
avail, cannot be denied ; but even under fuch dif-heartening 
circumitances their exertions have kept pace with furround- 
ing difficulties, and taught their enemies to refpect them, 
even when compelled to furrender at difcretion, 

The flight ofan army is ufually attended with great car- 
nage, and with the total lofs of its artillery, ammunition, 
baggage, ftores, treafure, &c. This rarely happens when 
the difcomfiture is unconne&ted with the precipitate abany 
donment of pofitions, and of the ordnance; in this latter 

caley 


HEY GH. 


cafe, the referve commonly offers an afylum tothe defeated 
corps, enabling them atileaft to retire, af not:to make head 
againit their purfuers. The French, in their-ufual mode 
of varnifhing over blemifhes in:their conduG, and.of recon- 
ciling, at leaft to themfelves, the errors of their generals, 
as well.as-the mifconduG of theirifoldiery, never admit the 
allertion, that their troops were  putoto flight,” but swith 
much fang froid obferve, that ‘they made a precipitate 
retreat.” This is fomething on a par with the defence 
made by a gentleman, who, having beens unhorfed wather 
abruptly, was found lying in the mud; but denied. having 
been thrown. Oh, no, ‘ be had.only difmounted, to get 
a better feat.” 

In that neat little volume, “ The Pocket Gunner,”’ pub- 
lifhed by captain Ralph Willett Adye, of the Royal 
‘Artillery, is the following maxim, which canrot be ‘too 
affiduoufly circulated, aot ouly among artilleritts, but among 
every clafs of foldiery. He fays, “never abandon your 
guns till the lat extremity. The la‘t difcharges are the 
mott deltructive ; they may be your falvation, and crown 
you with glory.” 

Fiicut ofa Shot or a Shell. Referving ourfelves for an 
ample differtation on the fight of miffiles in general, under 
the head of projediles, (which fee,) we take the opportu- 
nity of offering fome remarks regarding thofe very errone- 
ous opinions which are, in many inftances, prevalent 
regarding ‘the Ime in which a fhot proceeds fiom the 
mouth of the cannon to that objeét towards which it is 
direGed. 

The term point-Glanc has been greatly mifunderftood. It 
originated in the practice among the French artillerifts, of 
firing at a vile centre within various concentric circles of 
black; whereas we commonly make the centre of a target 
black ; defignating it ‘ the bull’s-eye.’? Therefore, when 
a piece was laid for the centre of the target, it was fup- 
pofed to be exactly horizontal, fo far as related to the line 
of the chace; the target being only eight feet in its whole 
height, which correfponds with the average height of a 
man on a middle-fized horfe: the centre of the point-blane 
(or white fpot) was then about as high from the ground, 
{uppoling the intermediate diftance to be level, as the muz- 
zle of the gun. 

Now it was found, that with the proper fervice-charge, 
a gun would at a certain diftance throw the fhet to the 
= of the point-blanc, aud, if correctly “ laid,’ that it 
would ftrike with exaGtnefs thereon. This gave rife to the 
opinion, that the fhot procceded to that dittance in a direét 
line, after which it began to form an angle downwards. 
That fuch an error fhould maintain its ground while 
{cience was only in the womb of time, may not be extraor- 
dinary ; but that any man who has either obferved the 
practice, or confidered the theory, fhould for a moment 
attempt to uphold fo falfe a pofition, muft appear abfolutely 
wonderful. Were no fuch opinions extant, we fhould not 
have expended one drop of ink towards explaining the 
real flight of a fhet, and to remove the vulgar errror of 
what are called paini-blanc ranges, being rectilinear, 

In confuting the popular opinion on this fubje&, we mutt 
obferve that, exclufive of the ‘perpetual tendency of all 
bodies in'motion, (from whatever impetus,) to defcend ac- 
cording to the rules of gravity, (which fee,) certain 
circumftances, sparticularly relating to artillery, feem to 
eombine for the purpofe of giving an afcendine: direétion to 
all fhots impelled by the aGion of gunpowder. We are to 
eonfider, that every piece of ordnance, when difcharged, 
rifes from the ground in proportion ‘to the quantity of oun- 
powder ufed, and ‘to the weight-of metal, of the carriage, 


&c. in oppofing ratios. This alone would probably give 
fome determination upwards ito the fhot at the moment ief 
its quitting the piece, and when the air, oppofed to the ex-= 
peading flame, fo forcibly occafions the piece to recoil ; but. 
if we eall to mind, that that fame being fo-much lighter 
than the atmofphere, mutt amttantly, be foresd upwards 
thereby, (efpecially.as- the conenffion upon the foil below 


-would add to fnchaitendency), we may at once:ind fofficient 


caufe for the afcent of adhot at the very moment it quits the 
cannon ; for both will, with the aGion of the cannon and the 
rarefaction of the air at ats débouchure, whereby a rapid 
and ‘trong current of afeenfio:.ds given, tend to caufe fome 
departure from a horizontal direction. 


The faét Kes ina nut-fhell; for, uvlefs when followin 
the line of gravity, which is-every where locally -perpendi- 
cular, and of courfe always poists to the centre of that globe 
we inhabit, nobody can muintain a retilimear motion ; there 
will always ‘be a tendency to gravitation. This being ad- 
mitted, it follows, that in order to arrive at a certain level, 
at acertain diftance, an elevation muft, either naturally or 
artificially, be given, wliereby the line of flight will be found 
to defcribe that unequal curve called a parabola, (which 
fee). Every boy that ufes a fling, or throws up a cricket- 
ball, muft be convinced of the truth of our pofition. The 
fact may, however, be fully certified to the eye, by ftanding 
rather behind a cannon (the greater its bore the better) and 
at about an angle of 20° from the line of fire, when the - 
flight of the fhot will be feen to give a curve upwards. 


With refpeét to fhells, their lines of flight are exa€tly on 
the {ame principles, but their altitudes being confiderably 
greater in proportion than their bafes, the parabolic curve 
generated affumes a different figure. It fhould be particu- 
larly noticed, that, for the fake of giving effet to the fufes 
driven into fhells, the ordinary periods of flight for par- 
ticular ranges, i.e. diftances horizontally, together with 
the charges of powder, and the angle of elevation, (ufually 
45 ) are to be carefully noted. If the powder were all of 
equal ftrength, the fufes all exactly fimilar, and equally 
well driven, or filled, the weight of the atmofphere always 
the fame, and the angle of elevation ever fixed immoveably, 
the lengths of fufes for particular ranges might be always 
determined; as it is, we fee that confiderable variation 
often takes place even with the fame powder, the fame 
gun, the fame temperature, and, in fact, with, every thing 
perfectly fimilar, to all appearance. Obferving that the 
more protracted the line of flight, the greater the force 
with which a fhell will fall, we thall fubmit the following 
table of ranges made with fea-fervice iron mortars, at 45 
upon a horizontal plane. ; 


13<Inch Mortar. | 


1o-[nch Mortar. 
Charge,| Flight. | Range. Charge. Flight. | Range. 
| Ibs. oz. ‘Seconds,| Yards. lbs. oz. (Seconds: Yards. 
per) | 13 | 690 1 13 680 
4 18 1400 |" 2 18 1340 
iO ss 21 1900 3 21 1900 
8 245 | 2575 + 245 | 2500 
10 264 2975 sia 26 2800 
12 29 3500 6 24 3200.5 | 
14 293. | 3860 7 29 3500. * 
16 30 3900 || 8 EX) 3800. 
18 30 | 4000 +H 9 304 3900 © 
20 eee! 4200 1 9 Bi gOs 4000 
: ‘The 


BL. 


The great increafe of velocity gained by the heavier 
charges muit be apparent ; in the firft inftances the time of 
flight is 13 feconds to about 680 yards of horizontal dif- 
tance, which gives only 50 yards for each fecond ; whereas 
the latter flights gain on the feveral preceding ones fo 
rapidly, as to give 400 yards in eyery added fecond. 
From this we fee, that, unlefs fired at an improper elevation, 
mortars cannot be ufed with their greatett efle€, unlefs fo 
far removed from their objeci, as to admit of their being 
charged as high as the metal will bear. 

FLING, in the Manzge, is the fiery and obftinate aétion 
of au unruly horfe. 

To fling like a cow isto raife only one leg, and give a 
blow with it. 

To-fling or kick with the hind legs, fee YerKinc. 

FLINGING, among Bowlers. See Bow tina. 

FLINK, Govaerr, in Biography, a painter of hiftory 
and portraits. He was born at Cleves in 1616. Early in 
his youth he exhubited a {trong inclination to painting, from 
which neither the defire of his father that he fhould purfue 
a mercantile occupation, the influence of his friends, nor the 
profpeét of making a fortune, could divert him. He was 
therefore placed under Lambert Jacebs. With him, at the 
fame time, Barker alfo ftudied under Jacobs, and the emu- 
lation which exifted between thefe two greatly advanced 
their progrefs in the art, but Flink outftepped his compa- 
nion confiderably. He afterwards entered in the fchool of 
Rembrandt, and imitated the works of that extraordinary 
man with great fuccefs, acd his pictures are now frequently 
fold as the produétions of his malter. 

He very foon rofe into high repute, and was almoft con- 
ftantly employed in painting the portraits of diftinguifhed 
perfonages, although his genius inclined him to paint hif- 
torical fubjects, and feveral of his performances in that 
{tyle were admired for the goodnefs of the defign and the 
beauty of their colouring. He died in the year 1660, at 
the age of 44, very much regretted. After his death his 
collection of prints and drawings were fold for twelve 
theufand florins. 

FLINT, in Geography, a {mall borough town in the hun- 
dred of Colefhill, and capital of the fhire to which it gives 
the appellation. Though almott deflitute of trade, it is 
conveniently fituated upon the river Dee; diftant from 
London 204 miles, and 12 W.N.W. of Cheifter. This 
place was formerly fortified, having been furrounded by a 
double fofs and vallum, and, during the ftruggle of Cambria 
for her independence, was celebrated for its ttrong caitle, 
begun by king Henry IJ. but not completed till the time 
of Edward I. his fortrefs ftands upon an ifolated rock 
ina low marth, which is occafionally overflowed by the 
tide Anciently the eftuary of the Dee laved the walls, 
and acommunication was formed between the cattle and the 
advanced works, called the barbacan, by means of a bridge ; 
but the channel of the river is now at fome diftance. "Che 
flruéture is fornied of a reddith grit-ttone from quarvies 
in the vicinity. The form is a right-angled parallelogram, 
having three of its angles defended by polygonal towers, 
fome remains of which ave {ull itanding, including an area 
within. the walls of about anacre. At the fouth-ealt isa 
detached tower ef tingular conftruction. It is of arcireular 
form, confilting of two concentric arches, leaving a {pace 
between for a gallery eight feet broad; the diameter of 
the inner circle is twenty feet. In this caftle the unfortu- 
nate Richard IT. took-fhelter, on his arrival from Iveland ; 
when, quitting it, he was feized by the duke of Lancatter, 
and carried prifoner to Cheiter, During the civil wars it 

Vo be RIV, ; 


: i cae Ey | 


was garrifoned for the king, but furrendered to general 
Mytton in 1646. 

Flint is a corporate town, governed by a mayor, two 
bailiffs, and other inferior officers; and, in conjunétion with 
Rhyddlan, Overton, Caerwys, and Caergwrle, fends one 
member to parliament. The voters are fuch as pay fcot 
and lot in the refpe@tive places, and the returning officer 
is the mayor of Flint. ‘he church, which is a chapel of 
eafe to Northop, is a mean looking building, having for a 
fleeple a boarded turret. In 1785 a new county gaol was 
erected upon the plan of one previeufly built at Ruthin; 
although the affizes are regularly held at Mold. In the 
fummer feafon Flint is frequented as a bathing place, but 
the marfhy nature of the coaft, over which the fea at high 
tides flows, renders the bathing incommodious, and the air 
rather infalubrious. Though: privileged as a market town, 
the market has been long difcontinued. By the returns 
made to parliament in i1go1, the number of houfes was 
3¢y, and inhabitants 1169. 

A wood in the vicinity of Flint is celebrated, in the an- 
nals of hitory, for having been the fcene of many a fan- 
guinary conflict, and as ominous to the Englifh caufe. 
Here Henry IT. was twice defeated in one campaign, lofing 
not only his principal officers, among whom were included 
many of the nobility, but the king himfelf was frequently 
ia imminent danger of being killed, and narrowly elcaped 
being taken. Pennaat’s Tour in North Wales. Skrine’s 
Tour. 

Furnt, a confiderable river of America, in Georgia, 
which rifes in the country of the Creek Indians, and pur- 
fuing firft a fouth, and then a fouth weft courfe, joins the 
Appalachicola at tts entrance into Florida. The territory 
adjoining this river affords a rich foil capable of profitable 
cultivation, and offering an uninterrupted navigation to the 
bay of Mexico and Atlantic ocean, and thence te the Weit 
India iflands, and other parts of the world, On this river 
there is a number of villages belonging to the Creek 
Indians.—Alfo, a fmall river, about 25 miles long, in the 
Geneilee country, in New York, which runs N.N.E. into 
Canandarqua creek.— Alf, a river of Jamaica, which runs 
into the fea, feven miles W. of Montego bay. 

Fuint Jflaed, an ifland in the gulf of St. Laurence, near 
the ealt coait of the ifland of Cape Breton. N. lat. 46° 10". 
W.. long. 59° 40’. 

Furnt, Silex cretaceus, Linn. 
Pyromachus, Wern. 
Feusrfein, Germ. 
feu, Vr. 

The flint, one of the moft remarkable of the filiceous 
ftones, has frequently been confounded with other hard 
ftones of the fame clafs; the quality it poffefles in an emi- 
nent degree of giving fparks with the iteel, and the popular 
denomination it has thence derived among almott all nations, 
haye been the principal caufes of this confufion, which may 
eafily be avoided by a proper attention to its more diitin- 
guifhing characters. “1t muft, however, be confeffed, that, 
1n fome caies, its diagnofis is rendered uncertain by its toa 
great affinity to Horn/fone and Fuint flate, (fee thofe ar- 
ticles,) and by its gradual traniition into thefe kindred 
itones. 


Igniarius, Carth. et Wall. 
Quartz-Agathe pyromaque, Hauy. 
Flinta, Bofs fiinta, Swed. Pierre a 


Its colour is chiefly grey, of which yeliowifh, blueith, and 
fmoke-grey, are the more ufual fhades, and thefe pafs, the 
latter into greyifh-black, the former into all the well krown 
tints of yellow, red, and reddifh-brown, that approach it, 
to the carnehan. Jt is fometimes found perfeatly black, 

4-N ané 


PL iN, 


and alfo difplaying feveral of the juft-mentioned colours in 
ftripes, zones, and f{pots. : 

Flirt occurs maffive, in angular pieces of various fize, in 
globular boulders, frequently tapering at one end, (the 
petrified melons of Mount Carmet, vulgarly {0 called, belong 
to this variety): alfo in knobbed, branching, amorphous, 
perforated pieces, and as hollow balls filled with various 
fubflancess (See Grove.) Befides: thefe forms, it fome-~ 


times adopts-thefe of cryitals, which however do not be-’ 


long to it, as fome writers, have fuppofed, but are fuppo- 
fititious: from calcareous {par it’ derives the double three- 
fided pyramid, as alfo.the fix-fided prifm acuminated by 
three planes ; and it has been likewife ebferved in eryftals 
formed after thofe of lamellar barytes or caulk, It is alfo 
frequently obferved, (contrary to what we know of horn- 
ftoney) in extraneous external fhapes, as petrifaGions of 
{pecies'of echinus, madrepora, coral, &c. Surface little 
gliftening, and of various degrees of fmoothnefs, often 
coated by, and pafling into, a white or yellowifh-white 
ernft, of which we {hall fay more hereafter. Fra€ture con- 
choidal, never perfeétly {plintery ; internal furface but little 
gliftening, or dull, of an almoft imperceptibly fine grain. 
Fragment fometimes tabular, very fharp-edged, and more 
or lefs tranflucid in proportion to the lighter or deeper 
colours of the ftone. It is eafily frangible. Its hardnefs 
appears to be ina ratio with the depth of its colours: in 
general it will feratch quartz. 

Specific gravity, according to Gellert, 2.581 ; Blumen- 
bach. 2.594; Gmelin 2.999.- To thefe phyfical characters 
of flint we may add the one afforded by its phofphoref- 
cence, and the peculiar fmell, which are manifeited when two 
pieces are rubbed together. 

Flint is infufible before the blow-pipe without addition, 
but lofes its colour and becomes opaque. By the intenfe 
heat excited by a flream of oxygen gas, Mr. Ehrmann 
found it to melt into a white gliftening quartz-like globule. 
Its confltituent parts are, i 


Klaproth. Vauquelin. Wiegleb. 
Silica - - ‘98.00 97-0 80 
Lime - - O50 : ° 2 
Alumine = 0.25 18 
Oxyd ofiron - 0.25 i 
Lois) = i» satkee 2 ° 
100 100 100 


Flint.is met with in moft parts of Europe, particularly 
in the north of France, in England, Saxony, Tyrol, Po- 
dolia, &c. . Norway feems to be dettitute of flint, as it is 
of chalk ; alfo in Sweden it is fearce. In Denmark it is 
principally at Wordenborg and Taxoé, in the ifland of 
Seeland, that fome chalk-hills with imbedded fints are 
found ;, and more copioufly in the remarkable Steeyens- 
Klint. It occurs but feldom in primitive mountains, and 
when found there, only in veins, as, for inftance, in the 
Saxon Erzgebirge. Its principal geognollic fituation is in 
fletz-mountains, where it occnrs chiefly in comman compact 
lime-ftone or in chalk; in the fand-ftone formation, where 
it isalfo met with in the fhape of thofe conglomerates vul- 
garly called Pudding-/ione. See this article. 

Though the formation of flints is a fubje& which has 
engaged the attention of many naturalifts, yet but few opi- 
nions have beeu broached refpeCting it that will at all ftand 
the teft of clofer inveftigation, The theory which explains 
their origin by a metamorphofis of one earth into another, 
though it may appear abfurd to the chemift who is unable 


4 


to produce the fame changes in his laboratory, has note 
withftanding had its able and celebrated defenders. Some 
have endeavoured to prove that the argillaceous, others, 
that the calcareous earth, underwent this converfion into 
flint. Buffon was an advoca-e for the argillaceous origin’ 
of this ftone; and the obfervations of Pallas appeared to 
corroborate the opinion of the French naturalift ; for he 
found that the Ephemera horaria, which abounds in the’ 
Mofkua, had in fome places perforated the clayey bottom 
of this river with innumerable tubes clofely joined ; and’ 
in the adjacent fields pieces of perfe flint frequently oc- 
curred that were pierced precifely in the fame manner as 
the clay, from which they were not found to differ in any 
re{pect but in fra€ture and hardnefs. Inthe fame manner 
he ftates that, in the {mall river Sunghir, near Woldemir, 
black, globular, rolled maffes occur, which, on being 
broken, exhibit, from their circumference to the central 
part, a gradual tranfition from real clay and clay-ftone into’ 
what he confiders as perfect flint. With all deference, how- 
ever, to the great merits of this excellent obferver, we can- 
not but fee in his account one of thofe frequent cafes in 
which hard ftones of the filiceous clafs (and clay ftone and 
jafper belong to it) have been mittaken for real flint merely 
by reafon of their giving copious {parks with fteel: for 
this appears to be the charaéter on which Pallas has chiefly 
founded his diagnofis of the {tone he deferibes. 

According to other geologifts, it is lime-ftone, and prin- 
cipally chalk, which have undergone a transformation into 
flint: an opinion which Wallerius endeavoured to {apport 
both by geognoftical and chemical faéts, and which was 
followed by Linnzus himfelf. Alfo Gillet-Laumont and 
Girod-Chantrans, from obfervations they refpeétively made 
in various parts of France, were induced to confider flint as 
a mere modification of chalk. The principal ground on 
which this hypothefis appears to reft is the geognoltic rela- 
tionfhip that fubfifts between the ftrata of chalk and of 
flints, together with the intimate union of the boulders of 
flint and their white earthy cruit; both thefe fubftances be- 
ing 1o completely incorporated with one another, as to’ 
preclude the poflibility of our afcertaining the lite where 
each may be confidered as perfeétly diltinét from the other. 
This latter reafon, though {pecious, may, however, lofe 
much of its force by future analyfis of that white earthy 
fubftance. To us it appears that moft of the boulders of 
flint, fuch as they are found embedded in chalk, are but 
feldom furnifhed with a coating throughout calcareous: it’ 
feems to be compofed of a twofold cruft, viz. an’ outer 
chalky one, originating from the matrix of the ftone; and 
an inner one pafling over into the outer, and, by reafon of 
the fimilarity of colour, not diftinguifhable by the eye. 
This inner cruft fhews no effervefcence with acids; it-ap- 
pears to be filiceous, and may perhaps be properly looked 
upon as the refult of incipient decompofition ; efpecially if 


. it be confidered that flints with uncoated furface, by a long 


expofure to the influence of moifture and other atmofpheric 
agents, have been known to“acquire another thin coating, 
(but not calcareous,) with lofs of weight. el 
Many geologifts of the prefent day, whe confider the 
idea of a tranfmutation of the calcareous into filiceous earth 
as unworthy the advanced {tate of modern chemiitry, at the 
fame time that they are unwilling to have recourfe to floods 
and other revolutionary agents for rolling fragments of flint 
into boulders, and.difpofing them in the regular manner in 

which they are now found, have adopted, fome, the hy- 
pothefis of infiltration by means of a filiceous fluid ; others} 
that of a forcible injection of melted flint into vacuities pres 
vioufly exifting in the calcareous ftrata, But either of thefe 
theories 


FL1 


theories is open to objeCtion; and, indeed, the fame ob- 
jeGtions appear to apply to both. It is difficult to account 
for the ftrange predileGtion the flinty fluid (whether its 
fluidity proeeeded from water or fire) has manifeited for 
_Aletz lime-ftone, particularly for chalk; while other fletz 
and.primitive rocks, feveral of whieh muft be fuppofed to 
have been equally expofed to it, remained perfectly un- 
touched. Nor is it much eafier to conceive how that fup- 
pofed fluid can have found its way into fo many approxi- 
mate, but perfectly diftin&, hollows in the chalk, without 
more or lefs penetrating the intermediate parts, or leaving 
traces of mafles that were connected with the nodules as 
they now appear; not to mention the improbability that-fo 
many almott contiguous vacuities (efpecially thofe that mutt 
de fuppofed to have been the moulds for the frequently oc- 
curring tabular expanfions of flint) fhould not have yielded 
to the preffure of the fuperincumbent ftratum. As, morye- 
over, thefe hypethefes are filent refpecting the origin of this 
flinty mafs, (although a fubitance fo different in its appear- 
ance from common filex), another theory of the generation 
of the-nodules of flint has been propofed, which, however, 
ds not likely to meet with any followers among thofe geolo- 
ifts, whofe exalted ideas of the prefent ftate of chemical 
EnoWledize lead them to fuppofe that the refult of their 
analytical and fynthetical proceffes muft of neceffity, in all 
cafes, {quare with thofe great, operations that, with her 
ample means, and affiited by a long feries of ages, have been 
accomplithed by Nature in the valt laboratory of the earth. 
_ We allude to the hypothefis, according to which all flint, 
whether it be found in nodules or as flat tabular plates, ori- 
ginates from the fle& of a {tratum of marine gelatinous’ani- 
amals, which perifhed by fome revolution, and were buried 
ain’ their fhells. The internal afpe&t of the nodules, and 
their being almoft conttantly- found imbedded in fletz 
dime-ftone, which, by molt geologifts, is allowed to owe 
its exiftence to fhells and other calcareous coverings of tef- 
-taceous animals, feems firft to have fuegetted this new idea ; 
«which, itrange as it appears, may be allowed to have as 
-much plaufibility as any of the former; efpecially as it may 
-be adapted equally well to the fyitem of an igneous, and to 
-that of an aquatic origin of terreftrial bodies. Mr. Patrin 
ais of opinion, that when the chalk was depofited at the 
-bottom of the fea, in thofe ftrata which we now fee, it met, 
ton other ftrata already exifting, a vaft number of marine 
bodies, fhells, madrepores, &c. while others were carried 
-along with the precipitating chalk itfelf, fuch as meduf, 
- &c. whofe foft and gelatinous bodies, while they occupy 
.much fpace, contain but little fubitance. When all thefe 
_ Marine animals were buried in the chalk, and their decom- 
_pofition tock place, thofe of a confiltence merely gelatinous 
. left in their matrix an empty fpace, nearly equal to the {pace 
they occupied when alive: their fubftance, almoft in a ttate 
of fluidity, was abforbed by the porous fides of the cavity ; 
and by the combination of this animal fluid with the chalk, 
_thefe fides were, by fome unknown agent, converted into 
. flint. In this manner Mr, Patrin accounts for the generation 
- of nodules that are either hollow or filled up with chalk ; 
_. which latter may have been depofed there by means of 
. fome aperture, or may have penetrated through the flinty 
~cpatfitlelf, when ftill in a flate of foftaefs. As to thole 
s nodules, the central part of which is of a more perfely 


flinty nature than that nearer the circumference, they were, | 


according to the fame author, formed of marine animals of 
+ more’coufiftence or folidity ; and it is in thefe particularly 
. that veltiges.of animal organization aré found. ‘The more 


¥ eoufitent part af the, body of thefe animals produced the 


5:4 : 


N Tt 


more perfect flint, fuch as we fee it in fuch folid nodules + 
while the. fluid which efcaped from the body, by the effects 
of decompofition, formed the external lzyers of this nicleus, 
which, being mixed: with the fubftance of the chalk, be- 
came lefs perfeét. flint the farther it removed from the 
central part. According to. this explication, the molt im- 
perfect part of a nodule of flint would be that, which, in 
its original fituation, occupied the loweft place, and to- 
wards which the fluid which efcaped from the more folid 
nucleus muft. naturally have taken its dire@ion. This, 
however, is never found to be the cafe; nor has Mr. Patria 
endeavoured to account for that circumflance. What ap- 
pears to be much in favour of this explanation is, that the 
whole body of echini in their hells has been found con- 
verted into flint: and Gillet-Laumont has frequently ob- 
ferved that thofe echini, which he met with in the chalk 
ftrata of Montrewil-fur-Mer, were furnifhed with a flinty 
appendage iffuing from their mouths, and which appears 
to have been the animal fubftance converted into a fluid 
flate by decompofition. The fame cirgumftance is not fel- 
dom obferved in bivalve fhells, whofe gelatinous inhabitants 
have been found in a perfectly filiceous ftate; while the 
fhells themfelves had retained their original calcareous na- 
ture, and were partly converted into fpar. In’ cafes where 
the gelatinous marine bodies were in fuch abundance that ne 
intermediate {pace was left for the depofition of chalk, the 
flint has been formed into large maffes and plates of con- 
fiderable extent. Dr. Darwin’s ideas on this fubject are 
nearly the fame, and modified only by his adopti:g a dif- 
ferent theory for explaining the converfion of the gelatinous 
animals into flint. He conjetures that the nodules of flint 


found in chalk-beds have gained their form, as well as their 


dark colour, from the fleth of the fhell-fith from which they 
had their origin, but which have been fo completely fufed 
by heat, or heat.and water, as to obliterate all veltizes of 
the fhell; in the fame manner as (according to the doctor’s 
opinion) the nodules of agate and onyx were produced from 
parts of vegetables, but which had been fo completely fuled 
as to obliterate all marks of their organization. 

A. remarkable circumftance, relating to the geologicat © 
hiftory of flint, fhould not be paffed over unnoticed in this 
place: it is that fir Henry Englefield has obferved in the 
neighbourhood of Carifbrook, and in other parts of the Ifle 
of Wight, an immenfe nuniber of nodules of flint, all of 
which, though not removed out of their places, and re- 
taining perfeétly their original fhape, were more or lefs burft 
or fhattered. Some few were only fplit into large pieces, 
but the greater part were broken into fmall fragments, and 
fome abfolutely reduced to impalpable powder. The chalk 
{trata in which they were imbedded had an inelination of at 
leait 67 degrees, and perpendicular fiffures traverfed the 
whole. Sir Harry conjectures, “that when the tremendous 
convulfion took place which funk them to the fituation in 
which they now appear, (at which time the channel which 
feparates the Ifle of Wight from the main land was perhaps 
formed,) the {trata of chalk, in the a@& of fubfiderce, had 
a tendency to flide on each other; and this weuld be exerted 
mott fenfibly where, from the admixture of the flints, the 
cohefion of the parts of the chalk was the weakéft. This 
motion, or rather ftrain of fo enormous & weight, might in 
an ihitant fhiver the flints, thoogh their refiltance ftopped 
the incipient motion; for the flints, though crufhed to 
powder, are not difplaced, which muft have been the calc 
had the bed flipped fenfibly.” This theory, dppears to us 
very unfatisfactury, though we ate not prepared to give a 
better, The advocates for the igneous drigia of flint my, 

OV A on peal echaps, 


FLINT. 


perhaps, be inclined to account for the phenomenon by an 
accidental fudden cooling of the flinty maffes. 

We conclude this article by adding a few words on the 
ufes to which flint is applied, fome of which are of con- 
liderable importance. ‘The one derived from its giving 
copious {parks with fteel is the moft ancient and generally 
known; but the art of cutting or rather breaking this ftone 
into regularly fhaped gun-flints is of more modern date, 


and was not practifed till a conliderable time after the ih-. 


vention of fire-arms. -'The mode ef making gun-flints has 
for a long time been involved in fable and mytftery: the 
moit abfurd and contraditory accounts having been given 
of it by various authors; and it was not till lately that we 
have been made fully acquainted (by Hacquet of Vienna, 
and by Dolomien) with the fimple manner in which thefe 
flints are manufactured in Gallicia and in France, where 
they conftitute an important article of trade. (See Gun- 
Fiint.) The art of {quaring and chipping flint was prac- 
tiled long before that of making gun-flints; and as this 
latter requires exactly the fame management and the fame 
tools, the former cannot properly be called a loft art, 
though, on account of the expentfivenels of fuch fquare pieces 
of flint, if employed for conftructing walls and coverin 
roofs, it is not much praétifed. The north wall of the 
Bridewell at Norwich, mentioned in a letter of Mr. Baker, 
in the 43d volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&tions, was 
built of flints, “ fquared to fuch a nicety, that the thin 
edge ef a knife could not be infinuated between the joints 
withowt a great deal of difficulty.” And we learn from a 
note to that letter, that the gate of the Avuttin friars at 
Canterbury, the gate of St. John’s abbey at Colchetter, 
and the gate near Whitehall, Weftminfter, are executed in 
the fame tafte; and the platform on the top of the Royal 
obfervatory at Paris, which is paved with flint after the 
fame manner, is adduced asa proof that the French have in 
fome meafure recovered the art. Flint is alfo often em- 
ployed in the manufactory of glafs, {malt, porcelain ; and 
fome of its lighter coloured and ftriped varieties are made 
ufe of for ornamental purpofes. They take an excellent 
polifh, and are not unfrequently manufactured into fmuff- 
boxes, &c. 

Fuiyt-Slate.. The hiftory of this foflil prefents a laby- 
rinth of blunders and confufion. On one hand it has been 
defcribed under the names of well defined Wernerian {pecies 
of rocks, fuch as horn-ftone, trapp, &c.; on the other hand 
it has been jumbled together with various mineral fubftances, 
under the vague and unfy{tematic appellations of roche cor- 
néenne, petrofilex, and particularly (by German mineralo- 
gical writers) under that of “ hornfchiefer,”? or corneous 
flate. This latter was applied by fome mineralogifts to the 

fubje& of this article ; but by others it was indifcriminately 
given to hornblead-flate, to varieties of clay-flate, to mica, 
and to porphyry-flate ; whence profeflor Werner, to prevent 
the fame contulion that has been introduced into mineralogy, 
by the term “fhorl,’’ expunged that of hornfchiefer, (though 
he had made ufe of it himfelf,) applying to the foffil in 
_queftion the name of Lic/el-/chiefer, now generally adopted 
in Germany, and of which “ fiint-flate”’ is a literal tranfla- 
tion. The juft mentioned author has divided this fpecies 
into two fub-fpecies, viz. into common flint-flate, and 
_ Lydian ftone, The latter has been confidered by fome as a 
mere. variety of the former ; but there are good reafons for 
eepiug it diltm@. See Lypian Srone. 
Common flint-flate occurs generally of a dark grey 
colour, which has frequently an admixture of blue, of red, 


"and of yellow ; and thefe tints often. pafs over into eath 


7 


other, or are feen feparately in the fame fragments, as fpots 
or ftripes. The blood-red and brownifh-red varieties are 
the fearceft. It is found maffive and in rounded pieces, 
which latter have a fmooth furface. Internally it is dull. 
now and then rather glimmering. In {mall fragments its 
fraéture varies ; it is {ometimes fplintery, and imperfeGly 
conchoidal, and fometimes paffes into even; the blackifh~ 
grey variety with the latter fracture approaches the Lydian 
{tone, In large maffes it manifefts its flaty nature. Its 
fragments are angular and fharp, and but little tranflucid at 
the edges. » It is brittle, and its hardnefs nearly the fame as 
that of quartz. Another pretty conitant charaéter of flint- 
flate is its being traverfed by veins of quartz, that are 
often of a greyifh or reddifh colour. Specific gravity, ac- 
cording to Gerhard, 2.860; according to Kirwan from 
2.596 to 2.641. Thofe varieties of flint-flate that have 
been chemically examined are not fufible per /e ; nor do they 
much change their colour in the fire; the grey becomes 
rather lighter coloured, the black does not appear to be at 
all affected by the heat of the blow-pipe. Wiegleb’s ana- 
lyfis of flint-flate from Fulda (in vol. i. of Chem, Annalen, 
where, however, it is called hornfchiefer, and confidered as 
of volcanic origin) has given the following refult : 


Silica 75EO 
Lime 10.00 
Magnefia 4.58 
Oxyd of iron 3-54 


Inflamm. particles 5.02 


-——— 


98.14 


Flint-flate appears to pafs over nto Lydian ftone, into 
horn-{tone, quartz, and particularly into clay-flate ; fo that 
when feen in fmall fragments, it is often difficult to feize 
its diftinguifhing charaéters. It is found in various parts 
of Germany, Bohemia, Silefia, in Bareuth, the kingdom 
of Saxony, the Hartz, Palatinate, Salzburg, &c.; and, ac- 
cording to Mr. Jamefon, in various parts of the great tract 
of tranfition rocks in the fouth of Scotland. he geo- 
gnoftic relations of flint-flate are not well afcertained, and 
indeed it is difficult to affign it a proper place among the 
rocks. It is generally found in huge, cliffy, and craggy 
mafles, particularly on granite and clay-flate, and more 
frequently as beds in tranfition, clay-ftone, grauwacke, and 
grauwacke-flate. From the obfervations of fome geologifts 
it would appear that flint flate is, in many cafes, to be 
referred to the tranfition rocks of Werner; and, according 
to Freiefleben, the fpecimens in Lafius’s colleétion of rocks, 
which by this author are deferibed as varieties of trapp, 
belong to the tranfition flint-flate; whence its occurring 
as angular fragments in:grey-wacke, and as rounded pieces 
in the old red fand-ftone can be no matter of furprize, 
Mott frequently, however, it occurs in the fhape of 
boulders, on plains, and in the beds of rivers. 

Fiinr is ufed, in our military fervice, ‘for the purpofe 
of affixing into a vice made'at the top of the cack of amuf- 
quet, or piltol lock ; fo that when impelledagainft a piece 
of fteel, called the hammer, it may itrike fire, and ignite 
the gun-powder contained in a pan, coricealed by the bam- 
mer, until the latter is forced backwards on a pivot, by the 
great force with which the cock Rrikes againft it ; when it 
not only produces fire, but, ‘by ‘its ‘peculiar form, direés 
the {parks towards the priming in'the pan. 

Fimts are eafily adapted to'this purpofe ; thofe great 
maffes which are ‘fotind chiéfy’ in ehalky “foils, being 
broken by hammers, yield a numiver of wedge-like pieces, 

of 


FLIN T. 


of which the fides are trimmed to the proper width, and the 
tacks brought into a proper form, which fhould be rather 
concave. This concavity 1s, however, very little attended 
to, but is of great fervice, fince it embraces the ferew of 
the vice, and caufes the flint to retain a much firmer hold 
than when its back is made either ftraight, or convex ; the 
latter is a great fault, but is commonly overlooked. 

The proper fizes for flints are as follow ; for a mufquet, 
one iach ard five-eighths, for the length, with a width of 
an inch and a quarter; the thicknefs at the back one-third 
of an inch, and the tapering to be rather fudden than 
gradual, fomething like the end of a chifel. Such flints fit 
well in the vice, being previoufly laid in a bed of thin fheet- 
lead, or for want of it, in ftout leather. The edge of a 
flint, thus formed, is far lefs fubje& to fplinter, than where 
the angle is more acute. It may perhaps be objeéted, that 
a thin edge ftrikes fire better than a thick one; but that 
will be for only a few rounds; whereas the thicker edge 
refifts better, and preferves an equable facility of {cintillat- 
ing for a long time. All military men muft know that 
nothing is more adverfe to the operations of a regiment, 
than the neceffity (which too often occurs in confequence of 
the proper form not being {ufficiently attended to) for 
men to quit their ranks for the purpofe of either hammering, 
or changing their flints. To the brave man fuch a neceflity 
is painful, as well as dangerous, while to the lefs refolute 
it ferves at leaft for a pretext to pafs into the rear, or 
eventually to relinquifh his polt altogether. 

A carabine flint fhould be one inch and a quarter in 
length, by one inch in width ; that for a piftol, fuch as is 
ufed among our military, ought to be rather more than an 
inch in length, by three quarters in width. In fixing them 
into the vice, great care fhould be taken that their left fides 
pafs down clear of the barrel, which they would otherwife 
hack very much, and be themfelves fubjeét to fplinter, 
while the cock itfelf might, by being unduly checked, be 
fnapt at its neck. 

When flints have acurve, they fhould always be fo fixed 
in the vice, as to give the curve a downward direétion ; 
fince, in that way, they a¢t more forcibly, and offer the 
greateft refiftance. Straight flints, after being fo far 
rounded as to vield no {parks, when their chamfered fides 
may have been uppermoft, may be again rendered fervice- 
able by being reverfed, fo as to bring their flat fides upper- 
molt. Soaking flints in water reftores them partially, pro- 
bably by fupplying them with hydrogen, but in a very 
{mall degree, and that net permanently. 

The beft flints are fuch as, when acted upon by fteel, pro- 
duce ftrong lafting corrufcations, which emit .a fulphureous 
{mell, and are fufficiently large to leave fome little ftain on 
tiflue paper, or on fine lint. Such will not only be found 
‘to yield a'certain fire, but to break up admirably under the 
hammer employed to reduce them to {plinters, and to fit 
them for the foldier’s ufe. On the contrary, however 
clear, black, and'firm a flint may appear, if its {parks are 
not vivid, and highly fulphureous, it ought to be at onee 
thrown afide. 

The hardeft flints being generally the beft, experiments 
were made with agates, cornelians, &c. all of which pro- 
duce beautiful fparks, but, being extremely brittle, could 
mot be brought into general ule; however, in. fituations 
where they are obtainable, and where flints are not to be had, 
they become valuable fubftitutes. Various attempts have 
been made to produce flints by means of compofition ; but 
fuch have always proved vitreous, and confequently weak 
both in fubftance, and in the produétion of {parks. We 
cannot conclude this article without itrongly: recommending, 


that more attention be paid at our arfenals to the rejection 
of flints of defeQive form and quality, 

Flints are generally packed in fmall cafks, called half- 
barrels, each of which contains, 


Number qrs. lbs. 
Mufquet flints 2000 weighing 2 14 
Carabine do. 3000 2 10 


Piftol do. 4000 7M 

The tonnage of this article is computed at 28 kegs of 
mufquet-flints- to occupy 18 cwt. and so kegs of pittol- 
flints to occupy 3 cwt. 2 qrs. which our readers cannot 
fail to obferve by no means correfponds with the foregoing 
table of contents. 

Firnts, in the Glafs-trade. The way of preparing 
flints for the niceft operations in the glafs-trade is this. 
Choofe the hardeft flints, fuch as are black and will refift the 
file, and will grow white when calcined in the fire. Cleanfe 
thefe of the white cruft that adheres to them, then calcine 
them in a ftrong fire, and throw them, while red-hot, into 
cold «vater ; wath off the afhes that may adhere to them, 
and powder them in an iren mortar, and fift them through 
a very fine fieve ; pour upon this powder fome weak aqua 
fortis, or the phlegm of aqua fortis, to diflolve and take 
up any particles of iron it may have got from the mortar ; 
ftir this mixture feveral times, then let it reft, and in-the 
morning pour off the liquor, and wah the powder feveral 
times with hot-water, and afterwards dry it for ufe. You 
will thus haye a powder for making the pureft glafs; as 
perfe&tly tine and faultlefs, as if you had ufed rock cryftal 
itfelf. Cramer’s Art of Afiaying Metals, p. 438. 

The wathing off the ferruginous particles with aqua 
fortis is not neceflary when the glafs intended to be made 
is to be tinged with iron afterwards; but when meant to 
be a pure white, this is the method that will fecure fucceds. 

Fiints, the {mall, fharp, hard, vitrifiable ftones which 
often abound in foils of the more thin, poor kinds. 

Fruints, oil or liquor of, a name given by fome-to a pre- 
paration made of four ounces of flints, calcined and powdered, 
and mixed with twelve ounces of falt of tartar ; thefe being 
melted together in a large crucible, by a itrong fire, run 
into a glafs, which quickly and {trongly attra&s -moifture 
from the air, and is entirely foluble in water, except a very 
{mall portion of earthy matter ; this glafs, being afterwards 
powdered and fet in a cellar, runs into an oil per deliquaum ; 
with this and the calx of any metal is prepared one of the 
metallic vegetations. If any acid be added to the liquor of 
flints, fo as to faturate the alkali, the flint, which was kept 
diffolved in water by means of this alkali, will be now pre- 
cipitated in the {tate of a fine earth, which earth is entirely 
foluble by acids. 

Fit Walls. See Watt. 

Fuint Nodules, in Geolagy, are a phenomenon of a curious 
and important kind, when their regular difperfion through 
the chalk ftrata are taken into coniideration, as weil as the 
fingular and fomewhat-regular fhapes which they aflume. 
The great affemblage of chalk-ftrata which form the upper- 
moit but two of the aflemblages of {trata in Britain, as far 
as\is yet known, (vz. the London-clay and Bagfhot-fand, 
abounds with'thefe nodules in about the upper half thereof, 
called the upper or flinty chalk,.while the under part, 
called the lower or hard chalk, has few if any flints occurring 
in it, and’thefe, at its upper part, if fueh do occur. Itis 
well afcertained, ‘that none of the chalk ftrata are entirely 
free of minute grains of filiceous or gritty matter in them, 
whence the-ufe of chalk or whiting ia {cowering tin, filver, 
and other -veffels arifes ; and modern obfervations by Mr. 


‘Smith and:his pupils have fhewn, that where the layers of 


fliats 


Fal 


fints moh abound, or ate neareft together, as they are near 

to the top of the whole feries, that there the intervening 
beds of chalk are moft fie or foft, as well as the whitett, 
and that from thefe fituations it is, that the writing chalk 

ufed by carpenters, &c. and the belt for the manuta¢ture 

of whiting for lime for the platterer’s ufes, or for chalking 

land by‘the hufbandmen, ‘are taken. It has further been 

obferved, that as the flints decreafe in quantity, in defcend- 

ing the chalk feries, that more filiceous grains appear in the 

chalk itfelf, until the flints ceafe altogether, and the lower- 
chalk commences; which lower chalk is much harder, more 

Jike lime-{tone, and is more filiceous, which properties 

feem to render it preferable for the common purpofe of 

mortar-making, than the fofter chalks. This hard or 

inferior chalk, ufed for lime-burning in Bedfordfhire and 

the adjoiaing counties, is called hurlock ; and it is obferved, 

«that the beds of this hard chalk become more hard and 
compact in defcending the feries, as was a few years ago 

vifible to travellers in the cutting of the new road down 

, Ruddle-Hill, a mile from Dunftable, and as may again be 
fhewn, if the tunnel which has been propofed under the old 

: road for ayeiding the inconvenient bend aceafioned by the 
- new one, fhould be carried into effet. The hard chalk or 
. hurlock continues to increafe in its filiceous qualities 
until near the bottom of the feries, where it becomes a 

free-(tone, which is in great repute there, under the name 

» of Totternhoe-ftone, which has a fharp and fine grit, and 
: inftead of being lime-ftone, poffeffes the properties of a 
fire-flone, under which denomination the ftone of this ftra- 
tum is brought to the metropolis from Ryegate, Godftone, 

and other places on the fouthern fkirt of the North Dawns 

of Surry. Thus it appears, that filiceous or flinty matter 

abounds in the chalk, through the whole feries, from the 
fand flrata which lie above it (at Croydon), to the fand 

ftrata which lie below it (at Ryegate) ; but it is in the 

upper part of the chalk feries collected into nodules and 

layers of flint, and in the lower part of the feries is diftri- 

. buted in the mafs of chalk. 
It feems probable, from the obfervations of Mr. Parkin- 

. fon, and other late obfervers, that the flint nodules of the 
chalk flrata, or great part of them, owe their origin, or 

rather perhaps occupy the place of the Aleyonium and 

. others of the zeophytic tribes of the primitive creation. 
. The vaft number of hollow tubes in flint, which we meet 


with in the chalk pits at Harefield, near Rickman{worth, . 


_ Herts, and other places, though often miftook for petritied 

» bones, {eem tous to be remains of the coralline tribe. 
Achini ave often found among the flint nodules of the chalk 
flrata, fome of them large and rather of arude fhape, com- 
pared with the delicate workmanfhip obfervable on many of 
echinus; this kind are found in vaft numbers in the chalk- 
pits, about Brandon in Norfolkg and are ufed in building 
walls and houles, in a neat and very fingular ityle. 


FLINTSHIRE, in Geography, a county in» North 


Wales, bounded en the fouth and weft by Denbigh- . 


_fhire; on the north by the Lrifh fea; and on the north-eaft 
is feparaied from Chefhire by the eftuary of the Dee. At 
an eurly period this. diltriét formed a portion of the coun- 
try to which the Romans gave the appellation of Ordovicia ; 
the inhabitants of which fo eminently diltinguithed them- 
felves in their pertinacious refiltance to the Roman aris. 
Subfeguent to the Romans leaving the ifland, it long con- 
flituted the territory known to the Britons by the name of 
Deheubarth; and feveral trong cattles {till remaining, thew 
it was formerly a fcene of fanguimiry contention. In the 


time of Henry VIII, when Wales. was incorporated with « 


England, this was made one of the tix counties of “North 


FLT 


Wales. This county‘extends in leiéth 33 ‘miles, afd fh 
breadth from 8 to 9, containing abotit 1 66,<00 acres of land, 
of which, according to the report to the Board of Agricul- 
ture, only 20,000 are in an arable ftate, 116,000 under 
patturage, and the remainderin a {tate of wafte. ‘The prin- 
:cipal rivers:are the Dee; which rifing in Merionethfhire, 
after running through-Denbighthire, wathes this county, 
and is navigable from Cheiter to the fea. “The Clwydd has 
its fource in Denbighthire, and; running in # northerly direc- 
tion, is jomed by the Alan below St. Afaph, and falls into 
the Irifh fea. It is alfo watered’by the Sevion, the Wheel- 
er, anda few {malier ftreams. The face of the country is 
much lefs diverfitied than: any other Welfh coynty.” A 
ridge of low hills rifes abruptly on the north-eaftern part ‘of 
the county from the Dee, and, running parallel with that 
river, terminates at the fea. The vale of Mold isa rich 
level country, and the vale, or ratlter valley of Clwydd, has 
has been long celebrated for its pi€turefque beauty. The 
northern part is champagne, and abounds with corn; the 
vallies confit of an argillaceous foil, -and are produétive in 
grafs. The cattleare fimall, but confidered excellent milch- 
ers. Quantities of honey are annually produced, which 
the inhabitants manufaéture into a Kind of wine called Me- 
theglin. he hills are barren, but are internally rich, con- 
taining free-ftone, lime-ftone, coal, lead, copper, and cala- 
mine, the ores of which are fmelted, and the metals exported 
via the port of Cheiter. The county politically is divided 
into five hundreds, wiz. Colefhill, Maylor, Mold, Preftayh, 
and Rhyddlan, comprifing one city, St. Afaph, ‘one bo- 
rough, Flint, and four other market towns, viz. Caerwys, 
Caergwrle, Mold, and Holywell ; and twenty-eight parifhes, 
23 of which are in the diocede of St. Afaph, atid five in that 
of Chefter. By the returns made under the population a& to 
parliament, im 1801, the number of houafes was 7585, and 
inhabitants 39,622 ; out of which number it appeared 10,332 
were occupied in the labours of agriculture, and 6989 em- 
ployed in trade. Many of the latter find employment in ~ 
tue mines and {melting-houfes, and others in the linen trade, 
a manufactory of which was, by the patriotic exertions of 
Mr. Fitzwilliams, introduced into the county, and has fince 
{pread, and is at prefent in a flourifhing ftate. The county 
is reprefented by one member in the Britifh fenate. 
FLINTY Graves, are fuch gravelly foils as contain a 
large proportion of flints in their compofitions. They are 
met with in many fituations. tee Oy 
Fuintry Sojls, all fuch as are conftituted with a large 
dal aaa of flinty eat Thefe foils are moftly thin, 
and of no‘very great fertility. The avail i 
fituations. See Seas ; dn ~ eed” 
FLIP, a fort of failor’s drink, made of malt liquor, bran- 
dy, and fugar, mixed. ; i : Wi 
_ FLISSINGCUE, in Geography, a {mall ifland or fortrefs 
in the Kait Indian fea, a little to the weft of Am- 
boyna. ; at 
FLITTER-Mouse, in ‘Zoolg 
PERTILIO. ihe / 
FLIX, in Geography, a {mall town of Spain, in Cata- 
lonia, formerly defended by a caftleon an eminence, but 
now dilmautled, peninfulated by the Ebro; 8 leagues above 
i Tortola, ear the cataraét of that river. ecw arian 
Vurx Weed, in Botany, afpecies of water-crefles, which 
grows in uncultivated places, and by the fide of foot-ways 
-in many parts of England: it flowers in June, and the 
feeds, which ripen in Augutt, are greatly recommended by 
sfome fot the gravel and retention of urine. 
“‘FLIZE, in Geography, atown of France, in the depart- 


5 Hier E orl Seeivhs- 


ment of the Ardennes, *and chief place of a canton jn the 


diftri& 


re aes (CO 


#iftriG of Mezierés, feated on the Meufe; 5 miles S.E, of 
Mezierés. The place contains 92, and the canton’ 5362 
inhabitants, on a territory of 155 kiliometres, in 26 com- 
munes. 

FLOAT, or Freer. See Frora, and Freer. 

Froart of a fifbing-line, &c. See Visutnc-/foat. 

Froar, fometimes called catamaran, alfo denotes a cer- 
tain quantity of pieces of timber, joined togethér with rafters 
athwart, thrown into a river to be conveyed down the flream ; 
and even fometimes to carry burthens down a river with 
the ftream. The invention of floats is of great ufe ; it is 
faid to have been firft put in execution at Paris in the year 
1618: (See Boar.) The term alfo fignifies to turn water 
upon meadow-land, with the view of dreffing and improving: 
it. And it likewife implies the paring off the furface, turf, 
or {ward of grafs lands. See Rarr. 5 

Froat, in Lnginecry, fignities a low or fhallow boat, 
often called a dirt-boat, ufed in the repairs of canals 3 which 
fee. See Frartrs. : : 

Froar-Loards, thofe boards fixed to water wheels of un- 
derfhot mills, ferving ‘to receive the impulfe of the 
ftream, whereby the wheel is carried round. Sce Water- 
WHEEL. : x ; 

It is a difadvantage to have too great a number of float- 
boards; becaufe, whien they are all ftruck by the water in 
the beft manner it can be brought to at againft them, the 
fum of all thefe impulfes will only be equal to the impulfe 
made againft one float board at right angles, by all the 
water coming out of the pen-ftock, throughthe opening, 
fo as to take place on the float-board. The beft rule in this 
cafe is, to have juft fo many, that each of them may come 
out of the water as foon as poflible, after it has received and 
acted with its full impulfe ; or, which comes to the fame 
thing, when the fucceeding one is in a perpendicular direc- 
tion to'the furface of the water. As tothe length of thefe 
float-boards, it may be regulated according to the breadth 
of the'ftream. See Defaguliers, vol. ii. p. 425. 

Froat Grafs. See Festuca. 

Froat-Ore, in Mining, or fhoad-ore, fignifies, in fome 
places, the fame with ftream-ore, or that found alluvial in the 
bottoms of vallies, as tin often is in the valleys in Cornwall. 

Froar-flone. See Quartz. 

FLOATAGES. See Froraces. 

FLOATING Bopies. On ihe Stability and Equilibrium 
of Floating Bodies —Althoughthe general principlesrelating 
to this fubje& will be confidered in their proper order under 
the articles Fruips and Specific:Graviry, yet there are a 
few interefting theorenis more particularly belonging to 
floating bodies, and which, forming a fubje& of themtelves, 
feem to merit attention in this place. , 

Taking for granted the elementary principles of hydro- 
ftatics, as previoufly eftablifhed, we fhall examine the cafes 
in which floating bodies are in equilibrium, when that equi- 
librium is ftable, and when ‘tottering or unftable. In every 
fyftem of bodies, whether floating in fluids or aéted on by 
the force of gravity, there are two ttates of equilibrium, en- 
tirely diftin&t. - In one, if the equilibrium be ever fo little 
deranged, the bodies which compofe the fyitem only ofcils 


Yate about their primitive pofition, and -the equilibrium: is 


faid to be firm or ftable. This ftability is abfolute if it 
takes plaee, whatever be the nature of the ofcillations ; it 
is relative if it only takes place in ofcillations of a certain 


kind ;in the other ftate of equilibrium, if the fyitem be 


ever fo little deranged, all bodies deviate more and more, and 
the fyttem, inftead. of having any tendency ‘to- re-eltablith 
itfelf in its primitive pofition, i¢ overfet, and aflumes a new 
polition, entirely different from the farmer, te 
qgik 


FLO 


We may form a juft conception of thefe two ftates, by 
fuppofing an ellipfe placed vertically on an horizontal plane : 
if the ellipfe is in equilibrium on its {maller axis, it is evi- 
dent that, upona flight derangement, it willtend to regain 
its original pofition, after feveral {mall ofcillations, which 
will foon be terminated by the fri€tion and refiftance of the 
air ; but if the ellipfe be placed in equilibrium on its greater’ 
axis, if once it deviates from this pofition, it will continue’ 
to deviate more and more, till it fisally turns itfelf on its 
leffer axis. Inthe above example there is this remarkable 
circumftance ; the four pofitions of equilibrium of the 
ellipfe on the extremities of its two akes are alternately 
ftable and unftable ; and this takes plaee in every cafe. For 
fuppofe two pofitions of {table equilibrium to take place in 
any body, and fuch that there does not exift between them 
any pofition of the fame kind, if the body is placed in one 
of thefe-pofitions, and is made to deviate from it, and to 
approach the other, according as this deviation is greater or 
lefs, the body will either return to its original ftate, or will 
arrive at.the other pofition. There will evidently, therefore, 
be fome intermediate pofition in which the body will neither 
tend towards one or the other of the former, but will re- 
main at reft: but this ftate of equilibrium will be unttable, 
fince, if the body be made to deviate ever fo little towards 
one of the other pofitions, it will neceflarily arrive at it. 
Hence it appears, that if a body turning round a fixed axis 
pafles through feveral pofitions of equilibrium, they will be 
alternately ttable and unftable. 

’ The itability of a floating body is the greater as its cen- 
tre of gravity is lower than that of the difplaced fluid, or 
as the diftance between thefe centres is encreafed; it is for 
this reafon that ballaft is putin the lower part of veffels to. 
prevent them from being overfet. : 

The nature of the equilibrium, as to ftability, depends 
on the pofition of a certain point, called the meta-centre, or 
centre of preffure. ‘The term was firlt adopted, we believe, 
by Bouguer, in his Traité du Navire. 

W hen‘the meta-centre is above the centre of gravity, the 
equilibrium is ftable ; on the contrary, when the meta-centre 
is lower than the centre of gravity, the equilibrium: is tot- 
tering ; when the meta-centre coincides with the centre of 
gravity, the body will remain at. reit in any pofition it is 
placed in, without any tendency to ofcillation, 

The determination of the meta-centre, and of the nature 
of the {mall ofcillations ofa floating body about its primitive 
pofition, isa problem of confiderable importance. 

Laplace gives the following rule for determining whetlier 
the force which folicits the fyftem tends to reitore.it to the 
fame ftate again, when deranged from its primitive pofition. 

«If, through the centre of gravity of the fection of the 
furface of the water on which a body floats, we conceive a 
horizontal axis to pafs, fuch that the fm of the produés 
of every element of the fection, multiplied by the {qaare of 
its di ‘ance frem this axis, be lefs than relatively to any other 
horizontal axis drawn through the fame centre ; the equili- 
brium will be {table in every direction, when this fum fur= 
pafles the product ef the volume of the difplaced fluid, by 
the height of the centre of gravity of the body above the 
centre of gravity of this volume.” : 

This rule is principally ufeful in the conftruion of 
veflels which require fufficient {lability to enable them to 
refift the effects of ftorms, which tend to fubmerge them 

Ina fhip, the axis drawn from the ftern to the prow is 
that relative te which the fum above-mentioned is a mini- 
mum ;:it is eafy therefore to afcertain and meafure its: itabi- 
lity by the preceding rule. 

In order that a floating bocy may remain in equilibrium; 


it 


FLOA 


i¢ is alfo necefflary that its centre of gravity be in the fame 
vertical line with the centre of gravity of the difplaced fluid, 
otherwife the weight of the folid will not be completely 
counteraéted by the preflure of the difplaced fluid. 

When the lower furface of a floating body is {pherical or 
cylindrical, the meta-centre mutt coincide with the centre of 
the figure, fince the height of this point, as well as the form 
of the portion of the fluid difplaced, muft remain invariable 
in all circumftances. The place of the meta-centre is deter- 
mined by the deétrine of Forces combined with the ele- 
mentary principles of hydroflatics, by confidering the form 
and extent of the furface of the difplaced portion of the 
fluid compared with its bulk and with the fituation of ils 
ceitre of gravity. According to Dr. Young, if arectangu- 
lar beam be fleating on its flat furface, the height of the me- 
ta-centre abuve the centre of gravity will be to the breadth 
of the beam as the breadth to twelve times the depth of the 
partimmerted. Hence, if the beam be {quare, it will float 
fecurely when either the part immerfed, or the part above 
the furface is lefs than 2.4, of the whole, but when it is lefs 
unequally divided by the furface of the fluid it will overfet. 
If, however, the breadth be fo inereafed as to be nearly one- 
fourth greater than the depth, it will poflefs a certain de- 
gree of ftability, whatever its denfity may be. Plate VIII. 
Hydraulics, fig. 1, taken from Dr. Young, is intended to 
iluttrate this. 

Two fquare beams floating at the depths fhown at A and 
B, will have a certain degree of ftability, but if they fink, 
as at C, they will overfet ; but a beam of the breadth fhewn 
at D will always float fecurely. 

Theory of the Stability and Ofcillations of floating Bodies. — 
When a floating body is in equilibrium, if it be deranged 
from this {tate by any caufe whatever, it is the object of 
this inveltigation to determine the circumikances in which it 
will return to this ftate, or continue to deviate more and 
more from it. 

In the ftate of equilibrium (fig. 2.), the ftraight line 
G O, which joins the centre of gravity G, of the body 
DFE, to the centre of gravity O, of the difplaced fluid 
AFB, is vertical. Let this line be taken as the axis of 
2; (fee Force, where this method of analyfis isexplained). 
If the body be deranged, this line GO becomes inclined, 
and O is no longer the centre of gravity of the difplaced 
fluid a F 4; the derangement is here fuppofed intinitely 
{mall ; the:plane of x and y isttaken us horizontal, and pafling 
through G, the axis y is* projected asa poant in-G, Gx 
is the axis of x. AB reprefents the floating Jurface ma 
ftate of equilibrium, @ é in its new polition; the co-ordi- 
nates y are fuppofed parallel to the axes of thefe furfaces, 
which feparate the immerged part of the body from that 
which is above the fluid; this axis may be called the axis of 
the floating furface : it.is projeéted on the;point'C. The 
point O may be ‘placed lower than G, without changing 
ary of thefe confiderations. The figure fuppofes a body 
not homogeneous, but having the inferior part artificially 
rendered {pecifically heavier than the fluid, as in’the.cate of 
fhips. The angle aC. A=6= GOW is fuppofled 
infinitely fmall; fo that we may imagine the elementary 
folid A Ca as formed by the, revolution of the furface 
AC, round the axis C of the floating furfaee. The 
fame may be faid of BC 4; ¢ q', and.pp', are-the pro- 
jections of the arcs defcribed by the centres of gravity of 
Bey A G: 

Negleéting the vertical motion of the body, we may con- 
filer a F 4 as equal to AFB; fo that the portion 
A Ca out of the Huid is equal to the part B.C 4, which 
isimmerged in it. If it were otherwife the weight of the 


TING. 


body would no longer be equal to the preffure of the fluid; 
and thefe two forces ating on C would produce a vert cal 
motion in the body; befides which it would turn round C 
as a fixed centre ; and as this Jaft motion is independent of 
the firft, andthe only one which we are to invelligate, this 
hypothefis fimplifies the queftion by confining it te the 
latter motion only. The expreflions, therefore, for the 
volumes A Ca, BC 4, are to be made equal, that is, 
AC x pp' = CB x gq’; and fince the momenta of 
the areas AC and BC are equal with refpect to the 
axis C, the centre of gravity of the furface A B, or a 4, 
is fituated on this axis. ‘The equilibrium being difturbed, 
we are to confider the motion which the body will take. 
Let'G O =a, the volume A-F B = a¥b='5; alfo 
fine § = 6, col. 6 = 1. 

The preffure of the fluid on the immerged portion @ F 4 
is equal to the weight of the difplaced fluid; this force acts 
on the centre of gravity of a F'4, and fince it is the pofition 
of this centre which is to determine the motion of the body 
about the point G, its pofition mult be determined by taking 
the momenta relatively to the planes x z, y x. 

aFb+ aCA isthe fame as AFB +CBAS; andit 
can be fhewn, that confidering the volumes a F 4, aC As 
as concentrated im their refpeCtive centres of gravity, as 
likewife thofe of AFB and C B4é, and taking their 
momenta relative to any plane, their momenta will be equal. 
Let them be taken relatively to the plane y z, or the plane 
perpendicular to the figure, and then AF B x GV =Sa;3 
fin.6 = Sa, is the momentum of AF B, fuppofed con- 
centered in O. 

CBé x gi will be that of CBZ, becaufe g differs 
but an infinitely {mall quantity from the extremity of the 
vertical pafling through the centre of gravity of BC 4. 

Likewife, aC A x if, will be that of aC A, 

Let g 2 be the projeétion of the vertical paling through 
the centre of gravity of a@F 2, then a af xGa=S8*x 
will be the momentum of a F'4, fuppofing Gu = x. The 
momentum of aC A fhould be taken with a contrary fign 
from.that of ‘a F J, fince the weight and the preflure tend 
to make them revolve in contrary direGtions round the axis 
y- Hence 

Sx—ACaxip=Sa9+CBb xgi, 
andSx =Sa4 +CBdb xX pg: 

To determine the centres of gravity of the elementary 
portions ACa, BCé, we muit divide the fum of the 
momenta of their elements by their yolumes; let any ele- 
ment, «, be taken of the furface A C, whofe diftance from 
the axis of the floating body C is», then 9p is the arc of 
rotation of A C round this axis, or the height of the little 
elementary parallelopiped which it deferibes; 9 p « will equal 
its volume, 4 f*« its momentum relatively to a vertical plane 
pafling through C; 4 / (;° +) is the fum of thefe momenta, 
theretore, § /(p°*) = ACa x Cg. 

In the fame manner will be obtained Ccb x € q3 and 
by addition BCd x pg = 66; b* expreiling the mo- 
mentun of inertia of the area A B relative to its axis, 
which momentum is politive and-known, <fince this axis is 
parallel to that of y, and pafling through the centre of gras 
vity of AB; lattiy, the abfeifla Ga of the preflure of the . 


fluid is 
sash 


The momentum of the volume A FB is politive, only 
becaule the centre of grayity O of the difplaced fluid is 
more elevated than that of the body. If, on the contrary, 
the point O had been loweft, the perpendicular GV would 
have fallen on the -eppolite fide, then the momentum of 

AFB 


FLQ 


A YB would have tended to turn in a contrary direction, 
and we fhould have had 


— ( —a+t z ) 9. 
The general formula is therefore x = ( 2 + a) §; the 


fign + for the cafe of the centre of gravity of the body 
being lower than that of the fluid, the fign — for the 
contrary. 

The co-ordinate x being thus determined, it now remains 
to determine y. 

We have alreadya F54+aCA=AFB+CB4,and 
taking the momenta relatively to the plane of xx, that of 
aF bisSy, that of A F Bis zero, ince the centre of gravity 
O isin the plane x z ; we have. therefore only to eftimate 
thefe of the two elementary fections. 

Jet us fuppofe that the ordinates of their refpetive 
centres of gravity in the direétion of the axes of y are 
pofitive, the element «taking upon C B gives the elemen- 
tary parallelopiped §»:,p denoting its diftance from the 
plane x z5 4p:r denotes its momemtum; the fum of thefe 
momenta is therefore 4 /(p:r), obferving that their figns 
mult vary with tue fign of r, that is.as thefe elements are 
fituated on one or the other part of the plane of xz, the 
momentum of BC 4 is therefore $f (<r): a fimilar ex- 
preffion will be obtained for a C A, but with a contrary 
fign, fince the preffure relative to Bed anda F d atts 
evidently in a contrary direCtion to the weight of A Ca: 
this negative expreffion, tranfpofedon the contrary fide of the 


6 
equation, becomes pofitive, hence Sy =9 /(«pr); and y = ¥ 


(<pr). The fymbol /denotes the integration relatively to 
the whole floating furface, and of a right line which is the 
interfection of this furface with the plane of x z, it may 
therefore be confidered as known, but it is not neceflarily 
pefitive, like / (<p) fince the elements vary with their figns ; 
therefore the co-ordinate y of the meta-centre may become 
either pofitive, negative, or zero with /(<)r). If the body 
is cut fymmetrically in two equal parts by the plane of x z, 
J (epr) =o and y=a, and the co-ordinate x of the centre of 


gravityis given bythe formala found above, x = (st a) 4 


When x =o, the centres of gravity, and the difplaced 
fluid, are in the fame vertical G x, therefore the equilibrium 
fubfifts in the new pofition of the body: this happens 

E ‘ e in & 
when a, being negative, a=% but when this is not the 
cafe, as the preffure of the fluid as upwards, it is evident 
that when x is pofitive, the body tends to reeain its 
former pofition, and the equilibrium is then {table ; this 
happens when a is politive, or when a is negative, and at 
2 


the fame time lefs than Bs Finally, if a is negative, and 


Be! 
lefs than, x is negative, which denotes that the centre 


of gravity of a Fis on the other fide of the vertical 
G x, the :preflure of the fluid then caufes the body to 
~ deviate more and more from its original pofition, and the 
equilibrium is tottering or unitable. This point in the 
axis of x, which is met by the preflure of the fluid, is called 
the meta-centre, and hence is derived the theorem. men- 
‘tioned-above. That a floating body is ina table equili- 
brium when the meta-centre is above the centre of gravity 
of the body, that the equilibrium is un{table when the meta- 
centre is below, and that when the two centres coincide 
Vou. XIV. 


FLO 


the body has no tendency to ofcillate, It is evident 
that the point g is more or lefs elevated than the point G, 
or coincides with it according as the value of G a is politives 
negative, or zero. 

We fhall conclude this article with the following theorem 
from Dr, Young, which will ferve to illuftrate the preceding 
theory. 

If a floating body have its fe@tion made by the furface of 
the fluid a parallelogram, its equilibrium will be flable or 
tottering, accordingly as the height of its centre of gravity 
above that of the fluid difplaced is {maller or greater than 
one-twelfth of the cube of the breadth, aeaad Be the area 
of the tranfverfe vertical fe€tion of the immerfed part. 

Let the body be inclined in a {mall degree from the 
pofition of equilibrium ABC into the potition DEF; 
then the triangles GHIJ and K HI will-be equal, fince 
the area of the feGtion immerfed mult remain conflant, and 
G K and IL will ultumately bife& each otherin H. Now 
the ¢entre of gravity of the feGtion ILE is the common 
centre of gravity of its parts 1 H M F and LH M, making 
KM= GI; but N, the centre of gravity of LH MB, is 
in the line HF, bifeGting it, andthe common centre of 
gravity may be found by making N O parallel to H K or 
HL, inthe fame ratio to the diftance of the centre of gra- 
vity of L H M from H, that LHM bears tol F L. Now 
the diftance of the centre of gravity of any triangle from 
the vertex is two-thirds of the line which bife&s the bafe, 
that is, in this cafe, 3 H K, and the area of the triangle 
LHM isHK. KP; therefore NO: 2 HK: Ke 
KP: LFI, NO=" —— but drawing O Q vere 
tically through O, NO: NQ:: KP: HK, and NQ= 
IN Oc: Hee 2K cobine 4 DE luicnb- 

PS SS Seth. ae OE ape 
centre of gravity be in Q, the body will remain in its 
pefition in any {mall inclination; fince the 1efult of the 
preflure of the fluid aéts in the dire@tion O Q; if the cen» 
tre of gravity be below Q, it will defcend towards the 
line Q O, and the body will recover its fituation ; if aboye 
Q, the body will overfet ; hence the point Q is fometimes 
called the centre of preffure, or the meta-centre. The 
ae may be eafily accommodated to bodies of other 
orms. 

Froatinc-bridge, a bridge confifting of feveral boats 
covered with planks; which ought to be fo folidly framed 
as to bear both horfes and cannon. See Baince. 

FroatinG-iflands. See Istanns. 

Froatine Meadows, in Rural Economy, the practice of 
overflowing them with water in order to the improvement 
of their crops. See Mranow, and Watering Lanp. 

Froatinc Vofil. See Boat, Vessru, &c. 

FLoatine Upwards, an old term ufed in watering lands, 
where large dams for keeping up the water were had re~ 
courfe to: 

FLOBY, in Geography, atownof Sweden, inthe province 
of Weft Gothland ; 51 miles N. E. of Gotheborg. 

FLOC, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Drontheim ; 
48 miles E. N. E. of Ramfdal. 

FLOCK, a number of theep kept together under a fhep- 
herd. Flocks are fometimes diftinguified into the paiture, 
and mountain kinds, 

Frock, Sefting of, the practice of calling and forting the 
different Kinds of ftheep-ftock. © It is’ afially had re- 
courfe to amnually for lambs, where fheep ‘hulbandry is ‘ex - 
tenfive. , F 

Frocn-Paper, 


If therefore the 


See Parte. 


40 FLODAY, 


FLO 


FLODAY, in Geography, one of the {maller Weftern 
iflands of Scotland. N. lat. 57° 40’. W. long. 7° 13’. 

FLODDAY, another of the above-mentioned iflands. 
N. lat. 57° 31/.. W. long. 6°. 

FLODOARD, or Fropoarp, in Biography, an 
ecclefiaftic and hiftorian, was bern at Epernai, in Cham- 
pagne, in 894. He was educated at Rheims, and was ap- 
pointed keeper of the archives in the cathedral, and after- 
wards canon. He had-other preferments, and in 936 was 
deputed to pope Leo VII. by whom he was kindly 
received. At length he became an abbot of a monaflery in 
the diocefe of Rheims. An attempt was made, in 951, to 
place him in the fee of Noyon, but without fuccefs. . In 
963 he refigned his abbacy, and devoted himfelf to pious 
exercifes. He is known as an author by “ A Colleétion of 
Hittories in Verfe,?? containmg the triumphs of Jefus 
Chrift and his difciples, and the abridged hiftory of all the 
popes down to Leo VII. and of the moft illuftrious faints, 
&c. He wrote alfo “A Hiftory of the church of Rheims,” 
and * A Chronicle comprifing the Hiftory of the Times 
from 919 to 966.”?_ Moreri. 

FLOETZ. See Fvierz. 

FLOGEL, Cuarctes Freperic, in Biography, a 
learned Silefian author, was born at Jauer, in December 
1729. Inthe year 1774 he was appointed profeffor of 
philofophy in the academy of Leignitz, and died in March 
1788, at the age of 59. He left behind him many able 
works, among which was “‘ A Hiitory of the Human Un- 
derftanding,’”? and “A Hiftory of the prefent ftate of 
Belles Lettres in Germany.””? He had read a great deal, 
and poffefled an extenfive knowledge of the hiftory of lite- 
rature, as well as of philofophy and other fciences. He 
was highly efteemed on account of his integrity and agree- 
able difpofition, and his memory has been immortalized by 
his excellent works. Gen. Biog. 

FLOGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- 
partment of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in 
the diftri& of Tonnerre; fix miles S.E. of St. Florentin. 
The place contains 339, and the canton $367 inhabitants, 
on a territory of 155 kiliometres, in 15 communes. 

FLOHA, atown of Germany, in the circle of Erzge- 
burg; fix miles E.N.E. of Chemnitz. 

FLOHAU, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Saatz ; 
eight miles S. of Saatz. 

FLON, 2 river of France, which rurs into the Arly, 
abouta mile S.W. of Flumet. 

FLONE, or Frorn, atown of France, in the depart- 
ment of the Ourthe ; eight miles §.S.W. of Liege. 

FLONHEIM, a town of France, in the department of 
the Rhine and Mofelle; 12 miles E.S.E. of Crantz- 


nach. 


FLOOD, a deluge or inundation of waters. See De- 
LUGE. 
Froop is alfo ufed in {peaking of the tide. See Tipe. 


When the waser is at loweft, it is called flood; when 
rifing, young; or old flood; when at higheft, high flood ; 
when heginning to fall, ebb-water... ” 

Froop-mark, the mark which the fea makes on the 
fhore, at flowing water, and the higheft tide: it is alfo 
called high-water mark. 

Froop Sand. See Sanv. rs 

Fioop-gate, among Engincers, fignified a gate or 
fluice which can be opened or fhut at pleafure to retain or 
give paflage to the water of a river liable to be {wollen by 
floods. Flood-gates are neceflary in many fituations upon 
rivers where the water is retained for the fervice of mills, 
canals, navigations, docks, &c.; in thefe only a certain 


FLO 


quantity of the ftream can be employed, and the furplus in 
time of a flood mutt be fuffered to efcape by another paf. 
fage. or inftance, in the cafe of mills upon a large and 
rapid river, the ftream of water is intercepted by a weir 
erected acrofs it, and penned up the proper height to obtain 
a fufficient fall for the mill, which is fituated by the fide 
ofthe river, with a channel leading from aboye the weir, to 
convey the water to the mill, whilit another conduéts it into 
the river below the weir. In ordinary times this arrangement 
is fufficient, for whenever the mill is not in aétion, the 
water which would otherwife pafs through it, flows over 
the weir, and efcapes into the river below. Now if the fud- 
den falling of rain, or melting of fnow, cavfes a flood in the 
river, it often happens that the length of the weir is infuf- 
ficient to vent the torrent of water coming down; and with- 
out fome contrivance anfwering the purpofe of a flood gate, 
to give paflage to the water, it becomes penned up many 
feet above the crown, or highett level of the weir, inun- 
dating the lands adjacent to the channel, above the’ weir. 
If the river is provided with a proper flood-gate, it as, 
when open, in the fame manner as removing a part of the 
weir, and allows the water to pafs down quietly without 
rifing much above the level which is common in ordinary 
times. From this, the ufe of a flood-gate will be compre- 
hended ; navigable rivers, which are penned up to form 
locks, require flood-gates, which are applied in the fame 
manner as before-mentioned. 

Flood-gates may be conftruéted in various forms ; but it 
is indifpenfable that they fhould be capable of being 
opened or fhut during the time when a preflure of water 
is acting againit them. Small gates are always made to flide 
up and down ina groove in the manner of a fluice ; fome 
very confiderable rivers are furnifhed with anumber of fuch 
{mall draw-gates, which open a great extent of water, 
when drawn up. Inthe molt extenfive works it is neceflary 
to make ufe of a different kind of gate, which can be 
opened or fhut with greater eafethan a number of fhuttles, 
and which will lay open a more extenfive paflage ; for in 
violent floods itis not uncommon for large trees, bufhes, hay 
ricks, thatched roofs of low buildings, é&c. to be brought 
away by the torrent; and if the food-gates have any ob- 
itruction, thefe matters accumulate before the paflage, and, 
when the flood lalts long, frequently choak up the gate, 
and the water overflows its banks. To ayoid fuch accidents 
is the ftudy of the engineer in conftru@ing works of this 
kind ; the late Mr. Smeaton defigned feveral flood-gates, in 
which the preflure of the water was balanced, fo that the 
gate at any time could be opened or fhut with eafe, even 
while the preffure of the water was-aGting againit it on one 
fide only. Figures 5 and 6 of Plate XV. Mi/cellany, isa plan, 
and fig. 2. an elevation of this contrivance ; A A B B repre- 
fents a channel made through the weir, or, if more conve- 
nient to fuit the local circumftances, it is made by the fide 
of the river, leading from aboye the weir to below it ; this 
channel mutt be fubftantially built in mafonry to refift the 
violent aétion of the water rufhing through it when the 
gate is opened ; in fome convenient part of this paflage a 
{tout beam C is placed acrofs the bottom,;.and another, D, 
acrofs the top, both firmly bedded in mafonry ; thefe fup- 
port the gudgeons of the vertical axis E of the gate F F. 
When this gate is turned fo as to prefent its edge to the 
current, the water has free paflage by it, and on the other 
hand, when it is placed perpendicularly acrofs the channel, 
the whole of the water is detained : the axis of the gate is 
placed fo as to pafs very nearly through the centre of 
preffure of the fuperficies expofed to the ation of the wa- 
ter; and as the preflure of the furfaces on each fide of the 

axis 


td 


FLOOD-GATE., 


asis aét to turn the gate in contrary direCtions, they balance 
each other, and the gate may be turned with fcarcely any 
other refiltance than the friction of its gudgeons. The gate 
‘mutt neceffarily be framed exceedingly itrong to bear the 
‘great weight of the water ating againft it, without 
yielding. G, H, are two ground-cills firmly bolted down 
upon the floor of the conduit and the piles which are 
beneath it ; one of the arms of each of thefe cills fupport 
the gate when fhut, and the other arms fuftain it when open, 
.as is clearly fhewn by the figure ; thefe muft be very firmly 
_fixed to avoid any danger of the gate remeving them; one 
_of the upright fides of the gute is fupported by falling into 
_a recefs made in the mafonry of the conduit, and to keep 
_the other fide of the gate up to its cill, a lever. called a vallet, 
which is in the form of a triangle I K, and moves upon a 
vertical axis placed in a reeefs inthe mafonry fo as to be out 
of the way of the gate’s motion, when placed in the pofi- 


other pofition it aéts as a lever to clofe the gate, being 
‘drawn tight by tackle, and afterwards lafhed by a {mall 
line to the beam D, The gate is retained fhut, but can be 
_ opened inftantaneoufly by cutting the line ; and as the gate 
.1s made rather larger on the fide of the axis where the 
vallet is placed, that it may have a tendency to open when 
releafed by the preponderating preffure on one fide. The 
gate in queftion is 15 feet in height, and the fame in breadth ; 
when open, it allows two paflages of 15 feet by 6 feet 


of a capftan and blocks, for which purpofe eye-bolts are 
provided on the proper points of the gates and beam D. 


and from its fimplicity is not very liable to be deranged, 
as before mentioned ; for large rivers the principal objet is, 
to open a great extent of water-way, which will admit the 
paflage of large bodies brought down by the ftream ; Mr. 
Smeaton’s gate above mentioned, as the axis is always in the 
channel, would be liable to be choaked by trees, &c.; for 
this reafon large fluices or fhuttles are very generally 
adopted, though the great power and expenfive machinery 
required to raife fuch gates are an objectien. 

A flood-gate lately ereéted by Mr. Bramah is the moft 
perfec in this refpe&t of any that we have met with ; it is 
raifed (on the hydroftatic principle which he has fo fuc- 
cefsfully applied to many other ufeful purpofes) with fuch 
facility, that a paflage 19 feet wide, and ro feet high, can 
be opened by one man in 15 minutes, and this when the pref- 
fure of 10 feet of water is acting on one fide only. Fig. &. is 


_ an elevation of this gate, and fig. g. an horizontal fection ; 
_tion at fig. 5, leaving the gate at liberty to open; in the . 


A, A, reprefent two large beams which are partly received 
into the mafonry of the conduit ; the lower ends are framed 
into a ftrong ground-cill B, and the upper ends conuetted 
by a framing ; this forms a frame in which the gate rifes 
and falls: it is guided in its motion by two iron plates a, a, 


. bolted to the fides of the gate, forming a groove, as fhewn 
_in the plan. T'wo {quare pieces of calt iron, denoted. by 4, 4, 


,and the dark fhading in the plan, are bolted againit the 


-infide furfaces of the beams A, A, and received into the 


. grooves of the gate, to confine it to move-in a vertical di- 
3 inches in width ; the gate is to be fhut by the application _ 


oe AIS gate, though very proper for large rivers where , 


a watchman mutt be in conftant attendance to open and fhut 
it when neceffary, is not-fo applicable as a common {fluice 
to a {mall mill-dam, where, if a fudden flood occurs in the 
night, the miller muft rife to open the gate ; and, unlefs he 


‘ 


conttantly attends to fhut it when the flood fubfides, the . 


mill-dam may be emptied and the water loft, which he 
. would wifh to referve for the enfuing day. Great com- 
plaiuts are frequently made in the country of lands being 
overflowed in the night when the miller is not in the way 
to open his flood-gate; to remedy this a felf-acting flood- 
gue would be defirable, and we beg leave to fuggeft the 
ollowing. Let AA, fe: 7. be a gate fimilar to the one 
before mentiened, but of {maller dimentions, and poifed upon 
a horizontal axis pafling rather above the centre of preflure 
of the gate, fo as to. give it a tendency to fhut clofe: aa is 
.a lever fixed perpendicular to the gate, and connected by an 
iron rod with a cafk 2 floating upon the furface of the 
water, when it rfes to the line.B D, which is affumed as a 
, level of the weir or mill-dam BC E F, in which the flood- 
_grate is placed; by this arrangement it will be feen, that 
_when the water rifes above the dam, it floats the cafk, 
opens the gate, and allowing the water to efcape until its 
furface fubjides at the proper level BD; the cafk now acts 
_by its weight, when unfupported by.the water, to clofe the 
_ gate and prevent leakage; the gate fhould be fitted into a 
. of timber H K, which is fet in the mafonry of. the 
“dam, the upper beam. H of the frame being jutt level with 
the crown of the dam,.fo that the water runs over the top 
,of the gate, at the fame. time that .it pafles through it; to 
revent the current difturbing the cafkc it is connected by a 
mali rod ¢ at each end to the upper beam H of the frame, 
_and jointed in fuch a manner as to admit of motion in a, ver- 
tical direCion. : 

_ This flood-gate would be very ufeful in mill-dams of 
{mall dimenfion, which are therefore liable te be fuddenly 
everflowed, for being felf-ating, it requires no attendance, 


fen 


rection: thefe pieces of iron-have cylindrical chantbers 


- through them, as fhewn by the {mall white circles in the 


plan, to admit two polifhed iron cylinders d,.d, attached te 
the end of the upper rail D D of the ornamental. framing 
on the top of the gate; aclofe fitting is made round the 
cylinders d,d, by leathers.confined with fcrews to prefs 
againit them at the top of the iron barrels, fo that no fluid 
can pafs out of the chamber in the barrels 4,4; ¢,¢, in the 
plan, are two {mall pipes communicating with the chambers 
at the bottom of each barrel, and thefe pipes,are united at 


_f; proceeding to a pump, by which water is injeéted into 


the two chambers together ; and as this fluid is incompref- 
fible, it follows that the cylinders d, d, mutt be forced out 
of their re{pective chambers railing up the gate. As the 
area of the pump is much lefs than that of the cylinders, 
and as it fupplies two of them, it follows that the motion 


_of the pifton of the pump will inje@t fuch a quantity of 


water as, when diftributed into the two chambers, producesa 
very {mall protrufion of the cylinders ; it is on this princi- 
ple of the differences of the two motions that the power Is » 
gained: the area of the. pump in the prefent inftance is 
«7854 of a {quare inch, and the cylinders about 7.07 {quare 
inches, or nine tifnes as much; by this means a power is 
gained in the two cylinders equal to 18 times the force 
exerted upon the pifton of the pump, whith being moved 
by a lever multiplying the power ten times, the power of 
a man applied to the pump is increafed 180 times ; fo that 
a weight of roolbs, applied to the lever, will raife 18,002 lbs. 
on the pifton rods. 

The pump may be placed at any convenient diftance 
from the gate, a {mall copper tube. only half an inch 
diameter conducting the water into the cylinders; in many 
{ituations this will be extremely convenient, as it obviates 
the neceflity of an expenfive fcaffold or framing over the 
gate, which is indifpenfable in other fluices to ae the 


labourers and,the machinery for drawing up the gate; the 
pump is explained by Ags. ro, and 14. on a much larger {eale 


than the other parts; 4 is a ciftern containing water, and ithe 
pump-barrel fixed perpendicular in it; the plunger oy piltong 
is folid, and leather packed round it ia a manaer fom thing 

4Q2 timtat 


FLO 


Similar to the cylinder; it is‘confined to a rectilinear motion by 
Sliding through a fixed focket / at the upper end, and in the 
middle it has an opening to admit of a lever m, by which 
the pump is moved ; it is connected with the rod by a 
coupling rod within the opening, which allows its devia- 
tions from the reétilinear motion; the pump has two valves, 
the one is fituated in the bottom of the barrel at x, and the 
other in the pipe beneath 0; its aétion is fimilar to the or- 
dinary force pump, inhaling the water into the barrel when 
the pifton is lifted up, and expelling it through the pipe f 
when forced down ; at p is a tteel-yard and weight acting 
upon a fmall valve, which permits the efcape of the water 
if the preffure fhould be fo great as to endanger the rupture 
of the pipes when the gate is lifted up to the top of its 
frame ; hence it is termed the fafety-valve : it fhould never 
‘be loaded with a greater weight than will keep the valve 
fhut againft a fufficient preflure to elevate the gate. Atr 
is a cock which difcharges the water from the pipe into the 
ciftern, and permits the defcent of the gate. To refift the 
great preflure of the water againtt the gate, it is ftrengthened 
by three trufled frames, reprefented by #,4,4, in the 
elevation, fig. 8. and in the plan; each trufs is an iron rod 
attached to the gate at each end, and fupperted in the 
middle by a block, which anfwers the purpofe of a king- 
poft: the rods can be drawn tight by iron wedges pafliug 
through the gate ; therefore it is evident that in this ftate 
the gate cannot yield to the preflure of the water, unlefs one 
rod is fhortened and the other ftretched ; thefe frames ren- 
der the gate fo ftiff that it does not fhew any figns of weak- 
nefs when the preffure atts againft it; the truffles are placed 
nearer together at the lower part of the gate, where the 
greateft ftrength is wanted. 

The limits of our plate do not allow us to do juttice to 
the precife and more minute parts of this admirable inven- 
tion, but as thefe will again come under our notice in the 
article Press, Hydroflatic, we refer the more complete elu- 
cidation of the pump, mode of packing the cylinders, &c. 
to the plates belonging to that article. It fhould be no- 
ticed, that the gate reprefented in ourafigure is intended to 
admit the paflage of loaded barges beneath it, and is there- 
fore much higher in the frame A A than would be necef- 
fary for flood-gates in all fituations; it weuld form a mott 
excellent fluice for clearing out harbours from mud, as the 
torrent of water it lets out would be much more effective 
than three or four of the {mall fluices at prefent in ufe. 

Froop-bridge, fignities a low bridge conftructed for the 
towing-path of a canal, over a weir or over-fall for difcharg- 
ing fuperfluous water. See Canat. 

Froop-/ock, fignities a tide lock, or that epening into 
the fea, era tidal river. 

FLOODING, Profluvium Sanguinis, in Surgery, may be 
applied to any unnatural or profufe difcharge of blood, but 
it is ufually confined to preternatural difcharges of blood 
from the uterus. The mo{t common of thefe are proflu- 
vium menfium, or an increafed difcharge of the menftrual 
flux, (fee Menses), or thofe difcharges of blood from 
the uterus, which precede, and not unfrequently occafion 
abortion. (See Anortion.) The hemorrhage alfo, which 
follows a partial ‘or total feparation of the placenta from 
the uterus, if profufe, whether it takes place before or 
afterthe birth of the child, is called a flooding. Flooding 
is fometimes, though rarely, occafioned by falls or blows, 
and fometimes by ulcers, polypi, or other difeafes of the 
uterus, In all cafes of flooding the patient fhould be con- 
fned, as much as conveniently may be, to a recumbent 
pofture, the body fhould be kept cool and open, and a few 
$poorfuls of the infufion of red rofes fhould be given two 


FLO 


or three times in the day, adding to the portion given at 
night from five to ten drops of the tinéture of opium. 

Froopine Land, in Agriculture, is the practice of 
flooding, or cee grafs lands with the water of rivers, 
&c. at particular feafons. In this mode the water is 
fuffercd to remain upon the ground tor a confiderable length 
of time, which is quite different to that of irrigation, in 
which it conftantly runs off as faft as it is brought upon 
the land. This method has probably been introduced in 
confequence of obferving the fertilizing effects that take 
place after pafture lands have been overflowed with water 
for fome time inthe winter feafon. This plan of watering 
is of vaft importance in mofly meadows, even where the 
water ie perfectly clear and free from any material that is 
capable of being depofited. 

In preparing lands for being flooded, there are two 
circumitances that mutt be particularly regarded, namely, 
firft to lay them as level as poffible, either by dividing 
them into different levels, or any other means; and fecondly, 
to convey the water upon them in the moft fafe and con- 
venient manner for the cultivation. of the furrounding 
grounds, In fandy or mofly lands, this is often not accom- 
pipe without confiderable difficulty. See Watering 

AND. 

FLOOK of an Anchor. See Ancuor. 

FLOOKING, in Mining, a term ufed to exprefs a 
peculiarity in the load of a mine. The load or quantity of 
ore is frequently intercepted in its courfe by the crofling 
of a vein of earth or ftone, or fome different metallic 
fubftance ; in which cafe the load is moved to one fide, 
and this tranfient part of the load is called a looking. See 
Fautr. 

FLOOR, in Building, the under-fide ofa room, or that 
part on which we walk, or perform different operations, 
uch as threfhing, drefling, and meafuring grain, &c. 

Floors are of divers forts ; fome of earth, fome of brick, 
others of ftone, others of boards, &c. 

Carpenters, by the word floor, underftand as well the 
frame-work of timber, as the boarding over it. The fup- 
porting timbers are called naked flooring, which fee. The 
boarding is alfu of different kinds, as batten floors, common 
boarded floors, dowelled floors, and ftraight-jointed floors, 

For brick and flone-floors, fee PAVEMENT. 

For boarded fioors, it is obfervable, that the carpenters 
never floor their rooms with boards, till the carcafe is fet 
up, and alfo inclofed with walls, left the weather fhould 
injure the flooring. Yet they generally ‘otigh:plaie' thelr 
beards for the flooring, before they begin any thing elfe 
about the building, that they may fet them to dry and 
featon, which is done in the moft careful manner. This 
operation fhould be performed for at leatt one year, fo 
that the natural fap may be thoroughly expelled. The 
beft wood for flooring is the fine yellow deal well feafoned, 
which, when well laid, will keep its colour for a long 
while ; whereas the white fort becomes black by often 
wafhing, and looks very bad, “The battens ufed for floor- 
ing are of three kinds: the beft is that free.of knots, 
fhakes, fap, and crofs grained fibres, well matched. The 
fecond beft is that in which only ‘fmall, but found knots are 
permitted, and free of fhakes and fap. The third and 
common kind is that which remains after taking away the 
beft and fecond bet. . 

With refpect to the joints of flooring’ boards, they are 
either quite {quare, or plowed and tongued, or rebated, 
or dowelled. In fixing them, they are either nailed’ upen 
one or both edges. ‘They are always neceflarily nailed 
upon both edges when Square jointed, without be ah i 

en 


, 


FLO 


When they are dowelled, they may be nailed on one or 
both Edzet, though one edge only is neceffary ; and in the 
beft dowelled work there are no brads or nails feen whatever, 
the outer edge being faftened by driving the nail obliquely 
through the wood, without piercing the upper furface ; fo 
that the floor, when planed off, appears without blemith. 

In laying boarded floors, the boards are fometinies laid 
‘one after the other; or otherwife one is firft laid down, 
then the fourth, leaving an interval fomewwhat lefs than the 
Breadth of the fecond and third together. The interme- 
diate boards are next laid in their places, with an edge of the 
fone upon the edge of the firft board, aud an edge of the 
third upon the inner edge of the fourth, and the two mid- 
dle edges together, which will form a ridge; to level which, 
‘two or more workmen jump upon it, till they have made 
the under ‘furface coincident with the joifts, then they are 
jailed down in their places. The ‘operation is called fold- 
ing floors, and the boards are faid to be folded. ‘his mode 
is only taken when the boards are not fufficiently feafoned, 
ertutileied to be fo. -In order to make clofe work, it-is 

obvious that the two edges forming the joint of the fecoud 
and third boards mufl make angles, with the faces, togéther 
lefs than two ‘right angles, or cach one of each board lefs 
than aright angle. The feventh ‘board is fixed as the 
fourth, and the fifth and fixth inferted as the fecond and 
third, and fo on till completed. In this kind of ‘flooting 
the headings are generally fquare or fplayed. 

When floors are dowelléd, the regulating line for the 
centre of the dowels fhould ‘be drawn from'the lower fide, 
which, as has been obferved, ought to be ftraightened on 
purpofe. The diftances to which'the dowels are fet, are 
from fix to ‘eight’ inches, generally-one over each joilt, and 
one over each inter-joift. 

When it is neceffary to have a heading joint in the length 
of the floor, it fhould always be upon a joift; one heading 
joint fhould never meet another. In dowelled floors ‘the 
heading points are always plowed and tongued. 

In common floors the boards are adzed on the lower fide, 
in order to bring them to a thicknefs between rebated 
edges. In doing this, great care fhould be taken fo-as not 
to make them too thin, which is frequently the cafe; they 
mutt then be raifed with chips, which is a very unftable re- 
fiftance to a preflure upon the floor. The manuer of mea- 
furing floors is by fquares of ten feet on each fide, fo that 
taking the length and breadth, and multiplying them to- 

ether, and cutting off two decimals, the content of a floor 

In fquares will be given. Thus 18 by 16 gives 288 of 
2 fquares atid 88 decimal parts. 

’  Froors, Earthen, are commonly made of loam, and 
fometimes, efpecially to make malt on, of lime, and brook- 
fand, and gun-duft, or anvil-duft from the forge; the 
whole being well wrought up and blended together with 
‘plood. The fiftings of lime-ttone have alfo been found 
highly wleful when ‘formed into floors in this way. 

Ox-blood:and ‘fine clay, témpered together, fir Hugh 
Plat fays, make the’ fineft floor in the world. The *prin- 
cipal objeét in ‘conftruéting floors of this nature is that 
of. blending and incerporating the different fubftances in 
a full and perfe& manner for fome time’ before they are 
‘laid; and when that is done they fhould be repeatedly’ beaten 
down and rendered perfe&tly fmooth and even, 

‘The manner of making earthen floors for plain country 
habitations is as follows. Take two-thirds of'lime, and 
one of ‘coal afhes well fifted, with a fmall quantity of 
loam clay ; mix the whole together, ‘and ‘temper it well 
with water, making it up into a heap: let it lie a week 
or ten days, and then'temper it over again. 'A\fter this, 

7 


FLO 


heap it up for three or four days, and repeat the tem- 
pering very high, till it become {mooth, yielding, tough, 
and gluey. The ground being then levelled, lay the floor 
therewith about 24 or 3 inches thick, making it {mooth 
with a trowel: the hotter the feafon is the better; and 
when it is thoroughly dried, it will make the beft floor for 
houfes, efpecially malt-houfes. 

If any one would have their floors look better, let them 
take lime made of rag-ftones, well tempered wich whites 
of eggs, covering the floor about half an inch thick with 
it, before the under flooring is too dry. If this be well 
done, and thoroughly dried, it will look, when rubbed 
with a little oil, as tranfparent as metal or glafs. In elegant 
houfes, floors of this nature are made of ftucco or of 
plaifter of Paris beaten and fifted, and mixed with other 
ingredients. Well wrought coarfe platter likewife makes 
excellent fafe upper-floors, for cottages, out-houfes, &c. 
when neatly fpread out upon good ftrong laths or reed. 
See Praster-F/oor. 

Froor ‘of a fbip, ftri@tly taken, is only fo much of her 
bottom which the refts'‘on, when aground. 

Such fhips.as have long, and withal broad floors, lie on 
the ground with moft fecurity, and are not apt to feel, or 
tilt on one fide; whereas others, which are narrow m 
the floor, or, in the fea-phrafe, cranked by the ground, 
cannot ‘be grounded without danger of being over-turned. 

Froor-timbers, in a Ship, are thofe parts of a fthip’s 
timbers which are placed immediately acrofs the keel, and 
upon which the bottom of the fhip is framed; to thefe 
the upper parts of the timbers are united, being only a 
continuation of floor-timbers upwards. 

Foor, in Mining, or fole, thill, or pound ftone, fignities 
the bottom of the work in a mine, or in coal-mining, 
the ftratum immediately under the coal-feam; which if 
foft, the upper part of it for fix or cight inches in height 
generally is ‘holed in,” as the colliers call it, that is, the 
fame is picked out in order to undermine or loofen the 
coal, but if the floor be hard, as clunch is, the holeing or 
picking isthen made in the bottom or fome inferior bed of 
the coaiitfelf, in order to under-go or give room for wedging 
down the blocks or webs of coal. In examining and com- 
paring the finkings of the numerous coal-pitsin Derbythire 
and Nottinghamfhire, Mr. Farey lately difcovered, what 
feems likely ta prove a general and important geolo- 
gical fact, viz. that the floor of every coal is a fire-ekay, 
more 6r lefs thick, more or lefs perfe&t in its infufible 
property, and more or lefs indurated ; fometimes being 
in a foft or duétile ftate, when it is called floam, fpavin, 
fire-clay, pipe-clay, (ifwhite,) potter’s-clay, brick-elay, &c. 
at'others, in an indurated er almoft ftony ttate, but which 
it quickly lof s and falls to clay, on expofure to the atmo- 
fphere,’ in which cafe it is called clunch, which is the nanie 
that the floor of coal moit generally bears. This new fa& 
appears to throw a great degree of light on the new theory 
of the formation of coal, near the end of our article 
Cotriery, by rendering it probable that the growth of the 
fabaqueous beds of -vegetables there fpoken of were pros 
duced by this peculiar fubftance as their foil or pabulum. 

Froor, a fuperticial meafure of 400 fquare feet or 
docking, is a fquare whofe fide is 20 feet, and occurs in the 
facing of the fen-banks, and in other works on the fens of 
Cambridgefhire and Norfolk, &c. 

Froor, afolid meafere of 400 cubit feet, or a fuper- 
ficial floor, one foot thick, ufed in mieafuring the pits dug 
to obtain earth for forming the banks againft the tide or 
rivers in the fens on the eafterm coaft, (Smeaton’s Reports, 
Yol. ie ps 330.) 

Froog 


FLO 


Froor isa term applied to the pits, which are dug 
in the fens, to furnifh ftuff for making their banks, by 
the cubic meafurement of which the bankers are paid. 

FLOQUET, SreruenJosern, in Biography, a French 
mutical compofer, whofe firft preduction for the lyric 
theatre was fo fuccefsful as to merit a record, having 
fapported an hundred reprefentations always with the 
fame applauf , and crowded audience ; this piece, whichis 
called a ballet, written by Mont. le Monnier, is entitled 
* The Union of Love and the Arts,” (1’ Union de ? Amour 
et des Arts), was performed in 1773, when the mutic of 
the old fchool began to fade. This was the year preceding 
the arrival of Gluck, and a year betore Piccini was in- 
‘vit-d to Paris, which divided the nation into two furious 
mulical faétions, as hoitile to each other as thofe in 
England enlifted under the banners of Bonongini and 
Handel. Sacchini’s tender and graceful {trains had not 
yet been heard; it feems therefore as if there mutt have 
been merit of fome kind or other to captivate, without 
‘cabal, a whole ‘nation. Floquet was born at Aix in 
Provence, 1750; and was the firft mufical author that 
was called for by the audience to be crowned, and to re- 
ceive on the ftage their approbationin perfon. A mafs of 
his compofition was performed in the cathedral at Aix 
before he was eleven years old. In 1774 he fet another 
. opera, which not having the fame fuccefs as the firit, he 
determined to travel into Italy te receive inftructions 
from the moft able mafters of that country, and obtained 
them for fome time at Naples, under the celebrated Sala, 
the worthy fucceflor of Durante, and matter of the 
Confervaterio of la Pieta; which had furnifhed the mufical 
art, and all Europe, with. fo many great matters. On 
quitting Naples he went to Bologna, and had the further 
“adyantage of receiving. inftruétions from the profound 
father Martini, the zreateft theorift that Italy has ever 
produced. A Te Deum, a due Cori, of his compofition, 
was performed at Naples with great fuccefs; and he was 
-admitted of the Philharmonic Society at Bologna ; it is 
however known, that to be received into that academy, it 
is neceffary for a candidate to give proofs of his abilities 
three feveral nights; but M. Floquet performed all the 
feveral exercifes the fame evening, and compofed in two 
hours and a half, on caito fermo, a f gue in five parts, 
and the verfe cruc fixus of the credo; a that he was im- 
mediately received unanimoufly. On his return ro France, 
he compofed the opera of Hellé, performed in 1778, 
but which had no fuccefs ; not but that the mufic. mani- 
fefted the progrefs which the young Floquet&had made 
in-his art; but from the badnefs of the words enfued a 
total want of intereft in the fubjeét. This compofer was 
ill advifed by friends to attempt giving meaning to a drama 
fo deteftably dull. We advife him to be more cautious 
in future in the choice of his words, and will venture to 
an{wer for his fuccefs. Laborde, 1780. 

FLORA, in Mythology. See Froraves Judi. 

Fora, in Botany, is very generally applied as a title to 
books whofe profeffed objeé&t is to enumerate, define, or 
fully defcribe the wild plants of any. particular country or 
diftri&. Publications of this kind, with which the botani- 
cal library at the prefent day abounds, are not lefs various in 
their {cope than in their merits. Some are mere catalogues, 
difpofed either in alphabetical or fyftematic order, while 
others are compleat hiftories of the plants they enumerate, 
refpecting not only their botanical chara&ers and diftine- 
tions, but alfo their {cientiic hiftory, and even that of ani- 
mals conneéted with them, as well as their actual or proba- 
ble ufes and qualities. Of this Jatt kind, the Flore Lap- 


‘ 


FLO 


ponica of Linnaeus, publifhed at Amfterdam in 1737, in ene 
volume 8vo. with 12 plates, and republifhed at Londen in 
1792, is a tranfcendent, asd hitherto unrivalled example 
Of the former. fort, it would be invidious to cite inftances, 
nor ought even the moft humble attempts of this nature to 
be difcouraged, however they may have been affeétedly def- 
pifed by pedantic, but lefs praétical, writers. The moft ef- 
{ential difference in the real.merits of {uch works confifts in 
their degree of originality and authenticity. A {mall cata- 
logue, the firft attempt of its kind, fuch as How’s Phy- 
tologia Britannica, printedin 1650, or Franckenius’s Specu. 
Jum Botanicum, firt pubhthed at Upfal in 1638, however im- 
perfect or incorreét, ought to rank far above compilations 
which only purfue a plain, well-trodden track, without af- 
fording any additional difcoveries or illuftrations, fuch as 
the moit beaten. path will yieldto a real obferver. Of this 
no more {triking example can be given, in a purely botani- 
cal work, than the Flora Germanica of Prof. Schrader, 
the firft volume of which, comprifing the firft three of the 
Linnean clailes, though publifhed at Gottingen in 1806, 
has only juft reached our country. This book, as far as 
we have been able to ftudy it, is unrivalled for original and 
accurate de(criptions, faithful well-ftudied fynenyms, and 
acute as well as candid criticifm. Decandolle’s. new edition 
of Lamarck’s Flore Francai/e is a work of fimilar merit. 
Haller’s Hiforia Stirpium Helveticarum, publifhed in three 
vols. folio, in 1768, with fome exquifite engravings, is one 
of the mott celebrated Floras, in which the fubjeét is treat- 
ed with that enthufiafm which gains the reader’s heart ; but 
its fynonymy and references are extremely incorre&. Of 
the merits of Curtiss unfinifhed FYora Londinenfis we have 
already {poken; fee Curtis, Ray’s Synopfis, the only 
Britifh Flora which ranks above it, is as far as the original 
author goes, a truly excellent and nearly faultlefs publica- 
tion. His own labours we have moft cerreé in the 2d. edi- 
tion, publifhed in 1696; the 3d, as is remarked under 
our biographical article DitLentus, being extremely faulty, 
though commonly ufed, and even the plates added by its 
editor, quoted as the work of Ray. 

We beg leave here, being not unufed to the perufal, nor 
indeed the compofition of tach works, to offer a few re- 
marks of a practical tendency. 

It is in the firft place effential that the author of a local 
Flora fhould be refponfible for the identity of the plants he 
enumerates, and the places in which they are faid to grow, 
either on his own authority, or that of fome perfon or an- 
thornamed. If any ob{curity attends the determination of 
a {pecies, it is his indifpenfible duty, either by a figure or 
minute defcription, to place his own plant at leaft out of 
all doubt, if he has not accefs to opinions or authorities 
which may decide his fynonyms in other writers. In this 
particular, Relhan’s /Yora Cantabrigienfis, Sibthorp’s Flora 
Oxonienjis, and Abbot’s Flora Bedfordienfis, have their 
appropriate value. Nor is Lightfoot’s Flora Scotica. at all 
inferior as to the enumeration or determination of fpecies, 
for which its author was favoured with peculiar advantages. 
The great fault of the laft work, which ought ever to be re- 
probated, is the compiling defcriptions from various authors, 
without mention of the quarters whence they are derived, 
which do not certainly belong to the fame plant, though 
thofe authors happen. te have called it by the fame name. 
This is the fault of Withering’s Botanic Arrangement of 
Britith Plants, where widely difcordant defcriptions, from 
foreign writers, are.often brought together te determine a 
Britith {pecies.; but in this excellent writer there is no de- 
ception, all his authorities being properly acknowledged. 
Another very blameable, practice, which we wilh to expose 

Ss , to 


FLOR A. 7 


tojuft cenfure, is copying fynonyms from Linnzus or fome 
ether author, fuppofed of authority, without ever turning 
to the books cited to fee whether their figures or defcrip- 
tions anfwer to the plant intended to be illuftrated by them. 
This has been but too common, as a matter of courfe, nor 
are fome of our bett Englifh writersexempt from it. The 
practice is detected by occafional errors of the prefs which, 
exifting in the oiiginal, are transferred to the copy. Thus, 
there is hardly an error of the prefs in Ray’s or Linnzus’s 
citations of former authors, that is not exa¢tly copied in 
the Flora Anglica of Hudfon, who was otherwile a practical 
and accurate botanift. For inftance, under 4/i/ma Dama- 
fonium the quotation of Bauhin’s Hiforia fhould be p. 779; 
but Dillenius in Ray has it 789, and fo has Hudfon; 
under drenaria rubra marina the fame author is erroneoufly 
cited, after Dillenius, 772, but it ought to be 720; un- 
der Sedum rupeffre Hadion, copying Dillenius in Ray’s 
Synopfis, refers to Petiver’s tab. 41, whereas it ought to be 
42; for Spergula eel Linnezus refers to Dodonzus 
p- 527, fo does Hudfon after him, but the right page is 537 5 
under A/arum europeum Hudfon quotes Gerarde as calling 
it Afarum vulgare, an error taken from Dillenius, for Ge- 
rarde calls it only Afarum. Even the Flora’ Londinenfis is 
not exempt from this fault, of which one inftance will fuf- 
fice. Under Lobelia urens, fafc. 6.t. 63, Morifon p. 407 
is cited, though the proper page is 467, the error being ob- 
vioufly copied from Hudfon, who took it from Linnzus’s 
Species Plantarum, in both editions of which, and in the 
Vienna copy of the fecond, the fame error exifts, as well as 
in Willdenow’s Sp. P/. v. 1. 947, no fuch miftakes being 
ever correéted in the laft-mentioned publication. In like 
manner, ever the great Gaertner, fo profefledly critical of 
Linneus, under Aigilops ovata quotes, after the ‘Species 
Plantarum, Dodon. Pempt. 73, whereas the proper page is 
539.—The deteétion of only a fingle fault of this fort in an 
author, overturns our confidence in his whole fyftem of fy- 
nonymy ; for how are we to know whether he has judged of 
a fynonym for himfelf or not? except indeed by fearching 
out the paffages which no other writer cites. 

To avoid the fault we have juft been expofing is in every 
body’s power. ‘There is another lefs eafy to avoid, and 
more common, though more excufable, that of copying 

enerie or ipecific definitions, or defcriptions, without ac- 
Faswledgenbat: Since ‘the prevalence of the 'fyftem of 
Linneus, and the great popularity of his works, thofe who 
have written Tloras, or Catalogues of Gardens, have gene- 
rally implicitly adopted his definitions, at leaft his generic 
ones, fcarcely prefuming to fuppofe they could be incorre&. 
Some miftakes having thence arifen, which the introduction 
ef the Linnean herbarium into this country firft led us to 
correct, the duthor of the Flora Britannica judged it ue- 
ceflary to bring every definition to the teft of examination, 
fuch being one of the few means left him, after the labours 
of fo many able preceding botanifts, to render his work im- 

ortantly ufeful. With regard to fpecies indeed, Mr. Hud- 
on, when he found the Linnean {pecific charafters not ac- 
cord with his own plants, very properly, and often advan- 
tageoufly, reformed them, but he by no means detected 
every errer of this kind. On the other hand,’ too great a 
propenfity to correét and reform fhould not lead us,‘in cafes 
where one idea or expreffion is as good as another,’ and cer- 
tainly preferable, from being already adopted, to make al- 
terations merely for the fake of fhewing our zeal ; for it is 
very probable w- may alter for the worle, though our felf- 
love will make us the laft to perceive it. : ; 

Tis leads me to confider the fubje& of fyftem, or me- 
thodical arrangement, which the writer of a F/ora fhould well 


confider before he aims at diftinétion by any reformations in 
that department. Hewould be wife, in the firftt place, to adopt 
the moft popular and eafy fy ftem, and hence moft perfons have 
followed that of Linnzus. Some excellent and original writers 
in this line have chofen methods of their own, which, from 
their ftrangenefs or imperfeétion, have depreciated their 
works, and rendered them far lefs popular than they de- 
ferved ; as Villars in his Flora of Dauphiny, -Aliioni in his 
Flora Pedemontana, Gerard in his Flora Galloprovincialis, 
and seen the firit edition of his F/sra Carnizlica, though 
in the fecond he wilely adopted the Linnzan arrangement. 
Whether the fyftems of thefe writers poffefs any merit or 
not, nobody thinks it worth while to enquire. The reader 
revalts at them asa perpetual inconvenience. A Flora is 
too limited a theatre for the difplay of a new botanic fyitem, 
and we expeét a different kind of information from it, which 
itis the writer’s duty to give us in the eafieft moit intelli- 
gible form, without troubling us to learn a new language 
on purpofe. In early times indeed, before any fyftem was 
regularly eftablifhed, it became leading botanifts, like Ray, 
to attempt to teach the world fome {cientific principles ; but 
even this great man condefcended, in his firit catalogue of 
Britifh plants, to ufe an alphabetical arrangement, as did a 
{carcely lefs excellent writerin this department, Magnol in 
his Botanicon Mon/pelienfe. An alphabetical arrangement 
is, at any rate, unexceptionable, not proving a hindrance, 
if it affords no {cientitic aid. ; 

Some Fioras, befides {cientific definitions, defcriptions, 
or fynonyms, are illuftrated with figures, a very ufeful 
though fometimes expenfive: addition; as the Flora Lon- 
dinenfis above-mentioned, the £nglife Botany, Jacquin’s 
fplendid Flora Aufiriaca, to which the Plante Rariores 
Hungaria by Waldftein and Kitaibel are a fort of fequel, 
as is alfo the ftill more fplendid Fora Greca, publifhed ac- 
cording tothe will of the late profeffor, John Sibthorp of 
Oxford. The Flora Danica confifts of little elfe than 
plates; which may be had either coloured or plain. The 
Flora Roffica of Pallas, intended, by its original patroneis 
the emprefs Catharine, to outfhine every work of the kind, 
and to be beftowed gratuitoufly on every perfon worthy to 
poffefs it throughout Europe, very foon proved abortive, 
and became a job in the hands of thofe entruited with its 
publication ; nor is the execution of the plates to be com- 
mended, they haviag often been coloured from dried {peci- 
mens. Of extra-european Fioras illuttrated with plates, 
though uncoloured, the Hortus Malataricus of Rheede, 
Herbarium Amboynenfe of Rumphius, and the recent Flora 
Peruviana by Ruiz and Pavon, are the moit magnificent. 
The performances of the Burmanns in this line are but in- 
different, though much quoted by Linnezus. The Flora 
Japonica of the celebrated Thunberg is valuable for the 
novelty of its materials, but nothing can be more rude thaa 
his Jcones fubfequently publifhed to illuftrate it. In point 
of novelty nothing can exceed the Neve Holmndia 
Plantarum Specimen by Labillardiere, full of ufeful, though 
not oftentatious, plates, nor is its feienti°c merit inferior 
to any. “The elegant Flora Atlantica of his countryman 
Desfontaines, with more beautiful plates, though lefs fine 
gularity of materials, deferves no lefs commendation. 
France at prefent teems with fuperb works of a fimilar na- 
ture. 

We cannot attempt in the compals of this article to 
mention, ftill lefs to do juitice to the merits of, every Flora 
that has appeared. We refer the reader to the article 
Ficures of Plants for fome remarks conne@ed with 
the fubje&t. More particular notice of feveral of the pub- 
lieations alluded to, as well as an account ef many jimilar 

onee 


FLO 


anes here altogether omitted, may come underthe Biographi-. 


cal articles relating to their feveral authors. S. 

FLORAC, in Geography,a town of France, in the depart- 
ment of the Lozere, and chief place ofa diftriG@, near the 
Tarn ; 13 milesS, of Mende. N. lat. 44° 19!. E. long, 3° 40'. 
The place contains 1,905, and the canton 7,985 inhabitants, 
on an extent of territory of 305 kiliometres, in g com- 
munes. 

FLORAL Lear, in Botany. See Bractea, 

FLORALES Luo, or Frorat ganies, in Antiquity, 
were games held in honour of Flora, the goddefs of flowers. 

They were celebrated with fhameful debaucheries. The 
moft licentious difcourfes were not enough, but the 
courtezans were called together by the found of a trampet, 
and made their appearance naked, and entertained the 
people with indecent fhews and poftures: the comedians 
appeared after the fame manner on the flage. Val. Maximus 
¥elates that Cato being once prefent in the theatre on this 
occalion, the people were afhamed to afk for fuch immodett 
reprefentations in his prefence ; till Cato, apprifed of the 
refervednefs and refpeét with which he infpired them, with- 
drew, that the people might not be difappointed of their 
accultomed diverfion. 

There were ‘divérs other forts of fhews exhibited on 
this occafion; and, if we may believe Suetonius in 
Galba, c. vi. and Vopifcus in Carimus, thefe princes 
prefented elephants dancing on ropes on thefe occa- 
fions. 

The ludi Floralés, according to Pliny, lib. xviii. cap. 29. 
were initituted by order of ‘an oracle of the fibyls, on 
the 28thof April; not in the year of Rome 1oxvi. as 
we commonly read it in the ancient edition of that au- 
thor; rior ’in rox1v. as I. Hardouin has corrected it, 
but as Voffius reads it, in 513; though they ‘were 
not regularly held every year till after 580. The occafion is 
faid to have been ‘this: a famine had lafted three ‘years, 
which had been introduced by cold and rainy {prings ; upon 
which ‘the fenate, to appeafe Flora, and obtain better crops, 
paffed ana& that year, appointing the annual celebration 
of thefe games at the end of April, in honour of that 
goddefs; which was regularly executed for the future. 
They were chiefly held in the night time, in the Patrician- 
ftreets ; fome will have it there was a circus for the pur- 
pofe, on the hill calléd Hortulorum. 

The goddefs Flora is by fome held to be the fame with 
the Chloris ofthe Greeks. (Ovid. Fatt. 1. iv.) Others 
maintain, (as Ladtantius, Minutius Felix, Arnobius, and St. 
‘Auguftin, among the fathers of the church ; and Plutarch 
and Macrobius, among profane authors,) that this Flora 
was a famous courtezan at Rome, who, having enriched 
berfelf by proftitution, made the people of Rome her 
heirs, on condition that they fhould celebrate the anniver- 
Yary of her birth-day by the games and feafts above men- 
tioned. Some time afterwards the fenate, judging fuch a 
foundation unworthy the majefty of the Roman people, to 
ennoble the ceremony, converted Flora into a goddefs, 
whom they fuppofed to prefide over flowers; and fo made 
it a part of religion to render her propitious, that it-might 
be well with their gardens, vineyards, &c. This is the 
common account: but Voffius (de Idolol. lib. i. cap. 12.) 
can by no means allow the goddefs Flora to have been the 
courtezan above mentioned: he will rather have her a Sa- 
bine deity, and thinks her worfhip might have commenced 
under Romulus. His reafonis, that Varro, (in his fourth 
book of the Latin tongue,) ranks Flora among the deities, 
‘to whom Tatius, king of the Sabines, offered.up vows, 
before he joined battle with the Romans. Add, that 


FLO 


from another paflage in Varro it appears, that there were, 
priefts of Flora with facrifices, &c, as early as the times of 
Romulus and Numa. To which we may add that Pliny 
(1. xxxiv. c. 4.) fpeaks of a ftatue of this goddefs by the 
hand of Praxiteles, which proves that her worfhip was. 
famous in Greece, whence it was propagated to Italy, 
Jong before Romulus, who adopted it, when he entered into” 
an affociation with Tatius and the Sabines. Moreover, we 
learn from Juftin, that the Phoceans, who built Marfeilles, 
worfhipped the fame goddels, 

FLORAL Games. There is alfo a kind of floral 
games obferved at this day in France; @rft inftituted in 
1324. 

The defign and eftabkifhment were owing to feven perfons 
of condition, lovers of poetry, who, about All-faints-day, 
in 1323, fent a circular letter to all the Provengal poets, 
called Troubadours, to meet at Thouloufe on May-day 
following, there to rehearfe their poems ; promifing a prize 
of a violet of gold to the perfon whofe piece fhould be’ 
judged the belt. 

The capitouls found the defign fo good, that it was after. 
wards refolved at a council of the city, to continue it at the 
city-charge ; and this was done ina manner that did honour 
to the place 

In 1325, a chancellor and fecretary of the new academy 
were chofen; and the feven inftitutors took the quality of 
maintainers thereof. Two other prizes were afterwards 
added to the violet ; viz. aneglantine for the fecond prize, 
anda panfy for the third. It was alfo decreed, that the 
perfon who bore away the firft prize, might demand tebe 
made bachelor: and that whoever bore away all three, 
fhould be created doétor in the gay Jcience, that is, in 

oetry. 

: There isa regifter of thefe games kept at Thouloufe, 
which gives this account of their origin; though others 
reprefent the matter differently. It was an ancient cuftom 
they fay,.for the poets of Provence to meet yearly at Thou- 
loufe, to-confer together, rehearfe their verfes, and receive 
a prize allotted to the beft performance. This held till 
about the year 1540, when a lady of quality left the beit 
part of her fortune to-eternize the cuitom, and bear the 
expence of prizes; the number of which fhe inereafed, 
ordering an eglantine, a panfy, a violet, and a pink: the 
three firlt, a cubit high; and worth fifteen piftoles a 
niece. 

The ceremony began on May-day, with a folemn mafs, 
mufic, &c. The corporation attended; and poems were 
rehearfed every day: the third day a magnificent treat was 
given by the magiltracy, &c. and that day the prizes were 
adjudged. The three prizes were the reward of three dif- 
ferent kinds of compolitions ; viz. a poem, an eclogue, and 
an ode. 

FLORALIA, in Antiquity, a general name for the 
feafts, games, and other ceremonies, held in honour of the 
goddefs Flora. ‘ 

FLORENCE, in Geggraphy, the capital city of Etrue 
ria, (which fee), and regarded as the Athens of modern 
Italy, is fituated on the river Arno, at the footof the Apen- 
nines. ‘lhe Arno divides it into two unequal parts, over 
which there are no fewer than four bridges in fight of each 
other, “That called the Ponta della Trinita, is uncommonly 
elegant, being built entirely of white marble, and orna- 
mented cath eae beautiful ftatues, reprefenting the four 
feafons. “The ,quays, the,buildings on each fide, and the 
bridges, render that.part of Florence, through which the 
river. runs, -by far the fineit. Florence. was firft founded 
by the foldicrs.of .Sylla, embellifhed and enlarged by the 

~ triumvyirs 


FLO 


triumvirs, deftroyed by Totila, and rebuilt by Charle- 
magne. The environs of this city are beautiful, rich, and 


-populous ; containing, as it has been faid, 6900 villas or 


country-honfes. The habitations of the peafants likewife 
feem to be peculiarly neat and commodious ; the country 
all round is divided into fmall farms, with a meat farn. 
houfe on each. The circumference of the city is about 
two leagues; the fortifications confilt only of a wall and 
ditch, with two or three forts which defend it, and com- 
mand a part of the town, This city vies, as to beauty, 
with Rome itfelf. The buildings are magnificent, moft of 
the ftreets clean, paved with fquare ftones, fo as to have 
the appearance of a rock made level; they are generally 
winding, and many of them too narrow for carriages to pais 
each other. They reckon 17 public places, or fquares ; 
feven fountains conftantly playing, fix pillars or columns, 
two pyramids, 160 beautiful flatues, placed either in the 
public fquares, or in the ftreets, or in the front of fome 
palaces; one metropolitan church; 12 collegiate, and 44 
parochial; 35 convents for men, 60 for women, 27 hof- 
pitals, and about gooo houfes. The number of inhabit- 
ants is eftimated at eighty thoufand. Florence has been 
equally diflinguifhed by a fpirit of commerce, and 
for the fine arts: fome of the Florentine merchants 
were formerly men of great wealth, and lived in a mott 
magnificent manner. Oue of them, about the middle of 
the 15th century, built that noble fabric, which, from the 
name of its founder, is {till called the Palazzo Pitti. The 
builder was ruined by the expence; but the palace con- 
tinued to be the refidence of the fovereigns. The gardens 
belonging to this palace are on the declivity of an eminence. 
On the fummit there is a kind of fort, called Belvidere; 
from which, as well as from fome of the higher walks, you 
have a complete view of the city, and the beautiful vale of 
Arno, in the middle of which it ftands. The pro{ped is 
bounded on every fide by an amphitheatre of fertile hills, 
adorned with country-houfes and gardens. In this palace 
is a library containing about 35,000 volumes, with a great 
number of pictures by Raphael, Rubens, Titian, Andrea- 
del-Sarto, Tiutoret, Guercino, &c. The Palazzo Vecchio, 
or old palace, gontains a room 172 feet long, and 70 wide, 


‘for public entertainments, in which the moft. celebrated 


actions of the republic are painted by Vafari in frefco ; and 


‘in the corners are four capital hiftorical pi€tures by Cigoli 


Ligozzi and Paffignani. Thefe two palaces are connected 
by a gallery, which prefents an inexhaultible fund of im- 
proving amufement in fculpture and painting, to which the 
public have daily accefs. In this place was inftituted a ce- 
lebrated fociety for the improvement of the Italian language, 
called “Academia della Crufca,’? (fee Acapgemy) ; and 


‘yet the Florentines are noted for bad enunciation of their 
‘language, accompanied with a guttural accent, though they 
Buse I & g y 


Write it with great elegance ; whence has arifen the proverb, 
“ Lingua Tofcana, in bocca Romana.” In Florence there 
are feveral theatres, all open during the carnival, which be- 
gins on the day after Chriftmas day, and laits till Ath-wed- 
nefday. Atother times one of them only is open, except 
in Lent and Advent. The two principal are the Pergola, 
finifhed in 1755, and the new Opera-houfe, firft opened in 
‘the year 1779. The manufaétures of Florence are’ chiefly 
filks and fatins of excellent fabric, The woollen manu- 
facture, to which it was indebted for its fplendour and 
opulence, has fo much declined as fearcely to fuffice for the 
fupply of the common ea a At Doccia, three leagues 
from the city, is a manufacture of porcelain, The Floren- 
tines have been long famous for their Mofaic work, which 
is formed of the finer marbles, agatcs, jafpers, and other 
“Vor. XIV. 


FLO 


hard ftones, fome thin,. and inlaid in form of birds, flowers, 
&c. The wine of the adjacent country is excellent, and 
furnifhes a confiderable trade in [taly and other countries. 
Society is maintained with eafe and freedom in this city 5 
befides their converfaziones, many of the nobility meet every 
day ata houfe called the ** Cafino ;”” and thefe meetings bear 
fome refemblanceto the clubs of London. They alfo pay and 
receive vifits at the opera, where the dancing engages-a much 
greater degree of attention than the mufic. The country fur- 
rounding Florence, or the Florentia, is one of the mott 
fertile countries in Italy. Florence is fituated 129 miles 
N.N.W. of Rome. N. lat. 43° 50’. E. long. 11° r4/. 

Frogence-Courr, a {mall poft-town of Ireland, in the 
county of Fermanagh, adjoining which the earl of Enanif- 
killen has a beautiful feat, with very extenfive plantations. 
It is in the weltern part of the county, about 74 miles 
N.W. from Dublin, and 6 from Ennifkillen. 

FLORENNES, a town of France, in the department 
of the Sombre and Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in 
the diftri& of Dinant; 16 miles S.W. of Namur. The 
place contains 1,101, and the canton 6,711 inhabitants, in 
22 communes, on a territory of 240 kiliometres. 

FLORENSAGC, a town of France, in the department 
of the Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& 
of Beziers; 10 miles S. of Beziers. The place contains 
2,740, and the canton 4,990 inhabitants, in 4. communes, 
on a territory of 1574 kiliometres. 

FLORENT, Sr., a town of the department of Golo, 
in the ifland of Corfica, aud in the diftri of Baftia; con- 
taining in its cantons 1,487 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of 
France, in the department of the Maine and Loire, and 
chief place of a canton, in the difinét of Beaupré; 19 
miles W.S.W. of Angers. The place contains 1,433, and 
the canton 10,101 iuhabitants, on a territorial extent of 
190 kiliometres, in 10 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, 
in the department of the Cher, feated on the Cher; 7 miles 
S.W. of Bourges. 

FLORENTIN, Sr., a town of France, in the depart- 
ment of che Yonne, and principal place of a canton, in the 
ditri& of Auxerre; 13 miles N.N.E. of Auxerre. The 
place contains 3,010, and the canton 9,740 inhabitants, on 
a territory of 1624 kiliometies, in 12 communes. 

FLORENTINE Worx. See Frorence and Mosaic 
Work, 

Frorentine, inthe Manufa@ure of Cloth, is the term 
ufed for a f{pecies of fatin or tweeled iilk, which has evi- 
dently been either originally or extenlively profecuted at 
Florence. As from its very nature it muft always prove an 
expenfive article of drefs, acceffible only to the rich parts of 
any country or community, it muft be ceemed of fmall, or 
at leaft fecoadary importance in one, where the extenfion 
and fuccefs of every article of manufacture depend almoit 
exclufively on the lownefs of the price at which it can be 
furnifhed to the confumer, after frequently paying the pro- 
fits of many intermediate agents. It may, however, be 
proper to preferve ang rscord the manner of executing it ; 
although it is by no means probable that it is likely to be 
introduced as a matter of traffic in Britain. This defcrip- 
tion of fatin or tweeled {ilk is generally very fine and clofe 
in the fabric. It is woven with fixteen leaves of heddles, 
and two or three reeds placed parallel to, and at a {mall 
diftance from, each other. It is the moit comprehentive 
kind of what is called broken or alternate tweeling. Its 
only variety from other tweels confilts in the fuperior rieh- 
nefs of appearance, which this. extenfive apparatus gives it 
Below is a plan of the draught and cording, by which it 


is effected, 
qP FLOREN- 


TO us Waeis Tekh ONO w 8h / Mom cm Ages 


From the clofenefs of the fabric, it would prove very 
inconvenient, if not abfolutely impracticable, to weave 
goods of this kind in a fingle reed: for fo many threads 
mutt be crowded together in every interval, that, in rifing 
and finking, they muft impede each other fo much, that 
the fhuttle could feldom, if ever, find a clear paflage. be- 
tween the raifed and funk warp. To obviate this incon- 
venience, the additional reeds are ufed; the threads which 
pafs through the fame interval in the firft reed being divided 
in the fecond, and again in the third, by which means both 
the fri€tion and tendency to obftruétion are fo much lef- 
fened as to render the operation comparatively eafy ; al- 
though in fabrics fo clofe, it will require the moft clofe 
and unremitting attention in the weaver to keep his warp in 
proper order, and his /bed or paflage for the fhuttle tho- 
‘youghly open. The mode of placing the reeds feems very 
fimilar in plan and effe&t to the mode adopted by pradiical 
gceometricians, of dividing fmall diflances with accuracy by 
means of the diagonal feale. : 

FLORENVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, 
in the department of Feréto, and chief place of a canton, 
in the diftri& of Neufchateau. The place contains 1,268, 
and the canton 9,072 inhabitants, in 15 communes, on a 
territory of 2872 kilometres. 

FLORES Trisres, in Botany. See Frower. 

Fores, in Geography, one of the Azores iflands, which 
takes its name from the variety of beautiful flowers with 
‘which it is covered, is abuut 30 miles long and g broad ; 
‘and contains from 1,300 to 1,400 inhabitants, who fubfift 
upon their grain, cattle, and fruits. On this ifland, which 
is clothed with wood, grain, and pafture, and other necef- 
fary produtions, are two towns and fome hamlets. The 
capital is Santa Cruz, but Lozeus is the moft populous. 
N. lat. 39° 34’. W. Jong. 35°. 

Frores, or Floris, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, 
about 180 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 45 in 
breadth. S. lat. 7° 54’ to 9°2'. E. long. 120° to 123° 5! 

Fuores, an ifland in the N. Pacific ocean, near the 
coaft of the ifland of Quadra and Vancouver, 19 miles in 
length from N.W. to S.E., and from 2 to 6 in breadth. 
N. lat. 49° 20/. E. long. 234° 3’. } 


Frores Argenti, in Natural Hifory, a name given by 
fome to the earth called by the generality of authors lac 
lune. It has both thefe names from its being fuppofed to 
partake of the nature of filver. 

Fiores Martiales, a name given to a preparation of the 
nature of what was formerly called ens veneris. Thefe 
flowers are thus prepared: take of wafhed colcothar, or 
green vitriol, or of iron filings, one pound; of fal ammo- 
niac, two pounds: mix them,-and fublime them in a retort, 
and mixing the bottom again with the flowers, renew the 
fublimation till the flowers acquire a beautiful yellow colour. 
To the refidue may be added half a pound of frefh fal am- 
moniac, and the fublimation repeated; and the fame pro- 
cefs may be continued as long as the flowers remain duly 
coloured. Pemberton’s Lond. Difp. p. 215. See Iron. 

FLORESZTI, in Geography, a town of European 
Turkey, in Moldavia; 60 miles E. of Stephanowze. 

FLORET, in Botany, flofculus, (the diminutive of fos, 
a flower,) is applied to the individuals which all together 
compofe either a compound or aggregate flower, but more 
efpecially the former. Florets of compound flowers are 
invariably monopetalous and fuperior, They are of two 
kinds, ligulate or flrap-fhaped, as in the radiant margin of 
a daify, fun-flower or marigeld ; or tubular, as in the difk, 
or central part, of the fame flowers. Ligulate florets are 
toothed at their extremity, more or lefs equally, the num- 
ber of their teeth being ufually five, more rarely but three. 
‘Tubular florets have a regular border, cut into equal {pread- 
ing fegments, almoft univerfally five in number; in Eclipia, 
however, they are but four, and in one fpecies of Siege/- 
beckia, the flofculofa, no move than three. The ftamens, 
whofe filaments are inferted into the tube, always agree in 
number with the fegments of the floret. The generality of 
florets, whether ligulate or tubular, have a perfeét or fertile 

iftil as well as {tamens. In the diminutive marginal florets 
of the Guaphalium and dArtemifia, whofe corolla is hgulate 
indeed, but fo rolled up, or conneéted by its edges, as to 
form a capillary tube, the piftil is very perfe&, though the 
ftamens are wanting. 

Some compound flowers confilt entirely of ligulate florets, 
which in that cafe are all perfect, furnifhed with ftamene 

and 


FLO 


and piftil, and fertile. 
Tournefort, and make the firft feGtion in Linnzus’s Synge- 
nefia. Polygamia equalis, as the Dandelion, Sowthiftle, 
Hawkweed, &c. Such flowers are generally yellow, 
fometimes blue, very rarely reddifh. They expand in a 
morning, and clofe towards noon, or in cloudy weather. 
Other compound flowers are formed of tubular florets only, 
as the Thiftle, and Bidens. The greater number confiit 
partly of tubular, and partly of ligulate ones, and the latter 
are always marginal, or external with refpeG to the former. 
Very frequently the margiail ligulate florets, though fur- 
nifhed with an apparent piftil, are abortive, and fometimes 
they have merely fo much of the rudiment of a germen, as 
is neceflary to ferm a bafis for the petal. It appears that 
fome of the tubular florets, from circumftances are capable 
ef becoming ligulate, which is analogous to the doubling, 
or change of the organs of impregnation into petals, in 
fimple flowers. Witnefs the Chamomile. Another change 
happens in the Chry/anthemum, and Tagetes or African 
Marigold, whofe ligulate forets become tubular, or, as the 
gardeners term it, quilled. Such quilled florets are abortive 
of courfe, being owing to preternatural luxuriance. Com- 
pound flowers entirely compofed of tubular florets, all pro- 
lific, occafionally acquire. uewter or abortive ones in their 
margin, which are likewife tubular, but greatly dilated. 
This happens in fome {pecies of Carduus and Serratula, and 
according to the Linnzan fy{tem they thus become Cen- 
tauree, for no fyfem can provide againft fuch anomalies. 
In like manner fome fpecies of Bidens acquire a ligulate 
radius, and conftitute the genus Corcopfis. Hence have 
afifen many fpurious genera of botanical authors. In the 
Order Polygamia neceffaria of Linneus, the florets of the 
diflk have ftamens only, or at leait a mere rudiment of a 
_germen ; thofe of the radixs being furnifhed with perfeé 
piftils without itamens. Thus they are both neceflary to 
the perfecticn of the feeds. Linnzus, confidering umbelli- 
ferous flowers as aggregate ones, ufes the term flofeulus for 
what we prefume to call fos, or a fimple flower. S. 
FLORID Srvcrzs, is that enriched and heightened with 
figures and flowers of rhetoric, in an exceffiye degree; or, 
when the ornaments, applied to ftyle, are too rich and 
gaudy in proportion to the fubjeét ; when they return upon 
us too faft, and itrike us either with a dazzling luftre, or a 
falfe brilliancy, In ayoung compofer this is very pardon- 
able: perhaps, indeed, it is a promifing fymptom in young 
people, that their ftyle fhould incline to the florid and 
luxuriant. ‘ Volo fe efferat in adolefcente facunditas, 
&e.” fays QuinGilian; i.e. In youth, I with to fee 
luxuriancy of fancy appear, Much of it will be diminifhed 
by years; much will be corrected by ripening judgment ; 
fome of it, by the mere praétice of compofition, will be 
worn away. Let there be only fuflicient matter at firft, that 
can bear fome pruning and lopping off. At this time of 
life, let genius be bold and inventive, and pride itfelf in its 
efforts, though thefe fhould not, as yet, be correét. Luxu- 
riancy can be eafily cured; bnt for barrennefs there is no 
remedy.?? But a fimilar apology cannot be pleaded for 
perfons of maturer years, which is admitted for young com- 
pofers in their firft effays. Judgment, as it ripens, fhould 
chaften imagination, and rejeét, as juvenile, all fuch orna- 
ments as are redundant, unfuitable to the, fubjeét, or not 
conducive to illuftrate it. Nothing can be more con- 
temptible than that tinfel fplendour of language, which 
fome writers perpetually affect. This cannot always be 
afcribed to the real overflowing of a rich imagination. If 
this were the cafe, it might be in fome meafure exculed ; and 
we might accept amufement where we fought mitruction. 


Thefe are the femifio/culofi of 


FLO 


But with thefe frcthy writers, it is 2 luxuriancy of words, * 
not of fancy. We fee a laboured attempt to rife to 2 
fplendour of compolition, of whieh they have formed to 
themfelves fome loofe idea; but having no ftrength of 
genius for attaining it, they endeavour to fupply the defe © 
by poctical words, by cold éxclamations, by common-place 
figures, and every thing that has the appearance of pomp 
and magnificence. It has efcaped thefe writers, that fo- 
briety in ornament is one great fecret for rendering it pleaf- 
ing; and that, without a foundation of good fenfe and 
folid thought, the moft florid tiyle is but a childith impoft- 
tion upon the public. The public, however, are too apt 
to be fo impoled on; at lea{t, the mob of readers, who are 
very ready to be caught at frrft with whatever is dazzling * 
and gaudy. Dr. Blair, after paying a deferved tribute of 
refpe@ to the good qualities of Mr. Hervey, clofes with 
obferving that the perpetual glitter of exprefiion, the 
{woln imagery, and itrained defeription, which abound in 
his writings, are ornaments of a ftalfe kind.  T would, 
therefore, advife ftudents of oratory to imitate Mr. Hervey’s 
piety rather than his ftyle; and in all compofitions of a 
{erious kind to turn their attention, as Mr. Pope fays, froma 
founds to things, from fancy to the heart.”? Blair’s Lec- 
tures, lect. 18. 

Longinus ufes the terms forid and affeéted ftyle indif- 
ferently, and lays them down as quite contrary to the true 
fublime. 

FLORIDA, in Geography, a country of North Ame- 
rica, bounded on the North by Georgia, on the E. by the 
Atlantic, on the S. by the gulf of Mexico, and on the 
W. by the Mitiiflippi.. * This country is faid to have been 
difcovered by Sebaftian Cabot in the year 1496, 18 years 
before it was known to the Spaniards; but received its 
name from John Ponce, who, failing from Porto Rico in 
1513, landed here in April, when the country appeared in 
full verdure and bloom. Florida has frequently changed 
its mafters; in 3564 the French took poffefiion of fome 
part of it, but they were driven from their fettlements in 
the following year by the Spaniards, who then began to 
form eftablifhments for themfelves. In the year 1763 
Florida was ceded to Great Britain in exchange for the Ha- 
vanna, which had been taken from the Spaniards. Whilft 
the Englith were in poffeffion of it they divided it into 
two governments, viz. Eaft and Weft Florida, & parated 
by the Appalachicola. During the American war, both 
the Flondas were reduced by the Spaniards, and guaranteed 
to the crown of Spain by the definitive treaty of 1783. 

Although this country was of little utility to Great 
Britain, the poffeffion ‘of it would be valuable to the 
United States, more efpecially fince they have obtained 
the province of Louifiana. On the part of Spain, the cei- 
fion of it would be politic, as it might ferve to divert the 
attention of the States from the riches of the weit, and as 
a means of amity. Wet Florida in particular, 1s chiefly 
ufeful as prefenting avenues of commerce. Eall Florida 
extends much farther, fouth than Welt Florida; the gulf 
of Mexico wathing the weitern coait from N. lat. 25° te 
30°; whereas the moit fouthern part of Weft Florida is in 
N. lat. 29° 30'.. Theform of Eait Florida is triangular, 
the bafe towards the NU being 160 miles in breadth from 
E. to W. near the fouthern extremity about 40, and about : 
350 from N.to S. Along the coaits the bays of fmall 
iflands are numerous. ‘The foil near the fea-coatt is fandy 
and barren, but further inland it improves. The produc- 
tions are chiefly rice and indigo, Wet Florida is about 
3z0 miles from E. to W., and from 40 to Soin width from 
N. to S.3 on the W. it is bounded by the river Mifliffippi, 

4Pa2 ae 


FLO 


Snd onthe E.byAppalachicola. The country is pleafant, and 
the foil is exceedingly fertile, fothat the inhabitants have fome- 
times two or three harvefts of maize in the fame year. To- 
wards the coaft itis flat, but rifes gradually into hills, which 
are covered with verdure and large trees, fuch as white and 
sed oak, crab oak, mulberry, magnolia, pine, hickery, cy- 
prefs, red and white cedar, &c. Orange and: lemon trees 
grow here without cultivation, and produce better fruit 
than in Spain and Pertugal. They have ealfo vines, which 
yield grapes equal in fize and flavour to the beft mufcadine; 
and they have abundance of other fruits of excellent fla- 
veur. The cabbage tree furnifhes a food that is pleafant 
and wholefome. Cotton is produced in great plenty; as 
well as flax and hemp. Among the richer produétions of 
the country we may reckon cochineal and indigo. The 
eoafts furnifh oyfters and amber. The rivers abound in 
fith, but are moletted by alligators. In the weltern parts 
are numerous herds of cattle and flovks of fheep: hogs 
alfo, whofe flefh acquires an excellent flavour from the 
acorns and chefnuts on which they feed, are numerous. 
Jn the forefts aud defarts are found feveral fpecies of 
wild beafts, and alfo a variety of birds. In fummer the 
air is very hot, but in feveral places it is pure and whole- 
fome ; the winter is commonly temperate, though the cold 
fometimes deftroys the orange trees. The rivers are 
covered with ice. The principal town in W. Florida is 
Penfacola, and in E. Florida St. Auguftine. The popu- 
lation of W. Florida is very inconfiderable ; Mobile and 
Penfacola together not containing ebove 1500 fouls. The 
interior of IE. Florida is little known, aad only inhabited 
by a few Creeks or Seminols. ‘The town of St, Auguttine 
in E. Florida is lefs healthy than fome have fuppoted it to 
be; but the climate, arid alfo the general appearance of 
the country, would be much improved, if induftry and la- 
beur were beftowed upon it, and the inland marfhes were 
properly drained. 

Fiorina, a polt-town of America, in Orange county, 
New York; 50 miles N.W. of New York city.—Alfo, a 
tewn of Montgomery county, New York, on the &. fide 
of Mohawk river, at the mouth of Schoharie creek. It 
has 4218 inhabitants. 

Froriva, La, one of the Solomon iflands, in the Paci- 

¢ ecean, difeovered by -Mendana, in 1567. S. lat. 
9° 30. 

Veoripa, Cape, the mok fouth-cafterly point of land of 
Bet: Florida. “N. lat. 25° 24’. W. long. 81> 30’. 

Forwa, Gulf of, or Bahama fraits, the narrow chan- 
nel that feparates the peninfula of Florida from the Baha- 
ma lands. 

Froripa Stream, or Gulf fircam,a channel which fepa- 
rates the ifland of Cuba from the coaft of Florida, between 
the gulf-of Flomds and the gulf of Mexico. 

FLORILEGIUM, Frerirece, a name the Latins 
have given to what the Greeks called eforoyer, anthology ; 
viz. a colfection of choice pieces, containing the fineft and 
brighteft things in their kind. 

Froriece, is alfo particuarly. ufed as a kind of bre- 
viary, inthe Eaftern church, compiled by Arcadius, for 
the conveniency of the Greek priefts and monks, who can- 
not carry with them, in their travels and pilgrimages, all 
the volumes wherein their office is difperfed. 

The florilegium contains the general rubrice, pfalter, can. 
ticles, the horologium, and the office of the feriz, &e. 

FLORIN is fometimes ufed fora coin, or real money ; 
and fometimes for any imaginary money, or money of ac- 
count. 

Faoxin, a6 acoin, is of different values, according to 


FLO 


‘the different metals, and different countries where it is ftruck. 


Pieces under this denomination were anciently very frequent 

in commerce; at prefent they are lefs common, though - 
there were abundance of t»em ftruck in Holland, of Eng- 

lith filver, during the war, which was terminated: by the 

treaty of Ry{wick. In all appearance they took their name 

from the place wh-re they were firit ftruck, viz. the city of 

Plorence. The erais about the year 12513; though others 

afcribe the name to a fleur-de-lis, which was ftrack on one 

fide. 

Villani obferves, that there were geld florins in the 
year 1067, from which time the names frank or’ flovin 
became applied to the gold coins, which till that time 
had been called /olidi; /billings. See Coin and Ex-. 


CHANGE. 


Frorin, asa money of account, is ufed by the Italian, 
Dutch, and German merchants and bankers, in keeping 
their books, and making up their accounts. But this floria 
is very various, and admits of different divifions. See Coin 
and ExcnanGe. 

Frorin, or Florence, was alfo a gold coin, ftruck in 
England in the eighteenth year of Edward III. of the value 
of fix fhillings. 

Camden fays, it was fo called, becaufe made by Floren- 
tines. Fabian obferves, the florins were not of fo fine gold 
as the nobles and half-nobles of that prince. 

But what is moft obfervable is, that Fabian calls the florin 
a penny, value 6s. Sd. the half-florin, a halfpenny, value 
3s. 4d.the quarter-florin, a farthing, value 1s, Sd. Thefe 
words were often met with in old hiftories and accounts, 
applied to feveral coins, as royals, angels, &c. where we 
are therefore only to underftand by penny or denarius the 
whole, by odc/us the half, and by guadrans the fourth part, 
or farthing. 

By indenture of the mint, in 18 Edw. III. every pound 
weight of old ftandard gold was to be coined into nft 
florences or florins, to be current at fix fhillings a-piece ; all 
which made in tale fifteen pounds ; or into a proportionable 
number of half and quarter florins. 

Torin, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sardi- 
nia, eight miles S. E. of Saffari. 

FLORINIANI, or Froriant, in Eecl-fiafical Hiflory, 
a fect of heretics, of the fecond century, denominated from 
its author Florinus, or Florianus, a prieft of the Roman 
church, depofed along with Blaftus, for his errors. 

Florinus had been a diiciple of St. Polyearp, along with 
Ireneus. fire made God the author of evil; or rather 
aflerted, that things forbidden by God are not evil, but of 
his own appointing, In which he followed the errors. of 
Valentinus, and joined himfelf with the Carpocratians. He 
feems te have maintained the doctrine of two principles, 
with other Gnoftic errors. : 

They had alfo other names given them. Philaftrius fays, 
they were the fame with the Carpophorians. He adds, that 
they were alfo called foldiers, milites, quia de militaribus 
fuerust. St. Irenzus calls them Gnoftics ; St. Epiphanius, 
Phibionites ; aud Theodoret, Barborites, on account of 
the impurities of their lives. Others call them Zaccheans ; 
others Caddians, &c: though for what particular reafons it 
is not ealy to fay, nor perhaps would it-be worth while’ to 
enquire. : . ; 

FLORIS, Francis, in Biography, a painter of hiftory, 
born at Antwetp in 1520. Paving oomeied checaneed 
feulpture till he was 20 years of age, he then indulged his 
partiality for painting, and changing his profeffion, ftudied 
the latter under the tuition of Lambert Lombard. He 

8 after 


FLO 


afterwards went to Rome, there copying the works of the 
ancients ; but he appears to have felt with more fervour the 
works of Michael Angelo Buonaroti; which he imitated 
with great zeal, particularly his Laft Judgment; unhappily, 
however, attending more to the parts than the whole. 

The tafte which he imbibed by thefe ftudies not a little 
{urprifed his countrymen on his return to his native city ; 
and it acquired for him the honourable appellation of the 
“Raphael of Flanders,” though not very juitly, for his 
ftyle of defign is more in imitation of M, Angelo than of 
Raphael. 

He painted for the Contrafeftivity Hall of St. Michael 
at Antwerp a large pi€ture, which now graces the walls of 
the Louvre at Paris. The fubject is The fallof Lucifer 
and his Angels.’? It is highly celebrated for the goodnefs 
of the compofition and handling, for the variety of atti- 
tudes in the fallen angels, and for the ftrong expreflion of 
the mufeles in the naked figures. In fact it is a very 
curious pe. painted with great capacity, and exhibits 
a powerful, though eccentric, imagination. The fiends in M. 
Angelo’s Laft Judgment are not more horrible, or nearly 
fo grotefque. The power of colour alfo is admirable, and 
in fome parts has been rarely furpafled. 

He had a {trong and bold manner, and, like his great 
model Buonaroti, marked the mufcular parts too full for a 
jutt imitation of nature. He invented and compofed with 
eafe, but ina dry and gothic manner ; and though fometimes 
his figures have an agreeable air, yet in general they poflefs 
a reprehenfible degree of the ftiffuefs and formality peculiar 
to the age and country he livedin. He died in 1570, aged 


oh 
: FLORIST, in Gardening, a name applied to fuch per- 
fons as are curious in, or have much {kill in the knowledge 
and nature of flowers. A good florift fhould be perfectiy 
aequainted with the names, characters, and kinds, or forts 
of flowers; and at the fame time have a thorough know- 
ledge of their nature, habits, and methods of cultivation 
and manazement. 

FLORUS, L. Annzus, in Biography, a Latin hilto- 
rian, who wrote about 200 years after the reign of Ausuttus, 
This is his own account, thouch from what he fays elfe- 
where, viz. that he lived under Trajan; it has been con- 
jeGured that his hiftory was written about 150 years after 
Anguftus. His work is « A Compendium of the Roman 
Hiftory,” from the foundation of the city to the reign of 
the emperor Auguftus, in four books. It 18 to be regarded 
rather as a panegyric ow many of the great attions of the 
Romans, than a faithful and correé recital of their hittory. 
Throughoxt the narrative there are, unqueftionably, pleafing 
reflections which difplay great animation, and ftrong poweis 
of fenfibility. It has obtained a fufficient fhare of popu- 
larity to be recommended very generally as a proper book 
for the learners of the Latin language ; and it has employed 
the erudition of feveral critical authors. Florus was a 
writer of poetry as well as an hiftorian, and has been thought 
to have entered the lifts again{t the emperor Adrian. ‘lhe 

_beit editions are, that by Duker, in 2 vols. 8vo. Lug. Bat. 
1722, 17443 the Delphin edition; and thofe of Grevius, 
Rom. Hitt. Lempriere. 

Frorus, Drepanius, who was furnamed’ “ the 
Mafter,”? a deacon of the church of Lyons, floerifhed in 
the ninth century. He obtained fo high a reputation for 
learning and acutenefs, that he was chofen by the church 
of Lyons to anfwer the treatife of John Scotus Erigena, 
on the fubject of predeftination. This was publifhed in the 
year 852, and entitled ‘* Liber de predeftinatione, contra 
Johaunis Scoti erroncas definitiones.” Itis to be found in the 


F.uO 


8th vol. ofthe * Bibliotheca Patrum.” It is not afcertained 
how long the author lived after the production of this work. 
Florus was the author of ** Commentarius in omnes S. 
Pauli Epittolas,’? which has been falfely afcribed to the 
venerable Bede, and admitted into the colleétion of his 
works, and feveral other theological pieces. Moreri. 

Frorvs, in Ornithology, a name by which, Aldrovand 
and fome other authors have called the bird commonly 
knowa with us by the name of whinchat, a kind of the 
cenanthe or fallow-finch. See Moracitia Rudetra. See 
alfo Loxita Chloris 

FLORY, Frowry, Fleury, Floretté, Fleur-de-liffes. 
&c. terms in Heraldry, ufed when the outlines of any ordi- 
nary are drawn as ii trimmed with, or in the form of flowers, 
lilies, fleur-de-lis, &c. hus, he bears a crofs flory, é&c: 

FLOS, in Botany. See Frower. 

Trios 4ris. See Es. 

Fros Ambervalis, in Botany, a name given by fome to 
the polygala or milkwort. See PoryGava. 

Fros Argenti. See Frores argent. 

Fros dfe, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by Swenk- 
field and fome other writers, to that fault which is found on 
the furface of the earth in fome part of Afia, in form of an 
efflorefcence, and is called the Smyrna foap earth, 

This falt is evidently the fame with the nitre of the an- 
cients. It will ferment with any acid in the manner of our 
pot-ath, or other fixed falts, made by fire; and with oil or 
any fatty fub{tance, boils into a foap. Euelius gives us a 
great many different places for its produdtion, from which: 
he diftinguifhes it into feveral kinds; all thefe lie in the 
ea{tern parts of the world; but to thefe Wormius adds,. 
that it is found in New Spain. It is always ealy to be 
known, however, in whatfoever place it 1s found, being a 
native alkali falt, perforated like a {ponge, and of a lixivial 
tafte. Its prisciples feem to be a marine and a urinous falt. 

That it contains a marine falt feems manifeil from thisy. 
that it-has the fame tafte in folution, or nearly fo, with 
marine falt; that the particles of it, when coagulating in: 
the evaporated water in which they were diffolved, firt rife 
to the top of the furface, as thofe of common falt do, and 
that it is always of a {fpongy texture, or full of holes, which 


m its 
that 


the flower of the heaucns, a2 name given by 
the alchemiits:to the poftech, which. often appearing after 
rain, was fuppofed to full from heaven. See Flos terra. 

Fros Martialis.. Sec Fuorts mariialesy and IRox. 

-Fros Salis. The flower of fak flows down with the 

Nile, and is alfo fousdon the farface offome lakes. Itis 
to be chofen of the colour of faffron, fomewhat of a rank 
fmell like garum, of a biting talte, and cf a faxtith fub- 
itance. What.is coloured with minium, or is grumous, is: 
to be rejeGed; befide, what is pure and genuine is. not to 
be diffolved but ia oil ; whereas what is adulterated is partly 
diffoluble ia water. 4 a 

It is effeCtual againft makignant and phagedenic ulcers 5, 
nom in the pudenda, and purulencies in the ears; it alfo 
cures dimneis of fight, and removes {pecks and albugos, 
from the eyes. Itis mixed with plafters and ointments, as 
alfo with om of rofes, for the fake of the colour it commu- 
nicates to them. ‘Taken inwardly, in wine or water, it 
provokes {weat, difturbs. the belly, and incommedes the 
itomaoh. It is alfo an ingredient in acopa and finegmata, 


for extenuating the hair, In general, it is of an acrimo~ 
nloue 


FLO 


ious and pyrotic quality, as are all falts themfelves. 
Diofeor. lib. v. cap. 129. 

Fos Terre, flower of the earth, a narae given by fome 
‘of the chemical authors to the noftoch, a remarkeble plant, 
which refembles the common green cylter-weed, but that it 
is thicker and more like a jelly. It fuddenly appears on 
gravel walks and gardens after rain; and the alchemitts, 
who knew vot what to think of its origin, fuppofed it to 
contain an univerfal fpirit, capable of turning metals into 
gold. See Nosrocn. 

Fios TinGorius, in Botany, aname given by Fuchfius, 
and many others, to the geniltella tin@toria, or dyer’s-weed, 
called alfo lutea herba, and lutum by the Latins, and al- 
comenium, cymene, and thaplos, by the Greeks. See 
GeENISTA. 

FLOSCOPA, from fas, a flower, and /copa, a 
broom, in allufion to the fafciculated form of the fpikes. 
Ysour. Cochinch. 192. Clafs and order, Hexandria Mono- 
gynia. Nat, Ord. Lnfate, Linn. Junct, Jul. 

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, funnel-fhaped, hairy, 
coloured, permanent; its border in three ovate, curved, 
{preading fegments. Cor. Petals three, ovate, erect, as 
long as the ferments of the calyx. Stam. Filaments fix, 
awl-fhaped, longer than the corolla; anthers roundifh, 
with two lobes. Pi/?. Germen {uperior, ovate, compreffed, 
two-lobed ; ftyle awl fhaped, inflexed, longer than the 
ftamens; ftigma ratherthick. © Peric. Capfale nearly ovate, 
two-lobed, two-celled. Seeds folitary, ovate, comprefled, 
thorny, with many concentric radiating furrows. 

~ EM Ch. Calyx inferior, three-cleft. Petals three, 
ovate. Capfule of two cells. Seeds folitary. 

1. F. feandens. Deei hoa choi of the Cochin-chinefe. 
Native of hills in Cochin-china. Stem fhrubby, climbing, 
without tendrils or fpines, unbranched, long, round. 
Eaves altervate, lanceolate, entire, fheathing, many- 
nerved; fringed at the bafe; rough on the upper fide ; 
fmodoth beneath. “Flowers {mall, pale violet, on very fhort 
partial ftalks, in fleader, rigid, cluftered, level-topped 
{pikes refembling a broom. Loureiro. 

By the above defcription of Loureiro, this plant is evi- 
dently very nearly akin to 7radefcantia and Commelina, but 
its fimple filaments, and two-celled capfule, feem to autho- 
rize its being kept diftin&. We have from Sierra Leone a 
plant which, in the charaéter laft-mentioned and. the inflo- 
refcence, how far elfe we cannot fay, agrees with it, and 
is furely of the fame genus, if not the very identical 
fpecies. Cras 

“It feems to us that Tradefcantia paniculata, Roxb. 
Corom. v. 2. 6. t. 109, muft be the fame genus, if not the 
very fame fpecies, as the above. The fimple filaments 
evidently: fhew it not to be a Yradefcantia, which the in- 
florefeence confirms. Perhaps F/o/copa is not generically 
different from the Callifia of Jacquin and Linneus- See 
CAcuisia. / 

FLOSCULOUS, a term ufed by Mr. Tournefort, and 
others, to exprefs fuch flowers of plants, as are compofed 
each of a great number of other {mall flowers placed clofe 
to one another, and inclofed in the fame common cup ; 
each of thefe fmaller flowers confiits of one petal, which is 
fender and hollow, and wider than the bottom, and ufually 
divided mto many fegments, which fometimes are difpofed 
in the form of a ftar. Each of thefe flowers ftand upoa an 
embryo, or young fruit, from which there grows a capilla- 
ment, which reaches beyond the flowers. Thefe embryos 
are lodged in the bottom of the cup, which is called by 
authors the thalamus of the flower, and finally become feeds 
wiaged with down, er fometimes without that, and fome- 


FLO 
times are armed with prickles. Of this fort are the flowers. 
of thiftles, knapweed, &c. - 

FLOSCULUS. See Frorer. 

FLOSS, in Geography, a town of Bavaria; five miles: 
E. N. E. of Weiden.—Alo, a river of Silefia, which rung: 
into the Oder, fix miles N. W. of Breflan. 

FLOT Hoan, a cape on the N. coatk of Iceland. Ni 
lat. 66° 6’. ; : 

FLOTA, a fmall weftern ifland of Scotland, near the 
N.W. coait of Lewis.—Alio, one of the fmall Orkney? 
iflands, between South Ronaldfha and Hoy. N. lat. 55% 
42'. W. long. 2° 59'—Alfo, one of the fmaller Hebrides, 
on the S. E. coait of North Unit. N. dat. 57° 28. Wa. 
long, 7° 8’. ; 

Frora, or Jetta, Fleet; a name the Spaniards give 
particularly to the fhips which they fend annually from 
Cadiz, to the port of Vera Cruz, to fetch thence the mer-| 
chandizes gathered in Mexico for Spain. It confifts of the 
captains, admiral, and patach, or pinnace, which go onthe 
king’s account ; and about fixteen fhips, from four hundred 
to a thoufand tons, belonging to particular perfons. They 
fet out from Cadiz, about the month of Augult, and are 
eighteen or twenty months beforé they return. 

Thofe fent to fetch the commodities prepared in Peru, 
are called galeons. See Gareon. : 

The name flotilla is given to a number of fhips, which 
get before the reit in their return, and give information of 
the departure and vargo of the flota and galeons. 

FLOTAGES, all {uch things as are floating on the top 
of the fea, or great rivers, a word chiefly ufed in the com- 
miffions of water-bailiffs. 

FLOTE-Fescue Grafs, a kind ef natural grafs which 
is found in watery fituations, and faid to be an excellent 
cattle grafs, affording much fodder. See Festuca. 

FLOTSON, Frorzam, or Floi/am, a term fignify- 
ing any goods loft by thipwreck, and {wimming on the top 
of the waters which, with jet/on or jetfam, and Jagon or, 
ligan, and /hares, belong to the king, if no owner appears - 
to claim them ; but if any owner appears, he is entitled to 
recover the pofleflion. For even if they be caft overboard, 
without any mark or buoy, in order to lighten the fhip, 
the owner is not by this aét of .neceffity conitrued to have - 
renounced his property (Init. 2, 1. § 48); much lefs can 
things /igan be fuppofed to be abandoned, fince the owner 
has done all in his power to aflert and regain his property: 
Things jerfam, fiotfum, and ligan, are accounted fo far. 
diftinét from wreck (which fee), that by the king’s grant 
toa man of wrecks, the others will not pafs. Over thofe 
the admiralty courts have jurifdiction, as they are in and 
upon the fea. (5 Rep. 108.) i 

Jet/an is what is caf out of a fhip, being in danger of a 
wreck, imto the fea, and there fink and remain under 
water. agon or ligan, is that which lies in the bottom of 
the fea; but tied to.a cork or buoy, in order to be found 
again (5 Rep. 106.) Shares are goods due to feyeral per- 
ens by proportion. } eck 

FLOTTE, Le, in Geography, a town of France, on 
the N. coaft of the. ifland of Ré. eae 

FLOTZ, a town of Germany, in the principality of _ 
Aovhalt Zerbft ; fix miles N. W. of Zerbit. ght 

FLOUNDER, in Jchihyology, the Englifh name of the 
fifth called by the. generality of authors paffer fluviatilis, 
and flefus. It is a {pecies of the plewronedes, which fee. 

. The flounder inhabits every part of the Britifh fea, and 
even frequents our rivers at a great diftance from the falt- 
waters. Itnever grows large in our rivers, but is reckoned 
f{weeter than thofe that live in the fea. 

2 FLOUR > 


FLO 


FLOUR, the mieal of any grain, but more particularly 
ef wheat, ground and fifted for the purpofe of food. 

The grain itfelf is not only fubjeét to be eaten by infeéts 
in that ftate, but’when ground into four, it gives birth to 
another race of deflroyers, who eat it unmercifually and ia- 
creafe fo faft in it, that it is not long before they wholly 
deftroy the fubftance.. The fineft flour is moft liable to 
breed them, efpecially when {tale or ill prepared; in this 
cafe, if it be examined in a good light, it will be perceived 
to be in a contimtial motion; and on a nicer infpeétion, 
there will be found in it a great number of little animals of 
the colour of the flour, and very nimble. Tf a little of this 
flour be laid on the plate of the double microfcope, the in- 
feéts are very diftin@lly feen in great numbers, very brifk and 
lively, continually crawling over one another’s backs, and 
playing a thoufand antic tricks together; whether for 
-diverfion or fearch of food, it is not eafy to be determined. 
‘Thefe animals are of an oblong flender form, their heads 
sare furnifhed with a kind of trunk, or oblong hollow tube, 
by means of which they take in their food, and their body 
-is compofed of feveral rings. They do valt mifchief among 
the magazines of flour, laid up for armies and other public 
ufes ; when they have once taken poffeffion of a parcel of 
this valuable commodity, it isimpoflible to drive them out, 
and they increafe fo faft, that the only method of prevent- 
ing the total lofs of the parcel, is to make it up into bread 
as foon as can be. The way to prevent their breeding in 
the flour is, to preferve it from damp ; nothing gets more 
injury by being put up damp than flour, and yet nothing 
is fo often put up fo. It fhould be always carefully and 
thoroughly dried before it is put up, and the barrels alfo 
dried into which it is to be put ; then if they are kept ina 
room tolerably warm and dry, they will preferve it well. 
‘Too dry a place never doesany hurt, though one too moitft 
always {poils it. See Mea. 

Frour, St. in Geography, a town of France, in the 
department of the Cantal; before the revolution, the 
capital of Upper Auvergne and the fee of a bifhop ; con- 
tainirg inits north and fouth divifions 5000 inhabitants ; in 
the canton of the former 10,538, and in that of the latter 
15,121, on a territory of 585 kiliometres, in 27 communes. 
‘The inhabitants carry on a coafiderable trade in corn, with 
manufactures of cloth, carpets, and cutlery. N. lat. 45° 
2'.. E. long. 3° 10. 

FLOWER, in Phyfological and Syflematical Botany, 
comprehends all thofe organs of a plant which are prepara- 
tory and necefflary to the impregnation and perfection of 
the fruit or feed. (See Fecunpation and Frucririca- 
tion.) Of the feven parts of fructification diftinguifhed 
by Linnzus, five conflitute the flower. Thefe are, firft, the 
calyx or flower-cup ; fecond, the coroll2 or petals ; neither 
of thefe is indifpenfable, one, and fometimes both of them 
being occafionally wanting ; (fee Caryx and Coroxta ;) 
third, the ftamen or flamens, generally filamentous bodies, 
ranged internally with refpect to the two former ; thefe are 
effential, being the male organs; fourth, the pitti or piltils, 
in the centre of the flower, which conhit of the rudiments 
of the fruit, and the female organs of impregnation, being 
therefore effential, though not always fituated in the fame 
individual flower, nor even on the fame plant, with the 
ftamens; fifth, the receptacle, or common point of connec- 
tion, which mutt be prefent in fome fhape or other, and in 
compound flowers is very important ; fee Compounp. 

Flowers are ufually the moit ornamental part of vegeta- 
bles, but the moft fleeting and trarfitory. After their pro- 
duction, the vegetation of the plant, however rapid and 
uxuriant before, is checked, at leait for a time, even in 


FLO 


perennial plants end trees; and annual ones furvive flower. 
ing only till they can ripen their feed. The fame fpecies, 
which will endure for feveral winters without bloffoming, 
after this event lofes its vigour, and yields to the firit 
attacks of froft. Pliny obferves that ‘ bloffoms are the 
joy of trees, in bearing which they -afflume a new afpe&, 
vyeing with each other in the luxuriaace and variety of their 
colours.” Linnzus has adopted and exemplified this idea, 
fo cangenial with his owa theory of vegetable propagation, 
and with the importance which he gives the Mower in his 
principles of clafiification, as the fure guide to a true dif- 
crimination of the kinds of vegetables. Tie various modes 
in which flowers are fituated upos, or connected with, the 
plant that bears them, will be explained under the article 
of IxFLORESCENCE, an important fubjeé& in fyftematic 
botany. In pofition they greatly differ in different genera 
or fpecies. Molt generally they expand, and prefent them- 
felves to the light, in a remarkable manner, clofing or 
drooping when its ftimulus is withdrawa ; but fome flowers 
always droop, {hading their internal organs, and protecting: 
them from rain, as long as their own delicate fub{tance 
endures. Flowers are eminently dittinguifhed from the 
other parts of a plant by their general beauty and vivacity 
of colour, chiefly feated in the corolla, and likewife, in 
many inftances, by their peculiar fragrance, the theme of 
poets and the admiration of all whofe nerves, which is not 
always the cafe, can endureit. This fragrance is proved by 
experiment to depend on a volatile, efleatial oil, in many 
cafes obtainable by diftillation, in others by infufion in 
fpirits, or in expreffed oil, either of which imbibe or dif- 
folveit. Flowers do not give it out alike at all times; fome 
have no {cent during the day, but become highly fiagrant 
in the evening. hefe enhance the luxury of the bright 
moonlight nights of India, nor is our own country deftitute 
of many fuch flowers. They are elegantly termed by 
Linnzus flores trijtes, fad or melancholy flowers. Their 
colour is very frequently pale and fickly,  iaclining to 
greenifh or brownifh yellow, agreeing remarkably in plants 
of very different claffes and characters, which moreover 
have ufually the fame lufcious evening {cent. Among thefe 
ave Hefperis triflis, Pelargonium trifle, Mefembryanthemum 
noGiftorum, Nydanthes Arbor-trifiiss and ethers. Many 
oriental flowers have a fine lemon-like odour ia an evening, 
which are, for that reafon, afliduoufly cultivated by the 
Chinefe ; as the Chloranthus inconfpicuus, whofe merit: in 
this refpect was not difcovered in England till it had long 
been cultivated, nor. was the fweet and powerful fcent, 
obfervable on firit opening the hot-houfe in.a morning,. fuf- 
pected to proceed from fo minute and inconfpicuous a 
bloffom, till the late Mr. Aiton of Kew, whom no ratural 
phenomenon could efcape, firlt made the difcovery. There 
feems to be an analogy between the {mell and colour of 
flowers in other inftauces. The yellow variety of Chry- 
Janthemum indicum differs altogether in feent from the dark- 
purple one, agreeing rather with the yellow wall-flower, 
which it alfo refembles in colour, The deep crimion. Car- 
nation, called the Clove Carnation, and the Clove Pink 
now nearly exting, have a clove-like fragrances. richer than 
the paler or whitith kinds. 

Ever fince Botayy has been cultivated: on fcientifie prin 
ciples, the flower and. fruit have univerfally been reforted 
to for the leading diftin@tive charaéters of plants, (See 
CrassiFication.) Qa thefe conjointly all natural cha- 
racters of Genera, Orders and Claffes-are founded. The 
herbage of the plant is, accordiag to the Linnwan idea, a 
fort of matk, which. conceals its true chara@ers till they 
become manifeit in the fower. Artificial {yitems of arrange. 

ment 


FLOWER. 


ment have been conftruéted by fome authors on the fruit, 
‘by others on the flower. ‘The former are ufually confidered- 
as molt according with natural affinities, the latter as the 
molt convenient. The principal of thefe laft are thofe of 
Rivinus and Tournefort, in which the corolla takes the 
Jead ; and the fexual fyftem of Linnzus, founded chiefly 
con the ftamens and piftils. 

The medical properties and fenfible qualities of flowers, 
their peculiar odours excepted, agree much more with the 
herbage, than with the fruit to which they are fo intimately 
attached. Thus in the clafs /cofandria, as far at leaft as 
that clafs is a natural one, the flowers, as in the peach and 
cherry for inftance, partake of the acrid, noxious, effential, 
oil of the leaves and bark, not at all of the fweet, acid, or 
aromatic qualities of the pulpy fruit. 5. 

Frowers, Colours of. It has been afferted by fome 
chemifts, that all colours arife from fulphurs, and that 
they differ according to the different admixtures of falts 
with thefe fulphurs. Perhaps on thefe principles, it may 
be poflible to form fome rational conjeétures in regard to 
the origin of colours in the flowers of plants. We know 
very well that the flowers of all plants abound in an effential 
oil or fulphur, to which, according to this doStrine, 
their colours may be rationally fuppofed to be owing ; 
and though this oil fhould be preved to be the very fame 
fubitance in all, yet their variety of colours may be 
accounted for from it, fince we find that one and the 
fame oil, the effential oil of thyme, according to Mr. 
Geoffroy’s experiments, may be turned to all the colours 
thot we find in the different flowers of plants, from white 
to deep black, with all the fhades of red, yellow, purple, 
‘blue, and green, by mixing it with different fubitances ; 
and by the fame laws, the effential oil of plants, while 
contained in their flowers, may by the different mixtures 
they meet with, give them all their beautiful variety of 
colours. See Lfential Oris. 

We know that the infufions of flowers, and of other 

parts of plants, become red on being mixed with acids, and 
green on being mixed with alkalies; and there is no reafon 
to doubt, but that itis the fulphureous part of the vege- 
table in thefe infulions which thus changes colours on thefe 
mixtures. This, however, ought to be proved poflible, 
before it ig allowed in argument. 
' This proof is given in the change of colours before men- 
tioned, which are produced im oils merely by the ad- 
mixture of different falts; and as all the colours im thefe 
are the regular refult of certain combinations, there is 
great reafon to believe, that in thofe plants whofe flowers 
give the fame colours, there may be the fame combina- 
tions. 

The principal colours of plants, and their feveral parts, 
are green, ycllow, red, purple, blue; white, black, and 
tranfparent whitifhnefs; all the others are produced by 
different combinations of thefe. The green, which is 
the common colour of the leaves of plants, is probably 
the effe& of an oil rarefied in that part of the plant, and 
there mixed with the fixed and volatile falts of the fap, 
which remain entangled by theearthy particles after moft 
of the aqueous humidity is evaporated, and by that means 
become in a ftate to a&t upon the oil. A clear proof of 
this is, that if the leaves:are covered up in fuch a manner 
that the aqueous humidity of the fap cannot evaporate 
itfelf, the oil and faits cannot aét upon one another as they 
uaturally would, but becoming diffufed among fo great a 
quantity of water, lofe the colour they would otherwife 
have obtained together, and become’ whitifhi or tranfparent. 
This is feen in the obvious inftance of fuccory aud celery, 


the leaves of both which plants, though naturally green, 
become white by being covered up with earth by the gar- 
dener. 

The leaves of both plants and trees ufually turn red in 
autumn, or on the attack of the firft froft; the reafon 
of which is, that the feveral canals of the fap being con- 
ftringed by the cold, the juices are detained in the veffels 
of the leaves, or at leaft its circulation is greatly inter- 
rupted; and being detained there, it naturally grows four, 
the acidity of this altered juice deftroying the green colour, 
produced by the alkaline falts, The {ap brings ona red 
colour, in the very fame manner that the effential oil made 
green by a mixture of oil of tartar is again changed to red, 
by adding to it a proper quantity of diftilled vinegar. 
Where we find in our common experiments the acids of the 
mineral kingdom turning the infufions of flowers ved, it 
feems by the analogy of thefe experiments to be only 
owing to their deftroying the blue, brown, or other colour, 
which the alkaline falts of the plant had made with its 
eflential oil. 

All the thades and degrees of yellow and faffron colour 
in the flowers of plants, feem wholly owing to a mixture 
of anacid in their jui es, with their eflential oil; as the oil 
of thyme, which itfelf has very litule colour, is made to 
pafs through all thefe fhades of colours, only by digefting 
it with diftilled vinegar. From the digefting the volatile 
alkalies, fuch as fpirit of fal aramoniac and urine, with the 
fame oil, it appears that all the thades of red, from the 
paleft flefh-colour, to purple, and even to the violet blue, 
are only owing to the different admixtures of an alkaline 
volatile falt of the urinous kind, mixed in different manney's 
with their ciiential oil. 

Black, which isa very uncommor colour in flowers, and 
which in them ought to be regarded only as a very deep 
violet, feems the effeét of an addition of an acid juice to 
their oil, already turning purple to violet colour by a vola- 
tile alkali. 

All the fhades of blue and purple feem alfo, by the ana- 
logy of the fame experiments, to be only the effects of mix- 
tures of alkalies of the fixed and volatile kind, with the eils 
of plants; fince thefe colours are all produced in thofe ex- 
periments, by mixing the fpirit of fal ammoniac, and the 
oil of tartar with oil of thyme. 

The bright green of fome flowers feems alfo to be pro- 
duced by the fame falts, only aéting on oils more rarefied. 
For the oil of thyme of a parple violet-colour diluted with 
rectified fpirit of wine, being diluted with oil of tartar, 
becomes green.. Mem, Acad. Par. 1707. 

Boccone is of opinion, that in many plants the colour of 
the fowers is wholly owing to the colour of the juices of 
the root. his he inftancesin the greater celandine, whofe 
roots and flowers are of the fame yellow colour. The 
barberry inlike manner, he cbferves, has both its roots and 
flowers yellow. ‘The dentillaria has its roots and flowers 
both of a pale red, and the acacia Indica Aldini, and many 
other plants, he fays, are inilances of this. The reafon 
that he afligns for this is, that the more fixed parts, wherein 
this colour confilts, preferve the fame tinéture, without 
being at allaltered by fe long a circulation as that from the 
root to the flower; and he adds another very remarkable 
obfervation, which is, that in all thefe plants and trees, 


-whofe roots and flowers are of the fame colour, the juices 


are more fixed; and thcrefore, that thefe are more fit for 
dyeing than any other coloured wood of plants. Vide 
Boccone, Muf,. de Plant. ' f 
Dr. Lewis, in his notes on Neumann’s Chemiftry, has 
many curious obfervations on the colours of flowers. 
There 


FLOWER. 


“There are few of them which are durable in themfelves, or 
that can be made durable by art. The only permanent 
colour is yellow. The red, the blue, and the intermediate 
-fhades of purple, crimfon, violet, &c. are very perifhable. 
Many flowers Jefe their colours on being dried, and efpe- 
~eially if they are dried ina fhady and not warm place. 
_ The colours of all of them perifh by keeping even in the 
_clofeft veffels; the more hattily they are dried, and the 
-more. perfectly they are fecuved from air, fo much the longer 
.do they retain their beauty. The colouring matter of 
| flowers extracted and applied to other bodies is ftill more 
» perifhable. 
__ The colourof many blue flowers is extraéted by infufion 
.in water; but from others, water acquires onlya purplifh 
vhue. Of thofe which have been tried, not one gives a 
blue colour to fpirit of wine; fome give no colour, and 
fome give a reddiih colour. The expreffed juice of thefe 
flowers is generally blue. ‘Lhe blue juices and infufions are 
rendered red by acids; and the moft florid red is given 
to them by marie acids. The flowers alfo, by maceration, 
impart a red colour to acid liquors. Alkalies fixed and vo- 
latile, and lime-water, change thefe blue colours to green. 
And _thofe infufious or juices which have nothing of the 
-colour of the flower, fuffer the fame changes from the 
addition of acid and alkaline liquors. Even when the 
. flowers have been kept till their colours are loft, their infu- 
_fions acquire a red colour from acids, and a green colour 
from alkalies, but in a lefs degree than when the flowers 
_were frefh. The red colour produced by acids is fcarcely 
more durable than the original blue; applied upon other 
bodies, and expofed to air, it gradually degenerates into a 
- faint purple, and at laft difappears, without leaving a ftain 
“behind. The green produced by alkalies changes to a 
. yellow, which does not fade fo foou. The green made by 
lime-water is more permanent and beautiful. Green lakes, 
. prepared from blue flowers by means of lime-water, have 
been ufed by painters. ‘Che Howers of cyanus have been 
-much commended for affording elegant aud blue pigments. 
. But Dr. Lewis has not been able to extract from them any 
blue colour, They retain their colour, when haitily dried, 
longer than other blue flowers, but do uot communicate 
their original colour to any menftruum. 
Red flowers readily communicate their colour to water ; 
jand thofe of a fullred colour give to a reétified f{pirit alfo 
a deep red tinéture, brighter, though fomewhar paler, 
than the watery infufion, But the light red flowers, and 
thofe which are purplifh, impart little colour to pure 
{pirit. The colours of infufions of thefe flowers are fup- 
- pofed to be heightened by acids, and to be rendered green 
_by alkalies. But this is not univerfal. For among{t thofe 
examined by Dr. Lewis, the rofe colours and purplith red 
were changed by acids nearly as blue flowers are; but the 
~ full deep reds were not. The deep infufion of red poppies 
was turned by alkalies not to a green, but to a dufky pur- 
le. . 

Yellow flowers communicate to water and to fpirit of 
wine durable yellow colours, not alterable but in degree by 
acids or by alkalies: the former only rendering them paler ; 
and the latter, asalfo alum, rendering them deeper.’ Wool, 

_or filk, impregnated with a folution of alum or tartar, 
receives, on. being boiled with the watery infufion or decoc- 
tion, a durable yellow dye. A durable, yellow lake is pre- 
pared by precipitating with alum an infufion of yellow 
flowers made in an alkaline ley. . In fome of the orange-co- 
loured flowers the yellow matter feems to be of the fame 
kind as that of the pure yellow flowers; but the red mat- 
ter feems to be different from that of the pure ied flowers. 

Vor. XIV. 


The yellow matter is extracted from thefe flowers by water ; 
and the remaining red matter is extrafted by {pirit of wine, 
or by a weak folution of fixed alkaliin water. Such are 
the faffron coloured flowers of carthamus. .Thefe flowers, 
after the yellow matter has been extraGted by water, are 
faid to give a red tin€ture to ley, from which a deep red 
fecula fubfides, called faflower, Spanifh red, and China- 
lake. This pigment gives a beautiful red colour to fpirit 
of wine, but none to water. The yellow farina or fine 
duft, refting on the tips of the ftamina of flowers, gives 
a fine bright yellow colour to fpirit of wine, and a duller 
yellow, colour to water. The colours of beth the watery 
and fpirituous tinétures were heightened by alkalies, ren- 
dered red by acids, and again reftored toa yellow by 
adding an alkali. This is the only known inftance of the 
yellow colour of a vegetable being rendered red by acids. 
White flowers, or their exprefled juices, impart a green 
colour to alkaline leys, but have not been obferved by 
Dr. Lewis to give a red colour to acids. The white 
flowers of the common wild convolvulus give a dee 
yellow or orange colour to water, which is affeéted b 
acids, by alkalies, and by alum, as the infufions of yellow 
flowers are. The white flowers of xeranthemum give 
a beautiful yellow colour to water acidulated with fpirit 
of nitre. See Neumann’s Chem. by Dr. Lewis, p. 430, 
432- 

Fiowers, in Gardening, are diftinguifhed into early, or 
{pring-fowers, which flourifh in the months of March, 
April, and May. Of this clafs are the anemonies, daf- 
fodils, hyacinths, tulips, jonquils, cowflips, primrofes, 
&c. Summer-flowers, which open in June, July, and 
Auguft, as pinks, gilly-flowers, lilies, daifies, campa- 
nulas, poppies, fun-flowers, &c. Autumnal, or late 
flowers, denote thofe of September and O@ober; as 
the oculus Chrifti, Indian pink and rofes, panfy, flower- 
gentle, &c. Of thefe flowers, thofe which fubfift all 
the year, we mean in the ftem, or root at leaft, are called 
perennials. And thofe which are to be planted or fowed 
afrefh every year, according to the feafon, are called an- 
nual. 

Fiowers, Prefervation of. The method of pre‘erving 
flowers in their beauty through the whole year has been 
diligently fought after by many people; fome have at- 
tempted it, by gathering them when dry, and not too 
much opened, and burying them in dry fand; but this, 
though it preferves their figure well, yet takes off from the 
livelinefs of their colour. 

The primrofe and cowflip kind are very eminent in- 
{lances of the change of colours in the flowers of dried {pe- 
cimens ; for thofe of this clafs of plants eafily dry in their 
natural fhape, but they not only lofe their yellow, which 
might be expected naturally enough, but they acquire a 
fine deep green, much fuperior to that of the leaves in their 
moft perfe& ftate. The flowers of all the violet kind lofe 
their noble blue, and become of a dead white, fo that in 
dried {pecimens there is no difference between the blue- 
flowered violet and the white-flowered kinds. 

Muntingius gives a method, which he fays is preferable 
to all others; this is as follows: gather rofes or other 
flowers when they are not. yet thoroughly open, in the 
middle of a dry day; put them into a good earthen veffel, 
glazed within; fill the veffel up tc the top with them; 
and when full, {prinkle them over with fome good French 
wine, with a little falt in it; then fet them by in a cel- 
Jar, tying the mouth of the pot carefully down. After 
this, they may be taken out at pleafure, and on fetting them 
in the fur, or within the reach of the fire, they will open as 

40 =~ 


FLOWER. 


if onthe tree, and not only the colour, but the fmell, will be 
preferved. 

Sir Robert Southwell has communicated to the world a 
method of drying plants, by which all flowers are pre- 
ferved in their natural fhape, and many in their proper 
colours. ‘To this purpofe two plates of iroa are to be pre- 
pared to the fize of a large half fheet of paper, or larger 
for particular occafions; thefe plates mult be made fo 
thick as not to have any power of bending, ‘and there mutt 
be a hole made near every corner for the receiving a ferew 
to faften them clofe together. 

When thefe plates are prepared, lay in readinefs feveral 
fheets of paper, and then gather the plants with their 
flowers, when they are quite perfect ; let this always be 
done in the middle of a dry day, and then lay the plant 
and its flower on one of the fheets of paper doubled in 
half, fpreading out all the leaves and petals as nicely as 
can be. If the ftalk be thick, it mutt be pared or cut in 
half fo that it may lie flat; and if it be woody, it may 
be peeled, and only the bark left ; when the plant is thus 
expanded, lay round about it fome loofe leaves and pe- 
tals of the flowers, which may ferve to complete aay part 
that may prove deficient; when all is thus prepared, lay 
{everal fheets of paper over the plant, and as many un- 
der it; then put the whole into the iron plates, laying 
the papers {moothly on one, and laying the other evenly 
over them; then fcrew them clofe, and put them into an 
oven after the bread is drawn, and let them lie there two 
hours; after this make a mixture of equal parts of aqua- 
fortis and common brandy; fhake thefe well together ; 
and when the flowers are taken out of the preflure of the 
plates, rub them lightly over with a camel’s hair pencil 
dipped in this liquor ; then lay them upon frefh brown 
paper, and, covering them with fome other fheets, prefs 
them between this and other papers with a handkerchief, 
till the wet of thefe liquors is dried wholly away. When 
the plant is thus far prepared, take the quantity of a nut- 
meg of gum dragon, put this into a pint of fair water 
cold, and let it fland four and twenty hours; it will in 
this time be wholly diffolved ; then dip a fine hair pencil 
in this liquor, and with it daub over the backfides of the 
leaves, and lay them carefully down on a half fheet of 
white paper fairly expanded, and prefs them with fome 
more papers over thefe. When the gum-water is fixed, 
let the preflure and papers be removed, and the whole 
work is finifhed. he leaves retain their verdure in this 
cafe, and the flowers ufually keep their natural colours. 
Some care mu{t be taken, that the heat of the oven be 
not too great. When the flowers are thick and bulky, 
fome art may be ufed to pare off the backs, and dif- 
pole the petals in a due order; and after this, if any of 
them are wanting, their places may be fupplied with fome 
of the fupernumerary ones dried on purpofe ; and if any 
one of them be only faded, it will be prudent to take 
them away, aud lay down others in their ftead: the 
leaves may be alfo difpofed and mended in the fame man- 
ner. Another way of keeping both flowers and fruit the 
whole year without fpoiling, is delivered by the fame au- 
thor in the following manner: take falt-petre, one pound ; 
bole-armenic, two pounds ; clean common fand, three 
pounds ; mix all well together, then gather fruit of any 
kind, that is not full ripe, with the ftalk to each; put 
thefe in one by one into a wide-mouthed glafs, laying 
them in good order; tie over the top with an oil-cloth, 
and carry the glafs into a dry cellar, and fet the whole 
upon a bed of this prepared matter of four inches thick 
in a box; fill up the iad of the box with the fame 


preparation, and let it be four inches thick over the top of 
the glafs, and round all its fides. Flowers are to be pre- 
ferved in the fame fort of glaffes in the fame manner, and 
they may be taken up, after a whole year, as plump and as 
fair as when buried. 

Frower Garden, the place where flowers are chiefly 
grown, cultivated and preferved. It fhould have a fhel- 
tered fouthern afpea, but which is not by any means clofe. 

Frowers, in Antiquity. We find flowers in great requeft 
at the entertainments of the ancients, being provided by 
the mafter of the feaft, and brought in betore the fecond 
courfe ; or, as fome are of opinion, at the beginning of 
the entertainment. They not only adorned their heads, 
necks, and breaits, with flowers, but often beftrewed the 
beds whereon they lay, and all parts of the room with 
them. But the head was chiefly regarded. Potter Ar- 
cheol. Gree. tom. ii. p. 383- See Garvanp. 

Flowers were likewife uled in the bedecking of tombs. 
Potter Archzol. Gree. lib. iv. cap. 7. tom. ii. p. 232, feq. 
See Buriat. 

Fiower, in Architedures according to Vitruvius, is a 
reprefentation of fome imaginary flower, by way of crown 
ing, or finifhing, on the top of a dome, &c. : 

In lieu of this the moderns commonly ufe a vafe, ball, or 
the like. 

Frower-pe-tuce, Fleur-de-lis,, in Heraldry, is a bear- 
ing anciently of great dignity; being reputed the nobleft 
of all flowers, and as fuch having been in all ages the 
charge of the royal efcutcheon of the kings of France, 
though time has made the bearing thereof more vulgar. 

In fome coats it is borne fingle; in others triple ; in 
others it is, femée, feeded all over the efeutcheon. During 
the exiltence of monarchy in France the arms confitted of 
three flowers-de-lis or, in a field azure. 'Thefe arms, how- 
ever, were {uperfeded in 1789 by the cap of liberty, and 
the three-coloured flag, when the baftile was taken and de= 
ftroyed by the inhabitants of Paris. 

Fiower of the Capital is an ornament of feulpture, in 
form of a role, in the middle of the {weep of the Corin- 
thian abacus. 

In that of the Compofite, it is not a rofe, nor any real, 
but an imaginary kind of flower. 

Frowers, in Chemiftry, are the fineft and mott fubtile 
parts of dry bodies, raifed by fire, into the veflel’s head, 
and aludels; and adhering to them in form of a fine pow- 
el or duft. Such are the flowers of fulphur, benjamin, 

cGy 

Frowers of Antimony. See ANTIMONY. 

FLowers Argentine, of regulus of antimony, are made by 
putting the regulus into an unvarnifhed earthen pot, placed 
in a furnace, fo that its bottom may be red-hot, while its 
upper part fhall be much colder. The pot is to be covered 
with a lid, without luting it, and heat is to be applied for 
an hour or more. When the pot is cold, its internal fur- 
face, and the remaining part of the regulus are found co- 
vered with white flowers, in form of beautiful, tran{parent, 
and fhining needles, which are to be gathered with a feather, 
After this, a fecond fublimation may be commenced, and 
managed in the fame manner; and the whole regulus may 
be changed into flowers. Thefe flowers appear to be no- 
thing elfe than the earth of regulus of antimony deprived 
of almoft all its phlogifton. They are neither emetic nor 
purgative ; they are foluble in aqua regia. 

Frowers of Arfenic, white, are made, asall other flowers 
are, by fubliming arfenic ; from which they do not differ in 
their nature and properties. 

Fiowers of Benjamin, or Benxoin, ave made by putting a 

quantity 


FLO 

quantity of this refin into a varnifhed earthen pan, and co- 
vering it with another inverted pan of ftone-ware; and let 
the edges of thefe pans be made to fit well to each other, 
and to be well luted together with paper dipped in pafte. 
Put the earthen pan containing the benzoin ona gentle fire, 
and with that the fublimation is performed ; when the veffels 
are cool and unluted, thie flowers are to be {wept off with a 
feather. For the properties and medical ufes of thefe fowers, 
fee BEN zoIN. 

Friowers of Bifmuth. See Bismurn. 

Frowers of Cobalt. See Coxatr. hd 

Frowers of Copper have been prepared by fubliming fal- 
ammoniacum with the caput mortuum of blue vitriol. See 
Copprr. 

Frowers, Martial. See Frores Martiales. 

Frowers of Sal Ammoniac are nothing more than fal am- 
moniac fublimed ; and the fublimation is facilitated by ge- 
nerally mixing with it aa equal part of decrepitated com- 
mon falt. See Sa/ Ammontac. 

Frowsrs of Sulphur, er Brim/flone, are the vapours of 
melted brimftone conveyed from an iron pot (in which it is 
kept boiling) through a proper flew, into a clofe room or 
even, where this vapour condenfes into flowers. See 
SuLpuur. 

Frowers of Zinc. See Capmia and Zinc. 

Frowrrs, in the Animal Economy, denote women’s 
monthly purgations, or mez/es. 

Nicod derives the word in this fenfe from fluere, q. d. 
Sfleors. Others will have the name occafioned hence, that 
women do not conceive till they have had their flowers; fo 
that thefe are a fort of forerunners of their fruit. 

Frowers, in Rhetoric, ave figures and ornaments of dif- 
courfe, by the Latins called flo/culi. 

Frower-fence, Barbadoes. See Poinciana. 

Frower-fence, Bafard. See ADENANTHERA. 

Frowsr of Briflol. See Lycunts. 

-Frower of Conjlantinople. See Lycunts. 

Frower-de-luce, in Botany. See Iris. 

Frowers of an Hour. See Hisiscus. 

Frower, Lternal, or Everlafling. See GNAPHALIUM, 
Gompurana, and XERANTHEMUM., 

Frower, Four o'clock. See Mrirapicis. 

Frower, Gentle. See AMARANTHUS. 

Frower, Side Saddle. See SArRACENA. 

Frower, Sky. See Cineraria. 

Frower, Sultan. See CENTAUREA. 

Frower, Sun. See Herianruus. 

Frower, Jrumpet. See Bicnonia. 

Frower, Wind. See Anemone. 

.Frower of Ofeocolla, a name given by the people em- 
ployed in finding the offescolla to a fort of white marley 
matter, which they ufually find on the furface of the 

round in the places where the ofteocolla lies underneath. 
tt feems very nearly allied to the nature of the ofteocola 
itfelf, and ufually has. under it fome of that blackith mat- 
ter refembling rotten wood, which the otteocolla itfelf is 
formed upon, and which fills up thofe hollows we tind 
in moft of the pieces, while the whole is in the ground. 

This rotten vegetable matter has much the refemblance 
of the roots or branches of trees, and is called by the 
common people the root of the ofteocolla or hammottei 
radix. Phil. Tranf. N° 39. See Osrsocotta. 

Fiower-root-worm, in Natural Hiflory, a peculiar fpe- 
cies of fly-worm, which makes its habitation only in the bul- 
bous roots of flowers. The roots of the narciffus, at the 
time they are taken up out of the earth toward the end 
of autumn, very frequently are found to contain each a 


PLO 


fingle worm which eats and deftroys them. Sometimes, 
One root is found to contain two of them; but this is 
but rarely the cafe. The roots which have them may ea- 
fily be known, by having each a round hole in fome part, 
at which the deftroyer has entered while it was f{mall,. 
and which probably ferves it now in its large ftate for re- 
{piration of the freer air. The interior part of thefe 
bulbs is always found rotted and deftroyed, and the worm 
is found in thefe, lying in a brown fort of dirt made by its 
own liquid excrements, mixed among the fragments of the 
coats of the root which it has deftroyed. Reaumur’s Hif. 
Infect. vol. iv. p. 499. 

Thefe worms undergo all their changes in a fhell made 
of their own fkin, which is of the fame egg-fafhioned fhape 
with that of the blue fiefh-fiy, but confiderably larger, 
and of a greyifh colour. But this is not all its difference 
from thofe fhells; for on its anterior and fuperior part it 
has two horns of the fame kind with the four of the 
fhells of the rat-tailed worm; and feeming to ferve to 
the fame purpofes, and to convey the air neceffary for the 
life of the creature, into its corcelet: the old fligmata, 
which ferved the creature in its worm-ftate, being now ob- 
literated, and fomething -neceffarily wanted in their place. 
After having undergone all the neceffary changes, the 
fhells are burft open, in the month of April, and let out 
the fly they contained. 

This has fo much the appearance of a humble-bee, that 
at firit fight it is fcarce to be diftinguifhed from it. It is 
covered with black, yellow, and ceddifh hairs, as the 
{maller kinds of the common humble-bees are; but its 
antenne, which are of the battledore fafhion, prove plainly 
enough, that it is really no bee, even before one can deter- 
mine with certainty that it has only two wings. 

FLOWERAGE, a colleétion of flowers of feveral 
kinds fet together in hufks, and hung up with firings. 

FLOWERED, in the AJanufudures. A ftuff, or cloth, 
is faid to be flowered, flourifhed, {prigged, or figured, when 
there are reprefentations of flowers, either natural, or ima- 
ginary, wrought thereon. 

There are ftuffs flowered of almoft all kinds of matter: 
flowers of gold, filver, filk, wool, thread, cotton, &c. 
Stuffs and cloths are ufually denominated from the ground 
whereon the flowers are raifed. 

Thus, there are flowered velvets, taffeties, damafks, fat~ 
tins, mohairs, dimities, &c. 

Thofe flowered with gold and filver are more ufually call- 
ed brocades. 

The flowers are ufually wrought at the fame time with 
the cloth, or ground. The threads of the warp are raifed 
and lowered by means of packthreads pafled through them 
in mounting the loom; and the manufa@urer fhooting his 
warp, or matter of the flowers, whether gold, filver, filk, 
or the like, between the threads thus raifed, forms the 
flowers. 

It is very curious to fee them mount a loom ; or, as they 
call it, read a defign, to be reprefented on a ftuff; but it is 
next to impoffible to deferibe it; yet we have endeavoured 
to give fome idea thereof under DesiGn. 

FLOWERING, Bulbous-rooted Planis, in Gardening, 
the art of blowing thefe forts of Hower-plants in the houfe, 
This can be eafily done by proper care, as they are capable 
of both growing and flowering in water without any fort 
of earth. When well managed iv this way, flowers of this 
kind have a beautiful and elegant appearance, at a feafon 
when they cannot be found in other fituations. 

It is the ufual practice to blow fingle roots ia pots or 
glafles made for the purpofe, nothing more being requifite 


4Qz2 than 


FLO 


than that of fupplying them properly with water, foasnat 
to rife much upon the bulbs of the roots, asi they are very 
liable to rot when they aretoo much immerfed in water, 


Other contrivances have likewife been had recourfe to’ 


in order to blow feveral roots of the fame, or other kinds 
together, in which fituations they have very pretty effe&is. 
Where glafs or earthen-ware flands for this purpofe are not 
at hand, the bufinefs may be eafily and conveniently ac- 
complifhed by means of a common garden pot, which 
fhould have the hole in the bottom perfeétly clofed, and 
two pieces of pretty ftrong fheet lead cut fo as to’exaétly 
fit the bottom and top of the pot; proper holes) fhould 
then be made in the upper piece for the reception of the 
yoot-bulbs, and fmall perforations formed in it, and the 
lower or bottom piece, for receiving fuitable fticks for fup- 
porting the flowering ftems of tlie different.roots. Water 
muft then be poured in fo as to fill the pot quite up to the 
upper plate of lead, when the roots fhould be placed in the 
large holes made for them, fo as jult to touch the furface of 
the water. Where different kinds are ufed, hyacinths, nar- 
ciffufes, jonquils, tulips, &c. may be put in,in a varied 
manner, and placed ina rather warm fituation in the houfe. 
In this way the whole will be brought into flower at an 
early period, and continue for fome time to afford a:fine 
difplay of beautiful flowers. In this manner, by a careful 
regulation of the heat of the room, and an occational pro- 

er fupply of frefh water, they may be kept flowering from 
Deedee till the beginning of the fpring. 

When they have done flowering, the roots fhould be 
removed and laid by in a dry, but not warm fituation, until 
they may be wanted in the following feafon. 

It is found by much experience that thofe bulbs which 
are kept in a dry ftate flower by much the beft, as they 

radually take in that quantity of moifture which is necef- 
ty in the procefs, and are not fo liable to rot or fuftain 
injury in that way. 

The proper way of managing them is to let them at firft 
only juft come in contaét with the furface of the water, 
that they may ftrike forth their root-fibres in a full manner, 
after which it may be raifed a little higher to promote the 
full fowering of the plants. During the whole time of 
flowering, they fhould be kept quite fteady by the fupport 
of proper flicks. 

There is an advantage in flowering bulbous roots in glafs 
ftands, as they fucceed equally well in them, by the pro- 
grefs of their roots being capable of being more perfectly 
judged of, and at the fame time the fupplies of water 
sore conveniently afforded. 

Such roots as have been in the ground are always im- 
proper for being employed in this way, as they never lower 
im any perfeét manner. Before the roots are made ufe of, 
it is conftantly neceflary to lightly rub off all the loofe old 
coaty matters that may hang about them. And it 1s a good 
practice to change the roots every two or three years; in 
order to prevent their becoming weak, and of courfe 
flowering imperfe@lly. 

It has been fuggefted that the early flowering of roots 
of this fort may be greatly promoted by the ufe of weak 
folutions of nitre, and ammonia in its crude ftate. Where 
either of them is tried, a fmall portion fhould only be 
poured into the pots or glaffes containing the water at a 
time, and not too frequently repeated. See Root. : 

FLOWING, or Fiown:/heets, in Sea Language, denote 
the potitions of the fheets, or lower corners of the principal 
fails when they are loofened to the wind, fo as to receive 
it into their cavities in a dire€tion more ufually perpendi- 
cular than when they are clofe hawled, but more obliquely 


FLO 
than when the veflel is failing before tlle wind. This pofte 


tion of the fheets takes'place when the wind croffes the line 
of, her courfe nearly at right angles. 


FLOX, inthe Colour Trade, a yery well cleaned wool 


ufed to abforb the colours of cochineal, &c. It is prepared 
in'this manner: infufe a pound of the fineft’ theerings of 
woollen cloth in cold water for one day 3 then take them up, 
and prefs them well together, to wath off the untuofity 
the wool naturally has. This is the fimple fiox, which, 
when impregnated with a folution of alum, is called alumed 
flox. This is done in the following manner: Take four 
ounces of roach-alum, and two ounces of crude tartar, 
both in.fine powder; put them into an earthen veffel with 


three quarts of water, fet it over the fire, and when it ) 


begins to boil, then put in the flox; let the liquor now 
boil half an hour over a gentle fire, then take it off, and 
when all is perfectly cooled, wafh the fox with fair water, 
letting them fland in it two hours, then prefs them in the 
hand, and let them dry. ist 

FLOYD, in Geography, a new townfhip of America, 
and chief place of a diitrié& in Oneida Herkemer county, 
New York; containing 767 inhabitants—Alfo, a county 
of Kentucky, containing 427 inhabitants, of whom 29 
are Slaves. 

Fioyp’s Fork, a river of Kentucky, which runs into 
the river Salt. N. lat. 37° 48. Wilong. 857 57’. 

FLOYER, Sir Joun, in Biography, an eminent phyfician, 
was born at Hinters, in Stafford{hire, about the year 1649, 
and received his education at the univerfity of Oxford, where 


the degree of do€tor of phyfic was conferred upon him, on.” 


the 8th of July, 1680. He fettled himfelf in the praétice 
of his profeffion at Litchfield, in his native county ; where 
his indefatigable attention to the fick, and the confequent 
prattical {kill which he attained, not only procured for him 
the confidence of the inhabitants, but gained hima repu- 
tation fo extenfive, that his fovereign honoured him with 
knighthood, asa reward for his talents. He was a great 
friend to the ufe of cold bathing, and left no means untried, 
by which he might diffeminate the knowledge of itsutility 
and fafety, and bring the praétice into general vogue: he 
particularly recommended it in chronic rheumatifms, and in 
nervous diforders, and he maintained that confumptions had 
prevailed extenfively in England only fince the praGtice of 
baptizing children by immerfion had been relinquifhed. 
The following are the titles of his different publications. 
1. “The Touchftone of Medicines,’? London, 1687, 8vo. 
2. “The Preternatural ftate of the Animal Humours 
defcribed by their fenfible qualities,” London, 1696, 8vo. in 
which he maintained the dotrine of fermentation. 3, * An 
Enquiry into the right ufe of Baths,” London, 1697, 
8vo. This work afterwards appeared under different titles; 
fuch as “Ancient Pfychrolufy revived,” London, 1702; 
and the fubject was-more amply treated in another edition; 
«¢ Hittory ef hot and cold Bathing, ancient and modern, 
with an Appendix by Dr. Baynard,’? London, 1709, and 
again in 1715, and 1722. 4. His» next work was “A 
Treatifeon the Aithma,”? firft publifhed in-1698, and re- 
publifhed in 1717 and.1726. He was himfelf the fubje& 
of afthma from the age of puberty, yet lived to be an old 
man. 5: ‘* The Phyficians’? Puife-watch,” 1707 and 1710, 
in two volumes, $vo. Sir John Floyer was one of the firft 
to count the pulfations of the arteries; for although the 
pulfe had been the fubje& of obfervation from aneient times, 
the number of beats ina given time had not been attended: 


to. 6. * Medicina Geronomica ; of preferving old men’s’ 
health; with an appendix concerning the ufe of oil and- 


unction, and a letter on the regimen of younger years,” 
3 London, 


FLL. 


London, 1724. Several of thefe treatifes: were tranflated 
into the continental languages. on -; Pe 

FLUATES, in Chemifry, a genus of falts formed by 
the union of fuoricacid-with any alkaline or falifiable bafe. 
Little is: known of thefe falts, but the properties of the 
principal of them are enumerated in the article Fiuor, 
to which the reader is referred. : 


FLUCTUATION denotes, in Surgery, the motion 
communicated to any collection of purulent matter, or 
other kinds of fluid, by applying fome of the fingers of 
each hand, at a certain diftance from each other, to the fur- 
face of the tumour, and preffing with them alternately in 
fuch a manner, that the fingers of one hand are to make a 
little preffure, while thofe of the other hand remain lightly 
placed on another part of the fwelling. When the ends of 
one fet of fingers are thus delicately applied, and the 
furgeon taps, or makes gentle preffure with the fingers of 
the other hand, the impulfe given to the fluid is immediately 
perceptible to thofe fingers which are lichtly Iaid on the 
tumour, and the fenfation thus received is one of the prin- 
cipal fymptoms by which practitioners are enabled to 
difeover the prefence of fluid in a great variety of cafes. 

When the colleétion of A. id is very deeply fituated, the 
fluGtnation is frequently exceedingly obfcure, and fome- 
times not at all diftinguifhable. In this circumftance, the 
exiftence of the fluid is to be afcertained by the confidera- 
tion of other fymptoms. Forexample, in cafes of hydrops 
pectoris, and empyema, furgeons do not expect to feel the 
undulation of the fluid in the thorax with their fingers ; 
they confider the patient’s difficulty of breathing, the un- 
eafinefs attending his lying on one particular fide, the edema 
of the parietes of the cheft, the dropfical affection of other 

arts, the more raifed and arched pofition of the ribs on the 
a d fide of the body, the preceding rigors, fever, and 
feveral other circumftances from which a judgment is formed, 
both with regard to the prefence and the peculiar nature of 
the fluid. esta 

FLUDD, Rosert, or ashe ftyled himfelf in Latin, De 
Fludibus, in Biography, the fecond fon of fir Thomas Fludd, 
treafurerof war to queen Elizabeth, was born at Milgate, in 


Kent, in 1574. He was educated at St. John’s college, Ox- 


ford; andatter taking his degree in arts, attached himfelf to 
the ftudy of phyfic, and fpent almoft fix years in his travels 
through the principal countries in Turope. It was pro- 
bably during thefe peregrinations that he imbibed a tafte 
for the Rofyerucian philofophy, of which he was ever after 
a moft ftrenuous fupporter, and indeed almoft the only 
one who became eminent in it in this kingdom. He pro- 
eceded as doétor of phyfic in 1605, and about that time 
fettled in London, and was made a fellow of the college of 
phyficians. He was a very voluminous author in his fect, 
diving into the fartheft profundities and molt mytterious 


obfcurities of the Rofie-crofs, and blending, ina moft ex-- 


traordinary manner, divinity, chemiftry, natural philofophy, 
and metaphyfics. Eloy allows him fome credit on the 
feore of mathematical and mechanical knowledge, but cha- 
raéterizes his phyfic asa tiffue of fuperftitious nonfenfe. 
Yet fuch a vein of wari enthufiafm runs throufh his 
works, that we may readily fuppofe him to have been a 
believer in the myttical jargon of his fyftem. He had the 
faculty, at all events, of impreffiug his patients with an 
‘ idea of his importance, and of infpiring them with great 
faith in his fkill, by the ufe, it is faid, of a kind of fublime 
unintelligible cant, whetherf uccefsfulornot; hewas therefore 
at leaft very eminent in his medical capacity. He died at his 
Kioufe in Coleman-{treet, London, on the 8th of September, 


FLU 


1637, and. was buried in the parith church of his native place. 
It is faid that Dr. Fludd was in poffeffion of the manuicripts 
of Simon Forman, the aftrologer. Although the fect of 
Rofycrucians is now entirely extinG, a lift of the works of 
Fludd, which were chiefly written in Latin, may not be 
uninterehting to the curious. 1. The largeit, entitled, 
«¢ Utriufque Cofmi, majoris et minoris, Technica Hiftoria,”” 
Oppenheim, 1617, ia two volumes folio, contains fome ex- 
tremély fingular prints, which are intelligible only to au 
adept. 2.‘* Traétatus Apologeticus integritatem focietatis 
de Rofea cruce.defendens,’’? Leyden, 1617. 3.‘ Monochor- 
don mundi fymphoniacum, feu Replicatio ad Apologiam 
Joannis Kepleri,” Francfort, 1620. 4. ‘* Anatomie Thea- 
trum triplici effigie defignatum,”’ ibid, 1623. 5. ‘ Philofo- 
phia Sacra et vere Chriltiana, feu Meteorologia Cofmica,’’ 
ibid, 1626. 6. Medicina Catholica, feu, Mytticum artis 
Medicandi Sacrarium,” ibid, 1626. 7. ‘¢ Integram Mor- 
borum Myfterium,” ibid, 1631. 8. ‘* De Morborum 
Signis,”’ ibid, 1631. Thefe two treatifes are a part of 
the Medicina Catholica. g.‘‘ Clavis Philofophie et Alchy- 
mie Fluddanz,” ibid, 1633. 10. ‘¢ Philofophia Mofaica,”’ 
Goudz, 1638. 11. Pathologia Demoniaca,” ibid, 1640. 
Aikin Biograph. Memoirs of Med. Eloy. Di&. Hitt. 

It is true, that as the great Kepler, his contemporary, 
from the high refpeét which he bore even to the prejudices 
and philofophic dreams of antiquity, in his work, entitled 
¢‘ Harmonius Mundi,”’? endeavours to illuftrate and demon- 
itrate the Pythagorean harmony of the fpieres, and to re- 
concile it to geometrical laws, and the Copernican fyitem 5 
but as it was in this vain attempt that he made the great 
difcovery of the elliptic orbits of the planets, his vilionary 
analogies between the diftance of the planets, and the har- 
monic intervals in mufic, have been excufed. Now Fludd, 
anxious for the honour which he thought Kepler had 
gained by the very attempt which moft difgraced him with 
pofterity, in his fanciful demonftration of the mufic of the 
{pheres, oppofes him and his analogy with ebufe and feurri- 
lity, and fets up a fyftem of his own itill more wild and abfurd; 
for in the third book of the firlt tra&, entitled ** De Mufica 
Mundana,”’ he fuppofes the world to bea mufical inftrument, 
refembling a monochord, extending from the fummit of the 
empyrean heaven to the bafis of the earth itfelf, dividing it 
into parts conftituting confonances ; fo that if the half part 
were touched or firuck, it would produce the confonant 
diapafon, or o€tave, in the fame manner as in the inftrumental 
monochord. Mafter doétor Fludd has given us a diagram 
of his fyftem, reprefenting his mundane monochord, the 
finger-board of which he has graduated by flats into a 
feale of difdiapafon, to G fel re ut in the treble, and 
placed oppofite to each note of this gammut, afcending 
from the earth, the elements of water, air, and fire; then 
the celeftial bodies from the moon to Saturn, afligning 2 
place to each orb oppofite to fome found of his mufical fale, 

After adjufting his mundane monochord, and dividing it 
into fyftems of diateffaron, diapente, and diapafon, our au- 
thor, chap. iv. undertakes to demonftrate his whimficak 
hypothefis by the figure of a pipe or flute. But if our 
readers have had perfeverance to follow us thus far, we can 
hardly fuppofe that their patience will laft one iach further ; 
we fhall therefore only obferve, that. this bewildered author, 
in order to enable himfelf to put together his fyitem of 
metaphorical mufic, muft previoufly have ttudied real 
pra@ical mutic, concerning which, in his fecond traG, he 
ipeaks like other Chri/fian folk. 

FLUDER, or Sea-Fuupper, in Ornithology, the name 
of a water-fowl ef the colymbus or diver-kind, defcribed by 
Gefner, and fome other authors, under the name of the 

colymbus 


FLU 


colymbus maximus, or largeft diver. 
Glacialis. 

FLUE, Sr. Nicwoxas ve, in Biography, a very dif- 
tinguifhed patriot of Switzerland, was born at Saxelen in 
1417. Defcended from an ancient family, he fignalized 
himfelf in defence of his country, and particularly dur- 
ing the war which the Swifs fupported againft Sigifmond, 
archduke of Auftria. He was no lefs remarkable for 
humanity than valour. To his countrymen, when they 
were preparing to pillage and burn the convent of St. Mar- 
garet, near Dieffenhofen, he exclaimed, “ If God grants 
you the victory over your enemies, ufe it with moderation, 
and {pare thofe edifices which are confecrated to him.” 
This remonftrance was effeGtual, and preferved the convent 
from deftru€tion. To the moft excellent qualities of the 
theart and underftanding, to great political fagacity, he 
added the exterior graces of figure, dignity of charaGer, 
andthe moft winning affability. Raifed by his countrymen 
to high employments in the ftate, he repeatedly declined 
tthe office of landamman from motives of delicacy, becaufe 
he difapproved the principles of the governing party. At 
length, hurried away by his deteftation of evil, and a zeal 
for monkifh devotion, he quitted his family in the soth 
year of his age, and retiring from the world ina fit of 
gloomy fuperflition, turned hermit. The place of his re- 
treat was Ranft, a few miles from Saxelen, where-he built 
an hermitage and a {mall chapel, and praétifed all the feve- 
rities required by that auftere mode of life wich the ftricteft 
‘obfervance. But though he withdrew from the world, the 
flame of patriotifm was not extin€&; but he was the happy 
inftrument in refcning Switzerland from the impending 
horrors of civil difeord. When a quarrel took place 
among the cantons, and the deputies affembled, in 1481, 
at Stantz, in order to compromife the difference, De Flue 
quitted his hermitage, and in the 64th year of his age 
travelled during the night, and arrived at Stantz on the 
very morning when the deputies, having failed to termi- 
nate their difpute amicably, were preparing for their de- 
parture. He conjured them to remain; and, having by his 
mediation fucceeded in compofing the public diffentions, 
returned to his hermitage, where he died, in 1487, in the 
7oth year of his age, regretted and efteemed by all Switzer- 
land. Such a general opinion of his extreme piety pre- 
vailed among his contemporaries, that the bigotry of thefe 
times afcribed to him an exemption from the common wants 
of human nature. The following epitaph was inferibed on 
his tomb: “ Nicholas de Flue quitted his wife and children 
to go into the defart: he ferved God 19} years without 
taking any fuftenance. He died 1487.” Coxe’s Travels 
in Switzerland, vol. i. 

Five, the long tube of a chimney, from the fire-place to 
the top, for giving paflage to the fmoke. For a more par- 
ticular account, fee CHIMNIES. 


FLUELLIN, in Botany. See ANTIRRHINUM. 


FLUENT, in dnalfis. Itis not eafy to give fuch a 
definition of the term fluent as fhall be intelligible to thofe 
not previoufly acquainted with the ufe of the word. And 
indeed mathematicians themfelves differ in their conceptions 
of it according to the different points of view in which they 
have been accuftomed to confider the principles of the 
fluxionary or differential calculus. 


As the converfe of a fluxion, a fluent is the flowing 
uantity, the rate of whofe increafe is exprefied by the 
fusion. According to other writers the fluent or integral 
is the fum of an infinite number of fmall factors increafing or 
decreafing according to fome given law, each of which 


See Cotymsus 


FLU 


may be confidered as the fluxion or differential of the whole 
integralor fluent, See Fruxion. 

According to the more accurate ideas of modern analyfts, 
a fluent or integral is nothing more than an algebraic ex- 
preflion, confifting of variable quantities with or without 
others that are conftant, which expreflion being expanded 
into a feries according to certain rules, gives for the frft 
term the fluxion or differential of which it is the fluent. 
In this view of the fubje& a fluent and its fluxion, or an 
integral and its differential, are merely certain analytical or 
fymbolical relations, not depending on any theory relating 
to velocity, or indeed on any difputable hypothefis what- 
ever, fince it is founded on arbitrary definition alone : 
and it is prefumed that this will be fufficient for all the pur- 
pofes to which the application of the differential or inte- 
gral calculus can poflibly be applied. But the difcuffion 
of this fubjeé& will be again refumed under Analytic Func- 
TION. 

The moft luminous and corre&t explanation of the real 
meaning of the term flucnt is given by Mr. Woodhoufe in 
the Tranfaétions for 1802, in a paper on the independence 
of the analytical and geometrical methods of inveftigation. 
His obje& 1s to fhew that analytical expreflions, involved in 
geometrical language, are foreign to the fubje&t, and tend 
to produce confufed and erroneous notions. Such, for 
example, are the following; fin. x; cof. x; hyp. log. x; 
fin. nx = 2cef.x.fin. (2 — 1) x — fin. (nx — 2) x3 fx (1 — 


d 1 ay Sal 
x)! 


1—x 
&e. 

The value of f+ (1+) 7‘ is faid to be aportion of the 
area of an hyperbola intercepted between two ordinates to 
its allymptotes; but as Mr. W. obferves, this is a circum- 
locutory mode of expreffion, fince to find the value of the 
area, x. (1 + x)~' muft be expanded, and the integrals of the 
feveral terms taken, which fame operation muft have taken 
place in order to approximate to the value of /x (t +.x)7', 
if no fuch curve as the hyperbola had ever been invented. 

Mr. W. then proceeds to explain what he himfelf under- 
ftands by an integral or fluent of an expreffion. We fhal! 
ufe his own words. 

Let 9x denote a funétion of x; if x be increafed by o 
then 9x becomes ¢ (x + 0) and $ (x + 4), developed, ac- 


circular arc; f * = = elliptical arc, 


cording to the powers of 0, becomes ?x + Po + = 


a + = o', &c. where P is derived from ¢x, Q from 
P, R from Q, &c. by the fame law, fo that the manner of 
deriving P being known, Q, R, &c. are known. The en- 
tire difference or increment of ¢x is? (x +0) —@x; but 
the differential or fluxion of @x, is only a part of this dit- 
ference, or P.o.- If inftead of 0, dx or x be put, it is 
P.dx or P¥; the integral or fluent of P x is that funGion 
from which P x is derived ; and in order to remount. to it, 
we muft obferve the manner or the operation by which it 
was deduced, and by reverfing fuch operation the integral 
or fluent is obtained. Now in taking the fluxion of certain 
functions of x, it appears that there are conditions to which 
the indices of x without and under the vinculum are fubject. 
Hence, whether or not a propofed fluxion can have its 
fluent affigned, we muft fee if the fluxion has the necef- 
fary conditions. 


x 


x 
Expreffions, fuchas —, 3 » &e. lawanat 
x Ete W771 —x 


thefe conditions ; and confequently there is no function ? x 
ot 


FLUENT. 


of x, fuch that the fecond term of the developement of 9 
:) is equal either to ~ peLAE. SEER 
(«+ 4) iseq =, or 2, or —_, 
&c. There are, however, integral equations from which 
fuch expreffions may be derived. Thus, let « = :, 
: L 


I+x 


= 2%; let x= 


* : 
then — =; let 1 + x = &*.-, 
x 


2/—1 
Now from thefe equations, the differential equations 
oe * 


x 
erga (ae &c, may, by expunging 
the exponential quantities, be derived; confequently, if 
the fymbol / is to defignate a reverfe operation, I can only 
know what that reverfe operation is by attending to the 
manner by which the expreffions affected with the fymbol 
J were derived. Hence 


= E 
—=2, whenx = «*, 
x 

of : 


= > 


—— = z, when i+ x = * 
I+x 


pS ae 
—————— aE ie | a a les ie 

rts ? ) 

acai heak 


In like manner, 


‘ —— eee 
fx(E +) 3 =2z,0+ VE + PS ore = —— 
fe Bers) t ay w+ aban tat HE 

2% 1+x *—I1 
See ee ef: SS ol tat . 
Mariad ee hand 
2x Vi+x°—1 sree 
of = a5 =— = *,orvi+x = 

XS r+ x? Vitxt+i 

1+: 2 
ors = — 

t= ef—8% 

‘ ——l 'f =V= =-2V=, 

Again, fuppofex ={2 v1 } {: = == m1 


Ta Wisin +s. °% vai} 5 but Pd eae ire 


l—x, 


‘ { Ee Sa eye x mt ; confequently x = = 4/ 
( x ‘ 


x 
Pee hence reverfely, ae Peay 
J 


osz= 7 
V1 
ayer h 


aye 20 { et vT 


being = (2 /— 7) 7 "| e* yr 
—<x 
In like manner a aS 


* 


senvrk, Vv 2x - 


fees) 


‘ak Se g?* i 


x? 


_ 


St 
a Po lig apGee Y=" 4.2), 


= i 2 Phu malated 
ee re) 
‘Anda variety of forms may be obtained by fubftituting 


* 


for x different funétions of x, in the expreffion 


. 


a/ Ii —>x* 

Hence if the fymbol / is made to denote a reverfe opera- 
tion, the integral equations of the preceding Cifferential 
equations have been rightly afigned. All other methods of 
affigning the integrals by the properties of logarithms, by 
circular arcs, by logarithmic and hyperbolic curves, are 
indire&t, foreign, and ambiguous. _ Mr. Woodhoufe next 
proceeds, by the above method, to integrate certain differen- 
tial equations which Euler and Lagrange have before treated 
of, and which are faid to admit for their compleat integra- 
tion an algebraic form, although the integration of each 
particular term depends on the quadrature of the circle and 
hyperbola. } 

Let fx, fy, denote funétions of x and y. Suppofe the 


differential equation to be —+ = =o;thenfx+fy=a 


= 


when x= :f%,y= 2/7, Hencexy=el* +7 =e? 


A, acontftant quantity. 
x y 
Let 2 


Vi-xt WV i—y 


2dly. 


~~! 
. 
I 


24 — 1 


Vie EN Pa SEE se = 
(< Slay ‘), and vi—-y =? re 
(° Vico i ny ae 


Hence x. 4/ Ci =i RE Ate ce) @ va a 


— 


Vie x 2 


—2 erry Ce ~ 


=—i—€E 


-(fx+fn —(fx4fr) 


I— = OM : 
|: ae Sie t = A, a conftant quantity. 


x y 


ly. Let —— + a == c 
3dly e Vatbx +ex Vat byte # 
x eee. J cia 
. A b is by oa 
age? GOTT as waa Ae (s+2+= 
= ©, 
’ @ % ' 
Let « + —=U, yp + — =, and P= — ——. 
c : 4c 
= “ 
a 4+ ———=-—= =o. 


Taking the integrals «~! {v ~ vt =% Vv 


2.=V uy 


-Vv 


—re 


weg +! 7 Geb eye to 


2 

= (SEND e8VT mrt eet VS 

2 2 
values of x and y ; 


« — 3 
2c te Vary yt J @+8s 
+x) 


t 


= A, and reftoring the 


FLU 


+ ex’) = A'. By the above operation it appears that cer- 


‘tain algebraical expreflions, asx “1 — y? + y V1 =, 


ERE Patt: Jatby + cy, &c. may be deduced, which 


c 
i eal 

anfwer the equations. [T= age shisha yea 
But, ftri¢tly fpeaking, fuch algebraical expreffions are: not 
the integrals ; they are rather expreflions deduced from the 
true integral equations, from which other algebraical ex- 
preffions, befides thofe put down, might be deduced, For 
the integration of this fort of differential equations, fee 
Mem. de Turin, vol.iv. p. 98. Sur Pintegration de 
quelques equations differentielles, dont les indeterminees 
font feparées, mais dont chaque membre en particulier n’eft 
point integrable.” 

In this memoir are given three different methods of in- 
tegrating « (1 — x*)7!=y? (1 — y’) 743 by circular 
arcs and certain trigonometrical theorems, by impoflible 
logarithms, and by partial integrations, Striétly {peaking, 
all thefe methods are indire&t ; and the two firft are only 
different but circuitous modes of exprefling the method 
abovedefcribed. See likewife Euler, Calc. integral, vol. ii. 
Novi Comm. Petrop. tom. vi. p. 37; tom. vil. p.1. It 
is to be obferved, that in the prefent {tate of analytic {cience, 
there is no certain and direé&t method of integrating 


{a+ bx tex" + dx? 
ie i 
texth +5 fatiy tes tay tert 


= 0; becaufe no analytical expreffion or equation of a finite 
form has hitherto been invented, from which, according to 
the procefles of the differential calculus, fuch differential 
equations may be deduced. To find the algebraical expref- 
fions which anf{wer to thefe equations, recourfe muft be had 
to what are properly denominated artifices. or fuch, fee 


differential equations, fuch as x 


Mem. de Turin, vol. iv. Comm. Petr. tom. vi. vii. 
Lagrange. Fonét. Analyt. p. 86. La Croix Cale. -diff. 
p-427, &c. 


ELMGGEA, in Botany, fo named by M. Louis Claude 
Richard, in honour of Mr. John Flugge, a very able 
German botanift of the prefent day, whofe afliftance is 
particularly acknowledged by profeffor Schrader in the firft 
volume of his own truly excellent 2/ora Germanica, jutt 
imported into this country. Richard in Schrader’s New 
Journal, v. 2. fafe. 1.8. (Ophiopogon ; Gawler in Curt. 
Mag. v. 27. 1063.) Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. 
Nat. Ord. Sarmentacee, Linn. A/paragi, Jul. 

Gen. Ch. Cal. none, except, with Richard, we take the 
corolla for fuch. Cor. inferior, of one petal, bell-fhaped, 
in fix deep, equal, oval, fpreading, permanent fegments. 
Stam. Filaments fix, very fhort, inferted into the bafe of 
the corolla; anthers oblong, vertical, ere¢t, fhorter than the 
corolla, fomewhat arrow-fhaped at the bafe. Pi. 
Germen fuperior, in the bottom of the corolla, roundith, 
of three cells, with rudiments of a double row of feeds in 
each ; ityle folitary, rather longer than the {tamens, erect, 
columnar, furrowed, tapering at the fummit ; ftigma mi- 
nutely bearded, acute. Peric. Berry fuperior, globofe, 
-when ripe generally of one eell-only. Seed folitary, large, 
‘erbicular, cartilagmous. 

Eff. Ch. Corolla in fix deep equal fegments. 
inferted into the bafe of the corolla, very fhort. 
~ ‘acute. Berry fuperior. Seed folitary, globofe. 


x. F. japoni¢a. Richard, in Schrad. N. Journ. v. 2. 


Stamens 
Stigma 


Phat 


fafc, 1.9, t. 1. f, A, »(Ophiopaogon japonicus; Gawl, in 
Curt. Mag. t. 1063. Conyallaria japonica; Thunb. Jap. 
140-6. -Linn. Suppl. 204. Ait. H. Kew. v. 1 45/5. 
Willd. Sp, Ph vi 2, 160, Redout. Lil. v. 2. t. 80. 
Mondo; Sceempf, Ameen. 823: t.824. Adanfon, v. 2. 496.) 
Gra{s-leaved Fluggea, or Japan Svakefbeard Native of 
fhady places among ‘hrubs, near Nagafaki in Japan. 
Thunberg. YKept with usin greenhoufes, where it flowers 
ia June. Thunberg made it: known to the Dutch, from 
whofe gardens we-obtained roots in 1784, and who treat 
it asa hardy plant. The root is perennial, -ereeping by 
means of ‘flefhy horizontal fhoots, which are mucilaginous 
and nutritive. Stem none. Leaves radical, numerous, 
naked, graffy, linear, recurved, bluntifh, flat, rough-edged, 
winged at the bafe with abroad thin membrane.  Stalé 
central, folitary, much fhorter than the leaves, compreffed, 
racemofe. Flowers drooping, {mall, white, or blueith, 
with yellow arthers. Berry the fize of a pea, of a rich 
deep blue. “Ihe leaves in our plants are from three inches 
toa foot long. Thunberg fpeaks of a variety in which 
they exceed two feet, but of this we know nothing. 


This plant appears to be properly enough feparated from 
Convallaria, on account of its habit, and perhaps the 
effential charaéters given above may ferve to define the 
genus, Which was publifhed by the two writers to whom 
we have referred, in the fame year, unknown to each 
other. We conceive the germen is proved by analogy to 
be truly fuperior, and the ripe fruit is altogether fo; nor 
can we account for that part of M. Richard’s defcription 
which reprefents it as “ {carved at the top by the veftige of 
the flower;’’ this, if true, would decide the fruit and 
germen to be inferior, Redoute’s beautiful figure faith- 
fully reprefents the parts in queftion. Richard’s plate’ is 
more minute as to the ftructure of the flower, and fhews 
the germen to be in an early ftate attached to, and. as it 
were imbedded in, the bafe of the corolla, but the more 
advanced {tate of -the fruit proves that it-cannot be deemed 
even half-inferior, nor is it, by that mark, tobe difcrimi- 
nated from Convallaria. 

FLUIDITY, in Phy/fcs, that ftate or affeGtion of bodies 
which denominates or renders them fluid. 

Fluidity ftands in dire& oppofition to firmne/s, or /o- 
lidity, which fee. 

Fluidity is diftinguifhed from liquidity or humidity, in 
that the idea of the firft is abfolute, and the property con- 
tained in the thing itfelf; whereas that of the latter is rela- 
tive, and implies wetting, or adhering, 7. e. fomewhat that 
gives us the fenfation of wetnefs, or-moifture, and-which 
would have no exiftence but for our fenfes. 

Thus melted metals, air, or ether, and even fmoke, and 
flame itfelf, are fluid bodies, but not liquid ones; their 
parts not leaving any fenfe of-moifture ; whereas water, 
milk, wine, &c. are at the fame time both fluids and liquids, 

The nature and caufes of fluidity have been varioufly 
affigned. 

‘Fhe Gaffendifts, and ancient Corpufcularians, require 
only three conditions as neceflary to it, viz. a fmallnefs and 
{moothnefs of the particles of ‘the body ; vacuities inter- 
fperfed between them ; and a {pherical figure. “Thus the 
Epicurean poet Lucretius: / P 

“© Tila autem debent ex levibus atque rotundis _ 
Efle magis, fluido. qua;corpore liqnida conftant.” 

The Cartefians, and after them Dr. Hook,’Mr. Boyle, 
&c. befide the circumftances above mentioned, require a va- 
rious, perpetual, inteftine motion of the particles of \be 
bodies, as that which principally contributes to fui A 

uidity 


-actions of corrofive men{truums, &c. 


FLUEDIT'Y. 


Fluidity then, according to thefe philofophers, confifts in 
this, that the parts of the body, being very fine, and fmall, 
are fo difpofed by motion, or figure, as that they can eafily 
flide over one another’s furfaces all manner of ways; and that 
they be in conftant, various, feparate agitation to and fro ; 
and that they only touch one another in fome few parts of their 
furfaces. Mr. Boyle, in his “* Hiftory of Fluidity,’ men- 
tions three conditions principally required to fluidity, viz. 

1. The minutenefs of parts: thus, in effeét, we find that 
fire, by dividing metals into fine, fmall parts, renders them 
fluid ; and that acid menftruums diffolve and render them 
fluid after the like manner; and that fire turns the hard 
body of common falt almoit wholly into’a liquor, by dif- 
tillation: not but that the figure of the particles may have 
a confiderable fhare in fluidity. 

Thus mercury, whofe parts are doubtlefs much groffer 
than thofe of oiland water, is yet more fluid than either of 
them: and thus oil, by the aétion of fire, may be converted 
into a confiftent fubftance like butter. : 

z. A number of vacuities interfperfed between the cor- 
puicles, to give room for the feveral particles to move 
among themfelves. _ ; 

3. A motion and agitation of the corpufeles; either 
from fome principle of mobility within themfelyes, or from 
fome extraneous agent, penetrating and entering the pores, 
moving varioufly among them, and communicating to them 
a part of its motion. 

That this laft is the qualification chiefly required in 
fluidity, he argues from divers obfervations’ and: experi- 
ments. Thus, a little dry powder of alabafter, or platter 
of Paris, finely fifted, being put ina veffel over the fire, 
foon begins to boil like water; exhibiting all the motions 
and phenomena of a boiling liquor. It will tumble va- 
rioufly in great waves like that: it will bear ftirring with a 
ftick or ladle like that, without refifting; nay if ftrongly 
ftirred near the fide of the veffel, its waves will apparently 
dafh againft them: yet it is all the while a dry parched 
powder. 

The like is obferved in fand ; a difh of which being fet 
ona drum-head, brifkly beaten by the fticks, or on the 
upper ftone of a mill, it in all refpeéts emulates the proper- 
ties of a fluid body. A heavy body, ¢. gr. will immedi- 
ately fink init to the bottom, and a light one emerge to 
the top. Each grain of fand has a conttant vibratory and 
dancing motion; and if a hole be made vin the fide of the 
difh, the fand will {pin out like water. 

That the parts of fluids are in continual motion, the 
Cartefians evince from divers confiderations: as, r. The 
tranfmutation of folidsinto tluide, ¢. gr. ice into water, and 
vice verfi; the chief difference between the body in thefe 
two ftates, confifting in this, that the parts being fixed and 
at reft in the one, refift the touch; whereas in the other, 
being already in motion, they give way to the flighte/t 
impulfe. 


2. The effe&ts of fluids, which commonly proceed from” 


motion: fuch are the infinuation of fluids among the pores 
of bodies ; the foftening and diflolving of hard bodies ; the 
Add, that no folid 
can be brought to a ftate of fluidity without the inter- 
vention of. fome moving or moveable body, as fire, ‘air, or 
water. , 

Air the fame gentlemen hold to be the firft {pring of 
thefe caufes of fluidity, it being this that gives motion to 
fire and water, though itfelf receives its motion and action 
from the ether or fubtle medium. 

Boerhaave, however, pleads {trenuoufly for fire’s being 
the firlt mover, and the caufe of all fluidity in other 

Vout. XIV. 


bodies, as air, weter, &c. Without this, he fhews that 
the atmofphere itfelf would fix into one folid mafs. To 
the fame purpofe, Dr. Black maintains that fluidity is the 
effect of heat. “The different degrees of heat which are 
required to reduce different bodies into a ftate of fluidity, 
he fuppofes, may depend on fome particulars in the miy- 
ture and compefition of the bodies themfelves ; and’this 
is rendered further probable from confidering that the na- 
tural {tate of bodies in this refpeé&t is changed by certain 
mixtures: accordingly, when two metals are compounded, 
the mixture is commonly more fufible than either of them 
feparately. See Fire and Hear. 

Sir 1. Newton fets afide this theory of the caufe of 
fluidity, and fubftitutes inftead of it the great principle of 
attraction. Thecorpufcular fyftem,. with all the improve- 
ments of Defeartes and Mr. Boyle, did not. fufficiently 
account for the primary condition, requifite to conftitutea 
body fluid, viz. the various inteftine motion -and agitation 
of its particles. But this motion is naturally enough ac- 
counted for, by fuppofing it a primary law of nature, that as 
all the particles of matter attra&t each other when within-a 
certain diftance; fo at all preater diftances they fly from, 
and aveid one another. For then, though their common 
gravity, together with the preifure of other bodies upon 
them, may keep them together in a mafs, yet their con- 
tinual endeavour to avoid one another fingly, and the ad- 
ventitious impulfes of heat and light, or other external 
caufes, may make the particles of fluids continually move 
round about one another, and fo produce this quality. 

There isa difficulty, indeed, in accounting why the par- 
ticles of fluids always keep at fucha diftance from one an- 
other, as not to come within the fphere of one another’s 
attraGtion. The fabric and conftitution of that fluid body, 
water, are amazing; that a body fo very rare, and which 
has a vaft over-proportion of pores, or interfperfed vacuity, 
to folid matter, fhould yet be incompreffible by the greateft 
force, as philofophers very generally, and for a long time 
have imagined, (fee Compression;) and yet this fluid is 
eafily reducible into that firm, tranfpazent, friable body, 
which we callice, by being only expofed to a certain de- 
gree of cold. ; 

One would think, that though the particles of water 
cannot come near enough to attract each cther, yet the in- 
tervening frigorific matter doth, by being mingled per mi- 
nima, ftrongly attract them, and‘is itfelf likewife flrongly 
attracted by them, and fo wedges or fixes all the mafs inte 
a firm folid body ; which folid body -lofes its felidity again, 
when by heat! the vinculum is folved, and the frigorific 
ticles are disjoined’from thofe of the water, and ar 
to fly out of it. And thus may the fumes of lead, per- 
haps, fix quickdilver. 

When a firm folid body, fuch as metal, is by heat re- 
duced into a fluid, the particles of fire disjom and feparate 
its conftituent parts, which their mutual attraGion caufed 
before to cohere, and keep them at fuch a diftance from 
one another, as that they are out of the {phere of each 
other’s attraction, as long as that violent motion laits ; and 
when by the lightnefs and adivity they are f 


} flawn eff, unlefs 
they be renewed by a continual fupply, the component par- 
ticles of the metal finally come near enough again to feel 
one another’s attractions. : 

As, therefore, the caufe of cohefion of the pérts of 
folid bodies appears to be their mutual attraGion, fo the 
chief caufe of fluidity feems to be a contrary motion, im- 
preffed on the particles of fluids; by which they avoid and 
fly one another, as foon as they come at, and ‘as long as 
they keep at fuch a diftance from each other, 


4R it 


FLU 


It is obferved alfo in all fluids, that the dire&tion of their 
preflure againft the veflels which contain them is in lines, 
perpendicular to the fides of fuch veffels 3 which property, 
being the neceffary refult of the particles of any fiuid’s 
being f{pherical, fhews that the parts of all fluids are fo, or 
of afigure ‘very nearly approaching to it. See Fuuips, 

Pruipity of the Earth, in Geology. It has been a favour- 
ite topic with many of the writers on the theory of the earth, 
to enlarge on a fuppofed fluidity of the materials of which 
the folid matters of the globe are now compofed, not only 
progreflively at the fucceflive periods of their organic forma- 
tion, but fince, ia confequence of the fudden and violent 
difintegration or demolition of the ancient mountains and 
ftrata, at the period when the organic remains of animals 
and plants were lodged in the prefent ftrata; and which 
took place, according to molt of the favourers of this 
hypothefis, at the time of the Mofaic deluge: it is faid, 
however, by fome late writers, that the relation of that 
event, as given in the facred writings, (and whence elle 
ean we gain any certain knowledge of fuch an event?) gives 
us no ground for admitting this difintegration or total de- 
ftru€tion of the antediluvian earth, or the opinion of its 
having been at that time reduced toa {tate of fluidity. In 
the article Exvuipsoip Figure of the earth, the writer 
of that article has endeavoured to fhew, that fuch fluidity 
of the materials of which the globe is at prefent conttituted, 
is not any way neceflary towards accounting fully for 
the prefent form and dimenfions of the earth, as refulting 
from its gravitation and rotation on its axis. ‘Thofe who 
have contended for an entire fluidity of the earth, or at leait 
of fo much of its materials as compofe the cruft thereof, 
with which alone we are acquainted, furely never turned 
their attention to the vait depth and quantity of water or 
ether fluid which would be necefflary for its folution, or 
even fufpenfion, at one time, as feems neceflary, or to the 
circumftances under which fo perfetly heterogeneous a 
fluid could be fuppofed to depofit diftin@ fubftances, with 
the furprifing regularity in which the {trata are difpofed, in 
orders totally diftin& from.that of their fpecific gravitics. 
See Order of the Strata. 

FLUIDS are bodies, whofe particles are but weakly 
gonneéted, their mutual cohefion being ma great meafure 
prevented by fome interfering caufe. In this feufe a fluid 
ftands oppofed to a folid. 

Sir I. Newton defines a fluid body, to be that whofe 
parts yield to the {malleit force imprefled, and by yielding 
are ealily moved among cach other. 

That the particles whereof fluids confift are of the fame 
nature, and have the fame properties, with the particles of 
folids, is evident, from the converfion of liquids and folids 
into each other, e. gr. of water into ice, of metals into 
fluors; &e. Nor can it be reafonably doubted, that the 
component parts of all bodies are the fame, viz. hard, folid, 
impenetrable, moveable corpulcles. 

We obferve, therefore, with Dr. Clarke, that if the. parts 
ef-a body either do not touch each other, or eafily flide 
over one another; and are of fuch a magnitude, as that 
they may be eafily agitated by heat, and the heat ke 
fufficiently great to agitate them, though it may perhaps 
be lefs than funffices to prevent water from freezing, or, 
even, though the parts be not a¢tually moved, yet, if they 
be {mall, fmooth, fiippery, and of fuch a figure and 
magnitude as difpefe them to move, and give way, that 
body is fluid. 

find yet the particles of fuch fluid bodies do, in fome 
meafure, cohere; as is evident hence, that merenry, when 
well purged of air, will be fuftained in the baremeter to 


FLU 


the height of.60 or 70 inches; that water will afcend 
in capillary tubes even in vacuo; and that the drops of 
liquor in vacuo run into a {pherical form ; as adhering by 
fome mutual cohefion like that between polifhed marble 
planes. Add,-that thefe Auid bodies, if they confift of 
particles that are eafily entangled within each other, as 
oil, or if they be capable of being ftiffened by cold, and 
joined by the interpofition of little cunei or wedges, as 
water; they are eafily rendered hard: but if their particles 
be fuch as can neither be entangled, as air; nor ltiffened 
by cold, which was fuppofed to be the cafe with regard 
to quicklilver; then they would never grow hard and 
fixed. It is more. probable that the primary caufe of 
fluidity fhould confitt in the imperfe& cohefion of the con- 
{tituent parts of fluids rather than in their figure. For if 
the particles of a body cohere flrongly together, they 
cannot eafily move amongit each other. It is alfo evident 
that the fmalluefs of the particles of fluids will contribute 
to their imperfect cohefion, becaufe the furface of a body 
compofed of {mall particles muft be more fmooth and even, 
than the furface of a body compofed of large particles, 
and two flat bodies may be conceived to confill of particles 
fo {mall that their furtaces fhall differ infenfibly from per- 
fect planes, fo that if thefe bodies were placed upon 
one another, they would flide without the leaft fenfible 
friction. Moreover, if the particles of thefe bodies, thus 
placed on each other, be by any means deprived of the 
whole, or the greateft part of their cohefion, the bodies 
will not only flide om each other in the fore-mentioned plane, 
but the parts of the mafs would alfo flide on each ether in 
any other direction whatfoever. Confequently they would 
readily yield to any impreffed force, and in yielding be 
eafily moved amongit each other, and thus conttitute, 
agreeably to the definition, a fluid mafs. But a perfect 
fluid, or that whofe parts. may be moved from each other 
by the leait force, exilts only in the imagination: for in- 
dependently of its gravity or weight, or tendency towards 
the centre of the earth, every non-elattic fluid poffeffes the 
attraction of aggregation (wz. of the mutual attraction of 
its parts) 1m a particular degree; of the attraction of co- 
hefion, which is likewife, in a particular degree, towards 
other bodies; and of the attraction of affinity. Befides, 
all fluids manifeft more or lefs a fort of obftruétion, 
or refiftance to a perfeétly free motion. See AFFinity; 
AGGREGATION, ATTRACTION, CoHESION, Friction and 
Resistance. 

Fluids are called cither satura/, as water and mercury; or. 
animal, as blood, milk, bile, lymph, urine, &c., or faditious, 
as wines, {pivits, oils, &c. See each under its proper article. 

Fluids are more commonly diftributed by the philo- 
fopher into e/a/ic and non-elaftic. An elaflic fluid is that 
the dimenlions of which are leffere] by augmenting the 
preffure, and evlarged by diminifhing the preffare upon it : 
of which kind are the different forts of airsor gafes. (See 
Gas.) A nos-ela/lic fluid is that, whofe-dimenfions are 
not, at leait as to fenfe, affeGted by the increafe of preffure, 
as mercury, water, &c. Thefe latter are faid to be non- 
elaftic, or iwwcompreffible, not becaufe they are abfolutely fo; 
but becaufe their compreflibility is fo very fmall, as-to 
make no fentible difference in our calculations relative to 
the preffures, movements, and other properties of thefe fluids. 
See Compression. 

The dogtrine and laws of fluids are of the greateft extent 
in plilofophy. The preffure and gravitation of bodies in 
fluics, and the ation of the fluids immerged in them, make 
the fubject of Hydrofatics, which fee. 

Fiuins, Hydroflatical laws of. 1. The upper parts of 

all 


ey 


eet 


= aller Sat 


FLU UDS: 


all fluids, as water, &c. do prefs upon the lower; or, as 
fome philofophers ftate it, all fluids do gravitate in 
proprio loco. 

The contrary of this was a principle in the fchool- 
philofophy; and two ia&ts have been commonly urged in 
fapport of it. A bucket full of water is lighter in the 
water than out of it, nor does it weigh more when full in 
the water, than when empty out of it ; therefore, it has 
been concluded, that the water in the bucket, becaufe it 
is within water, its own element, does not gravitate: 
and divers, who defcend to. confiderable depths, it has been 
faid, feel no fenfible preffure under water; though at the 
depth of thirty-two feet, the additional preflure they 
futtain is not lefs than twenty thoufand avoirdupois pounds: 
for, fuppofing the furface of the body to contain only 
ten fquare feet, and a cubic foot of water to weigh one 
thoufand avoirdupois ounces, 32. x 10 feet, or 16 X 20 
feet of water will weigh 16 x 20,000 avoirdupois ounces, 
or twenty thoufand pounds. However, in this cafe the 
uniformity of the preffure, the increafed elafticity and 
refiftance of the compreffed internal air, and the firm 
texture of the membranes, &c. may prevent their com- 
plaining of any fenfible pain: though there have been 
many inftances to the contrary, in which the difference 
of the preffure has produced very injurious effeéts. See 
Divina. 

As to the former fat, it is eafily explained by the theory 
of /pecific Gravity, (which fee). The bucket of water 
weighs in water, but does not overweigh; becaufe the fur- 
rounding parts of water endeavour to defcend as well as the 
bucket, and with equal force, and therefore do not permit 
it te defcend. Thus, according to an obfervation of Dr. 
Defaguliers, if two pound weights were hung at the two 
arms of a balance, no one will fay, that neither weighs, 
becaufe it does not outweigh the other. Defag. Exp. 
Phil. vol. ii. p. 96. 

Befides, it is evident, that, in ary fluid, the weight of 
the whole is equal to the weight of all its parts; and if 
any part be taken from the whole, the weight of the whole 
will be diminifhed by the weight of that part; and if any 
part be added to the whole, the weight of the whole will 
be increafed by the weight of the part which was added ; 
and, therefore, it is reafonable to conclude, that the weight 
of the whole is compofed of the weights of the feveral 
parts, and that the parts do, therefore, gravitate in the 
whole, or in proprio loco. (Cotes’s Hyd. and Pneum. 
Le@ures, p.7.) But the certainty of fuch preflure isnow 
demonttrated by a thoufand experiments ; it will be fuffict- 
ent to inftance one or two. 

Immerge atube, open at both ends, and half filled with 
oil of turpentine, in a veffel of water, the upper end of the 
tube being ftopped with the finger: if now the upper 
furfice of the oil lie as low as that of the water, the oil, 
upon removing the finger, will not run out at the lower 
end of the tube; nay, and if the tube be thruft a little 
lower, the water will rife up in it, and bear the oi! above 
it : but if the upper furface of the oil be confiderably higher 
than that of the water, the oil will drop out of the tube. 
Whence it follows, that the column of oil in one cafe preffes 
or gravitates lefs on the plane imagined to pafs.uhder its 
lower furface than a colamn of water; and in the other cafe 
more. 

Or thus: a phial, with as much fhot in it as will make it 
fink, clofe fhut, being immerged in water, and fufpended by 
a horfe-hair to the beam of a balance, with a weight at the 
other end exactly counterpoifing it; upon unftopping the 
plnal, and filling 1 with water, it will: preponderate, and 


bear down the end of the balance, without having any 
commuiication with the external air. And if the phial 
had been firft weighed in air, it will be found, that the 
weights necefflary for reftoring its equilibrium in water 
anfwer exaétly to the additional weight of the phial, when it 
is again weighed in air with the water in it: fo that water 
weighs in water juft as much as in air. 

Thefe two experiments abundantly prove the propofition, 
that the upper parts of fluids do really prefs or gravitate oa 
the lower. See Specific Gravity. 

Irom this gravity it follows, that the furfaces of ftagnant 
fluids are plain and parallel to the horizon; or rather, that 
they are fegments of a {phere or fpheroid concentrical with 
the earth, becaufe they all gravitate towards the centre of 
the earth. 

For, as the particles are {uppofed to yield to any force 
impreffed, they will be moved by the aétion of gravity, till 
fuch time as none of them can defcend any lower. And in 
this fituation, once attained, the Auid mu remain at reft, 
unlefs put in motion by fome foreign caufe; inafmuch as 
none of the particles can now move without afcending, 
contrary to their natural tendency. 7 

In this cafe the centre of gravity of the fluid, contained 
ina veflel open at top, will lie as low as it poflibly can, 
Thus, let A BDC (Aydranlics, Plate V. fig. 1.) reprefent 
one fide of a rectangular veffel, containing water as high as 
E F, whole ceatre of gravity is G; it is eafy to prove that 
when the furface of the water is flat and horizontal, as 
EF, then the centre of gravity of the water lies loweft; 
but that if the water be elevated on any part of that fur- 
face, and of courfe lowered on any other part, then the 
centre of gravity will be removed to fome place higher than 
G._ Imagine that the water be difpofed into the fituation 
DKEBC, vz. that the portion K EH be removed to the 
place BHT’; and in this cafe the centre of gravity L of 
the quantity of water K D HFC remains in its original 
fituation, whillt the centre of gravity of the quantity of 
water K E H has been removed higher, viz. from I to S. 
Now, fince the common centre of gravity of two bodies 
is ina ftraight line between the refpective centres of gravity 
of thofe bodies; therefore, the common centre of gravity of 
both the quantities of water formerly ftood at G, in the line 
IS; whereas it now ftands at O in the line LS, wiz. 
evidently higher than the level of G, which is the line =r. 
This reafoning, applied to one fide of the veffel, may be 
eafily adapted to any fection of the water and veflel, as 
alfo to veflels of any fhape, and to any irregularity which 
the furface of the water may be fuppofed to acquire ; for 
in any cafe the -conclufion is exaétly the fame, namely, 
that the centre of gravity of a given quantity of fome 
uniform fluid, like water, which is contained in an open 
veffel of any fhape, ftands at the loweft peffible fituation, 
when the whole furface of the fluid is in the fame hori- 
zo~tal line. 

2. If a nody be immerged in a fluid, cither wholly, o: 
in part, its loweit Surface will be prefled upwards by the 
water underneath it: and the preffure of fluids upwards 
is equal to the preflure downwards at the fame depth. 

The truth of this_propofition is evident from the experi- 
ment above mentioned ; where the oil of turpentine was 
fufpended and made to mount up in the tube, by the preffure 
of the water upwurds on its jower parts. Thus alfo, if the 
upper end of a narrow-bored tube be dipped into quickfilver, 
whillt the other end is ftopped with the finger and the 
tube be lifted up, a fhort column of quick filyer will be 
fufpended in the lower end, which column, when dipped 
into water decper rhan about fourteen times its awn lensth, 


«R2 


wil 


FLU 


will be preffed upwards, after the finger is removed from 
the orifice. 

This upward preffure of fluids may be evinced by caufing 
a piece of lead, &c. to {wim in water; which may be 
done by immerging it to 4 proper depth, and keeping the 
water from getting above it. Let CD, Plate V. Hydraulics, 
Jig. 2. be aglafs tube open at both ends, and EFG a 
flat piece of lead, half an inch thick, exaétly fitted ta the 
lower end of the tube, having its upper furface covered 
with wet leather, fo as to hinder the entrance of the wa- 
ter contained in the outer veffel. Let this leaden plate 
be held clofe to the tube, by pulling the ftring or wire 
TH L upward at I, with one hand, whillt the tube is held 
in the other by the upper end C. In this fituation, let 
the tube be immerfed in water in the glafs-veflel A B, to 
the depth of fix inches below the furface of the water at 
K 3 and then the leaden plate E F G will be plunged to 
the depth of fomewhat more than eleven times its own 
thicknefs: holding the tube at that depth, you may let 
go the wire or thread at L; and the lead will not fall 
from the tube, but will be kept to it by the upward pref- 
fure of the water below it, occafioned by the height of 
the water at K above the level of the lead. For, as lead 
is 11.33 times as heavy as its bulk of water, and in this 
experiment is immerfed to a depth fomewhat more than 
11.33 times its thicknefs, and no water getting into the 
tube between it and the lead, the column of water 
E ab cG, below the lead, is prefled upwards againft it by 
the water K DEGL, all round the tube; which water, 
being a little more than 11.33 times as high as the lead 
is thick, is fufficient to balance and fupport the lead at 
the depth KE. If a little water be poured into the tube 
upon the lead, it will increafe the weight upon the co- 
lumn.of water under the lead, and caufe the lead to fall 
from the tube to the-bottom of the glafs veffel, where it 
will lie in .the fituation bd: or if the tube be railed 
a little in the water, the lead will fall by its own weight, 
which will then be too great for the preflure of the water 
round -the tube on the column of water below it. If 
the plate were brafs inftead of lead, it ought to be im- 
merfed under water at leaft eight times’ its thicknefs, in 
order to be fupported by the water; becaufe brafs is 
about eight times fpecifically heavier than water. A plate 
of pure gold would require near twenty times its thick- 
nefs of water: and this led Mr. Boyle to propofe one of 
his hydroftatical paradoxes in thefe words, via. That a 
folid body; as ponderous as any yet known, though near 
the top of.the water it will fink by its own weight, yet 
immerfed in water at a greater depth than that of twenty 
times its thicknefs, will: not fink, if its defcent be not 
affited by the weight of the incumbent water. (Paradox 
11. Statics. Boyle’s Works, abr. by Shaw, vol. 1. p. 311.) 
As we have now feen that the heaviett body may be made 
to fivim in water, the lighteft wood may be made to lie 
at the bottom of water or mercury. Thus, let two 
pieces of wood be planed quite flat, fo that no water may 
get between'them when they are put together; let one 
of them, bd, be cemented to the bottom of the veffel 
AB, fig. 2. and the other be laid flat and clofe upon it, 
and held down with a ftick, whilft water is poured into 
the veffel, then remove the ftick, and the upper piece 
of wood will not rife from the lower one, for as the 
upper one is preffed down both by its owa weight and 
the weight of water over it, whilft the contrary preffure 
of the water is kept off by the wood under it, it will le 
as {till as the heavielt body: but if it be raifed at the 
edge; fo that the water may get under it, it will imaie- 


4 


IDS. 


diately be preffed upwards; and as it is lighter than its bulle 
of water, it will rife and float on the furface of the water. 
See Fergufon’s Leétures, gto. p. 68. and Cotes’s Hyd. ° 
Leé&.2. See Hyprosraric Bellows, and Art. 11. in the” 
fequel. : ‘ 

The law or quantity of this preffure in this; that a body 
tmmerged in a fluid lofes juft fo much of the weight it. 
would have inair,as fo much of the fluid as is equal to it im 
bulk, if weighed in the air, would amount to. : 

This preflure of fluids on the lower parts of an immerfed: 
body is farther confirmed, by attending to the reafon 
why bodies, {pecifically lighter than fluids, afcend therein, 
The effect is owing to this, that there is a greater pref- 
fure or weight on every other part of the plane or fur= 
face of the fluid imagined to pafs under the lower furs 
face of the body, than there is on that whereon the 
emerging body infilts. Confequently, to produce an 
equilibrium in the fluid, the parts immediately under the 
rifing body being prefled by the reft every way, do con- 
tinually foree it upwards. ° 

In effect, the emerging body is continually prefled on by 
two columns of water, one bearing againft its upper and 
the other againft its lower parts: the length of both whicly 
columns being to be eftimated from the top of the water, 
that which prefles on the lower part will be the longer, by 
the thicknefs of the afcending body, and confeguently will 
overbalance it by the weight of as much water as will fill 
the {pace that body takes up. : 

Hence, 1, Weare fursithed with one reafon, why very 
minute corpufcles, either heayier or lighter than the liquor 
they are mingled with, will be fuftained therein a good 
while, without either emerging to the top, or precipitating 
to the bottom; the difference between the two columns of 
the fluid being here inconfiderable. 

Hence, 2. If a body A. be {pecifically lighter than B, 
an equal portion of the fluid in which it is'immerged,it will 
rife with a force proportionable to the excels of gravity of 
B above A: and if A be {pecifically heavier than B, it gra- 
vitates and defcends with the excefs only of its weight above 
that of B. 

Hence, 3. We have, as fome fay, a folution of the phe- 
nomenon of two polifhed marbles or other planes adhering fo 
ftrongly together ; becaufe the atmofphere preffes or gravi- 
tates with its whole weight on the under furface and fides of 
the lower marble, but cannot do fo at all on its upper fur- 
face, which is clofely contiguous to the upper and fufpended 
marble. See CoHEsION,. : 

3. The preflure of the upper parts of a fluid on the 
lower exerts itfelf every way, and every way equally, 
laterally, horizontally, and obliquely, as well as perpendi- 
cularly. i, 

For, as the parts of a fluid yield to any impreffion, and 
are eafily moved, it is impoffible any drop fhould remain in 
its place, if, while it is preffed by the fuperincumbent fluid, 
it be not equally prefied on every fide. 

The fame is confirmed from experiments: for feveral 
tubes of divers forms, ftraight, curved, angular, &c. being 
immerfed in the fame fluid, though the apertures through 
which the fluid enters be differently pofited to the. furface 
or plane, fome being perpendicular. others parallel, and 
others varioufly declined ; yet will the fluid rife to an equal 
height in them all. See SyrpuHon. ~ 

Hence, 1. All the particles of fluids being thus equally 
preiied on all fides, it is argued, that they mutt be at reit,. 
and not in continual motion, as has been ufually fuppofed. 

Hence, 2. Alfo, a body being immerfed in a fluid, futtains 
a lateral preflure from the fluid; which is alfo increafed as 

‘ t 


. 


FLUIDS. 


the.body is placed deeper beneath the furface of the 
fluid. , 

4. Intubes that have a communication with each other, 
whatever their magnitude be, whether equal or unequal ; 
and whatever their form, whether ftraight, angular, or 
crooked; {till fluids rife in them tothe fame height. 

5. If a fluid rife to the fame altitude in two tubes that 
communicate with each other, the fluid in one tube isa 
balance, or equal in weight to that in the other, 

If the tubes be of equal diameters, the columns of 
the fluid, having the fame bafe and altitude, are equal, and 
confequently their gravities equal; fo that they prefs and 
gravitate againft each other with equal force. 

This is demonftrated from mechanics. Z. gr. Let the 
bafe of GI, Plate V. Hydraulics, fig. 3. be f{uppofed 
quadruple the bafe of 1 K ; and let the fluid defcend in 
the greater tube the fpace of an inch, as from [L, to O; it 
will then rife in the other the fpace of four inches, as from 
Mto N. Wherefore the velocity with which the fluid 
moves inthe tube H K, isto that with which it moves in 


G1 asthe bafe of the tube GI to the bale of the other, 


HK. But the altitude of the fluid being fuppofed the 
fame in both tubes, the quantity of the fluid in the tube 
GI will be to that in the other tube H K, as the bafe of 
the tube GI to the bafe ofthe other HK? — 

Confequently, the momentum of the fluid in the tube 
GlJis to that in the tube HK, as the produ& of the 
bafe of the tube GI into the bafe of the other H K, to 
the fa&tum of thetube H K into the bafe of the other G1. 
Wherefore, the products being equal, the momenta mult 
be equal. © one'te : 

The fame is eafily demonftrated where one of the tubes t 
inclined, and the other perpendicular, Xc. } 

Hence in tubes that communicate, the fluid will pre- 
ponderate in that where its altitude is the greatett. 

6. In communicating tubes, fluids of different fpecific 
gravities will equiponderate, if their altitudes be in the ratio 
of their fpecific gravities. ; 

Hence we have a way of finding the fpecific gravities of 
fluids, viz. by pouring one fluid into one of the commu- 
nicating tubes, as A B (fg. 4.) and another into the other 
tube C D ; and meafuring the altitudes G B and HD, at 
which they fland when balanced. 

For the fpecific gravity of the fluidin A B is to that in 
DC, asDHto BG. If the fluids employed: in this ex- 
periment be apt to mix, 1t may be proper to fill the hori- 
zontal tube BD with mercury to prevent the mixture. 
Hence, fince the denficies of fluids are as their fpeci*c gra- 
yities, the denfities will likewife be as the altitudes of the 
fluids D Hand BG; fo that we have hence likewife a me- 
thod of determining the denfities of fiuids. 

y- The’ bettoms and fides of veflels are preffed in tlie 
fame manner, and by the fame laws, as the liquids contained 
in them. 


And hence, as aGtion and re-aétion are equal, the fluds- 


themfelves fuftain an equal preffure from the bottoms and 
fides. And as the preflure of fluids is equal every way, 
the bottoms and fides are prefitd as much as the neigh- 
bouring parts of the fluids; and confequently this action 
increafes jn proportion to the height of the fluid, and is 
equal every way at the fame depth ; as depending altogether 
<n the height, and not at all on the quaxtity of the fluid. 
» $8ein i veffels of equal bafes, the pref- 
fure of fluids-on the bottoms isin the ratio of their alti- 
tudes. This is evident, becaufe, the veflels being perpen- 
dicular, the bottoms are horizontal; confequently the ten- 
dency of fluids by the ation of gravity will be in lines per- 


pendicular to the bottoms, fo that they will prefs with all 
their weight ; the bottoms therefore are preffed in the ratio 
of the gravities, But the gravities are as the bulks, and 
the bulks here are as the altitudes ; therefore the preffure on 
the bottoms areas the altitudes. 

9. In perpendicular veffels of unequal bafes, the pref- 
fure on the bottoms is in a ratio compounded of bafes and 
altitudes. 

From the preceding demonftration it appears, that the 
bottoms are prefled in the ratio of the gravities: and the 
gravities of fluids are as their bulks; asd their bulks ina 
ratio compounded of the bafes and altitudes. Confequently, 
&e. 

ro. If an inclined veffel ABCD, fg. 5. have the fame’ 
bafe and altitude with a perpendicular one, BE F G, the 
bottoms of the one and the other will be equally prefled. 

For, in the inclined veel A BCD, the bottom C D is: 
preffed in the direGtion BD. But the force of gravity in 
the dire@ion BD isto the abfolute gravity, as BE to 
BD.  Confequently, the bottom C D 1s preffed in the fame 
manner, as if it had heen prefled perpendicularly by 
the fluid under the altitude BE. Therefore, the bot- 
toms of the perpendicular and inclined veffels are equally 
preffed. 

tr. Fluids prefs upon fubje& bodies, according to their 
perpendicular altitude, and not according to their latitude, 
or breadth. 

Or, as others ftate it, thus: If a veffel be taper, or un- 
equally big at top and bottom, yet the bottom. will be 
prefled after the fame manner as if the veflel were cylindri- 
‘cal, and the top and bottom equal. 

Or thus: The preffure fuftained. by the bottom of a vef- 
fel, whatever the figure of the veflel be, is ever equal to the 
weight of a column of the fluid, whofe bafe is the bottom 
itfelf, and height, the vertical diftance of the upper furface 
of the water from the bottom. é 

Or, yet more explicitly, thus: If there be two tubes or 
veffels, having the fame heights, and bafes, both filled with 
water; bat one of them made fo tapering upwards that it 
fhall contain but twenty ounces of water; whereas the other, 
widening upwards, holds two hundred‘ounces ;-yet the bot- 
toms of the two tubes fhall fuftain an equal’ preffure of 
water, viz. each of them that of the weight of two hun- 
dred ounces. 

This is a noble paradox in hydroftatics, firft*difcovered 
by M. Paichal, and which it is wellavorth the cleari ig and 
infifting on, It is foundunexceptionably true from abundant 
experiments ; and it may even be demonitrated and. 2é- 
counted for on principles of mechanics. 

Suppofe, ¢. g. the bottom of a veffel C D-(jiz. 6) lefs 
than its top AB; fince the fitid prefles the bottom C Dy 
which we fuppofe horizontal, in a perpendicular direGion 
EC; none but that part within the cylinder EC D F can 
prefs upon it,. the‘natural.tendeney and preffure of the rei: 
being taken off by tle lides: 

Again, fuppofing the bottom C D+ jig. 7:) much bigger 


“than the top’ F G5 or even, for the eaiier demonftration, 


fuppofe a tube F E fixed in a cylinder A-B CD; and fup- 
pofe ‘the bottom CD raifed to L, that the fluid may be: 
moved through the interval DL; then will it have rifen 
through the altitude GL, which is to DL as the bafe 
CDtothatof GF. The velocity, therefore, of the floid 
I E is to ite velocity in the veflel A D as the bale CD to 
the bafe F G. 

Hence we have the momentum wherewith the fluid in 
the tube tends downwards, by multiplying tke bale of the 
cylinder C D into its altitude C H. 

Con- 


FEU 


Confequently the bottom C D is preffed with the fame 
force, as 1t would be prefled by the cylinder HC D 1. 

To confirm and illuftrate this doétrine of the preflure of 
fluids in the ratio of the bafe and altitude, provide a me- 
tallic vefiel A.C D B (fg. 7.) fo contrived, as that the bot- 
tom C D may be moveable, and to that end fitted in the 
cavity of the veffel with a rim of wet leather, to flide freely 
without letting any water pafs, For this purpofe it would 
be moft advileable, that the moveable bottom {hould have 
a groove round. its edge, and that it be put into a bladder, 
tied clofe round it in the groove by a ftrong waxen thread ; 
and the Lladder may be made to come up like a purfe within 
the veffel, and put over the top of it at A and B all round, 
and they the lid of the veffel prefled on it: fo that when 
water 1s poured through a hole in the lid, it would he upon 
the bottom C D, and be contained within the bladder. 
Then, through holes in. the top A B, apply fucceffively 
feveral tubes of equal altitudes, but of different diameters. 
Laltly, fattening a ttring or wire to the beam of a balance, 
and fixing the other end by a little ring K to the moveable 
bottom, put weights in the other fcale, till they be fufh- 
cient to raife the bottom C D: then will you not only find, 
that the fame weight is required, what diameter or magai- 
tude foever the tube be of ; but even, that the weight which 
will raife the bottom when prefled by the {mallet tube, will 
raife it when preffed by the whole cylinder HC DI. 

Suppofe the veffel. A BCD to hold about a pound of 
water, and that the moveable bottom, wire, and hook, are 
of equal weight with an empty fcale M. When this fcale 
is pulled down, the bottom.C D will be drawn up within 
the box, and that motion will-caufe the water to rife in the 
glafs tube EL FG. If one pound be put into the feale, 
the bottom will be moved a little, and the water will juft 
appear at the lower end of the tube at a. Another pound 
will caufe it to rife from a to d, juft twice as high aboye 
the bottom as it was when at a; the preffure on the bottom 
being equal to two pounds, the counterbalancing weight in 
the feale M. A third pound will raife 1t to c, a fourth to 
d, &c. the diltances ab, bc, cd, &c. being taken equal to 
each other and, to the depth of the veflel. 1f anothertube, 
as f, be put into a hole made in the top of the veffel, and 
the veflel be filled with water; and, then, if water be poured 
in atthe top of the tube FG E L, it will rife in the tube 
f to the lame height as it does in the other tube: from hence 
it is evident, that the upward preffure of the water, riffing 
in-the tube f, 1s equal to the downward preflure in the other 
tube F GEL: the cafe would be the fame, whatever be 
the number of tubes; and the moveable bottom would {uf- 
tain the weight of the water in all the tubes, bedides the 
weight of all the water in the veflel: and if all the holes 
to which thefe tubes (F GE L excepted) were fixed be 
{topped up, each part, thus ftopped, will be prefled upward 
with a force equal to the weight of water in each tube: 
and confequently, the whole upward pvreffure againft the 
top of the veffel, arifing from the weight or downward 
preflure of the water in the tube F G EL, will be equal to 
the weight of a column of water of the fame height with 
that in the tube, and of the fame thicknefs as the width of 
the infide of the box or of the moveable bottom ; and this 
upward preflure againit the top will reach downwards with 

- equal force againit the bottom. 

{f the diameter of the moveable bottom be three iuches, 
therefore, and the diameter of the bore of the tube a quar- 
ter of an inch, their fquares will be nine inches and one fix- 
teenth of an inch : and therefore the whole area of the bot- 
tom will be a hundred and forty-four times as great as that 
of the area of the bottom or top of the tube: fo that if the 


I Ds. 


moveable bottom be raifed one inch, the water would be 
raifed to the top of a tube a hundred and forty-four inches, 
or twelve feet in height. The veffel muft be open below 
the moveable bottom to let in the air; otherwife the preffure 
of the atmofphere upon it, fuppofing its diameter three 
inches, would require a counterbalance of a hundred and 
eight pounds in the feale M before the bottom would begin 
to move. See Hyprostaric Bellows. 

12, From the preceding articles, we may eafily deduce 
a method of eftimating the quantity of preffure of fluids 
on any given furface. Let abcd (jig. 8.) reprefent a 
cubical veffel full of water; the fide ac will therefore, 
reprefent a fquare; and the meafure of the preflure on 
every phylical point of ac will be the altitude of the 
water above that point; thus, the preffure on / is mea- 
fured by a/, onm by am, &c. and the preffure on the 
whole line will be meafured by the fum of as many al- 
titudes a/, am, &c. as there are points in the line ae. 
Eve€t perpendiculars /0, mp, &c. refpectively equal to 
a/, am, &c. and the fum of thefe perpendiculars wilt 
be the meafure of the whole preffure on the line ae: 
but the fum of thefe is equal to the area of the triangle 
acd; and this is as the fquare of its altitude ac. When 
ac reprefents a fquare, the triangle a ¢ d muft reprefent a 
prifm, having the faid triangle for its bafe, and the fide 
of the {quare for its altitude: the weight of that prifm 
of water is, therefore, equal to the preflure made againft 
the fquare, or fide of the cube; which, as the prifm is 
half the cube, is equal to half the weight of the whole 
water contained in the veffel; and as each fide bears the 


fame degree of preflure, all the four fides fuftain four 


times half the weight, or twice the whole weight of the 
water: and becaufe the bottom fuftains a preffure equal 
to the whole weight of the water, the bottom and fides 
of a cubical veffel taken together fultain a preffure from 
the water contained in it equal to thrice its weight. The 
fame obfervations may be eafily applied to planes that 
are oblique to the horizon; and we may conclude uni- 
verfally, that the preffure upon any plane, of whatever 
figure and fituation, is equivalent te the weight of a 
folid of water, formed by ere€ting perpendiculars upon 
every point of the plane propofed, equal to the refpec- 
tive diftances of thofe points from the upper furface of 
the water: or, the preffure on any furface 1s equal to the 
fum of all the. produéts which are made by multiplying 
every indefinitely {mall part of the furface into its di- 
{tance from the top. of the water. To find the fum of all 
thefe